Welding Technology I - Script

ISF Welding Institute RWTH Aachen University
Lecture Notes
Welding Technology 1 Welding and Cutting Technologies
Prof. Dr. Ing. U. Dilthey
Table of Contents
Chapter 0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Subject Introduction Gas Welding Manual Metal Arc Welding Submerged Arc Welding TIG Welding and Plasma Arc Welding Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding Narrow Gap Welding, Electrogas - and Electroslag Welding 7. 8. Pressure Welding Resistance Spot Welding, Resistance Projection Welding and Resistance Seam Welding 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Electron Beam Welding Laser Beam Welding Surfacing and Shape Welding Thermal Cutting Special Processes Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures Welding Robots Sensors Literature 104 119 133 150 165 182 196 208 216 226 76 88 48 60 Page 3 6 17 31
0. Introduction
0. Introduction
Welding fabrication processes are classified in accordance with the German Standards DIN 8580 and DIN 8595 in main group 4 Joining, group 4.6 Joining by Welding, Figure 0.1.
1 Casting
2 Forming
3 Cutting
4 Joining
5 Coating
6
Changing of materials properties
4.1 Joining by composition
4.2 Joining by filling
4.3 Joining by pressing
4.4 Joining by casting
4.5 Joining by forming
4.6 Joining by welding
4.7 Joining by soldering
4.8 Joining by adhesive bonding
4.6.1 Pressure welding

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4.6.2 Fusion welding
Production Processes acc. to DIN 8580
Figure 0.1
Welding: permanent, positive joining method. The course of the strain lines is almost ideal.
Screwing
Welded joints show therefore higher strength properties than the joint types depicted in Figure 0.2. This is of advantage, especially in
Riveting
the case of dynamic stress, as the notch effects are lower.
Adhesive bonding
Soldering
Welding
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Connection Types
Figure 0.2
2005
0. Introduction
Figures 0.3 and 0.4 show the further subdivision of the different welding methods according to DIN 1910.
Production processes 4 Joining

4.6.1.1 Welding by solid bodies
4.6.1.2 Welding by liquids
4.6.1.3 Welding by gas
4.6.1.4 Welding by electrical gas discharge
4.6.1.6 Welding by motion
4.6.1.7 Welding by electric current
Heated tool welding
Flow welding
Gas pressure-/ roll-/ forge-/ diffusion welding
Arc pressure welding
Cold pressure-/ shock-/ friction-/ ultrasonic welding
Resistance pressure welding

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Joining by Welding acc. to DIN 1910 Pressure Welding
Figure 0.3
Production processes 4 Joining

4.6.2.2 Welding by liquids
4.6.2.3 Welding by gas
4.6.2.4 Welding by electrical gas discharge
4.6.2.5 Welding by beam
4.6.2.7 Welding by electric current
Cast welding
Gas welding
Arc welding
Beam welding
Resistance welding
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Joining by Welding acc. to DIN 1910 Fusion Welding
Figure 0.4
2005
1. Gas Welding
1. Gas Welding
Although the oxy-acetylene process has been introduced long time ago it is still applied for its flexibility and mobility. Equipment for oxyacetylene welding consists of just a few elements, the energy necessary for welding can be transported in cylinders, Figure 1.1.
density in normal state [kg/m3]
3 4 5 8
7 1
2 9
ignition temperature [OC] 600 400 200 0

645
645
oxygen propane
natural gas
air
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
oxygen cylinder with pressure reducer acetylene cylinder with pressure reducer oxygen hose acetylene hose welding torch welding rod workpiece welding nozzle welding flame
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3200 2850 2770 0

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flame temperature with O2 flame efficiency with O2 flame velocity with O2 43 1350
10.3 8.5 370 330
acetylene
acetylene
300
490 335
510
propane
KW k
/cm2
cm
/s
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Equipment Components for Gas Welding
Properties of Fuel Gas in Combination with Oxygen
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Process energy is obtained from the exothermal chemical reaction between oxygen and a combustible gas, Figure 1.2. Suitable combustible gases are C2H2, lighting gas, H2, C3H8 and natural gas; here C3H8 has the highest calorific value. The highest flame intensity from point of view of calorific value and flame propagation speed is, however, obtained with C2H2.
natural gas
natural gas
air
2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0
2.0 1.29 1.17

acetylene
propane
1.43
oxygen
0.9
2005
1. Gas Welding
8 C2H2 is produced in acetylene gas genera-
loading funnel
tors by the exothermal transformation of calmaterial lock
cium carbide with water, Figure 1.3. Carbide is obtained from the reaction of lime and carbon in the arc furnace.
gas exit feed wheel
C2H2 tends to decompose already at a pressure of 0.2 MPa. Nonetheless, commercial quantities can be stored when C2H2 is dis-
grille sludge
solved in acetone (1 l of acetone dissolves approx. 24 l of C2H2 at 0.1 MPa), Figure 1.4.
to sludge pit
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Acetylene Generator
Figure 1.3
Acetone disintegrates at a pressure of more than 1.8 MPa, i.e., with a filling pressure of 1.5 MPa the storage of 6m of C2H2 is possible in a standard cylinder (40 l). For gas exchange (storage and drawing of quantities up to 700 l/h) a larger surface is necessary, therefore the gas cylinders are filled with a porous mass (diatomite). Gas consumption during welding can be observed from the weight reduction of the gas cylinder.
acetone
acetylene
porous mass
acetylene cylinder
acetone quantity : acetylene quantity : cylinder pressure : ~13 l 6000 l 15 bar
filling quantity : up to 700 l/h
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Storage of Acetylene
Figure 1.4
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1. Gas Welding
9 Oxygen is produced by
gaseous cooling nitrogen cylinder
fractional distillation of liquid air and stored in cylinders with a filling presbundle
air
sure of up to 20 MPa, Figure 1.5. For higher oxygen consumption, storage in a liquid state and cold gasification is more profitable.
oxygen
liquid air
oxygen
pipeline liquid
tank car nitrogen vaporized cleaning

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compressor
separation
supply
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Principle of Oxygen Extraction
Figure 1.5
The standard cylinder (40 l) contains, at a filling pressure of 15 MPa, 6m of O2 (pressureless state), Figure 1.6. Moreover, cylinders with contents of 10 or 20 l (15 MPa) as well as 50 l at 20 MPa are common. Gas consumption can be calculated from the pressure difference by means of the general gas equation.
manometer
50 l oxygen cylinder
protective cap cylinder valve take-off connection
gaseous
N
p = cylinder pressure : 200 bar V = volume of cylinder : 50 l Q = volume of oxygen : 10 000 l content control Q=pV foot ring
safety valve
liquid
vaporizer
filling connection still liquid

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user gaseous
Storage of Oxygen
Figure 1.6
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1. Gas Welding
10
In order to prevent mistakes, the gas cylinders are colour-coded. Figure 1.7 shows a survey of the present colour code and the future colour code which is in accordance with DIN EN 1089.
old condition
blue
DIN EN 1089
white blue (grey)
old condition
grey
DIN EN 1089
brown grey
The cylinder valves also of
are
different designs. right-hand are
Oxygen cylinder connections show a cylinder thread union nut. Acetylene
oxygen techn.
yellow brown
helium
red red
acetylene
grey dark green grey
hydrogen
grey vivid green grey
valves
equipped with screw clamp retentions. Cylinder valves for other combustible gases have a left-hand thread-connection with a circumferential groove.
argon
darkgreen black darkgreen
argon-carbon-dioxide mixture
grey grey
nitrogen
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carbon-dioxide
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Gas Cylinder-Identification according to DIN EN 1089
Figure 1.7
cylinder pressure
working pressure
Pressure
regulators
re-
duce the cylinder pressure to the requested working pressure, Figures 1.8 and 1.9.
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Single Pressure Reducing Valve during Gas Discharge Operation
Figure 1.8
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1. Gas Welding
11
At a low cylinder pressure (e.g. acetylene cylinder) and low pressure fluctuations, singlestage regulators
discharge pressure locking pressure
are applied; at higher cylinder pressures normally two-stage pressure regulators are used. The requested pressure is set by the adjusting screw. If the pressure increases on the low pressure side, the throttle valve closes the
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increased
pressure
onto
Single Pressure Reducing Valve, Shut Down
the membrane.
Figure 1.9 The injector-type torch consists of a body with valves and welding chamber with welding nozzle, Figure 1.10. By the selection of suitable welding chambers, the flame intensity can be adjusted for welding different plate thicknesses. The special form of the mixing chamber guarantees highest possible safety against flashback, Figure 1.11. The high outlet speed of the escaping O2 generates a negative pressure in the acetylene gas line, in consequence C2H2 is sucked and drawn-in. C2H2 is therefore available with a very low pressure of 0.02 up to 0.05 MPa with O2 0.3 MPa). -compared (0.2 up to Figure 1.10
welding torch head
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welding torch injector or blowpipe

coupling nut mixer nozzle oxygen valve hose connection for oxygen A6x1/4" right
mixer tube
injector pressure nozzle suction nozzle welding nozzle fuel gas valve
hose connection for fuel gas A9 x R3/8 left
torch body
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Welding Torch
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1. Gas Welding
12
A neutral flame adjustment allows the differentiation of three zones of a chemical reaction, Figure 1.12: 0. dark core: 1. brightly shining centre cone: 2. welding zone: 3. outer flame: escaping gas mixture acetylene decomposition C2H2 -> 2C+H2 1st stage of combustion 2C + H2 + O2 (cylinder) -> 2CO + H2 2nd stage of combustion 4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 (air) -> 4CO2 + 2H2O complete reaction: 2C2H2 + 5O2 -> 4CO2 + 2H2O
acetylene oxygen acetylene
welding torch head injector nozzle coupling nut
pressure nozzle
torch body
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Injector-Area of Torch
Figure 1.11
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1. Gas Welding
13
welding flame combustion

welding nozzle centre cone welding zone 2-5 outer flame
excess of acetylene
welding flame ratio of mixture

normal (neutral) excess of oxygen
3200C
2500C
1800C
1100C
effects in welding of steel sparking

400C
consequences: carburizing hardening

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foaming spattering reducing oxidizing

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Temperature Distribution in the Welding Flame
Effects of the Welding Flame Depending on the Ratio of Mixture
Figure 1.12
welding flame
balanced (neutral) flame nozzle size: for plate thickness of 2-4 mm discharging velocity and weld heat-input rate: low 2
Figure 1.13
By changing the mixture ratio of the volumes O2:C2H2 the weld pool can greatly be influenced, Figure 1.13. At a neutral flame adjustment the mixture ratio is O2:C2H2 = 1:1. By reason of the higher flame temperature, an excess oxygen flame might allow faster welding of steel, however, there is the risk of oxidizing (flame cutting). Area of application: brass The excess acetylene causes the carburising of steel materials. Area of application: cast iron
soft flame
discharging velocity and weld heat-input rate: middle 3
moderate flame
discharging velocity and weld head-input rate: high 4
hard flame
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Effects of the Welding Flame Depending on the Discharge Velocity
Figure 1.14
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1. Gas Welding
14
By changing the gas mixture outlet speed the flame can be adjusted to the heat requirements of the welding job, for example when welding plates (thickness: 2 to 4 mm) with the welding chamber size 3: 2 to 4 mm, Figure 1.14. The gas mixture outlet speed is 100 to 130 m/s when using a medium or normal flame, applied to at, for example, a 3 mm plate. Using a soft flame, the gas outlet speed is lower (80 to 100 m/s) for the 2 mm plate, with a hard flame it is higher (130 to 160 m/s) for the 4 mm plate.
Depending on the plate thickness are the working methods leftward welding and rightward welding applied, Figure 1.15. A decisive factor for the designation of the working method is the sequence of flame and welding rod as well as the manipulation of flame and welding rod. The welding direction itself is of no importance. In leftward welding the flame is pointed at the open gap and wets the molten pool; the heat input to the molten pool can be well controlled by a slight movement of the torch (s 3 mm).
Leftward welding is applied to a plate thickness of up to 3 mm. The weld-rod dips into the molten pool from time to time, but remains calm otherwise. The torch swings a little. Advantages: easy to handle on thin plates
plate thickness range s [mm] from to

1,5
gap preparations
~ ~ s+1
denotation
symbol
r=
flange weld
welding-rod
flame
welding bead
1,0 1,0 4,0 plain butt weld
Rightward welding ist applied to a plate thickness of 3mm upwards. The wire circles, the torch remains calm. Advantages: - the molten pool and the weld keyhole are easy to observe - good root fusion - the bath and the melting weld-rod are permanently protected from the air - narrow welding seam - low gas consumption
3,0
12,0
1-2
V - weld
1,0
8,0
1-2
corner weld
1,0
8,0
lap seam
1,0
weld-rod
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8,0
fillet weld
flame
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Flame Welding
Gap Shapes for Gas Welding
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
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1. Gas Welding
15 In rightward welding the flame is directed

PA
butt-welded seams in gravity position gravity fillet welds
onto the molten pool; a weld keyhole is formed (s 3 mm). Flanged welds and plain butt welds can be applied to a plate thickness of approx. 1.5 mm without filler material, but this does not apply to any other plate thickness and weld shape, Figure 1.16.
PB
s f
horizontal fillet welds vertical fillet and butt welds
PF PG PC
vertical-upwelding position vertical-down position horizontal on vertical wall
By the specific heat input of the different

PE
overhead position
welding methods all welding positions can be carried out using the oxyacetylene welding method, Figures 1.17 and 1.18
PD
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horizontal overhead position
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When working in tanks and confined spaces, the welder (and all other persons present!) have to be protected against the
Welding Positions I
Figure 1.17 welding heat, the gases produced during welding and lack of oxygen ((1.5 % (vol.) O2 per 2 % (vol.) C2H2 are taken out from the ambient atmosphere)), Figure 1.19. The addition of pure oxygen is unsuitable (explosion hazard!). A special type of autogene method is flamestraightening, where specific locally applied flame heating allows for shape correction of workpieces, Figure 1.20. Much experience is needed to carry out flame straightening processes. The basic principle of flame straightening de-
PA PB PF
PC
PG PD PE
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pends on locally applied heating in connection with prevention of expansion. This procFigure 1.18
2005
Welding Positions II
1. Gas Welding
16
ess causes the appearance of a heated zone. During cooling, shrinking forces are generated in the heated zone and lead to the desired shape correction.
Safety in welding and cutting inside of tanks and narrow rooms
Flame straightening
welded parts
Hazards through gas, fumes, explosive mixtures, electric current protective measures / safety precautions 1. requirement for a permission to enter 2. extraction unit, ventilation 3. second person for safety reasons 4. illumination and electric machines: max 42volt 5. after welding: Removing the equipment from the tank
first warm up both lateral plates, then belt
butt weld 3 to 5 heat sources close to the weld-seam
double fillet weld 1,3 or 5 heat sources
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Gas Welding in Tanks and Narrow Rooms
Flame Straightening
Figure 1.19
Figure 1.20
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2. Manual Metal Arc Welding
18 Figure 2.1 describes the burn-off of a covered stick electrode. The stick electrode consists of a core wire with a mineral covering. The welding arc between the electrode and the workpiece melts core wire and covering. Droplets of the liquefied core wire mix
air (O2, N2, etc.)
electrode core electrode coating
Smoke and gas
with the molten base material forming weld metal while the molten covering is forming slag which, due to its lower density, solidifies on the weld pool. The slag layer and gases which are generated inside the arc protect the metal during transfer and also the weld pool from the detrimental influences of the surrounding atmosphere.
liquid slag solid slag
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Weld Point
Figure 2.1
Covered stick electrodes have replaced the initially applied metal arc and carbon arc electrodes. The covering has taken on the functions which are described in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2
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19
The covering of the stick electrode consists of a multitude of components which are mainly mineral, Figure 2.3.
coating raw material quartz - SiO2 rutile -TiO2 magnetite - Fe3O4 calcareous spar -CaCO3 fluorspar - CaF2 calcareous- fluorspar K2O Al2O3 6SiO2 ferro-manganese / ferro-silicon cellulose kaolin Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O potassium water glass K2SiO3 / Na2SiO3
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effect on the welding characteristics to raise current-carrying capacity to increase slag viscosity, good re-striking to refine transfer of droplets through the arc to reduce arc voltage, shielding gas emitter and slag formation to increase slag viscosity of basic electrodes, decrease ionization easy to ionize, to improve arc stability deoxidant shielding gas emitter lubricant bonding agent
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Influence of the Coating Constituents on Welding Characteristics
Figure 2.3 For the stick electrode manufacturing mixed ground and screened covering materials are used as protection for the core wire which has been drawn to finished diameter and subsequently cut to size, Figure 2.4.
raw material storage for flux production raw wire storage jaw crusher magnetic separation cone crusher for pulverisation sieving to further treatment like milling, sieving, cleaning and weighing sieving system
wire drawing machine and cutting system

2 3
descaling
drawing plate
inspection to the pressing plant electrode compound
example of a three-stage wire drawing machine
6 mm
5,5 mm
4 mm
3,25 mm
weighing and mixing inspection
wet mixer
inspection
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Stick Electrode Fabrication 1
Figure 2.4
2005
20 The core wires are coated with the covering material which contains binding agents in electrode extrusion presses. The defectTO DELIVERY
the pressing plant
inspection electrode compound core wire magazine electrodepress compound packing inspection
inspection
free electrodes then pass through a drying oven and are, after a final inspection, automatically packed, Fig-
nozzleconveying wire wire pressing belt feeder head magazine
drying stove inspection inspection inspection

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ure 2.5.
Stick Electrode Fabrication 2
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6 shows how the moist extruded covering is deposited onto the core wire inside an electrode extrusion press.
pressing cylinder core rod coating pressing nozzle pressing cylinder
pressing mass
core rod guide
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Production of Stick Electrodes
Figure 2.6
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21
Stick electrodes are, according to their covering compositions, categorized into four different types, Figure 2.7. with concern to burn-off characteristics and achievable weld metal toughness these types show fundamental differences.
cellulosic type cellulose 40 rutile TiO2 20 quartz SiO2 25 Fe - Mn 15 potassium water glass almost no slag droplet transfer : medium- sized droplets toughness value: good
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acid type magnetite Fe3O4 50 SiO2 20 quartz CaCO3 10 calcite Fe - Mn 20 potassium water glass slag solidification time: long droplet transfer : fine droplets to sprinkle toughness value: normal
rutile type TiO2 45 rutile magnetite Fe3O4 10 SiO2 20 quartz CaCO3 10 calcite 15 Fe - Mn potassium water glass slag solidification time: medium droplet transfer : medium- sized to fine droplets toughness value: good
basic typ fluorspar CaF2 45 CaCO3 40 calcite SiO2 10 quartz 5 Fe - Mn potassium water glass slag solidification time: short droplet transfer : medium- sized to big droplets toughness value: very good
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Characteristic Features of Different Coating Types
Figure 2.7
The melting characteristics of the different coverings and the slag properties result in further properties; these determine the areas of application, Figure 2.8.
coating type symbol current type/polarity gap bridging ability welding positions sensitivity of cold cracking weld appearance slag detachability characteristic features
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cellulosic type C ~/+ very good PG,(PA,PB, PC,PE,PF) low moderate good spatter, little slag, intensive fume formation
acid type A ~/+ moderate PA,PB,PC, PE,PF,PG high good very good
rutile type R ~/+ good PA,PB,PC, PE,PF,(PG) low good very good
basic type B =/+ good PA,PB,PC, PE,PF,PG very low moderate moderate low burn-out losses hygroscopic predrying!!
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high burn-out losses
universal application
Characteristics of Different Coating Types
Figure 2.8
2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding The dependence on

g slag ontainin rutile-c high r nducto semico
22
temperature of the slags determines the reignition behaviour of a stick electrode, Figure 2.9. The electrical conductivity for a rutile stick electrode lies, also at room temperature, above the threshold value which is necessary for Figure 2.9 reignition. Therefore, rutile electrodes are given preference in the production of tack welds where reignition occurs frequently. The complete designation for filler materials, following European Standardisation, includes details partly as encoded abbreviation which are relevant for welding, Figure 2.10. The identification Figure 2.10 letter for the welding process is first: E T S manual electrode welding flux cored arc welding submerged arc welding G W gas metal arc welding - tungsten inert gas welding
The mandatory part of the standard designation is: EN 499 - E 46 3 1Ni B
DIN EN 499 - E 46 3 1Ni B 5 4 H5 hydrogen content < 5 cm /100 g welding deposit butt weld: gravity position fillet weld: gravity position suitable for direct and alternating current recovery between 125% and 160% basic thick-coated electrode chemical composition 1,4% Mn and approx. 1% Ni o minimum impact 47 J in -30 C 2 minimum weld metal deposit yield strength: 460 N/mm distinguishing letter for manual electrode stick welding
3
conductivity
electrical
conductivity
reignition threshold
h ac co igh id s n d - te l a uc mp g to e r r at ur e hig bas ic hsla co tem nd pe g uc rat to ur r e

temperature
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Conductivity of Slags
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Designation Example for Stick Electrodes
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23
The identification numbers give information about yield point, tensile strength and elongation of the weld metal where the tenfold of the identification number is the minimum yield point in N/mm, Figure 2.11.
key number
minimum yield strength N/mm2 355 380 420 460 500
tensile strength N/mm2 440-570 470-600 500-640 530-680 560-720
minimum elongation*) % 22 20 20 20 18
35 38 42 46 50 *) L0 = 5 D0
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Characteristic Key Numbers of Yield Strength, Tensile Strength and Elongation
Figure 2.11
The identification figures for the minimum impact energy value of 47 J a parameter for the weld metal toughness are shown in Figure 2.12.
characteristic figure Z A 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
minimum impact energy 47 J [ C] no demands +20 0 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80
The minimum value of the impact energy allocated to the characteristic figures is the average value of three ISO-V-Specimen, the lowest value of whitch amounts to 32 Joule.
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Characteristic Key Numbers for Impact Energy
Figure 2.12
2005
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding The chemical composition of the weld metal is shown by the alloy symbol, Figure 2.13. The properties of a stick electrode are characterised by the covering thickness and the covering type. Both details are determined by the identification letter for the electrode covering, Figure 2.13 Figure 2.14.
without Mo MnMo 1 Ni 2 Ni 3 Ni Mn 1 Ni 1 Ni Mo Z alloy symbol Mn
2,0
24
chemical composition*) % Mo _ 0,3 - 0,6 0,3 - 0,6 0,3 - 0,6 Ni 0,6 - 1.2 1,8 - 2,6 2,6 - 3,8 0,6 - 1,2 0,6 - 1,2
1,4 >1,4 - 2,0 1,4 1,4 1,4 >1,4 - 2,0 1,4
other specified compositions
*) companion elements: Mo 0,2; Ni 0,5; Cr 0,2; V 0,08; Nb 0,05; Cu 0,3; Al 2,0 (applies only to self-shielded flux-cored electrodes). single values are maxima
Alloy Symbols for Weld Metals Minimum Yield Strength up to 500 N/mm2
Figure 2.15 explains the additional identificakey letter type of coating
tion figure for electrode recovery and applicable type of current. The subsequent identification figure determines the application possibilities for different welding positions: 1all positions all positions, except vertical down postion 345flat position butt weld, flat position fillet weld, horizontal-, vertical up position flat position butt and fillet weld as 3; and recommended for vertical down position
A B C R RR RA RB RC
acid coating basic coating cellulose coating rutile coated (medium thick) rutile coated (thick) rutile acid coating rutile basic coating rutile cellulose coating
2-
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Key Letters for Electrode Coatings
Figure 2.14
2005
25 The last detail of the Euro-
additional characteristic number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
deposition efficiency % <105 <105 >105 >105 >125 >125 >160 >160 125 125 160 160
current type*)
pean Standard designation determines the maximum hydrogen content of the weld metal in cm per 100 g weld metal. Welding current amperage and core wire diameter of the stick electrode are determined by the
alternating and direct current direct current alternating and direct current direct current alternating and direct current direct current alternating and direct current direct current
*) To prove the suitability for direct current, the tests have to be run with a no-load voltage of max. 65 V.
Additional Characteristic Numbers for Deposition Efficiency and Current Type
thickness of the workpiece to be welded. Fixed stick electrode lengths are assigned to each diameter, Figure 2.16.
Figure 2.15
diameter
d mm l mm
2,0
2,5
3,25
4,0
5,0
6,0
Figure
2.17
shows
the
length
250/300
350
350/450 350/450
450
450
process principle of manual metal arc welding. Polarity and type of current depend on the applied electrode types. All known power sources with a descending characteristic
current
I A
40-80
50-100
90-150 120-200 180-270 220-360 30 x d 50 x d 35 x d 60 x d
rule-of -thumb min. for current[A] max.
20 x d 40 x d
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Size and Welding Current of Stick Electrodes
curve can be used.
Figure 2.16 Since in manual metal arc welding the arc length cannot always be kept constant, a steeply descending power source is used. Different arc lengths lead therefore to just minimally altered weld current intensities, Figure 2.18. Penetration remains basically unaltered.
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26
Simple welding transformers are used for a.c. welding. For d.c. welding mainly converters, rectifiers and series regulator transistorised power sources (inverters) are applied. Converters are specifically suitable
electrode holder
for site welding and are mains-independent when an internal combustion engine is used. The advantages of inverters are their small size and low weight,
- (+) power source = or ~ + (-)
stick electrode
arc
however, a more complicated electronic design is necessary, Figure 2.19.

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work piece
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Principle Set-up of MMAW Process
Figure 2.17
arc welding converter
power source characteristic
A2
A1
transformer
2 1
A2
rectifier
A1
21
characteristic of the arc
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inverter type
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Operating Point at Different Arc Lengths
Power Sources for MMAW
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
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27
45 RA73 V 40
burn-off rate at 100% duty cycle
ion 22 0 %
eff ici e de p os it
c
X
kg/h
RR73
medium weld voltage
io n po sit
3
35
de
30
RR12 RA12 B53
th
ic
16
c k-
0%
oa
c inth
1
oa
d te
25
= = = =
B15
3,25 4 5 6
= RR12 X = RR73 -
100
20
200 300 welding amperage
100
200
300
400
medium weld current

a = A- and R- coated electrodes, recovery 105% b = basic-coated electrodes, recovery <125% c = high-performance electrodes
Medium Weld Current and Voltages for Stick Electrodes
Burn-Off Rate of Stick Electrodes
Figure 2.20
steel: constructional steels shipbuilding steels high-strength constructional steels boiler and pressure vessel steels austenitic steels creep resistant steels austenitic-ferritic steels (duplex) scale resistant steels wear resistant steels hydrogen resistant steels high-speed steels cast steels combinations of materials (ferritic/ austenitic) cast iron with lamella graphite cast iron with globular graphite pure nickel Ni-Cu-alloys Ni-Cr-Fe-alloys Ni-Cr-Mo-alloys electrical grade copper (ETP copper) bronzes (CuSn, CuAl) gunmetal (CuSnZnPb) Cu-Ni-alloys pure aluminium AlMg-alloys AlSi -alloys
ISF 2002
Figure 2.21 Figure 2.20 shows the standard welding parameters of different stick electrode diameters and stick electrode types. The rate of deposition of a stick electrode is, besides the used current intensity, dependent on the so-called electrode recovery, Figure 2.21. This describes the mass of deposited weld metal / mass of core wire ratio in percent. Electrode recovery can reach values of up to 220% with metal covering components in high-efficiency electrodes. A survey of the material spectrum which is suitable for manual metal arc welding is given in Figure 2.22. The survey comprises almost all metals known for technical applications and
2005
cast iron: nickel:
copper:
aluminium:
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Suitable Materials for Manual Metal Arc Welding
Figure 2.22
ef fic ie n
b
ed
a
5 mm 5 mm
400 A 500
cy
nc
28 also explains the wide application method. In d.c. welding, the concentration of the magnetic arc-blow producing forces can lead to the deflection of the arc from power supply point on the side of the workpiece, Figrange of the
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Arc Blow Effect through Concentration of Magnetic Fields
ure
2.23.
The
material
transfer also does not occur at the intended point.
Figure 2.23
Arc deflection may also occur at magnetizable mass accumulations although, in that case, in the direction of the respective mass, Figure 2.24. Figures 2.25 and 2.26 show how by various measures the magnetic arc blow can be compensated or even avoided.
close to large workpiece masses close to current-connection inwards at the edges
The positioning of the electrodes in opposite direction brings about the correct placement of the weld metal. Numerous strong tacks close
in gaps towards the weld
the magnetic flux inside the workpiece. By additional, opposite placed steel masses as well as by skilful transfer of the power supply point the various reasons for arc deflection can be eliminated. The fast magnetic reversal when a.c. is used minimises the influence of the magnetic arc blow. Figure 2.24
Arc Blow Effect on Steel Parts
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29
tilting of electrode
through additional blocks of steel great number of tacks
through relocating the currentconnection (rarely used) the welding sequence
tacks
through using a welding transformer alternating current (not applicable for all types of electrodes)
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Remedy Against Arc Blow Effect 1
Remedy Against Arc Blow Effect 2
Figure 2.25
Figure 2.26 Depending on the electrode covering, the water absorption of a stick electrode may vary strongly during storage, Figure 2.27. The absorbed humidity leads during subsequent welding frequently to an increased hydrogen content in the weld metal and, thus, increases cold cracking susceptibility.
4,0 %
20C / 70% RF
Water content of the coating
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,1
10
Days
100
Time of storage
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ISF 2002
Water Absorption of Different Basic-Coated Electrodes
Figure 2.27
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30
Stick electrodes, particularly those with a basic, rutile or cellulosic cover have to be baked before welding to keep the water content of the cover during welding below the permissible values in order to avoid
1,0 % 0,9 Water content of the coating 0,8 0,7 0,6 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0 30
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hydrogen-induced
basic-coated electrode (having been stored at 18 - 20 for one year) C 0,74
cracks,
Figure 2.28. The baking temperature and time are specified by the manufacturer. Baking is carried out
0,39 0,28 AWS A5.5 storage and baking 40 50 60 70 % 80

ISF 2002
in special ovens; in damp working conditions and only just before welding are electrodes taken out from electrically heated receptacles.
Water Content of the Coating after Storage and Baking
Figure 2.28
2005
3. Submerged Arc Welding
32
In submerged arc welding a mineral weld flux layer protects the welding point and the freezing weld from the influx hopper electrode contact piece
fluence of the surrounding atmosphere, Figure 3.1. The arc burns in a cavity filled with ionised gases and vapours where the droplets from the continuously-fed wire electrode are transferred into the weld pool. Unfused flux can be extracted from behind the welding head and subsequently recycled.
flux solid slag
arc weld metal
base metal
liquid slag
molten pool
weld cavity
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Process Principle of Submerged Arc Welding
Figure 3.1 Main components of a submerged arc welding unit are:
the wire electrode reel, the wire feed motor equipped with grooved wire feed rolls which are suitable for the demanded wire diameters, a wire straigthener as well as a torch head for current transmission, Figure 3.2. Flux supply is carried out via a hose from the flux container to the feeding hopper which is mounted on the torch head. Depending on the degree of automation it is possible to install a flux excess pickup behind the torch. Submerged arc
AC or DC current supply wire straightener wire feed rolls flux supply indicators power source wire reel welding machine holder
welding can be operated using either an a.c. power source or a d.c. power source where the electrode is normally connected to the positive terminal. Welding advance is provided by the welding ma-
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chine
Assembly of a SA Welding Equipment
or
by
workpiece
movement.
Figure 3.2
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33
Identification of wire electrodes for submerged arc welding is based on the average Mncontent and is carried out in steps of 0.5%, Figure 3.3. Standardisation for welding filler materials for unalloyed steels as well as for fine-grain structural steels is contained in DIN EN 756, for creep resistant steels in DIN pr EN 12070 (previously DIN 8575) and for stainless and heat resistant steels in DIN pr EN 12072 (previously DIN 8556-10). The proportions of additional alloying elements are dependent on the materials to be welded and on the mechanical-technological demands which emerge from the prevailing operating conditions, Figure 3.4. Connected to this, most important alloying elements are manganese for strength, molybdenum for high-temperature strength and nickel for toughness.
DIN EN 756 Reference analysis mat.-no. approx. weight % S1 C = 0,08 1.0351 Si = 0,09 Mn = 0,50 S2 1.5035 C = 0,10 Si = 0,10 Mn = 1,00 C = 0,11 Si = 0,15 Mn = 1,50 C = 0,10 Si = 0,30 Mn = 1,00 C = 0,10 Si = 0,15 Mn = 1,00 Mo = 0,50 C = 0,09 Si = 0,12 Mn = 1,00 Ni = 1,20 C = 0,10 Si = 0,12 Mn = 1,00 Ni = 2,20 C = 0,12 Si = 0,15 Mn = 1,00 Mo = 0,50 Ni = 1,00
Properties and application
alloy type Mn
commercial wire electrodes S1 S2 S3 S4 S2Mo S3Mo S4Mo S2Ni1 S2Ni2 S2NiMo1 S3NiMo1 S3NiV1 S1NiCrMo2,5 S2NiCrMo1 S3NiCrMo2,5
main alloying elements Mn Ni Mo Cr V 0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0 1,5 2,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,5 1,5 0,5 1,0 1,5 1,0 2,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 2,5 1,0 2,5 0,6 0,8 0,6 0,5 0,6 0,8 0,5 0,5 0,15 0,5 0,5 0,5
For lower welding joint quality requirements;in: boiler and tank construction, pipe production, structural steel engineering, shipbuilding For higher welding joint quality requirements; in: pipe production, boiler and tank construction, sructural steel engineering, shipbuilding. Fine-grain structural steels up to StE 380. For high-quality welds with medium wall-thicknesses. Fine-grain structural steels up to StE 420. Especially suitable for welding of pipe steels, no tendency to porosity of unkilled steels. Fine-grain structural steels up to StE 420. For welding in boiler and tank construction and pipeline production with creep-resistant steels. Working temperatures of up 500 C. Suitable for higher-strength fine-grain structural steels. For welding low-temperature fine-grain structural steels. Non-ageing. Especially suitable for low-temperature welds. Non-ageing.
MnMo
S3 1.5064 S2Si 1.5034
Ni NiMo NiV NiCrMo
S2Mo 1.5425
S2Ni1
S2Ni2
From a diameter of 3 mm upwards all wire electrodes have to be marked with the following symbols: S1 Si Mo S6: I : _ : IIIIII Example: S2Si: II _ S3Mo: III
ISF 2002
S3NiMo1
For quenched and tempered fine-grain structural steels. Suitable for normalising and/or re-quenching and tempering.
ISF 2002
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Wire Electrodes for Submerged Arc Welding
Properties and Application Areas for Wire Electrodes in Submerged Arc Welding
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
The identification of wire electrodes for submerged arc welding is standardised in DIN EN 756, Figure 3.5. During manufacture of fused welding fluxes the individual mineral constituents are, with regard of their future composition, weighed and subsequently fused in a cupola or electric furnace, Figure 3.6. In the dry granulation process, the melt is poured stresses break the
2005
34
crust into large fragments. During water granulation the melt hardens to form small grains with a diameter of approximately 5 mm.
Wire electrode DIN EN 756 - S2Mo
As a third variant, compressed air is additionally

DIN main no.
blown into the water tank resulting in finely blistered grains with low bulk weight. The fragments or grains are subsequently ground and screened thus bringing about the desired grain size.
Symbols of the chemical composition: S0, S1...S4, S1Si, S2Si, S2Si2, S3Si, S4Si, S1Mo,..., S4Mo, S2Ni1, S2Ni1.5, S2Ni2, S2Ni3, S2Ni1Mo, S3Ni1.5, S3Ni1Mo, S3Ni1.5Mo
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Identification of a Wire Electrode in Accordance with DIN EN 756
Figure 3.5
lime
quarz
rutile
bauxite
magnesite
rutile
Mn - ore
fluorspar
magnesite
alloys
roasting kiln
silos balance coke
sintering furnace silos ball mill mixer balance
raw material molten metal
coke dish granulator air gas drying oven coal-burning stove
tapping electrical furnace granulation tub foaming cylindrical crusher screen cooling pipe air
heat treatment furnace screen
drying oven
balance
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balance
ISF 2002
Production of Fused Welding Fluxes
Production of Agglomerated Welding Fluxes
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
2005
35 During manufacture of agglomerated weld
Properties
Fused fluxes1)
Agglomerated fluxes1) -/++ -/++ --2)/++ -/+ -/++ -/++ +/++ +/++ +/++ +/++ +/++
fluxes the raw materials are very finely ground, Figure 3.7. After weighing and with the aid of a suitable binding agent (waterglass) a pre-stage granulate is produced in the mixer. Manufacture of the granulate is finished on a rotary dish granulator where the individual grains are rolled up to their desired size and consolidate. Water evaporation in the drying oven hardens the grains. In the annealing furnace the remaining water is subsequently removed at temperatures of between 500 and C 900 depending on the type of flux. C, The fused welding fluxes are characterised by high homogeneity, low sensitivity to moisture, good storing properties and high abrasion re-
uniformity of grain size distribution grain strength homogeneity susceptibility to moisture storing properties resistance to dirt current carrying capacity slag removability high-speed welding properties multiple-wire weldability flux consumption
1) 2)
+/++ +/++ +/++ +/++ +/++ --/+ +/++ -/+ +/++ -/++ -/+
assessment : -- bad, - moderate, + good, ++ very good core agglomerated flux

ISF 2002
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Properties of Fused and Agglomerated Welding Fluxes
Figure 3.8
sistance. An important advantage of the agglomerated fluxes is the relatively low manufacturing temperature, Figure 3.8. The technological properties of the welded joint can be improved by the addition of temperature-sensitive deoxidation and alloying constituents to the flux. Agglomerated fluxes have, in general, a lower bulk weight (lower consumption) which allows the use of components which are reacting among themselves during the melting process. However, the higher susceptibility to moisture during storage andprocessing has to be taken intoconsideration.
MS CS ZS RS AR AB MnO + SiO2 CaO CaO + MgO + SiO2 CaO + MgO ZrO2 + SiO2 + MnO ZrO2 TiO2 + SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 + TiO2 Al2O3 + CaO + MgO Al2O3 CaF2 Al2O3 + SiO2 + ZrO2 CaF2 + MgO ZrO2 Al2O3 + CaF2 CaO + MgO + CaF2 + Mo SiO2 CaF2 other compositions min. 50% max. 15% min. 55% min.15% min. 45% min. 15% min. 50% min. 20% min. 40% min. 40% min. 20% max. 22% min. 40% min. 30% min. 5% min. 70% min. 50% max. 20% min. 15% manganese-silicate calcium-silicate zirconium-silicate rutile-silicate aluminate-rutilel aluminate-basic
AS AF FB Z
aluminate-silicate aluminate-fluoride-basic fluoride-basic
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Different Welding Flux Types According to DIN EN 760
Figure 3.9
2005
3. Submerged Arc Welding The SA welding fluxes are, in accordance with their mineralogical constituents, classified into nine groups, Figure 3.9. The composition of the individual flux groups is to be considered as in principle, as fluxes which belong to the same group may differ substantially with regards to their welding or weld metal properties. In addition to the groups mentioned above there is also the Z-group which allows free compositions of the flux. The calcium silicate fluxes are recognized by their effective silicon pickup. A low Si pickup has low cracking tendency and liability to rust, on the other hand the lower current carrying
AB - medium manganese pickup - good weldability - good toughness values in welding by the pass/ capping pass method - application field:unalloyed and low alloyed structural steels - suitable for a.c. and d.c. - applicable for multilayer welding or welding by the pass/ capping pass method - mainly neutral metallurgical behavior - manganese burnoff possible - good weld appearance and slag removability - to some degree suitable for d.c. - recommended for multi layer welds for high toughness requirements - application field: high-tensile fine grain structural steels, pressure vessels, nuclear- and offshore components - suitable for welding stainless steels and nickel-base alloys - neutral behaviour as regards Mn, Si and other constituents
ZS RS CS MS - high manganese and silicon pickup - restricted toughness values - high current carrying capacity/ high weld speed - unsusceptible to pores and undercuts - unsuitable for thick parts - suitable for high-speed welding and fillet welds
36
acidic types - highest current carrying capacity of all fluxes - high silicon pickup - suitable for welding by the pass/ capping method of thick parts with low requirements basic types - low silicon pickup - suitable for multiple pass welding - current carrying capacity decreases with increaseing basicity - high-speed welding of single-pass welds - high manganese pickup/ high silicon pickup - restricted toughness values of the weld metal - suitable for single and multi wire welding - typical: welding by the pass/ capping pass method - average manganese and silicon pickup - suitable for a.c. and d.c. - single and multi wire welding - application fields: thin-walled tanks, fillet welds for structural steel construction and shipbuilding
ISF 2002
AR
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Classification of Fluxes for SA Welding According to DIN EN 760 (I)
Figure 3.10a capacity of these fluxes has to be accepted. A high Si pickup leads to a high current currying capacity up to 2500 A and a deep penetration. Aluminate-basic fluxes have, due to the higher Mn pickup, good mechanical properties. With the application of wire electrodes, as S1, S2 or S2Mo, a low cracking tendency can be obtained. Fluoride-basic fluxes are characterised by good weld metal impact values and high cracking insensitivity. Figures 3.10a and 3.10b show typical properties and application areas for the different flux types.
AS
AF
FB - mainly neutral metallurgical behaviour - however, manganese burnoff possible - highest toughness values right down to very low temperatures - limited current carrying capacity and welding speed - recommended for multi layer welds - application field: high-tensile fine-grain structural steeels Z - all other compositions
ISF 2002
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Classification of Fluxes for SA Welding According to DIN EN 760 (II)
Figure 3.10b
2005
37
Figure 3.11 shows the identification of a welding flux according to DIN EN 760 by the example of a fused calcium silicate flux. This type of flux is suitable for the welding of joints as well as for overlap welds. The flux can be used for SA welding of unalloyed and low-alloy steels, as, e.g. general structural steels, as well as for welding high-tensile and creep resistant while steels. the The silicon pickup is 0.1 0.3% (6),
welding flux DIN EN 760-SF CS 1 67 AC H10
manganese
pickup is expected to be
DIN main no. flux/SA welding method of manufacture
F fused A agglomerated M mechanically mixed flux
hydrogen content
(table 4)
0.3 0.5% (7). Either d.c. or a.c. can be used, as, in principle, a.c. weldability allows also for d.c. power source. The hydrogen content in the clean weld metal is lower than the 10 ml/100 g weld metal.
type of current metallurgical behaviour

(table 2)
flux type
(figure 3.9)
flux class 1-3

(table 1)
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Identification of a Welding Flux According to DIN EN 760
Figure 3.11 The flux classes 1-3 (table 1) explain the suitability of a flux for welding certain material groups, for welding of joints and for overlap welding. The flux classes also characterise the metallurgical material betable 2 table 1
unalloyed and low-alloyed steel general structural steel high-tensile & creep resistant steels stainless and heat resistant steels Cr- & CrNi steels welding of joints hardfacing pickup of elements as C, Cr, Mo
flux class 1 2 3
metallurgial behaviour
identification proportion flux in all-weld metal figure % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 over 0,7 0,5 up to 0,7 0,3 up to 0,5 0,1 up to 0,3 0 up to 0,1 0,1 up to 0,3 0,3 up to 0,5 0,5 up to 0,7 over 0,7
haviour. In table 2 defines the identification figure for the pickup or burn-off behaviour of the respective element. Table 4 shows the gradation of the diffusible hydrogen content in the weld metal, Figure 3.12.
burnoff pickup or burnoff pickup table 4 identification H5 H10 H15
hydrogen content ml/100g all-weld metal

max.
5 10 15
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Parameters for Flux Identification According to DIN EN 760
Figure 3.12
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38
Figure 3.13 shows the identification of a wire-flux combination and the resultant weld metal. It is a case of a combination for multipass SA welding where the weld metal shows a minimum yield point of 460 N/mm (46) and a minimum metal impact value of 47 J at 30 (3). The flux type is C aluminate-basic (AB) and is used with a wire of the quality S2. The tables for the identification of the tensile properties as well as of the impact energy are combined in Figure 3.14. Figure 3.13
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wire-flux combination DIN EN 756 - S 46 3 AB S2

standard no. wire electrode and/or wire-flux combination for submerged arc welding strength and fracture strain
(table1 and 2)
chemical composition of the wire electrode type of flux

(figure 3.10)
impact energy
(table 3)
Identification of a Wire-Flux Combination According to DIN EN 756
The chemical composition of the weld metal and the structural constitution are dependent on the different metallurgical reactions during
table 1
identification Identification for strength properties of multipass weld joints minimum yield point n/mm2 tensile strength minimum fracture strain % N/mm2
the welding process as well as on the used materials, Figure 3.15. The welding flux influences the slag viscosity, the pool motion and the bead surface. The different combinations of filler material and welding flux cause, in direct dependence on the weld parameters (current, voltage), a different melting behaviour and also different chemical reactions. The dilution with the base metal leads to various strong weld pool reactions, this being dependent on the weld parameters. The diagram of the characteristics for 3 dif ISF 2002
35 38 42 46 50
355 380 420 460 500
440 up to 570 470 up to 600 500 up to 640 530 up to 680 560 up to 720
22 20 20 20 18
table 2 identification 2T 3T 4T 5T
Identification for strength properties of welding by the pass/ capping pass method welded joints
minimum base metal yield strength N/mm2 275 355 420 500
minimum tensile strength N/mm2 370 470 520 600
table 3
Identification for the impact energy of clean all-weld metal or of welding by the pass/ capping pass method welded joints
identification temp. for minimum impact energy 47J C
Z
no demands
A +20
0 0
-20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80
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ferent welding fluxes assists, in dependence of the used wire electrodes, to determine the pickup and burn-off behaviour of the element
Parameter for Weld Metal Identification According to DIN EN 756
Figure 3.14
2005
39 manganese, Figure 3.16.
welding flux droplet reaction
welding filler metal welding data
For example: A welding flux with the mean characteristic and when a wire electrode S3 is used, has a neutral point where neither pickup nor burn-off occur.
base metal slag dilution welding data
weld pool reaction
welding data
The pickup and burn-off

weld metal
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behaviour is, besides the filler material and the welding flux, also directly dependent on the welding amperage and welding
Metallurgical Reactions During Submerged Arc Welding
Figure 3.15
voltage, Figure 3.17. By the example of the selected flux a higher welding voltage causes a more steeply descending manganese characteristic at a constant neutral point. Silicon pickup increases with the increased voltage. The influence of current and voltage on the carbon content is, as a rule, negligible. Inversely proportional to the voltage is the rising characteristic as regards manganese in dependence on the welding
Mn-pickup
current,
Figure
3.18.
Higher currents cause the characteristic curve to flat1,0% S1 S2 S3 2,0% S4 S5 3,0% Mn in wire S6
ten. As the welding voltage, the welding current also has practically no influence on the location of the neutral point. Silicon pickup decreases with increasing current intensity.
Mn-burnoff
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Manganese-Pickup and Manganese-Burnoff During Submerged Arc Welding
Figure 3.16
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40
weld flux LW 280 (DIN EN 760 SF CS 1 76 AC H 10) current intensity 580 A welding speed 55 cm/min
0,6 % Mn 0,2 0 -0,2 -0,4 -0,6 0,6 % Si 0,2 0 -0,2 -0,4 0,05 0 -0,05 -0,10 -0,15
weld flux LW 280 (DIN EN 760 SF CS 1 76 AC H 10) arc voltage 29 V welding speed 55 cm/min
0,6 % Mn 0,2 0 -0,2 450 A 650 A 700 A 0,5 1,0 % Mn wire 2,0 2,5 800 A 580 A neutral point
33 V
36 V neutral point
25 V 0,5 1,0 % Mn wire 2,0 27 V 29 V 2,5
X in weight %
X in weight %
-0,4 -0,6 0,6 % Si 0,2 0 -0,2 -0,4 0,05 0 -0,05 -0,10 -0,15 800 A
36 V
450 A
25 V 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45 % Si wire
pickup/ burnoff
pickup/ burnoff
0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45 % Si wire
800 A 0,15 450 A 0,20 0,25 % C wire
0,05 25 - 36 V
0,15
0,20 0,25 % C wire
% XSZ
Pickup and Burnoff Behaviour in Dependence on Welding Voltage and Wire Electrode
Pickup and Burnoff Behaviour in Dependence on Welding Current and Wire Electrode
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
The Mn-content of the weld metal can be deflux diagramm LW 280

(DIN EN 760 SF CS 1 76 AC H 10),
termined by means of a welding flux diagram, Figure 3.19. In this example, the two points on the axis which determine the flux characteristic are defined for the parameters 580A welding current and 29V welding voltage, with the aid of the auxiliary straight line and the neutral point curve (MnNP). In this case, the two points are positioned at 0.6% Mn and 1.25% MnSZ. Dependent on the manganese content of the used filler material, the pickup or burn-off
manganese
wire electrode 4 mm acc. to Prof. Thier example: I = 580 A U = 29 V MnSZ1 = 0.48 % Mn MnSZ2 = 1.69 % Mn
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contents can be recognized by the reflection with respect to the characteristic line (0.38%
Welding Flux Diagramm for Determination of the Mn Content in the Weld Metal
Figure 3.19
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41
Mn-pickup with a wire containing 0.5%Mn, 0.2% Mn-burnoff with a wire containing 1.75%Mn). The structure of the characteristic line for the determination of the silicon pickup content, is, in principle, exactly the same as described above, Figure 3.20. As silicon has only pickup properties and therefore no neutral point exists, the second auxiliary straight line must be considered for the determination of the second characteristic line point. Weld preparations for multipass fabrication are dependent on the thickness of the plates to be welded, Figure 3.21. If no root is
auxiliary straight line
flux diagramm LW 280

(DIN EN 760 SF CS 1 76 AC H 10),
silicon
wire electrode 4 mm acc. to Prof. Thier example: I = 580 A U = 29 V SiSZ = 0.16 % Si
auxiliary straight line
planned during weld preparation and also no support of the weld pool is made, the root pass must be welded using low energy input.
Welding Flux Diagram for Determination of the Si Content in the Weld Metal
Figure 3.20 from both sides, the double-U butt weld may be applied, Figure 3.22. Before the opposite side is welded, the root must be milled out (gouging/sanding). This type of weld cannot be produced by flame cutting and is, as milling is necessary, more expensive, although exact weld preparation and correct selection of the welding parameters lead to a high weld quality.
When welding very thick plates which are accessible
preparation geometry
weld buildup
and
manual metal arc welding

SA SA SA SA SA SA
manual metal arc welding manual metal arc welding

SA SA SA SA
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Welding Procedure Sheets for Single-V Butt Welds, Single-Y Butt Welds with Broad Root Faces and Double-V Butt Welds
Figure 3.21
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42 Another variation of heavy-
preparation geometry
weld buildup
plate welded joints is the so-called steep single-V

manual metal arc welding turning and sanding manual metal arc welding
SA SA
side 1
butt weld, Figure 3.23. The very steep edges keep the welding volume at a very low level. This technique, however, requires the application of special
turn
SA SA
turn turn
side 2
SA SA SA SA
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narrow-gap torches. The geometry during slag detachment and also during reworking weld-related de-
Welding Procedure Sheet for Double-U Butt Welds
Figure 3.22
fects may cause problems. Here, high demands are made on torch manipulation and process control. Special narrow-gap welding fluxes facilitate slag removal. The most important welding parameters as regards
GMA welding
weld bead formation are welding current, welding voltage current and speed, Figure 3.24. A higher causes higher deposition
GMA welding
SA welding
SA welding oscillated
rates and energy input, which leads to reinforced beads and a deeper penetration. The weld width remains roughly constant. The increased welding voltage leads to a longer arc
Welding Procedure Sheet for Square-Edge Welds
Figure 3.23
which also causes the bead to be wider. The change in welding speed causes - on both sides of an optimum - a decrease of the penetration depth. At lower weld speeds, the weld pool running ahead of the welding arc acts as a buffer between arc and base metal. At high speeds, the energy per unit length decreases which leads, besides lower penetration, also to narrower beads.
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43
w tp 400
20
plate thickness: 25 mm 10 wire electrode: 4 mm flux: MS-Typ
consumption kg flux / kg wire
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
constant:
U = 32 Volt v = 60 cm/min
30
penetration depth tp in mm
500 600 welding current (I)
700
800 Amp.
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
constant: II= 600 Amp.
v = 60 cm/min tp
weld width w in mm
2,4 2,2 2,0 1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0
A) flat weld - I square butt joint

fused composition fluxes
agglomerated fluxes
400
500
600
700
800 900 1000 1100 current intensity (A)
28
30
32
34
36
38
40 Volt
arc voltage (U) 12 10 w 8 6 te 4 constant: I = 600 Amp. I 2 U = 32 Volt 0 30 40 50 60 70

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consumption kg flux/ kg wire
30 20 10
1,6 1,4 1,2 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 400
B) fillet weld fused composition fluxes
agglomerated fluxes
80
90
100
110 cm/min
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500
600
700
welding speed (v)

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800 900 1000 1100 current intensity (A)

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Influence of the Weld Parameters on Penetration Depth and Weld Width
Welding Flux Consumption in Dependence on Current Intensity and Seam Shape
Figure 3.24
Figure 3.25
Weld flux consumption is dependent on the selected weld type, Figure 3.25. Due to geometrical shape, the flux consumption of a fillet weld is significantly lower than that of a butt weld. Because of their lower bulk weight, the specific consumption of agglomerated fluxes is lower than that of fused
direction of welding
fluxes. Two different control concepts allow the regulation of the arc length (the prin-
L1
L2
ciple is shown in Figure
L3
3.26). The application of the appropriate control system is dependent on the available power source
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Control of the Arc Length
characteristics.
Figure 3.26
2005
3. Submerged Arc Welding The external regulation of the arc length by the control of the wire feed speed requires a power source with a steeply descending characteristic, Figure 3.27. In this case, the shortening of the arc caused by some process disturbance, entails a strong voltage drop at a low current rise. As a regulated quantity, this voltage drop reduces the wire feed speed. Thus, the initial arc length can be regulated at an almost constant deposition rate. In contrast, the internal regulation effects, when the arc is reduced, a strong current rise at a low voltage drop (slightly descending characteristic). At a constant wire feed speed the inibr-er3-27e.cdr
44
U U0 US A DU A I I
DI IS IK
external regulation ( D U-regulation)
U U0 US I A A DI IS
internal self regulation ( D I-regulation)
ISF 2002
DU
tial arc length is independently regulated by the increased burn-off rate which again is a consequence of the high current. Figure 3.27
Control System for Constant Length of Arc
backing flux
The reaction of the internal regulation to process disturbance is very fast. This process is self regulating and does not require any machine expenditure.
ceramic backing bar
In submerged arc welding of butt joints, it is, depending on the weld preparation, necessary to support the liquid weld pool with a backing, Figure 3.28. This is normally done
flux copper backing
with either a ceramic or copper backing with a flux layer or by a backing flux. Dependent on the shape of the backing bar, direct formation
br-er3-28e.cdr
of the underside seam can be achieved.

Examples of Weld Pool Backups
When welding circumferential tubes, the inclination angle of the electrode has a direct
Figure 3.28
2005
45 influence onto the formation of the weld bead,
3 0 -
Figure 3.29. For external as well as for internal tube welds, the best weld shapes may be obtained with an adjusted angular position of the torch. If the advance is too low, the molten bath runs ahead and produces a narrow weld with a medium-sized ridge, too high an ad-
a1 = 0
a2
a3
vance causes the flowback of the molten bath and a wide seam with a formed trough in the centre. The processes described here for external tube welds are, the other way round,
b1 b2 b3
also applicable to internal tube welds.

t1 t2 t3
inclusion
To increase the efficiency of submerged arc welding, different process variations are applied, Figure 3.30. In multiwire welding, where up to 6 wires are used, each welding torch is operated from a separate power
Wire Position in SA-Welding for Circumferential Tube Welds
Figure 3.29
source. In twin wire welding, two wire electrodes are connected in one torch and supplied from one power source. Dependent on the application, the wires can be arranged in a parallel or in a tandem. In submerged arc welding with iron powder addition can the deposition rate be substantially increased at constant electrical parameters, Figure 3.31. The increased deposition rate is realised by either the addition of a currentless wire (cold wire) or of a prebr-er3-30e.cdr ISF 2002
single wire
tandem
parallel twin wire
tandem, twin wire
heated filler wire (hot wire). The use of a rectangular Figure 3.30
Process Variations of Submerged-Arc Welding
2005
46 strip instead of a wire electrode allows a higher current carrying capacity and opens the SA method also
iron powder/ chopped wire
cold wire
for the wide application range of surfacing. However, the mentioned
hot wire
strip
process variations can be combined over wide

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Process Variations of Submerged-Arc Welding
ranges, where the electrode distances and positions have to be appropriately optimised, Figure
Figure 3.31
3.32. Current type, polarity, geometrical co-ordination of the individual weld heads and the selected weld parameters also have substantial influence on the weld result.
1. WH
2. WH
100 kg/h
~ 65 12..16
tandem welding
deposition rate
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
0
single wire+ metal powder single wire+ hot wire double wire three-wire tandem single wire four-wire
1. WH =
2. WH ~ 35
3. WH ~ 65
three-wire welding
1. WH =
12..16 HW 2. WH 3. WH ~ ~
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3500
current intensity
12 kg/h
weld metal
three-wire, hot wire welding
15
10 10 35 12..16
9 6
5,0 mm 4,0 mm
voltage = 30 V speed = 40 cm/min wire protrusion = 10d length
~ 80
~ 15 18
~ 75 12
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3,0 mm 3~ ~ 0 300 400 500 600
800
four-wire welding
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current intensity
Position of Wire Electrode in Submerged-Arc Multi-Wire Welding
Application Fields for Submerged-Arc Process Variants
Figure 3.32
Figure 3.33
2005
47
The description of these individual process variations of submerged arc welding shows that this method can be applied sensibly and economically over a very wide operating range, Figure 3.33. It is a high-efficiency welding process with a deposition rate of up to 100 kg/h. Due to large molten pools and flux application positional welding is not possible. When more than one wire is used in order to obtain a high deposition rate, arc interactions occur due to magnetic arc blow, Figure 3.34. Therefore, the selection of the current type (d.c. or a.c.) and also
arc
(_) +
(_) +
elektrode
(+) _
_( ) +
sensible phase displacements between the indibr-er3-34e.cdr
workpiece
ISF 2002
vidual welding torches are very important. Figure 3.34
Magnetic Interaction of Arcs at SA Tandem Welding
2005
4. TIG Welding and Plasma Arc Welding
49
TIG welding and plasma welding belong to the group of the gas-shielded tungsten arc welding processes, Figure 4.1. In the gas-shielded tungsten arc welding processes mentioned in Figure 4.1, the arc burns between a nonconsumable piece or, in plasma arc welding, between the tungsten electrode and a live copper electrode inside the torch. Exclusively inert gases (Ar, He) are used as shielding gases. The potential curve of the ideal arc, as shown in Figure
tungsten electrode and the work-
Gas-shielded arc welding
Gas-shielded metal arc welding GMAW

Metal inert-gas welding MIG Metal active gas welding MAG CO2 welding plasma metal arc welding Mixed gas welding
Gas-shielded tungsten arc welding
narrow-gap gas-shielded arc welding electrogas welding
Tungsten inert- Tungsten plasma gas welding welding with TIG electrode
Tungsten hydrogen welding
Plasma arc Plasma arc Plasma welding with welding with arc welding non-transferred with transferred semi-transferred arc arc arc
4.2, can be divided into three characteristic sectors: 1.cathode- drop region 2.arc 3. anode-drop region In the cathode-drop region almost 50%
-4
Classification of Gas-Shielded Arc Welding acc. to DIN ISO 857
Figure 4.1
l
K L U 20 V
+
A
of the total
voltage drop occurs over a length of 10 mm.

US
A similarly high voltage drop occurs in the anode-drop region, here, however, over a length of 0.5 mm. The
10 0
A: anode spot (up to 4000 C) K: cathode spot (approx. 3600 C) L: arc column (4500-20000 C) l: arc length arc potential curve (example)
10
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-4
4 mm 5
0,5
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voltage drop on the remaining arc length is comparatively low. Main energy conversion occurs accordingly in the anode-drop and cathode-drop region. Figure 4.2
Arc Potential Curve
Figure 4.3 shows the potential distribution by the example of a real TIG arc under the influence of different shielding gases. UA and UK have different values, the potential curve in the
2005
50
arc is not exactly linear. There is no discernible expansion of the cathode-drop and anodedrop region.
20 Argon 60 A V UK = 6,5 V
25 4 mm 2
UARC
10
V
anode UA = 3,5 V 0 1 2 X ARC 3 4
cathode
20 arc voltage
he lium
40 Helium 60 A UK = 6,5 V
15
4 2
n argo
UARC
20 anode UA = 6,1 V 0 1 2 3 4 mm 6
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10
10
cathode
50
100
150
200
250
350
weld current
XARC
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Figure 4.3 The electrical characteris-
Figure 4.4
TIG cathode 9 000 K 10 000 K 8 000 K
tics of the arc differ, depending on the selected

mm
helium in comparison with argon is higher, arc voltage must necessarily be higher. The temperature distribubr-er4-05e.cdr
anode spot weld pool

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tion of a TIG arc is shown in Figure 4.5. Figure 4.5
Temperature Distribution in a TIG Arc (at I=100 A)
the ionisation potential of
shielding gas, Figure 4.4. As
2 mm 4
mm
2005
arc length
mm
4. TIG Welding and Plasma Arc Welding In TIG welding just approximately 30% of the input electrical energy may be used for melting the base metal, Figure 4.6. Losses result from the arc radiation and heat dissipation in the workpiece and also from the heat conversion in the tungsten electrode.
R.I2 melting of wire radiation P = U.I welding direction
51
Figure 4.7 describes the process principle of TIG welding. Figure 4.8 explains by an example the code for a TIG welding wire, as stipulated in the drafts of the European Standardisations. A table with the chemical compositions of the filler materials is shown in Figure 4.9. According to Figure 4.10, a conventional
tungsten electrode electric contact shielding gas shielding gas nozzle welding power source
thermal conductivity [W/m K]
fusion heat [kJ/kg] specific heat [kJ/kg K]
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Figure 4.6 TIG welding installation consists of a transformer, a set of rectifiers and a torch. For most applications an electrode with a negative polarity is used. However, for welding of aluminium, alternating current must be
workpiece
filler metal weld
used. For arc ignition a high-frequency high voltage is superimposed and causes ionisation between electrode and workpiece.
arc
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Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
Figure 4.7
2005
52 The central part of the
W 46 3 W2
chemical composition table rods and wires for tig-welding minimum impact energy value 47 J at -30 C minimum weld metal yield point: 460 N/mm2 identification letter for TIG-welding identification of filler rod as an individual product: W2
torch for TIG welding is the tungsten electrode which is held in a collet inside the torch body, Figure 4.11. The hose package contains the supply lines for shielding gas and welding shielding
Designation of a Tungsten Innert Gas Welding Wire to EN 1668
current. gas nozzle
The is
mostly made of ceramic. Manually operated torches for TIG welding which are used for high amperages
Figure 4.8
as well as machine torches for long duty cycles are water-cooled. In order to keep the influence of torch distance variations on the current intensity and thus on the penetration depth as low as possible, power sources used for TIG welding always have a steeply dropping characteristic, Figure 4.12. The non-contact reignition of the A.C. TIG arc after a voltage zero crossover requires ionisation of the gap
electrode-workpiece by high-frequent
high voltage pulses, FigChemical composition of filler rods and wires for TIG-welding
ure 4.13.
Figure 4.9
2005
53 When argon is used as a shielding gas, metals as, for example, aluminium and magnesium, also which
L1 L2 L3 N PE
mains
filter capacitor
high-frequency choke coil
_ O
have low melting points and simultaneously forming tight and high melting oxide skins, cannot be welded with a negative polarity
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~
St
high voltage impulse generator
rectifier transformer SC: scattering core for adjusting the characteristic curve
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+ O
= ~
selector switch
electrode.
With
Principle Structure of a TIG Welding Installation
positive polarity, however, a cleaning effect takes place which is caused by the impact of the positive
Figure 4.10
charged ions from the shielding gas atmosphere on the negative charged work surface, thus destroying the oxide skin due to their large cross-section. However, as a positive polarity
longer arc shorter arc R and U drop
R and U rise
torch cap with seal handle of the torch control switch control cable
I drops
I rises
arc length short long

electrode collet collet case tungsten electrode gas nozzle
voltage
torch body with cooling device
shielding gas supply cooling water supply cooling water return with welding current cable
increasing
U
decreasing
current intensity
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decreasing
increasing
i
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Construction of a Water-Cooled Torch for TIG Welding
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
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54
would cause thermal overload of the electrode, these materials are welded with alternating current. However, this has a disturbing side-effect. The electron emission and, consequently, the current flow are dependent on the temperature of the cathode. During the negative phase on the work surface the emission is, due to the lower melting temperature substantially lower than during the negative phase on the tungsten electrode. As a consequence, a positively connected electrode leads to lower welding current flows than this would be the case with a negatively connected electrode, Figure 4.14. A filter capacitor in the welding current circuit filters out the D.C. compovoltage reignition of the arc by voltage impulses
nent which results in equal

A.C.
half-wave
components.
With modern transistorised

+ -
power sources which use

+ time
alternating current (square wave) for a faster zero cross-over, is duration and height of the phase com-
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Reignition of the Tungsten A.C. Arc Through Voltage Impulses
ponents electrode and the
adjustable. thermal
The stress
Figure 4.13
current a current a
cleaning effect
may be freely influenced.

without filter capacitor 0
+ +
electrode polarity
time
balanced half-wave components
with filter capacitor
time
Figure 4.15 shows that the thermal electrode load can be recognized from the shape of the electrode tip. While the normal-load negative connected electrode end has the shape of a pointed cone (point angle
electronic controled power source
+ + +
lower
time
- time
+ -
time
- time
cleaning effect heat load of the electrode

weld seam width
stronger increasing
smaller
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Influence of the Half-Wave Components during A.C. TIG Welding
approx. 10 a flattened ), electrode tip is the result
Figure 4.14
2005
55
from a.c. welding (higher thermal load by positive half-waves).The tip of a thermally overloaded electrode is hemispherical and leads to a stronger spread of the arc and thus to wider welds with lower penetration.
electrode for D.C. welding (direct current)
electrode for A.C. welding (alternating current)
materials: - steels, especially high-alloy steel - aluminium and aluminium alloys - copper and copper alloys - nickel and nickel alloys - titanium - circonium - tantalum workpiece thickness: - 0,5 - 5,0 mm weld types: - plain butt weld, V-type welds, flanged weld, fillet weld - all positions - surfacing application examples: - tube to tube sheet welding - orbital welding - root welding
overloaded electrode
influence of the electrode shape on penetration profile
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Electrode Shapes for TIG Welding
Applications of TIG Welding
Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
preflow of the shielding gas
postflow of the shielding gas
movement in switch-on position
All fusion weldable materials can be joined using the TIG process; from the economical point of view this applies especially to plate
shielding gas
orbital movement
360
thickness of less than 5 mm. The method is, moreover, predestined for
welding current
rise of current
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preheating
pulsing
current decay
overlap
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welding
root
passes
without backing support, Figure 4.16.
Flow Chart of TIG Orbital Welding
Figure 4.17
2005
56
For circumferential welding of fixed pipes, the TIG orbital welding method is applied. The welding torch moves orbitrally around the pipe, i.e., the pipe is welded in the positions flat, vertical down, overhead,
contact tube shielding gas plasma gas nozzle plasma gas filler material surface weld non-transferred arc workpiece welding power source tungsten electrode shielding gas nozzle
vertical-up and also interpass welding is applied. Moreover, a defect-free weld bead overlap must be achieved. Orbital welding installations are equipped with process operational controls which determine the appropriate process parameters, Figure 4.17. In plasma arc welding burns the arc between the
Ignition device
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Plasma Arc Welding with Non-Transferred Arc
Figure 4.18
tungsten electrode (- pole) and the plasma gas nozzle (+ pole) and is called the nontransferred arc, Figure 4.18. The non-transferred arc is mainly used for metal-spraying and for the welding of metal-foil strips. In plasma arc welding with transferred arc burns the arc between the tungsten electrode (pole) and the workpiece (+ pole) and is called the
contact tube shielding gas nozzle shielding gas plasma gas nozzle plasma gas welding power source Ignition device tungsten electrode
transferred
arc,
Figure
4.19. The plasma gas constricts the arc and leads to a more concentrated heat input than in TIG welding and allows thus the exploitation of the keyhole effect. Plasma arc welding with transferred arc is mainly used for welding of joints.
filler material seam
work piece transferred arc

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Plasma Arc Welding with Transferred Arc
Figure 4.19
2005
57 Plasma arc welding with
contact tube shielding gas nozzle shielding gas conveying gas and welding filler (powder) plasma gas plasma gas nozzle surface weld
tungsten electrode
semi-transferred arc is a combination

ignition device
of
the variant
two is
methods mentioned above.

welding power source
This used
process for
microplasma
welding, plasma-arc pownon-transferred arc
der surfacing and weldjoining of aluminium, Figure 4.20
transferred arc
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workpiece
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Plasma Arc Welding with Semi-Transferred Arc
The
plasma
welding
Figure 4.20
equipment includes, be-
sides the water-cooled welding torch, a gas supply for plasma gas (Ar) and shielding gas (ArH2-mixture, Ar/He mixture or Ar); the gas supply is, in most cases, separated, Figure 4.21. The copper anode and the additional focusing gas flow constrict the plasma arc which leads,
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Figure 4.21
Figure 4.22
2005
4. TIG Welding and Plasma Arc Welding in comparison with TIG welding, to a more concentrated heat input and thus to deeper penetration. An arc that has been generated in this way burns more stable and is not easy to deflect, as, for example, at workpiece edges, Figure 4.21.
58
Arc shapes of shielding gases: argon with 6,5% hydrogen helium 50% argon, 50% helium argon plasma gas: argon
The TIG arc is cone shaped or bell shaped, respecFigure 4.23 tively, and has an aperture angle of 45 The plasma .
arc length
Arc Shapes in Microplasma Welding with Different Shielding Gases
arc, in comparison, burns highly concentrated with almost parallel flanks, Figure 4.22. The shielding gas used in plasma arc welding
plasma torch
exerts, due to its thermal conductivity, a decisive influence onto the arc configuration. The use of a mixture of argon with hydrogen
welding direction
results in the often desired cylindrical arc shape, Figure 4.23.
weld (seam)
In plasma arc welding of plates thicker than 2.5mm the so-called keyhole effect is utilweld surface
ised, Figure 4.24. The plasma jet penetrates the material, forming a weld keyhole. During welding the plasma jet with the keyhole moves along the joint edges. Behind the
keyhole
root
plasma jet as result of the surface tension and

the vapour pressure in the keyhole, the liquid metal flows back together and the weld bead is created.
Figure 4.24
2005
59
Very thin sheets and metal-foils can be welded using microplasma welding with amperages between 0.05 and 50 A. Figures 4.25 and 4.26 show these ples: application The examcircumferential
weld in a diaphragm disk with a wall thickness of 0.15mm and the joining of fine metal grids made of CrNi steel.
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Microplasma Welding of a Diaphragm Disk Made of CrNi
Figure 4.25
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Figure 4.26
2005
5. Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding
5. Gas-Shielded Metal Arc Welding
61
The difference between gas-shielded metal arc welding (GMA) and the gas tungsten arc welding process is the consumable electrode. Essentially the process is classified as metal inert gas welding (MIG)
gas-shielded arc welding (SG) gas-shielded metal-arc welding (GMAW)
metal inert gas welding (MIG) electrogas welding (MSGG) Narrow-gap gasshielded arc welding (MSGE) metal active gas welding (MAG) plasma gas metal arc welding (MSGP)
and
tungsten gasshielded welding
metal
active
gas
welding (MAG). Besides, there are two more process variants, ing and the also electrogas the gasand the narrow gap weldshielded plasma metal arc welding, a combination of both plasma welding and MIG welding, Figure 5.1. In contrast to TIG welding, where the electrode is
tungsten inert-gas welding (TIG) plasma jet welding (WPS)
tungsten plasma welding (WP) plasma arc welding (WPL)
hydrogen tungsten arc welding (WHG) plasma jet plasma arc welding (WPSL)
gas mixture gas metalarc CO2 metal-arc welding welding (GMMA) (MAGC)
consumable electrode
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non consumable electrode

ISF 2002
Classification of Gas-Shielded Arc Welding Processes
Figure 5.1
normally negative in order to avoid the melting of the tungsten electrode, this effect is exploited in MIG welding, as the positive pole is strongly heated than the negative pole, thus improving the melting characteristics of the feed wire. Figure 5.2 shows the principle of a GMA welding installation. The welding power source is assembled using the following assembly groups: The transformer converts the mains voltage to low voltage which is subsequently rectified. Apart from the torch cooling and the shielding
br-er5-02e.cdr
wire feed unit
water cooling
shielding gas control device
control switch
cooling water control
rectifier transformer
welding power source
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gas control, the process control is the most important installation component. The process control ensures that once set welding data are adhered to. Figure 5.2
GMA Welding Installation
2005
62
A selection of common welding installation variants is depicted in Figure 5.3, where the universal device with a separate wire feed housing is the most frequently used variant in the industry.
compact device universal device
3 to 5m
5, 10 or 20m 3 to 5m
mini-spool device
push-pull device
1 torch handle 2 torch neck 3 torch trigger 4 hose package 5 shielding gas nozzle 6 contact tube 7 contact tube fixture 8 insulator 9 wire core 10 wire guide tube 11 wire electrode 12 shielding gas supply 13 welding current supply
10, 20 or 30m
5 to 10m
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Types of Welding Installations
Manual Gas-Shielded Arc Welding Torch
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.4 shows in detail a manually operated inert-gas shielded torch with the common swan-neck shape. A machine torch has no handle and its shape is straight or swan-necked. The hose package contains the wire core and also supply lines for shielding gas, current and cooling water, the latter for contact tube cooling. The current is transferred to the wire electrode over the contact tube. The shielding gas nozzle is shaped to ensure a steady gas flow in the arc space, thus protecting arc and molten pool against the atmosphere. A so-called Two-Wire-Drive wire feed system is of the most simple design, as shown in Figure 5.5. The wire is pulled off a wire reel and fed into the hose package. The wire transport roller, which shows different grooves depending on the used material, is driven by an electric motor. The counterpressure roller generates the frictional force which is needed for wire feeding.
2005
63
1 4 2 2
4-roller drive
3
1 2 2 1 wire guide tube 2 drive rollers 3 counter pressure rollers 4 wire guide tube
planetary drive
3
direction of rotation
5
1 wire reel 2 wire guide tube
6
3 wire transport roll 4 counter pressure roll
3 1 wire guide tube 2 roller holding device 3 drive rollers
ISF 2002
5 wire feed roll with a V-groove for steel electrodes 6 wire feed roll with a rounded groove for aluminium
Wire Feed System
Wire Drives
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
More complicated but following the same operation principle is the Four-Wire-Drive, Figure 5.6. Here, the second pair of rollers guarantees higher feeding reliability by reducing the risk of wheel slip. Another design among the wire feed drive systems is the planetary drive, where the wire is fed in axial direction by the motor. A rectilinear rotation-free wire feed motion is the outcome of the
welding voltage
motor rotation and the angular offset of the drive

time
rollers shaft.
which
are
firmly
welding current
connected to the motor
time
1 ms 1 mm
Figure arc
5.7
depicts During
the the
metal transfer in the short range.

burning phase of the arc, material is molten and ac2005
Short-Circuiting Arc Metal Transfer
Figure 5.7
64
cumulates at the electrode end. The voltage drops slowly while the arc shortens. Electrode and workpiece make contact and a short-circuit occurs. In the short-circuit phase is the liquid electrode material drawn as
welding current
the molten pool. The narrowing liquid root and the rising current lead to a very high current density that causes a sudden evaporation of the remaining root. The arc is reignited. The short-arc technique is particularly suitable for out-ofposition and root passes welding.
welding current
result of surface tension into
time
time
low
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choke effect
medium
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Choke Effect
Figure 5.8
welding current
welding current
time
time welding voltage

welding voltage
time
time
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Long Arc
Spray Arc
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
2005
65
The limitation of the rate of the current rise during the short-circuit phase with a choke leads to a pointed burn-off process which is smoother and clearly shows less spatter formation, Figures 5.8 In shielding gases with a
35
C1 shielding gas composition: C1: CO2 M21: 82% Ar, 18% CO2 M23: 92% Ar, 8% O2
long arc
high CO2 proportion a long arc is formed in the upper power range, Figure 5.9. Material transfer is undefined and occurs as
M21 M23
welding voltage
25
20 mixed circuiting arc short arc contact tube distance: approx. 15 mm 150 3,5
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15
spray arc
illustrated in Figures 5.13 and 5.14. Short-circuits with very strong spatter formation are caused by the formation of very large droplets at the electrode end.
ISF 2002
contact tube distance: approx. 19 mm 250 8,0 A m/min 300 10,5
200 welding current 4,5 5,5 7,0 wire feed
Welding Parameters in Dependence on the Shielding Gas Mixture (SG 2, 1,2 mm)
Figure 5.11
If the inert gas content of the shielding gas exceeds 80%, a spray arc forms in the upper
thermal conductivity
helium
power range, Figure 5.10. The spray arc is characterised by a non-short-circuiting and spray-like material transfer. For its high deposition rate the spray arc is used for welding filler and cover passes in the flat position.
hydrogen
CO2 nitrogen
argon
Connections between welding parameters, shielding gas and arc type are shown in Figure 5.11. When the shielding gas M23 is used, the spray arc may already be produced with an amperage of 260 A. With the decreasing argon proportion the amperage has to be increased in order to remain in the spray arc range. When pure carbon dioxide is applied, the spray arc Figure 5.12
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temperature
argon 82%Ar+18%CO2
CO2
helium
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2005
66
cannot be produced. Figure 5.11 shows, moreover, that with the increasing CO2 content the welding voltage must also be increased in order to achieve the same deposition rate.
current-carrying arc core
The different thermal conductivity of the shielding gases has a considerable influence on the arc configuration and weld geometry,
temperature
Figure 5.12. Caused by the low thermal conductivity of the argon the arc core becomes
r r
argon
carbon dioxide
Fa
F Fr
wire elektrodes
Fr F
current-carrying arc core
Fa
carbon dioxide
ISF 2006
argon
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Influence of Shielding Gas on Forces in the Arc Space
argon
carbon dioxide
Figure 5.13 very hot this results in a deep penetration in the weld centre, the so-called argon fingertype penetration. Weld reinforcement is
strongly pronounced. Application of CO2 and helium leads, due to the better thermal conductivity of these shielding gases, to a wide and deep penetration. A recombination (endothermic break of the linkage in the arc space exothermal reaction 2CO + O2 ->2CO2 in the workpiece proximity) intensifies this effect when CO2 is used. In argon, the current-carrying arc core is wider and envelops the wire electrode end, Figure 5.13. This generates electromagnetic forces which bring about the detachment of the liquid electrode material. This so-called pinch effect causes a metal transfer in small drops, Figure 5.14. Figure 5.14
2005
67 The pointed shape of the arc attachment in
acceleration due to gravity electromagnetic force FL (pinch effect) wire electrode
carbon dioxide produces a reverse-direction force component, i.e., the molten metal is pushed up until gravity has overcome that force component and material transfer in the form of very coarse drops appear.
viscosity
surface tension S
droplets necking down
Besides the pinch effect, the inertia and the gravitational force, other forces, shown in Figure 5.15, are active inside the arc space; however these forces are of less importance. If the welding voltage and the wire feed speed are further increased, a rotating arc occurs after an undefined transition zone, Figure 5.16. High-efficiency MAG welding has been applied since the beginning of the nineties; the deposition rate, when this process is
inertia electrostatic forces
backlash forces fr of the evaporating material suction forces, plasma flow induced
work piece
Forces in Arc Space
Figure 5.15
used, is twice the size as, in comparison, to spray arc welding. Apart from a multicomponent gas with a helium proportion, also a high-rating power source and a precisely controlled wire feed system for high wire feed speeds are necessary. Figure 5.17 depicts the
deposition rates over the wire feed speed, as achievable with modern MAG highefficiency processes. During the transition from the short to the spray arc the drop frequency rate inbr-er5-16e.cdr ISF 2002
welding
creases erratically while the drop volume decreases at Figure 5.16
Rotating Arc
2005
68 the same degree. With an
25
kg/h
1,2 mm
increasing this
CO2-content, current
deposition rate
20 15 10 5 0
conventional GMA
high performance GMA welding

1,0 mm
critical
range moves up to higher power ranges and is, with inert gas constituents of lower than 80%, hardly achievable thereafter. This
0,8 mm
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45 m/min
wire feed speed

effect
facilitates
the
pulsed-arc welding technique, Figure 5.18. In pulsed-arc welding, a change-over occurs be-
Deposition Rate
Figure 5.17
tween a low, subcritical background current and a high, supercritical pulsed current. During the background phase which corresponds with the short arc range, the arc length is ionised
300
number of droplets
300 35 10 cm 200 critical current range

-4 3
1/s 200
UEff
V
arc voltage
25 20 15 10 5 Um
100
100
drop volume
0 200 400 A 600
500 A 400
welding current
tP
Setting parameters: - background current IG - pulse voltage UP - impulse time tP - background time tG or frequency f with f = 1 / ( tG + tP), resp. - wire feed speed vD
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 5 10 15 time 20 ms 30

ISF 2002
IEff Im
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time
Im
Ikrit
tG
IG
ISF 2002
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Pulsed Arc
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19
2005
5. Gas-Shielded Metal Arc Welding and wire electrode and work surface are preheated. During the pulsed phase the material is molten and, as in spray arc welding, superseded by the magnetic
time
69
welding current
pulsed current intensity Non-short-circuiting metal tranfer range
backround current intensity
forces. Figure 5.20. Figure 5.19 shows an example of pulsed arc real current path and voltage time curve. The formula for mean current is: Figure 5.20
br-er5-20e.cdr
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Pulsed Metal Transfer
Im =
1T idt T 0
1T 2 i dt T 0
for energy per unit length of weld is:
Ieff =
By a sensible selection of welding parameters, the GMA welding technique allows a selection of different arc types which
50
are distinguished by their metal transfer way. Figure 5.21 shows the setting
voltage [v]
working range welding current / arc voltage 45 40 35 30 transition arc 25 short arc 20 15 shielding gas: 82%Ar, 18%CO2 wire diameter: 1,2 mm wire type: SG 2 optimal setting lower limit upper limit spray arc
range for a good welding process in the field of conventional GMA welding. Figure 5.22 shows the extended setting range for the high-efficiency MAGM welding process with a rotating arc.
10 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 welding current 275 300 325 350 375 400
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ISF 2002
Parameter Setting Range in GMA Welding
Figure 5.21
2005
70
Some typical applications of the different arc types are depicted in Figure 5.23. The rotating arc, (not mentioned in the figure), is applied in just the same way as the spray arc, however, it is not used for the welding of copper and aluminium. The arc length within the working range is linearly dependent on the set welding voltage, Figure 5.24.
voltage
filler metal: SG2 -1,2 mm shielding gas: Ar/He/CO2/O2-65/26,5/8/0,5
50 V 30
transition zones spray arc
rotating arc
The weld seam shape is considerably influenced by the arc length. A long arc produces a wide flat weld seam and, in the case of fillet welds, generally undercuts. A short arc produces a narrow, banked weld bead.
high-efficiency spray arc
20
high-efficiency short arc
10
short arc
100
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200
300 welding current
400
A
Quelle: Linde, ISF2002
600
Setting Range or Welding Parameters in Dependence on Arc Type
Figure 5.22 On the other hand, the arc length is inversely proportional to the wire feed speed, Figure 5.25. This has influence on the current over the internal adjustment with a slightly dropping power source characteristic. This again is of considerable importance for the deposition rate, i.e., a low wire feed speed leads to a low deposition rate, the result is flat penetration and low base metal fusion. At a constant weld speed and a high wire feed speed a deep penetration can be obtained.
arc types
spray arc welding methods MAGC MAGM MIG long arc short arc aluminium (s < 1,5 mm) pulsed arc aluminium copper aluminium copper steel unalloyed, lowalloy, high-alloy
At equal arc lengths, the current pendent intensity is on the deapplications
steel unalloyed, low-alloy steel unalloyed, low-alloy fillet welds or inner passes and cover passes of butt welds at medium-thick or thick components in position PA, PB
steel unalloyed, low-alloy, steel low-alloy, high-alloy high-alloy steel unalloyed, low-alloy
contact
fillet welds or inner passes and cover passes of butt welds at medium-thick or thick components in position PA, PB welding of root layers in position PA
tube distance, Figure 5.26. With a large contact tube distance, the wire stickout is longer ohmic and is therefore which characterised by a higher
seam type, positions workpiece thickness
fillet welds or butt welds fillet welds or inner at thin sheets, all positions passes and cover passes of thin and root layers of butt welds medium-thick at medium-thick or thick components, all components, all positions positions inner passes and cover passes of fillet or butt welds in position PC, PD, PE, PF, PG (out-of-position) root layer welds only conditionally possible
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resistance
leads to a decreased current Figure 5.23
Applications of Different Arc Types
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71
U AL AM AK
arc length: long medium short
U arc length: long medium short
AL
AM
AK
vD, I vD, I operating point: welding voltage: arc length: AL high long AM medium medium AK low short operating point: wire feed speed: arc length: welding current: deposition efficiency: AL low long low low AM medium medium medium medium AK high short high high
weld appearance butt weld
weld appearance: weld appearance fillet weld
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ISF 2002
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ISF 2002
Welding Voltage
Wire Feed Speed
Figure 5.24
Figure 5.25 intensity. For the adjustment of the contact tube distance, as a thumb rule, ten to twelve times the size of the wire diameter should be
lk1 lk2 lk3
considered. The torch position has considerable influence on weld formation and welding proc-
contact tube-to-work distance lk
30 mm 20
operating rule: lk = 10 to 12 dD
1
ess, Figure 5.27. When welding with the torch pointed in forward direction of the weld, a part of the weld pool is moved in front of the arc. This results in process instability. However, it ha s the advantage of a flat smooth weld surface with good gap bridging. When welding with the torch pointed in reversing direction of
10
0 200
250
300 A
350 1,2 mm diameter 82% Ar + 18% CO2 29 V 8,8 m/min 58 cm/min

ISF 2002
current
wire electrode: shielding gas: arc voltage: wire feed speed: welding speed:
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the weld, the weld process is more stable and

Contact Tube-to-Work Distance
the penetration deeper, as base metal fusion

2005
Figure 5.26
72 by the arc is better, although the weld bead
advance direction
surface is irregular and banked. Figure 5.28 shows a selection of different application areas for the GMA technique and the appropriate shielding gases. The welding current may be produced by different welding power sources. In d.c. welding the transformer must be equipped with downstream rectifier assemblies, Figure 5.29. An additional ripple-filter choke suppresses the residual ripple of the rectified current and has
penetration: gap bridging: arc stability:
shallow good bad
average
deep
average average average average average
bad good low narrow rippled
spatter formation: strong weld width: wide
weld appearance: smooth
also a process-stabilising effect. With the development of efficient transistors the design of transistor analogue power sources became possible, Figure 5.29. The operating principle of a transistor analogue
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ISF 2002
Torch Position
Figure 5.27
power source follows the principle of an audio frequency amplifier which amplifies a low-level to a high level input signal, possibly distortion-free. The transistor power source is, as conventional power sources, also equipped with a three-phase transformer, with generally only one secondary tap. The secondary voltage is rectified by silicon diodes into full wave operation, smoothed by capacitors and fed to the arc through a transistor cascade. The
industrial sections
Argon 4.6 Argon 4.8 Helium 4.6 Ar/He-mixture Ar + 5% H2 or 7,5% H2 99% Ar + 1% O2 or 97% Ar + 3% O2 97,5% Ar + 2,5% CO2 83% Ar + 15% He + 2% CO2 90% Ar + 5% O2 + 5% CO2 80% Ar + 5% O2 + 15% CO2 92% Ar + 8% O2 88% Ar + 12% O2 82% Ar + 18% CO2 92% Ar + 8% CO2 forming gas (N2-H2-mixture)
welding voltage is steplessly adjustable until no-load voltage is reached. The difference between source voltage and welding voltage reduces at the transistor cascade and produces a comparatively high stray power which, in general,
shielding gases
application examples
autoclaves, vessels, mixers, cylinders panelling, window frames, gates, grids stainless steel pipes, flanges, bends spherical holders, bridges, vehicles, dump bodies reactors, fuel rods, control devices rocket, launch platforms, satellites valves, sliders, control systems stator packages, transformer boxes passenger cars, trucks radiators, shock absorbers, exhausts cranes, conveyor roads, excavators (crawlers) shelves (chains), switch boxes braces, railings, stock boxes mud guards, side parts, tops, engine bonnets attachments to flame nozzles, blast pipes, rollers vessels, tanks, containers, pipe lines stanchions, stands, frames, cages beams, bracings, craneways harvester-threshers, tractors, narrows, ploughs waggons, locomotives, lorries
ISF 2002
chemical-apparatus engineering shopwindow construction pipe production aluminium-working industry nuclear engineering aerospace engineering fittings production electrical engineering industry automotive industry motor car accessories materials-handling technology sheet metal working crafts motor car repair steel production boiler and tank construction machine engineering structural steel engineering agricultural machine industry rail car production
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Fields of Application of Different Shielding Gases
Figure 5.28
2005
73
makes water-cooling necessary. The efficiency factor is between 50 and 75%. This disadvantage is, however, accepted as those power sources are characterised by very short reaction times (30 to 50 s). Along with the development of transistor analogue power sources, the consequent separation of the power section (transthree-phase transformer mains supply fully-controlled three-phase bridge rectifier energy store transistor power section welding current
former and rectifier) and electronic control took place. The analogue or digital control sets the refuist
erence values and also controls the welding proccurrent pickup
u1 . . un
iist
reference input values
signal processor (analog-to-digital)
ess. The power section operates exclusively as an amplifier for the signals coming from the control. The output stage may also
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isf 2002
GMA Welding Power Source, Electronically Controlled, Analogue
Figure 5.29
be carried out by clocked cycle. A secondary clocked transistor power source features just as the analogue power sources, a transformer and a rectifier, Figure 5.30. The transistor unit functions as an on-off switch. By varying the on-off period, i.e., of the pulse duty factor, the average voltage at the output of the transistor stage may be varied. The arc voltage achieves small ripples, which are of a limited amplitude, in the switching frequency of, in general, 20 kHz; whereas the welding current shows to be strongly smoothed during the high pulse frequencies caused by inductivities. As the transistor unit has only a switching function, the stray power is lower than that of analogue sources. The efficiency
br-er5-30e.cdr
3-phase transformer
mains supply
3-phase bridge rectifier
energy store
transistor switch
protective reactor welding current
Uist U1 . . Un Iist
current pickup
factor is approx. 75 95%.

ISF 2002
The reaction times of these clocked units are within of Figure 5.30
GMA Welding Power Source, Electronically Controlled, Secondary Chopped
2005
74 300 500 s clearly longer than those of analogue
filter
mains supply
3-phase bridge rectifier
energy storage
transistor inverter
medium frequency transformer
rectifier welding current
power sources. Series regulator power
sources, the so-called inUist U1 . . Un Iist
verter power sources, differ widely from the aforecurrent pickup
mentioned
welding
ma-
chines, Figure 5.31. The

GMA Welding Power Source, Electronically Controlled, Primary Chopped, Inverter
alternating voltage coming from the mains (50 Hz) is initially rectified, smoothed and converted into a me-
Figure 5.31
dium frequency alternating voltage (approx. 25-50 kHz) with the help of controllable transistor and thyristor switches. The alternating voltage is then transformer reduced to welding voltage levels and fed into the welding process through a secondary rectifier, where the alternating voltage also shows switching frequency related ripples. The advantage of inverter power sources is their low weight. A transformer that transforms voltage with frequency of 20 kHz, has, compared with a 50 Hz transformer, considerably lower magnetic losses, that is to say, its size may accordingly be smaller and its weight is just 10% of that of a 50 Hz transformer. Reaction time and effimanufacturer rotary current welding rectifier
insulations class
cooling type
ciency factor are compaF
~
type welding MIG/MAG
VDE 0542
production number
protective IP21 system switchgear number
DIN 40 050
rable to the corresponding values

power range power capacity in dependence of current flow power supply
of
switching-type
U0 15 - 38 V input 3~50Hz 6,6 kVA (DB) cos 0,72
S
U1 220 V U1 380 V U1 U1 V V
35A/13V - 220A/25V X 60% ED 100% ED 170 A I2 220 A U2 25 V I1 26 A I1 15 A I1 I1 A A 23 V 17 A 10 A A A
power sources. All welding power sources are fitted with a rating plate, Figure 5.32. Here the performance capability
min. and max. no-load voltage

and the properties of the power source are listed.
Rating Plate
Figure 5.32
2005
75 The S in capital letter (former K) in the middle shows that the power source is suitable for welding operations under hazardous situations, i.e., the secon-
dary no-load voltage is lower than 48 Volt and therefore not dangerous to the welder.
seamless flux-cored wire electrode
form-enclosed flux-cored wire electrode
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ISF 2002
Cross-Sections of Flux-Cored Wire Electrodes
Besides the familiar solid wires also filler wires are used for gas-shielded
Figure 5.33
metal arc welding. They consist of a metallic tube and a flux core filling. Figure 5.33 depicts common cross-sectional shapes. Filler wires contain arc stabilisators, slag-forming and also alloying elements which support a stable welding process, help to protect the solidifying weld from the atmosphere and, more often than not, guarantee
symbol R P B M V W Y S slag characteristics rutile base, slowly soldifying slag rutile base, rapidly soldifying slag basic filling: metal powder rutile- or fluoride-basic fluoride basic, slowly soldifying slag fluoride basic, slowly soldifying slag other types customary application* S and M S and M S and M S and M S S and M S and M shielding gas ** C and M2 C and M2 C and M2 C and M2 without without without
very An
good important
mechanical distinctive
properties. criteria is the type of the filling. The influence of the filling is very similar to that of the electrode covering in manual electrode welding (see chapter 2). Figure
*) S: single pass welding - M: multi pass welding **) C: CO2 - M2: mixed gas M2 according to DIN EN 439
Type Symbols of Flux-Cored Wire Electrodes According to DIN EN 12535
5.34 shows a list of the different types of filler wire.
Figure 5.34
2005
6. Narrow Gap Welding, Electrogas - and Electroslag Welding
6. Narrow Gap Welding, Electrogas- and Electroslag Welding
77
Up to this day, there is no universal agreement about the definition of the term Narrow Gap Welding although the term is actually self-explanatory. In the international technical literature,
Process characteristics: - narrow, almost parallel weld edges. The small preparation angle has the function to compensate the distortion of the joining members - multipass technique where the weld build-up is a constant 1 or 2 beads per pass - usually very small heat affected zone (HAZ) caused by low energy input
the
process mentioned con-
characteristics 6.1
in the upper part of Figure are frequently nected with the definition
Advantages: - profitable through low consumption quantities of filler material, gas and/ or powder due to the narrow gaps - excellent quality values of the weld metal and the HAZ due to low heat input - decreased tendency to shrink
Disadvantages - higher apparatus expenditure, espacially for the control of the weld head and the wire feed device - increased risk of imperfections at large wall thicknesses due to more difficult accessibility during process control - repair possibilities more difficult
for narrow gap welding. In spite of these definition difficulties all questions about the universally valid advantages and disadvantages of the narrow gap welding method can be clearly answered.
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ISF 2002
Narrow Gap Welding
Figure 6.1
The numerous variations of narrow gap welding are, in general, a further development of the conventional welding technologies. Figure 6.2 shows a classification with emphasis on several important process characteristics. Narrow gap TIG welding with cold or hot wire addition is mainly applied as an orbital process method or for the joining of highalloy as well as nonThis ferrous metals.
submerged arc electroslag narrow narrow gap welding gap welding process with straightened wire electrode (1P/L, 2P/L, 3P/L) process with oscillating wire electrode (1P/L) process with twin electrode (1P/L, 2P/L) process with lengthwise positioned strip electrode (2P/L) flat position
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gas-shielded metal arc narrow gap welding
tungsten innert gas-shielded narrow gap welding
process with linearly oscillating filler wire
electrogas process with linearly oscillating wire electrode electrogas process with bent, longitudinally positioned strip electrode
process with hot wire addition (1P/L, 2P/L) MIG/MAGprocesses (1P/L,2P/L,3P/L) process with cold wire addition (1P/L, 2P/L)
method is, however, hardly applied in the practice. The other processes are more widely spread and are explained in detail in the following.
process with stripshaped filler and fusing feed
vertical up position
all welding positions

ISF 2006
Survey of Narrow Gap Welding Techniques Based on Conventional Technologies
Figure 6.2
2005
6. Narrow Gap Welding, Electrogas- and Electroslag Welding In Figure 6.3, a systematic subdivision of the various GMA narrow gap technologies is shown. In accordance with this, the fundamental distinguishing feature of the methods is whether the process is carried out with or without wire deformation. Overlaps in the structure result from the application of methods where a single or several additional wires are used. While most methods are suitable for single pass per layer welding, other methods require a weld build-up with at least two passes per layer. A further subdivision is made in accordance with the different types of arc movement.
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78
GMA narrow gap welding no wire-deformation long-wire method (1 P/L, 2 P/L) thick-wire method (1 P/L, 2 P/L) twin-wire method (1 P/L)
GMA narrow gap welding wire-deformation
A
tandem-wire method (1 P/L, 2 P/L, 3 P/L) twisted wire method (1 P/L)
rotation method (1 P/L)
coiled-wire method (1 P/L) corrugated wire method with mechanical oscillator (1 P/L) corrugated wire method with oscillating rollers (1 P/L) corrugated wire method with contour roll (1 P/L) zigzag wire method (1 P/L) wire loop method (1 P/L)
explanation: P/L: Pass/Layer
A: method without forced arc movement B: method with rotating arc movement C: method with oscillating arc movement D: method with two or more filler wires
ISF 2006
In the following, some of the GMA narrow gap technologies are explained: Using the turning tube method, Figure 6.4, side
Survey and Structure of the Variations of Gas-Shielded Metal Arc Narrow Gap Welding
Figure 6.3
wall fusion is achieved by the turning of the contact tube; the contact tip angles are set in degrees of between 3 and 15 towards the torch axis. With an electronic stepper motor control, arbitrary transverse-arc oscillating motions with defined dwell periods of oscillation and oscillation frequencies can be realised - independent of the filler wire properties. In contrast, when the
corrugated wire method with mech. oscillator 1 1
corrugated with
wire
method
mechanical
2 3 4 5 6
2 3 4 5 6
oscillator is applied, arc oscillation is produced by the plastic, wavy deformation of the wire electrode. The deformation is ob8 - 10
1 - wire reel 2 - drive rollers 3 - wire mechanism for wire guidance 4 - inert gas shroud 5 - wire guide tube and shielding gas tube 6 - contact tip
br-er 6-04e.cdr
12 - 14
1 - wire reel 2 - mechanical oscillator for wire deformation 3 - drive rollers 4 - inert gas shroud 5 - wire feed nozzle and shielding gas tube 6 - contact tip
tained by a continuously swinging oscillator which is fixed above the wire feed rollers. Amplitude and frequency of the wave motion
Principle of GMA Narrow Gap Welding
Figure 6.4
2005
79
can be varied over the total amplitude of oscillation and the speed of the mechanical oscilplate thickness: gap preparation: 300 mm square-butt joint, 9 mm flame cut elctrode diameter: 1.2 mm amperage: 260 A pulse frequency: 120 HZ arc voltage: 30 V welding speed: 22 cm/min -1 wire oscillation: 80 min oscillation width: 4 mm shielding gas: 80% Ar/ 20% Co2 primery gas flow: 25 l/min secondary gas flow: 50 l/min number of passes: approx. 70
lator or, also, over the wire feed speed. As the contact tube remains stationary, very narrow gaps with widths from 9 to 12 mm with plate thicknesses of up to 300 mm can be welded. Figure 6.5 shows the macro section of a GMA narrow gap welded joint with plates (thickness: 300 mm) which has been produced by the mechanical oscillator method in approx. 70 passes. A highly regular weld build-up and an almost straight fusion line with an extremely narrow heat affected zone
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ISF 2002
can be noticed. Thanks to the correct setting of the oscillation parameters and the precise, centred torch manipulation no sidewall fusion
Figure 6.5
defects occurred, in spite of the low sidewall
penetration depth. A further advantage of the weave-bead technique is the high crystal restructuring rate in the weld metal and in the basemetal adjacent to the fusion line an advantage that gains good toughness properties. Two narrow-gap welding
rotation method 1 spiral wire method 1
variations with a rotating arc movement are shown in Figure 6.6. When the rotation method is applied, the arc movement is produced by an eccentrically protruding wire electrode (1.2 mm) from a contact tube nozzle which is rotating with frequencies between 100 and 150 Hz. When the wave
2 3 4 5 6
2 3 4
13 - 14
1 - wire reel 2 - drive rollers 3 - mechanism for nozzle rotation 4 - inert gas shroud 5 - shielding gas nozzle 6 - wire guiding tube
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1 - wire reel 2 - wire mechanism for wire deformation 3 - drive rollers 4 - wire feed nozzle and shielding gas supply 5 - contact piece
Figure 6.6
2005
9 - 12
80
wire method is used, the 1.2 mm solid wire is being spiralwise deformed. This happens before it enters the rotating 3 roll wire feed device. With a turning speed of 120 to 150 revs per minute the welding wire is deformed. The effect of this is such that after leaving the contact piece the deformed wire creates a spiral diameter of 2.5 to 3.0 mm in the gap adequate enough to weld plates with thicknesses of up to 200 mm at gap widths between 9 and 12 mm with a good sidewall fusion. Figure 6.7 explains two
tandem method 1
350
twin-wire method
GMA narrow gap welding

1
2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5
methods which are operated without forced arc movement, where a reliable sidewall fusion is obtained either by the wire
15 - 18
1 - wire reel 2 - deflection rollers 3 - drive rollers 4 - inert gas shroud 5 - shielding gas nozzle 6 - wire feed nozzle and contact tip
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9 - 12
1 - wire reel 2 - drive rollers 3 - inert gas shroud 4 - wire feed nozzle and shielding gas supply 5 - contact tips
deflection through constant deformation (tandem wire method) or by forced wire deflection with the contact tip (twin-wire method). In both cases, two wire electrodes with thicknesses
Figure 6.7
between 0.8 and 1.2 mm are used. When the tandem technique is applied, these electrodes are transported to the two weld heads which are arranged inside the gap in tandem and which are indeFigure pendently selectable. When the twin-wire method is applied, two parallel switched electrodes are transported by a common wire feed unit, and, subsequently, adjusted in a common sword-type torch at an incline towards the weld edges at small spaces behind each other (approx. 8 mm) and molten. In place of the SA narrow gap welding methods, mentioned in Figure 6.2, the method with a lengthwise positioned strip electrode as well as the twin-wire method are explained in more detail, Figure 6.8. SA narrow gap welding with strip electrode is carried out in the multipass layer technique, where the strip electrode is deflected at an angle of approx. 5 towards the edge in order to avoid collisions. After completing the first fillet weld and slag removal the opposite fillet is made. Solid wire as well as cored-strip electrodes with widths between 10
2005
81
strip electrode
SO stick out
s
and 25 mm are used. The gap width is, depending on the number of passes per layer, between 20 and 25 mm. SA twin-wire welding is, in general, carried out using two electrodes (1.2 to 1.6 mm) where one electrode is deflected towards one weld edge and the other towards the bottom of the groove or towards the opposite weld edge. Either a single pass layer or a two pass layer technique are applied. Dependent on the electrode diameter and also on the type of welding powder, is the gap width between 12 and 13 mm. Figure 6.9 shows a comparison of groove
s a x h w
gap width electrode deflection distance of strip tip to flank twisting angle bead hight bead width
so
x
twin-wire electrode
vw
vw a H z s h w p
weld speed electrode deflection stick out distance torch - flank gap width bead height bead width penetration depth
H
z
a h
p
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shapes in relation to plate thickness for SA

Submerged Arc Narrow Gap Welding
welding (DIN 8551 part 4) with those for GMA welding (EN 29692) and the unstandardised,
Figure 6.8
10 7
mainly used, narrow gap welding. Depending on the plate thickness, significant differences in the weld cross-sectional dimensions occur which may lead to substantial saving of material and energy during welding. For example, when welding thicknesses of 120 mm to 200 mm with the narrow gap welding technique, 66% up to 75% of the weld metal weight are saved, compared to the SA square edge weld.
3 6 s s 3 narrow gap weld GMA-NG weld preparation (not standardised) double-U butt weld SA-DU weld preparation (8UP DIN 8551) 8 square-edge butt weld SA-SE weld preparation (3UP DIN 8551) 10
8 8 s s 16
The practical application of SA narrow gap welding for the production of a flanged calotte joint for a reactor pressure vessel cover is depicted in Figure 6.10. The inner diameter of the pressure vessel is more than 5,000 mm with Figure 6.9
2005
double-U butt weld GMA-DU weld preparation (Indexno. 2.7.7 DIN EN 29692)
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Comparison of the Weld Groove Shape
82
wall thicknesses of 400 mm and with a height of 40,000 mm. The total weight is 3,000 tons. The weld depth at the joint was 670 mm, so it had been necessary to select a gap width of at least 35 mm and to work in the three pass layer technique.
workpiece
wire guide
electrode shielding gas arc weld pool Cu-shoe weld advance weld metal water +
designation: gas-shielded metal arc welding (GMAW acc. DIN 1910 T.4) position: vertical (width deviations of up to 45 ) plate thickness: 6 - 30 mm square-butt joint or V weld seam 30 mm double-V weld seam materials: unalloyed, lowalloy and highalloy steels gap width: 8 - 20 mm electrodes: only 1 (flux-cored wire, for slag formation between copper shoe and weld surface) 1.6 - 3.2 mm 350 - 650 A amperage: 28 - 45 V voltage: weld speed: 2 - 12 m/h shielding gas: unalloyed and lowalloy steels CO2 or mixed gas (Ar 60% and 40% Co2) highalloy steels: argon or helium
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Electrogas Welding
Figure 6.10
Figure 6.11
Electrogas welding (EG) is characterised by a vertical groove which is bound by two watercooled copper shoes. In the groove, a filler wire electrode which is fed through a copper nozzle, is melted by a shielded arc, Figure 6.11. During this process, are groove edges fused. In relation with the ascending rate of the weld pool volume, the welding nozzle and the copper shoes are pulled upwards. In order to avoid poor fusion at the beginning of the welding, the process has to be started on a run-up plate which closes the bottom end of the groove. The shrinkholes forming at the weld end are transferred onto the run-off plate. If possible, any interruptions of the welding process should be avoided. Suitable power sources are rectifiers with a slightly dropping static characteristic. The electrode has a positive polarity.
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6. Narrow Gap Welding, Electrogas- and Electroslag Welding The application of electrogas welding for lowalloyed steels is more often than not - limited, as the toughness of the heat affected zone with the complex coarse grain formation does not meet sophisticated demands. Long-time exposure to temperatures of more than 1500 and C low crystallisation rates are responsible for this. The same applies to the weld metal. For a more wide-spread application of electrogas welding, the High-Speed Electrogas Welding Method has been developed in the ISF. In this process, the gap cross-section is reduced and additional metal powder is added to increase the deposition rate. By the increase of the welding speed, the dwell times of weldadjacent regions above critical temperatures and thus the brittleness effects are significantly reduced. Figure 6.12
designation: position: plate thickness: gap width: materials: electrodes:
6. copper shoe 7. water cooling 8. weld seam 9. Run-up plate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
83
1. base metal 2. welding boom 3. filler metal 4. slag pool 5. metal pool
resistance fusion welding vertical (and deviation of up to 45 ) 30 mm (up to 2,000 mm) 24 - 28 mm unalloyed, lowalloy and highalloy steels 1 or more solid or cored wires 2.0 - 3.2 mm plate thickness range per electrode: fixed 30 - 50 mm oscillated: up to 150 mm amperage: 550 - 800 A per electrode voltage: 35 - 52 V welding speed: 0.5 - 2 m/h slag hight: 30 - 50 mm
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Electroslag Welding
Figure 6.12 shows the process principle of Electroslag Welding. Heating and melting of the groove faces occurs in a slag bath. The temperature of the slag bath must always exceed the melting temperature of the metal. The Joule effect, produced when the current is transferred through
~
powder
the
conducting
bath, keeps the slag bath temperature constant. The welding current is fed over one or more endless wire
ignition with arc powder fusion
slag
electrodes which melt in the highly heated slag bath. Molten pool and slag bath which both form the weld pool are, sideways retained by the groove faces and, in general, by
slag molten pool weld metal
start of welding
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welding
end of welding
ISF 2002
Process Phases During ES Welding
Figure 6.13
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water-cooled copper shoes which are, with the complete welding unit, and in relation with the welding speed, moved progressively upwards. To avoid the inevitable welding defects at the beginning of the welding process (insufficient penetration, inclusion of unmolten powder) and at the end of the welding (shrinkholes, slag inclusions), run-up and run-off plates are used. The electroslag welding process can be divided into four process phases, Figure 6.13. At the beginning of the welding process, in the so-called ignition phase, the arc is ignited for a short period and liquefies the non-conductive welding flux powder into conductive slag. The arc is extinguished as the electrical conductivity of the arc length exceeds that of the conductive slag. When the desired slag bath level is reached, the lower ignition parameters (current and voltage) are, during the so-called Data-Increase-Phase, raised to the values of the stationary welding process. This occurs on the run-up plate. The subsequent actual welding process starts, the process phase. At the end of the weld, the switch-off phase is initiated in the run-off plate. The solidifying slag bath is located on the run-off plate which is subsequently removed. The electroslag welding with consumable feed wire (channel-slot welding) proved to be very useful for shorter welds. The copper sliding shoes are replaced by fixed Cu cooling bars and the welding nozzle by a steel tube, Figure 6.14. The length of the sheathed steel tube, in general, corresponds with the weld seam length (mainly shorter than 2.500 mm) and the steel tube melts during welding in the ascending slag bath. Dependent on the plate thickness, welding can be carried out with one single or with several wire and strip electrodes. A feature of this process variation is the handiness
workpiece drive motor welding cable run-off plate workpiece wire or strip electrode
Electroslag fusing nozzle process (channel welding) position: vertical plate thickness: 15 mm materials: unalloyed, lowalloy and highalloy steels welding consumables:
of the welding device and the easier welding area preparation. Also curved
= ~
fusing feed nozzle workpiece cable workpiece run-up plate copper shoes workpiece
seams can be welded with a bent consumable electrode. As the groove width can be significantly rewhen comparing
wire electrodes: 2.5 - 4 mm strip electrodes: 60 x 0.5 mm plate electrodes: 80 x60 up to 10 x 120 mm fusing feed nozzle: 10 - 15 mm welding powder: slag formation with high electrical conductivity
copper shoes
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duced
Electroslag Welding with Fusing Wire Feed Nozzle
Figure 6.14
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with conventional processes, and a strip shaped filler material with a consumable guide piece is used, this welding process is rightly placed under the group of narrow gap welding techniques. Likewise in electrogas welding, the electroslag welding process is also characterised by a large molten pool with a simultaneously - low heating and cooling rate. Due to the low cooling rate good degassing and thus almost porefree hardening of the slag bath is possible. Disadvantageous, however, is the formation of a coarse-grain structure. There are, however, possibilities to improve the weld properties, Figtechnological measures
post weld heat treatment decrease of peak temperature and dwell times at high temperatures increase of welding speed reduction of energy per unit length continuous normalisation furnace normalisation increase of deposit rate application of several wire electrodes, metal powder addition decrease of groove volume V, double-V butt joints, multi-pass technique reduction of S-, P-, H2-, N2and O2 - contents and other unfavourable trace elements
metallurgical measures
increase of purity application of suitable base and filler metals addition of suitable alloy and micro-alloy elements (nucleus formation)
ure 6.15. To avoid postweld heat treatment the electroslag welding process with local continuous normalisation has been developed for plate thicknesses of up to approx. 60 mm, Figure 6.16. The welding temperature in the weld region drops below the Ar1temperature and is subsequently heated to the normalising temperature
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C-content limits Mn, Si, Mo, Cr, Ni, Cu, Nb, V, Zr, Ti
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Possibilities to Improve Weld Seam Properties
Figure 6.15
temperature C
1. filler wire 2. copper shoes 3. slag pool 4. metal pool 5. water cooling 6. slag layer 7. weld seam 8. distance plate 9. postheating torch 10. side plate 11. heat treated zone
2 2000 1500 7 8 9 11 900 500 10 950
(>Ac3). The specially designed torches follow the copper shoes along the weld seam. By reason of the residual heat in the workpiece the necessary temperature can be
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ES Welding with Local Continuous Normalisation
reached in a short time.
Figure 6.16
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In order to circumvent an expensive postheat weld treatment which is often unrealistic for use on-site, the electroslag high-speed welding process with multilayer technique has been developed. Similar to electrogas welding, the weld cross-section is reduced and, by application of a twin-wire electrode in tandem arrangement and addition of metal powder, the weld speed is increased, as in contrast to the conventional technique. In the heat affected zones toughness values are determined which correspond with those of the unaffected base metal. The slag bath and the molten pool of the first layer are retained by a sliding shoe, Figure 6.17. The weld preparation is a double-V butt weld with a gap of approx. 15 mm, so the carried along sliding shoe seals the slag and the metal bath. Plate preparation is, as in conventional electroslag welding, exclusively done by flame cutting. Thus, the advantage of easier weld preparation can be maintained.
12 11 1 2 3 4 9 5 6 7 8 4
1 magnetic screening 2 metal powder addition 3 tandem electrode 4 water cooling 5 copper shoe (water cooled) 6 slag pool 7 molten pool 8 solidified slag 9 welding powder addition 10 weld seam
1 2 3 4 9 5 6 7 8 4
1 magnetic screening 2 metal powder supply 3 three-wire electrode 4 water cooling 5 copper shoe (water cooled) 6 slag pool 7 molten pool 8 solidified slag 9 welding powder supply 10 weld seam 11 first pass 12 second pass
ISF 2002
10
10
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ES-welding in 2 passes with sliding shoe
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ES-welding of the outer passes
Figure 6.17
Figure 6.18
For larger plate thicknesses (70 to 100 mm), the three passes layer technique has been developed. When welding the first pass with a double-V-groove preparation (root width: 20 to 30 mm; gap width: approx. 15 mm) two sliding shoes which are adjusted to the weld
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groove are used. The first layer is welded using the conventional technique, with one wire electrode without metal powder addition. When welding the outer passes flat Cu shoes are again used, Figure 6.18. Three wire electrodes, arranged in a triangular formation, are used. Thus, one electrode is positioned close to the root and on the plate outer sides two electrodes in parallel arrangement are fed into the bath. The single as well as the parallel wire electrodes are fed with different metal powder quantities which as outcome permit a welding speed 5 times higher than the speed of the single layer conventional technique and also leads to strong increase of toughness in all zones of the welded joint. If wall thicknesses of more than 100 mm are to be welded, several twin-wire electrodes with metal powder addition have to be used to reach deposition rates of approx. 200 kg/h. The electroslag welding process is limited by the possible crack formation in the centre of the weld metal. Reasons for this are the concentration of elements such as sulphur and phosphor in the weld centre as well as too fast a cooling of the molten pool in the proximity of the weld seam edges.
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7. Pressure Welding
7. Pressure Welding
89
Figure 7.1 shows a survey of the pressure welding processes for joining of metals in accordance with DIN 1910. In gas pressure welding a distinction is made between open square and closed square gas pressure welding, Figure 7.2. Both methods use efficient gas torches to bring the workpiece ends up to the welding temperature. When the welding temperature is reached, both joining members are butt-welded by the application of axial force when a flash edge forms. The long preheating time leads to the formation of a coarsewelding
grained structure in the joining area, therefore the

fusion welding
pressure welding
welds are of low toughness values. As the process is

friction welding
gas pressure welding
resistance pressure welding conductive pressure welding
operated independently
mainsand the
induction pressure welding
process equipment is low in

roll seam welding pressure butt welding flash butt welding
resistance spot welding

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projection welding
weight and also easy to handle, the main application areas of gas pressure welding are the welding of reinforcement steels and of pipes in the building trade.
Classification of Welding Processes acc. to DIN 1910
Figure 7.1
initial state: gap closed
initial state: gap opened

(for special cases)
gas flame torch in the open gap stationary mobile
In pressure butt welding, the input of the necessary welding heat is produced
workpiece closed gap ring-shaped burner (sectional view) pressure
by resistance heating. The necessary axial force is applied by copper clamping jaws which also receive the current supply, Figure 7.3. The current circuit is closed over the abutting surfaces
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1. heating 2. torch positioning 3. welding by rapid pressing
completed weld seam working cycles: 1. heating 2. welding by pressing

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Open Square and Closed Square Gas Pressure Welding
Figure 7.2
7. Pressure Welding
90
of the two joining members where, by the increased interface resistance, the highest heat generation is obtained. After the welding temperature - which is lower than the melting temperature of the weld metal is reached, upset pressure is applied and the current circuit is opened. This produces a thick flashfree upset seam which is typical for this method. In order to guarantee the uniform heating of the abutting faces, they must be conbr-er7-03e.cdr
before upset force has been applied
upset force
water-cooled clamping chucks (Cu electrodes)
bulging at the end of the weld
_ ~
formable in their crosssectional sizes and shapes with each other and they must have parallel faces. Figure 7.3
Process Principle of Pressure Butt Welding
As no molten metal develops during pressure upset butt welding, the joining surfaces must be free from contaminations and from oxides. Suitable for welding are unalloyed and lowalloy steels. The welding of aluminium and copper material is, because of the
a
fixed clamping chuck
a+b b 2
mobile clamping chuck clamping force steel chuck
tendency towards oxidation and good conductivity, possible only up to a point. For the most part, smaller cross-sections with surprimary side welding transformer
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copper shoe secondary side
faces of up to 100 mm are welded. Areas of applications are chain manufacturing and also extensions of wires in a wire drawing shop.
a = flashing length b = upset loss
Schematic Structure of a Flash Butt Welding Equipment
Figure 7.4
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A flash butt welding equipment is, in its principal structure, similar to the pressure butt welding device, Figure 7.4. While in pressure upset butt welding the joining members are always strongly pressed together, in flash butt welding only fusing contact is made during the heating phase. During the welding process, the workpiece ends are progressively advanced towards each other until they make contact at several points and the current circuit is over these contact bridges closed. As the local current density at these points is high, the heating also develops very fast. The metal is liquified and, partly, evaporated. The metal vapour pressure causes the liquified metal to be thrown out of the gap. At the same time, the metal vapour is generating a shielding gas atmosphere; that is to say, with the exception of pipe welds, welding can be carried out without the use of shielding gas. The constant creation and destruction of the contact bridges causes the abutting faces to burn, starting from the contact points, with heavy spray-type ejection. Along with the occurrence of material loss, the parts are progressively advanced towards each other again. New contact bridges are created again and again. When the entire abutting face is uniformly fused, the two workpiece ends are, through a high axial force, abruptly pressed together and the welding current is switched off. This way, a narrow, sharp and, in contrast to friction welding, irregular weld edge is produced during the upsetting progress, which, if necessary, can be easy mechanically removed while the weld is still warm, Figure 7.5. Figure 7.5
In flash butt welding, a fundamental distinction is made between two different working techniques. During hot flash butt welding a preheating operation precedes the actual flashing process, Figure 7.6. The preceding resistance heating is carried out by reversing, i.e., by the changing short-circuiting and pressing of the joining surfaces and by the mechani-
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7. Pressure Welding
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cal separation in the reversed motion. When the joint ends are sufficiently heated, is the flashing process is initialised automatically and the following process is similar to cold flash butt welding. In contrast to cold flash butt welding, the advantage of hot flash butt welding is that, on one hand, sections of 20 times the size can be welded with the same machine efficiency and, on the other hand, a smaller temperature drop and with that a lower cooling rate in the workpiece can be obtained. This is of importance, especially with steels which because of their chemical composition have a tendency to harden. The cooling rate may also be reduced by conductive reheating inside the machine. A smooth and clean surface is not necessary with hot flash butt welding. If the abutting faces differ greatly from the desired planeparallelism, an additional flashing process (a short flashing period with low
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upset travel flashing travel
upset force
preheating
flashing
flashing
amperage
time
time
hot flash welding
cold flash welding
speed and high energy) may be carried out first. Figure 7.6
Flashing Travel, Upset Travel, Upset Force and Welding Current in Timely Order
The welding area of the structure of a flash butt

heat affected zone
weld shows a zone which is reduced in carbon and other flash alloying butt elements, all
0,1 mm
10 mm
material: C60 E
Figure 7.7.
Moreover, welded
joints
have a pronounced coarse grain zone, whereby the

weld coarse grain zone fine grain zone soft-annealing zone base metal
toughness properties of the

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welded joint are lower than of the base metal. By the impact normalizing effect in Figure 7.7
Secondary Structure Along a Flash Butt Weld
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the machine successive to the actual welding process, can the toughness properties be considerably increased. By one or several current impulses the weld temperatures are increased by up to approximately 50 over the austeniting temperature of the metal. Steels, aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can be welded economically with the flash butt welding process. Supported by the axial force, shrinkage in flash butt welding is so insignificant that only very low residual stresses occur. It is, therefore, possible to weld also steels with a higher carbon content.
n
F1 friction force
F2 upset force
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ISF 2002
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Phases of Friction Welding Process
Figure 7.8
Figure 7.9
Profiles of all kind are butt welded with this method. The method is used for large-scale manufacture and with components of equal dimensions. The weldable cross-sections may reach dimensions of up to 120,000 mm. Areas of application are the welding of rails, the manufacture of car axles, wheel rims and shafts, the welding of chain links and also the manufacture of tools and endless strips for pipe production. Friction welding is a pressure welding method where the necessary heat for joining is produced by mechanical friction. The friction is, as a rule, generated by a relative motion be-
2005
7. Pressure Welding
94 tween a rotating and a stationary workpiece
brake clutch
clamping tool workpiece
clamping tool pressure element for axial pressure
while axial force is being applied at the same time, Figure 7.8. After the joint surfaces are adequately heated, the relative motion is discontinued and the friction force is increased to upsetting force.
conventional friction welding

driving motor
An even, lip-shaped bead is produced which may be removed in the welding machine by an additional accessory unit. The bead is often considered as the first quality criterion. Figure 7.9 shows all phases of the friction
flywheel
clamping tool
clamping tool workpiece
pressure element for axial pressure
flywheel friction welding
welding process. In most cases this method is used for rotation-symmetrical parts. It is, nowadays, also possible to accurately join rectangular and polygonal cross-sections.
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ISF 2002
Figure 7.10
The most common variant of friction weld-
ing is friction welding with a continuous drive and friction welding with a flywheel drive, Figure 7.10. In friction welding with continuous drive, the clamped-on part to be joined is kept at a constant nominal speed by a drive, while the workpiece in the sliding chuck is pressed with a defined friction force. The nominal speed is maintained until the demanded temperature profile has
friction welding time 1...100s braking 0,1...0,5s friction welding time 0,125...2s
been achieved. Then the motor is declutched and the relative motion is neutralised by external braking. In general, the friction force is raised to upsetting force after the rotation movement has been discontinued.
torque axial pressure number of revolutions
1800... 5400 min

-1
900... 5400min
-1
time
40...280 20...100 Nmm

-2
40...280 Nmm
-2
Nmm
-2
During flywheel friction welding, the inertia mass is raised to nominal speed,
conventional friction welding

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flywheel friction welding
Comparison of the Welding Processes for Conventional and Flywheel Friction Welding
Figure 7.11
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the drive motor is declutched and the stationary workpiece is, with a defined axial force, pressed against the rotating workpiece. Welding is finished when the total kinetic energy stored in the flywheel has been consumed by the friction processes. This is the so-called self-breaking effect of the system. The method is used when, based on metallurgical processes, extremely short welding times may be realised. Further process variants are radial friction welding, orbital friction welding, oscillation friction welding and friction surfacing. However, these process variants are until today still in the experimental stage. Recently, new developments in the field of friction stud welding studs on plates have been introduced. Figure 7.11 depicts the variation in time of the most important process parameters in friction welding with continuous drive and flywheel friction welding. The occuring moments maxima may be interpreted as follows: The first maximum, at the start of the frictional contact, is explained by the formation of local fusion zones and their shearing off in the lower temperature range. The torque decreases as a result of the risen temperature - which again is a consequence of the increased plasticity - and of the lowered deformation resistance. The second maximum is generated during the braking phase which precedes the spindle standstill. The second maximum is explained by the increased deformation resistance at dropping The temfriction force number of revolutions upset force
temperatures.
perature drop in the joining zone is explained by the lowered energy input due to the rotation-speed decrease and also by the augmented radial disbr-er7-12e.cdr ISF 2002
reduction time
placement of the highly heated material into the weld upset. Figure 7.12
Combined Friction Welding
In friction welding with a continuous drive, the process variation combined friction welding allows the free and independent from each other selection of the braking and upsetting moments, Fig. 7.12.
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In this case, the rotation-energy which has been stored in the drive motor, the spindle and also in the clamping chuck, may be totally or partially converted by self-breaking. Here, the breaking phase matches the breaking phase in flywheel welding. The use of this process variant allows the welding structures to influence each other in a positive way when many welding tasks are to be carried out. Moreover, the torque range may be accurately predetermined by the microcontroller of the braking initiator which prevents the slip-through of the workpieces in the clamping chuck. The universal friction welding machine is in its structure similar to a turning lathe, however, for the
c) d) a) b)
transmission of the high axial forces, the machine structure must be considerably more rigid. Basically, there are three types of friction welding: a) friction welding with a rotating workpiece and a translational motion of the other workpiece; b) friction welding with rotation and translational motion of one
e)
f)
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ISF 2002
Types of Friction Welding Processes
Figure 7.13
before welding
1. a)round stock with round stock
after welding
4. pipe with pipe
before welding
after welding
workpiece facing a stationary other workpiece, c) rotation and translation of two workpieces against a stationary tions, tions intermediate
3.
b) round stock with round stock, chamfered
1..2
5. round material with plate g/d 0,25...0,3 6. pipe with plate

g
d 0,6D
2. a)round stock with round stock (different cross-sections, partially machined) b) round stock with round stock (different cross-sections, bevelled) round stock with pipe
D
0,75d
7. round material with plate, without preparation 8. pipe with plate, without preparation
(1/6)d
piece. The remaining variashown when in Figure 7.13, also find applicaboth workpieces have to rotate in
d=0,75D
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ISF 2002
Joint Types Obtained by Friction Welding
Figure 7.14
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7. Pressure Welding
97
opposite direction to each other. For example, when a low diameter and, in connection with this, the low relative speeds demand the necessary heat quantity. A survey of possible joint shapes achievable with friction welding is given in Figure 7.14. The specimen preparation of the joining members should, if possible, be carried out in a way that the heat input and the heat dissipation is equal for both members. Depending on the combination of materials can this provision facilitate the joining task considerably. The abutting surfaces should be smooth, angular and of equal dimensions. A simple saw cut is, for many applications, sufficient.
cirkon tungsten vanadium titanium tantalum stellite free cutting steel cast steel steel, austentic steel, high alloyed steel, alloyed steel, unalloyed silver niobium nickel alloys nickel molybdenum brass magnesium copper cobalt hard metal, sintered cast iron (GGG, GT) lead aluminium, sintered aluminium alloys aluminium
The method of heat generation causes a comparatively low joining temperature lower than the melting temperature of the metals. This is the main reason why friction welding is the suitable method for metals and material combinations which are difficult to weld. It is also possible to weld material combinations (e.g. Cu/Al or Al/steel) which cannot be joined using other welding processes otherwise only
aluminium aluminium alloys aluminium, sintered lead cast iron (GGG, GT) hard metal, sintered cobalt copper magnesium brass molybdenum nickel nickel alloys niobium silver steel, unalloyed steel, alloyed steel, high alloyed steel, austentic cast steel free cutting steel stellite tantalum titanium vanadium tungsten cirkon
friction weldable restricted friction weldable not friction weldable not tested
with
increased
expenditure.
Figure 7.15
shows a survey of possible material combinations. Many combinations have, however, not yet been tested on their suitability to friction welding. Metallurgical reasons which may reduce the friction weldability are:
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ISF 2002
Figure 7.15 1. the quantity and distribution of non-metal inclusions, 2. formation of low-melting or intermetallic phases, 3. embrittlement by gas absorption (as a rule, the costly, inert gas shielding can be dispensed with, even when welding titanium), 4. softening of hardened or precipitataly-hardened materials and 5. hardening caused by too high a cooling rate.
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By the adjustment of the welding parameters in respect toweld joints, can in most cases joints with good mechano-technological properties be obtained. The secondary structure along the friction-welded
metal: S235JR
10 mm
p = 30 N/mm2 t =6s 2 tSt = 250 N/mm n = 1500 U/min
joint is depicted in Figure 7.16. fine-grained

1 mm
An
extremely structure
(forge structure) develops in the joining zone region. This structure which is typical of a friction-welded
structures on parallels with a 5 mm distance from the sample axis
base metal
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heat affected zone
transition heat affected zone - weld metal
weld metal
10 m
joint is characterised by high strength and toughness properties.
Secondary Structure Along a Friction Weld
Figure 7.16 Figure 7.17 shows a comparison between a flash butt-welded and a friction-welded cardan shaft. The two welds are distinguished by the size of their heat affected zone and the development of the weld upset. While in friction welding a regular, lip-shaped upset is produced, the weld flash formation in flash butt welding is narrower and sharper and also considerably more irregular. Besides, the heat affected zone during friction welding is subflash butt welding
stantially smaller than during flash butt welding. Friction production welding lines. machines Loading and are fully mechanized and may well be integrated into unloading equipment, turning attachments for the preparation of the abutting surfaces and for upset
friction welding
removal and also storage units for

ISF 2002
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complete welding programs make these machines well adaptable to automation. The machines may furthermore be equipped with
Figure 7.17
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7. Pressure Welding
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3
1,2 joint ring material combination: Cf53/ Ck45
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4
3 loading device 4 unloading grippers
1 cardan shaft, AIZn 4,5 Mg 1 2 cardan shaft, retracted tube 3 cardan shaft, flattening test specimen 4 crown wheel, 16MnCr5/ 42Cr4 5 bimetal valve, X45CrSi9-3/ NiCr20 TiAl
ISF 2002
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ISF 2002
Figure 7.18
Figure 7.19 parameter supervisory systems. During welding are parameters: welding path, pressure, rotational speed, and time are governed by the desired value/actual value comparison. This allows an indirect quality control. A further complement to the retension of parameters is the torque control, however this method is costly and it cannot be used for all applications because of its structural dimensions.
1 pump shaft 2 shaft C22E/ E295 3 press cylinder S185/9S 20K 4 hydraulic cylinder S235J3G2/ C60E or S235JR/ C15 5 cylinder case S235JR/ S355J2G3 6 piston rod 42Cr4 7 connecting rod 100Cr6/ S235JR 8 stud S235J2G3/ X5CrNi18-10 9 knotter hook 15CrNi6
Friction welding machines are mainly used in the series production and industrial mass production. Nevertheless, these machines are also always applied when metals and material com-
Figure 7.20
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100
binations which are difficult to weld have to be joined in a reliable and cost-effective way. With the machines that are presently used in Germany, it is possible to weld massive workpieces
friction welds 30 mm 160 mm
in
the
diameter
range of 0.6 up to 250 mm

40 mm
For steel pipes, the maximum weldable diameter is at present approximately 900 mm, the wall thick-
940 mm forged piece motor shaft 20,friction-welded piece flange,forged material costs shaft 30 und 40 mm 2x friction welds incl. upset removal 7,50 4,25 3,14,75
nesses are approx. 6 mm. Figures 7.18 to 7.20 show a selection of examples for the application of friction welding. Figure 7.21 shows a com-
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Cost Comparison of Forging/ Friction Welding in a Case of a Cardan Shaft
Figure 7.21 parison of the cost expenditure for the manufacture of a cardan shaft, carried out by forging and by friction welding, respectively. It shows that the application of the friction welding method may save approx. 20% of the production costs. This comparison is, however, not an universally valid statement as for each component a profitability evaluation must be carried out separately. The comparison is just to show that, in many applications, considerable savings can be made if the matter of the joining technology by friction welding could be circulated to a wider audience of design and production engineers. Figure 7.22 shows in brief the important advantages and disadvantages of friction welding in comparison with the competitive method of flash butt welding. Figure 7.22
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Advantages and disadvantages of friction welding in comparison with the competitive flash butt welding
advantages: - clean and well controllable bulging - low heat influence on joining members - better control of heat input - low phase seperation phenomena in the bond zone - hot forming causes permanent recovery and recrystallisation processes in the welding area thus forming a very fine-grained structure with good toughness and strength properties (forged structure) - low susceptibility to defects, extremely good reproducibility within a wide parameter range - frequently shorter welding times - more choice in the selection of weldable materials and material combinations disadvantages: - torque-safe clamping necessary - machine-determined smaller maximum weldable cross-sections - susceptibility to non-metal inclusions - high expenditure requested because of high manufacturing tolerances - high capital investment for the machine
7. Pressure Welding
101
Pressure welding with magnetically impelled arc, Magnetarc Welding, is an arc pressure welding method for the joining of closed structural tubular shapes, Figure 7.23. The weldable
1. starting position
a) both workpieces are brought into contact b) welding current and magnetic field are switched on
wall
thickness
range is between 0.7 and 5 mm, the weldable diameter range between 5 and 300 mm. In Magnetarc Welding an arc burns between the joining surfaces and is rotated by external magnetic forces. This is achieved by a magnet coil system that produces a magnetic field.
2. starting of welding
a) both workpieces are seperated until a defined gap width is reached (retracting movement) - the arc ignites
3. heating
a) the arc rotates b) the joint surfaces are melting
4. completion of welding
a) both workpieces are broght into contact again and upset b) welding current and magnetic field are switched off
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Diagrammatic Representation of Magnetic Arc Welding
Figure 7.23 The combined action of this magnetic field and the arcs own magnetic field effects a tangential force to act upon the arc. The rotation of the arc heats and melts the joint surfaces. After an adequate heating operation, the two workgether. A regular weld upset develops which is normally not removed. The welding operation takes place under shielding gas (mainly CO2).
steel, unalloyed free cutting steel steel, lowalloyed steel, unalloyed
piece members are pressed and fused tomaterials
The shielding gas function is not the protection of the weld from the surrounding atmosphere but rather a contribution towards the stabilisation of the arc. The reproducibility of the arc ignition and motion behaviour and the regularity of the weld bead are therefore improved. The prerequisite for the application of a material in Magnetarc Welding is its electrical conductivity and melting behaviour. Fig-
steel, lowalloyed free cutting steel cast steel malleable
suitable for magnetic arc welding

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not tested
ISF 2002
Figure 7.24
2005
malleable
cast steel
7. Pressure Welding ure 7.24 gives a survey of the material combinations which are nowadays already weldable under industrial conditions. As reason is the symmetric heat input, the subsequent upsetting under of the liquid The
102
phase and the cooling off pressure. cracking sensitivity of the welds is, in general, relatively low. This has a positive effect, particulary when steels with a high carbon content or machining steels are welded. The joining faces of the workpieces must be free from contamination, such as rust or scale. To obtain a defect-free weld, normally a simple saw cut is a sufficient preparation of the abutting surfaces. If special demands are put on the dimensional accuracy of the joints, the prefabrication tolerances have to be adjusted accordingly. This applies also to friction welding. Figures 7.25 and 7.26 show several application examples of pressure welding with magnetically impelled arc. Figure 7.27 shows a summary of the most important advantages and disadvantages of
Applications for Magnetic Arc Welding
Figure 7.25
this method in comparison with the competitive methods of friction welding and flash butt welding.
Figure 7.26
2005
7. Pressure Welding
103 In friction-stir welding a cylindrical, mandrellike tool carries out rotating self-movements
Advantages and disadvantages of magnetic arc welding in comparison with flash butt welding and/ or friction welding
between two plates which are knocked and clamped onto a fixed backing. The resulting friction heat softens the base metal, although the melting point is not reached. The plastified material is displaced by the mandrel and transported behind the tool where a longitudinal seam develops. The advantages of this method which is mainly used for welding of aluminium alloys is the low thermal stress of the component which allows joining with a minimum of distortion and shrinkage. Welding fumes do not develop and the addition of filler metal or shielding gases is not required.
advantages: - lower energy demands - material savings through lower loss of length - better dimensional accuracy in joining especially for small wall thicknesses - in comparison with friction welding less moving parts (only axial movement of one joining member during upsetting) - no restrictions to the free clamping length - smaller and more regular welding edge - no spatter formation disadvantages: - suitable for small wall thicknesses only (maximum wall thickness: 4 - 5 mm) - welding parameters must be kept within narrow limits - only magnetizing steels are weldable without any difficulties
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ISF 2002
Figure 7.27
workpiece tool collar
fixed backing
contoured pin
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Friction-Stir Welding
Figure 7.28
2005
8. Resistance Spot Welding, Resistance Projection Welding and Resistance Seam Welding
8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding
105
Figure 8.1 shows an extract from the classification of the welding methods according to DIN 1910 with a detailed account of the conductive resistance pressure welding. In the case of resistance pressure welding, the heating occurs at the welding point as a consequence of Joule resistance heating caused by current flow through an electrical conductor, Figure 8.2. In spot and prowelding
jection welding, the plates to be welded in overlap.

fusion welding
pressure welding
Current supply is carried out through spherical or flat electrodes, respec-
cold pressure welding
resistance pressure welding
friction welding
induction pressure welding
Conduction pressure welding
tively. In roller seam welding, two driven roller elecresistance butt welding flash butt welding
resistance spot welding
projection welding
roller seam welding
trodes are applied. The plates to be welded are mainly overlapped. The heat input rate Qinput is generated by resistance heating in a currentcarrying conductor, Figure
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ISF 2002
Classification of Welding According to DIN 1910
Figure 8.1
spot welding workpieces overlap electrode weld nugget
roller seam welding workpiece usually in general overlap driven roller electrode spot rows (stitch weld, roller spots)
projection welding workpieces with elevations (concentration of electicity) workpieces overlap pad electrode several joints in a single weld weld nugget joint
8.3. However, only the effective heat quantity Qeff is instrumental in the formation of the weld nugget. Qeff is composed of the input heat minus the dissipation heat. The heat loss arises from the heat dissipation into the electrodes and the plates and also from thermal radiation.
1 1 3
2 3
4 1 1 1 5
1 electrode force 2 elektrodes 3 production part

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4 loaded area
5 projection
Figure 8.2
2005
106
The resistance during resistance heating is composed of the contact resistances on the two plates and of their material resistance. The reduction of the electrode force down to 90% increases the heat input rate by 105%, the reduction of the welding current down to 90% decreases the heat rate to 80% and a welding time reduction to 90% decreases the heat rate to 92%. The time progression of the resistance is shown in Figure 8.4. The contact resistance is composed of the interface resistances between the electrode and the plate (electrode/plate) and between the plates (plate/plate). The resistance height is greatly dependent on the applied electrode force. The higher this force is set, the larger are the conductive crosssections at the contact points and smaller the resistances. The contact surfaces, which are rapidly increasing at the start of welding, effect a rapid reduction of interface resistances.
mOhm
Fel: Qeff: Qinput: I: Q1: Q2 : Q3 : Q4: R(t): Rmaterial(t): Rc(t):
electrode force effective heat total heat input current (time dependence) heat losses losses into the electrodes losses into the sheet metal losses by heat radiation total resistance material resistance contact resistance
Fel
Q4
Q2
Q4
Q3
Qeff
Q3
Qeff = Qinput - Q1l

t=tS
Q4 Q2
Q4
Qinput = C
t=0
I (t) R(t) dt Fel
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 + Q4 R(t) = Rmaterial(t) + Rc(t)

Heat Balance in Spot Welding
Figure 8.3
theoretical contact area 100% metallic conduction contact proportion at room temperature
With the formation of the weld nugget the interface resistances between the plates disappear. During the progress of the weld the material resistance increases from a low value
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total resistance
resistance
low electrode force high resistance high electrode force low resistance proportion after first milliseconds welding time
periods
sum of material resistance
sum of contact resistances
10
welding time
surface resistance is collapsed, a3 is highly extended

A1: area out-of-contact A2: contact area with high resistance A3: contact area completely conductive
(surrounding temperatures) to a maximum value above the melting temperature. Figure 8.4
2005
8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding Figure 8.5 shows diaelectrode force resistance rate
107
grammatically the different resistances during the spot welding process with acting electrode force, but without Weld welding nugget current. formation
R5
R1 R3
R3 R6
R6 R7
_ ~
R5 R7 R4 0 100 200
R4 R2
must therefore start in the joining zone because of the existing high contact
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R [Ohm]
resistance there. Figure 8.6 shows directly cooled electrodes for resistance welding. The coolant cooling tube, the cooling
10 - 20 6-8
Figure 8.5
cooling tube cooling drill-hole
is normally water. In the water is transported to the electrode base. The diagram shows the temperature distribution in the electrodes and in the plates. The maximum temperature is reached in the centre of the weld nugget and decreases strongly in the
slope
2-5
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ISF 2002
Electrode Cooling
Figure 8.6
electrode direction. Sequence of a resistance spot welding process, Figure 8.7: 1->2 Lowering of the top electrode 2->3 Application of the adjusted electrode force Set-up time tpre, sequence 3->4 Switching-on of the adjusted welding current for the period of the welding time tw. Formation of the weld nugget in the joining zone of both workpieces.
2005
108
An example shows the macrosection of a weld nugget after the welding time has ended. 4->5 Maintaining the electrode force for the period of the set post-weld holding time th. 5->6 Switching-off the force generating system and lifting the electrodes off the workpiece. The functions of the set-up time and the post-weld holding time are listed in Figure 8.8. Dependent on the welding task different force and current programs can be set in the welding machines, Figure 8.9. In the top the simplest possible welding program sequence is shown: The application of the electrode force, the set-up time sequence tpre, the switching-on of the welding current and the sequence of the welding time tw, the sequence of the postweld holding time th and the switching-off of the force generating system. The diagram in the centre is almost identical to the one just described. Merely in the welding current range, welding is carried out using an adjustable current rise (7) and current decay (8). The diagram below depicts a more sophisticated current program. In addition, welding is carried out with a variable electrode force (2) and with preheating (4) and post-heating current (6). Dependent on the control system, the process can be influenced by adjustment.
Fel Iw
electrode force Fel
set-up time - compressing the workpiece - build-up of electrode force to preset value - setting-up of reproducible resistance before welding - electrode resting after bounce - preventing resting of electrode on workpiece under electricle voltage
welding current Iw
time t
tpre
tw
th
top electrode
postweld-holding time - holding time of workpiece during cooling of molten metal - prevention of pore formation in the welding nugget - prevention of lifting the electrode under voltage The postweld-holding time has influence on the weld point hardening within certain limits.
workpiece lower electrode weld nugget
insufficiently melted weld nugget

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totally melted weld nugget

ISF 2002
Time Sequence of Resistance Spot Welding
Functions of Pre- and Postwelding
Figure 8.7
Figure 8.8
2005
109
A controlled variable may be, for instance, the electrode path, the resistance progress, the welding current or the welding voltage. Figure 8.10 shows the principle structure of a resistance spot welding machine. The main components are: the machine frame, the welding transformer with secondary lines, the electrode pressure system and the control system. This principle design applies to spot, projection and roller seam welding machines. Differences are to be found merely in the type of electrode fittings and in the electrode shapes.
welding current
electrode force
Fel 5 Iw
tpre = pre-weld time tw = welding time th = holding time tpres = pressure time
9
tpre tw tp res th
time
10 6
2 3
welding current
electrode force
Fel 5 7 Iw 8
11
12 4
7 5 8
time 1 - initial force 2 - welding pressure force 3 - post pressure force 4 - preheating current 5 - welding current 6 - postheating current 7 - ascending current 8 - descending current time
welding current
electrode force
1 2 5 7 4 6
3 Iw 8
Fel
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ISF 2006
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1 electrode force cylinder 2 pneumatic equipment 3 machine tool frame 4 welding transformer 5 power control unit 6 current conductor 7 lower arm 8 foot switch 9 top arm 10 electrical power supply cable 11 water cooled electrode holder 12 electrode
ISF 2002
Course of Force and Current
Schematic Assembly of Spot Welding Machine
Figure 8.9
Figure 8.10
Figure 8.11 depicts the possible process variations of resistance spot welding. These are distinguished by the number of plates to be welded and by the arrangement of the electrodes or, respectively, of the transformers. It has to be noted that with a corresponding arrangement also plates can be welded where one of the two plates has a non-conductive surface (as, for example, plastics).
2005
110
Figure 8.12 shows the current types which are normally used for resistance welding. Alternating current has the simplest structure (Figure 8.13) and is most price effective, unavoidable are, however, the disadvantages of current zeros and weld nugget cooling. In relation to the average current values, peak loads occur and, with that, increased electrode wear. These extreme peak loads do not occur with direct current. The structural design of a d.c. supply unit is, however, more complicated and, therefore, more expensive than an a.c. supply unit. As conventional welding machines operate with a 50 Hz primary current supply, the welding current can be controlled only in 20 ms units (1 period). When the inverter-direct current technique or, respectively, the medium-frequency technique is used, a finer setting of the current-on period and a more
alternating current
20 12
~ ~ ~
two-sided single-shear single-spot welding

~
two-sided two-shear spot welding (stack welding)

~
one-sided single-spot welding with contact electrode

~
+
+
two-sided duplex spot welding
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Figur 8.11
medium frequency direct current

[kA]
10 8 6 4 2 0 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
[kA]
15 10 5 0 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16 -5 -10 -15 -20
current
current
welding time [s]
"conventional" direct current

18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0.00 0.02 0.04
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45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
[kA]
[kA]
current
current
0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
0.14 0.16
welding time
[s]
Current Types
Figur 8.12
one-sided duplex spot welding with conductive base
one-sided multi-spot welding with conductive base

ISF 2002
Variants of Spot Welding
precise control of the welding current is possible. In order to realise higher currents and shorter welding times, the impulse capacitor resistance welding technique is applied. The rectified primary current is stored in capacitors and, through a high-voltage transformer, converted to
welding time
[s]
impulse capacitor current
welding time
[s]
ISF 2002
2005
8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding high welding currents. The advantages of this technique are low heat input and high reproducibility. materials with Because of the high energy density,
3-phase direct current capacitor impulse discharge single-phase alternating current static-inverter direct current
111
good conductivity can be welded and also multipleprojection welds can be carried out. A disadvantage
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of this method is, apart from the high equipment costs, the difficult regulation of the welding current. Electrodes for spot resistance welding have the property of transferring the electrode force and the welding current. They are wearing parts and, therefore, easily replaceable. Figure 8.13
requirements - good electrical conductivity - good thermal conductivity - high high-temperature strength - high temperature stability - high softening temperature - little tendency to alloying with workpiece material - easy options in machining
ISO 5182 Group Type 1 No. 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 4 2 3 4
Cu - ETP Cu Cdl Cu Crl Cu Crl Zr Cu CO2 Be Cu Ni2 Si Cu Ni1 P Cu Be2 Co Ni Cu Ag6 CuAl10NiFe5Ni5
electrodes
form A form B form C form D
form E
form F
form G
Key
ISO 5182 Group Type 10 11 12 B 13 14 15 Mo W No.
Key
W75 Cu W78 Cu WC70 Cu
electrode caps
2 A 3
W65 Ag
electrode holders
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Electrodes, Electrode Caps and Holders
Electrode Materials
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.15
2005
112
Depending on the shape and type of electrode, solid electrodes or electrode caps, must be either remachined or recycled. Figure 8.14 depicts various types of electrodes, electrode caps and holders. Dependent upon the electrode application, different alloyed electrode materials are used, Figure 8.15. The added alloying elements influence the red hardness, the tempering resistance, the conductivity, the fusion temperature, the electrode alloying tendency, and, finally, the machinability of the electrode material. When beryllium is used as an alloying element, the admissible MAC values must be strictly adhered to during remachining or dressing of the electrodes. Already during the design phase of the components to be welded, importance must be attached to a good accessibility of the welding point. Moreover, the electrode force which is imperative to the process must be applied in a way that no damage is done to the workpiece. In the ideal case, the welding point is accessible from the top and from below, Figure 8.16.
poor good
poor
good
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ISF 2002
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ISF 2002
Accessibility for Spot Welding Electrode
Contact Area for Spot Welding Electrodes
Figure 8.16
Figure 8.17
2005
113
In order to avoid the displacement of the electrodes, the electrode working surface must be flat. Also during the design phase space must be provided for an adequately large
spot welding
A
clearing zone around the working point, in order to guarantee the unimpeded electrode approach to the working point, Figure 8.17.
shunt connection current
Dependent on the joining job, the process

current path copper
indirect welding one side
variation, or the resistance welding method, a so-called shunt current/effect may be noticed. This current component, as a rule, does not contribute to the formation of the weld nugget; under certain circumstances it might
roller seam welding

br-er8-18e.cdr
even prevent a reliable welding process. In the example, shown in Figure 8.18, the shunt
Shunting
Figure 8.18 current leads to undesired fusing contacts and, because of the lacking electrode force at this point, also to damages to the plate surface. If unsuitable welding parameters have been set, weld spatter formation may occur, Figure 8.19. Liquid molten metal forms on the plate surface or in the joining zone. The reasons for this kind of process disturbance are, for example, too low an electrode force with regard to the set welding current or welding time, too high an energy input with regard to the plate thickness or too small an edge distance of the welding point. Figure 8.19
2005
porosity in the joint caused by welding spatter
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Welding spatter: Discharge of molten material between two steel sheets or from the surface of steel sheets.
fig. 1
Reason here is high welding current, (fig. 1) or too-small edge distance (fig. 2)
fig. 2
discharge of molten material at the joint plane
Welding Spatter
114
Figure 8.20 shows a list of

welding current changes
shunt connection wear of electrodes wear of cable mains voltage fluctuation secondary electrical impedance
a large number of possible disturbances in resistance spot welding. Welding curwear
alteration to force
alteration of pressure
Qeff = Qinput - Qlosses

Qeff
welding equipment
rent changes are caused by: shunt, electrode wear, cable wear, mains voltage variations, secondary impedance. Different welding conditions are caused by weld-
plate
diversion heat
plate thickness
quality of plates
number of plates
plate surface
edge distance
modification of the unit

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Figure 8.20
ing machine wear, different heat dissipation. Non-
uniform conditions by alterations to components are: different plate thicknesses, plate quality, number of plates, plate surfaces, edge distances. Electrode force changes are caused by: pressure fluctuations and -changes, plate bouncing. The resistance spot welding method allows welding of a large number of materials. A list of the various materials is shown in Figure 8.21. The alloying elements which are used for steels have a varying influence on the suitability for resistance spot welding. The values which are indicated in the table are valid only when the stated element is the sole alloying constituent of the steel material. Figure 8.22 shows a comparison between resistance spot and resistance projection welding. The fundamental difference between the two methods lies in the definition of the current transition point. Figure 8.21
2005
weldable materials
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materials
weldability
satisfactory
alloying elements
good weldability
sufficient weldability
aluminium iron gold cobalt copper magnesium
maximum content [%] very good satisfactory very good poor good C C + Cr C + Mo C+V C + Mn C + Ni Si Cu P+S C+Cr+Mo+V tantalum titanium tungsten very good very good satisfactory molybdenum satisfactory nickel platinum silver very good very good very good 0,25 0,35 0,50 0,40 1,40 3,00 0,40 0,60 0,10 0,60 0,40 1,60 0,70 0,60 1,60 4,00 1,00 0,60 0,10 1,60
influence of alloying elements (steel materials)
Weldable Materials
115
The differences between both methods are illustrated in Figure 8.23. The short life of the electrodes used for resistance spot welding is explained by the higher thermal load and the larger pressing area caused by the smaller electrode contact areas. The term electrode life stands for the number of welds that can be carried out with one pair of electrodes without further rework and without exceeding the tolerances for quality criteria of the weld. Depending on the defollow-up distance
before welding
after welding
mands on the joint strength or on the projection rigidity, different projection shapes are applied. These are anbr-er8-22e.cdr
elektrode
projection
nular, circular or longitudinal projections. The welding projections are, accordFigure 8.22
spot welding
elektrodes: diameter tip face electrode life up to 20 mm convex less
projection welding
embossed projection shape
solid projection shape

struck machined cut pushed
natural projection shape
> 20 mm flat longer
pressed mould pressed
place where the nugget originates
elektrodes
projections
circular longitudinal annular
circular longitudinal annular interrupted annular
spot contact line contact
number of welding nuggets
one
several
Circular
follow-up distance
small
big
weld nut
crossed wires
problems: current distribution force distribution no no yes yes
Longitudinal
cut
wire-plate
Annular
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pushed
bolt-pipe
Differences Between Resistance Spot and Projection Welding
Customary Projection Shapes
Figure 8.23
Figure 8.24
2005
116
ing to their size, adapted to the used plate thickness and may, therefore, appear as difdie plate plate die
ferent types in the workpiece: embossed projections, solid projections and natural projections. The survey is shown in Figure 8.24.
d1
mould plate
mould plate counter-die
d1
In Figure 8.25 the production of embossed projections in different shapes is shown. The shape is embossed onto the plate surface by appropriate die plates, dies and, if necessary,
embossed projection
ring projection
die
l
mould plate
b
plate
counter dies. Various problems occur in projection welding caused by the welding of several joints in a single working cycle. Due to different current
ISF 2002
longitudinal projection
br-er8-25e.cdr
paths - when using direct current - and a current displacement - when using alternating current -, welding nuggets with differing quali-
Production of Embossed Projection Shapes
Figure 8.25
alternating current distribution intensity of current increases from the center to the outer area caused by current displacement
force distribution of a C-frame projection press welder during bending of machine tool frame
direct current distribution intensity of current decreases from the center to the outer area caused by the longer current path
force distribution of a C-frame projection press welder with non-parallel positioning tables
ISF 2002
Problem of Current Distribution During Projection Welding
Problems of Force Distribution During Projection Welding
Figure 8.26
Figure 8.27
2005
8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding ties are produced when no preventive remedies are taken, Figure 8.26.
117
A varying force distribution, as shown by the example in Figure 8.27, also leads to differing qualities of the produced weld nuggets. In Figure 8.28 several examples of application using projection welding are debr-er8-30e_sw.cdr ISF 2002
picted. In this example, the shapes are of the embossed type.
Application Examples of Projection Welding
Figure 8.28 Figures 8.29 and 8.30 show several process variations of roller seam welding. Seam welding is actually a continuous spot welding process, but with the application of roller electrodes. In contrast to resistance spot welding the electrodes remain in contact and turn continuously after the first weld spot has been produced. At the points where a welding spot is to be produced again current flow is
lap joint lap joint with wire electrode lap joint with foil squash seam weld butt weld with foil
initiated. Dependent on the electrode feed rate and on the welding current frequency, spot welds or seal welds weld with nuggets overlapping are pro-
before welding
duced. The application of

after welding
d.c. current also produces seal welds.

Roller Seam Welding
Figure 8.29
2005
118
interrupted-current roller seam weld
overlap seal weld
continuous D.C. seal weld

Weld Types for Roller Seam Welding
Figure 8.30
2005
9. Electron Beam Welding
120 The application of highly accelerated elechigh voltage supply
trons as a tool for material processing in the fusion, drilling and welding process and also for surface treatment has been known since the Fifties. Ever since, the electron beam welding process has been developed from the laboratory stage for particular applications. In this cases, this materials could not have been joined by any industrially applied highproduction joining method.
beam generation
cathode control elektrode anode

adjustment coil valve to vacuum pump stigmator
beam forming and guidance
viewing optics
focussing coil
defelction coil
working chamber
workpiece
workpiece handling
The electron beam welding machine is made

to vacuum pump
up of three main components: beam generation, beam manipulation and forming and working chamber. These compo-
chamber door
nents may also have separate vacuum systems, Figure 9.1.
Schematic Representation of an Electron Beam Welding Machine
Figure 9.1 A tungsten cathode which has been heated under vacuum emits electrons by thermal emission. The heating of the tungsten cathode may be carried out directly - by filament current - or indirectly - as, for example, by coiled filaments. The electrons are accelerated by high voltage between the cathode and the pierced anode. A modulating electrode, the socalled Wehnelt cylinder, which is positioned between anode and cathode, regulates the electron flow. Dependent on the height of the cut-off voltage between the cathode and the modulating electrode, is a barrier field which may pass only a certain quantity of electrons. This happens during an electron excess in front of the cathode where it culminates in Figure 9.2
2005
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power supply evacuation system for gun EB-gun
chamber evacuation system valve
control cabinet
working chamber workpiece receiving platform workpiece handling control desk
control panel
ISF 2002
All-Purpose EBW Machine and Equipment
121
form of an electron cloud. Due to its particular shape which can be compared to a concave mirror as used in light optic, the Wehnelt cylinder also effects, besides the beam current adjustment, the electrostatic focussing of the electron beam. The electron beam which diverges after having passed the pierced anode, however, obtains the power density which is necessary for welding only after having passed the adjacent alignment and focussing system. One or several electromagnetic focussing lenses bundle the beam onto the workpiece inside the vacuum chamber. A deflection coil assists in maintaining the electron beam oscillating motion. An additional stigmator coil may help to correct aberrations of the lenses. A viewing optic or a video system allows the exact positioning of the electron beam onto the weld groove. The core piece of the electron beam welding machine is the electron beam gun where the electron beam is generated under high vacuum. The tightly focussed electron beam diverges rapidly under atmospheric pressure caused by scattering and ionisation development with air. As it would, here, loose power density and efficiency, the welding process is, as a rule, carried out under medium or high vacuum. The necessary vacuum is generated in separate vacuum pumps for working chamber and beam gun. A shut-off valve which is positioned between electron gun and working chamber serves to maintain the gun vacuum while the working chamber is flooded. In universal machines, Figure 9.2, the workpiece manipulator assembly inside the vacuum chamber is a slide with working table positioned over NCcontrolled stepper motors. For workpiece removal, the slide is moved from the vacuum chamber onto the workpiece platform. A distinction is made between electron beam machines with vertical and horizontal beam manipulation systems. The energy conversion in the workpiece, which is
thermal radiation secondary electrons
back-scattered electrons
x-ray
schematically
shown
in
Figure 9.3, indicates that

convection
x
the kinetic energy of the highly accelerated electrons is, at the operational
heat conduction
z
point, not only converted into the heat necessary for welding, but is also released by heat radiation
Energy Transformation Inside Workpiece
Figure 9.3
2005
122
and heat dissipation. Furthermore, a part of the incident electrons (primary electrons) is subject to backscatter and by secondary processes the secondary electrons are emitted from the workpiece thus generating X-rays. The impact of the electrons, which are tightly focussed into a corpuscular beam, onto the workpiece surface stops the electrons; their penetration depth into the workpiece is very low, just a few m. Most of the kinetic energy is released in the form of heat. The high energy density at the impact point causes the metal to evaporate thus allowing the following electrons a deeper penetration. This finally leads to a metal vapour cavity which is surrounded by a shell of fluid metal, covering the entire weld depth, Figure 9.4. This deep-weld nowadays
a) b) c) d)
effect
allows
penetration
depths into steel materials of up to 300 mm, when modern high vacuum-high
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ISF 2002
Principle of Deep Penetration Welding
voltage machines are used. The diameter of the cavity corresponds approximately with the beam diameter. By
groove front side
Figure 9.4
motion of the molten metal groove melting pool welding direction keyhole molten zone vapour capillary
electron beam
a relative motion in the direction of the weld groove between workpiece and
F1 F2 F3 F1
electron beam the cavity penetrates through the material, Figure 9.5. At the front side of the cavity new material is molten which, to
ISF 2002
solidified zone
F1 : force resulting from vapour pressure F2 : force resulting from surface tension F3 : force resulting from hydrostatic pressure
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Condition in Capillary
some extent, evaporates, but for the most part flows
Figure 9.5
2005
123
around the cavity and rapidly solidifies at the backside. In order to maintain the welding cavity open, the vapour pressure must press the molten metal round the vapour column against the cavity walls, by counteracting its hydrostatic pressure and the surface tension. However, this equilibrium of forces is unstable. The transient pressure and temperature conditions inside the cavity as well as their respective, momentary diameters are subject to dynamic changes. Under the influence of the resulting, dynamically changing geomebr-er9-06e.cdr ISF 2002
II
workpiece movement
III
try of the vapour cavity and with an unfavourable selecFigure 9.6
Model of Shrinkage Cavity Formation
tion of the welding parameters, metal fume bubbles may be included which on cooling turn into shrinkholes, Figure 9.6. The unstable pressure exposes the molten
150
backside of the vapour cavity to strong and irregular changes in shape (case II). Pressure variations interfere with the regular flow at the
EBW MSG UP (narrow gap)(narrow gap)

EBW welding current welding voltage groove area number of passes 0,27 A 150.000 V 896 mm 1
2
UP (conventional)
UP (narrow gap) 650 A 30 V
2
MSG (narrow gap) 260 A 30 V 2098 mm 35
UP (conventional) 510 A 28 V
cavity backside, act upon the molten metal and, in the most unfavourable case, press the unevenly distributed molten metal into different zones of the molten cavity backside, thus forming the so-called vapour pockets. The cavities are not always filling with molten metal, they collapse sporadically and remain as hollow spaces after solidification (case Ill). The angle (case I) increases with the rising
4905 mm 81
5966 mm 143
filler metal melting efficiency energy input welding time
0 7,7 kg/h
6410 kJ
3
23 kg 5 kg/h
12810 kJ
3
54 kg 13 kg/h
29310 kJ
3
66 kg 9 kg/h
37710 kJ
3
27 min
4 h 35 min
4 h 11 min
7 h 20 min
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ISF 2002
Comparison of EB, GMAW and SAWNarrow Gap and Conventional SAW
Figure 9.7
2005
124
weld speed and this is defined as a turbulent process. Flaws such as a constantly open vapour cavity and subsequent continuous weld solidification could be avoided by selection of job-suitable welding parameter combination and in particular of beam oscillation characteristics, it has to be seen to a constantly of the molten metal, in order to avoid the abovementioned defects. Customary beam oscillation types are: circular, sine, double parabola or triangular functions. Thick plate welding accentuates the process-specific advantage of the deep-weld effect and, with that, the possibility to join in a single working cycle with high weld speed and low heat input quantity. A comparison with the submerged-arc and the gas metal-arc welding processes illustrates the depth-to-width ratio which is obtainable with the electron beam technology, Figure 9.7. Electron beam welding of thick plates offers thereby decisive advantages. With modern equipment, wall thicknesses of up to 300 mm with length-to-width ratios of up to 50 : 1 and consisting of low and high-alloy materials can be welded fast and precisely in one pass and without adding any filler metal. A corresponding quantification shows the advantage in regard of the applied filler metal and of the primary energy demand. Compared with the gas-shielded narrow gap
in vacuum thin and thick plate welding (0,1 mm bis 300 mm) extremely narrow seams (t:b = 50:1) low overall heat input => low distortion => welding of completely processed components high welding speed possible no shielding gas required high process and plant efficiency material dependence, often the only welding method at atmosphere very high welding velocity good gap bridging no problems with reflection during energy entry into workpiece
welding process, the production time can be reduced by the factor of approx. 20 to 50. Numerous specific advantages speak in favour of the increased application of this high productivity process in the manufacturing practice, Figure 9.8. Pointing to series production, the high profitability of this process is dominant. This process depends on highly energetic efficiency together with a sparing use of resources during fabrication.
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ISF 2002
Advantages of EBW
Figure 9.8
2005
9. Electron Beam Welding Considering the

in vacuum electrical conductivity of materials is required high cooling rates => hardening => cracks high precision of seam preparation beam may be deflected by magnetism X-ray formation size of workpiece limited by chamber size high investment
125 above-mentioned advan-
tages, there are also disadvantages which emerge from the process. These are, in particular, the high cooling rate, the high equipment costs and the size of the chamber, Figure 9.9. In accordance with DIN 32511 (terms for methods and equipment applied in electron
at atmosphere X-ray formation limited sheet thickness (max. 10 mm) high investment small working distance
and laser beam welding), the specific designations, shown in Figure 9.10, have been standardised for electron beam welding. Electron beam units are not only distinguished
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ISF 2002
by their working vacuum quality or the unit concept but also by the acceleration voltage level, Figure 9.11. The latter exerts a considerable influence onto the obtainable welding
Disadvantages of EBW
Figure 9.9
results. With the increasing acceleration voltage, the achievable weld depth and the depth-towidth ratio of the weld geometry are also increasing. A disadvantage of the increasing accelerating voltage is, however, the exponential increase of X-rays and, also, the likewise increased sensitivity to flash-over voltages. In correspondence with the size of the workpiece to be welded and the size of the chamber volume, highweld reinforcement groove upper bead
a se m fs ho m ea
end crater
voltage
beam
generators
(150 - 200 kV) with powers of up to 200 kW are applied in industrial production, while the low-voltage technology (max. 60 kV) is a good alternative for smaller units and weld thicknesses. The design of the unit for the low-voltage technique is
len
gt
f ho
width of seam
weld penetration depth
g len
Nahtdicke
weld thickness
blind bead molten area
root reinforcement
unapproachable gap lower bead

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root weld
ISF 2002
Basic Definitions
Figure 9.10
2005
126
simpler as, due to the lower acceleration voltage, a separate complete lead covering of the unit is not necessary.
by accelerating voltage: high voltage machine (UB=150 kV) low voltage machine (UB=60 kV)
< 1 x 10 mbar
-6
< 5 x 10-4 mbar
by pressure: high vacuum machine fine vacuum machine atmospheric machine (NV-EB welding)
by machine concept: conveyor machine clock system all-purpose EBW machine local vacuum machine mobile vacuum machine micro and fine welding machine
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Classification of EBW Machines
EB-Welding in High Vacuum
Figure 9.11
Figure 9.12
While during the beam generation, the vacuum (p = 10-5 mbar) for the insulation of the beam generation compartment and the prevention of cathode oxidation is imperative, the possible working pressures inside the vacuum chamber vary between a high vacuum (p = 10-4 mbar) and atmospheric pressure. A collision of the electrodes with the residual gas molecules and the scattering of the electron beam which is connected to this is, naturally, lowest in high vacuum. The beam diameter is minimal in high vacuum and the beam power density is maximum in high vacuum, Figure 9.12. The reasons for the application of a high vacuum unit are, among others, special demands on the weld (narrow, deep welds with a minimum energy input) or the choice of the materials to be welded (materials with a high oxygen affinity). The application of the electron beam welding process also entails advantages as far as the structural design of the components is concerned.
2005
127
With a low risk of oxidation and reduced demands on the welds, the so-called mediumvacuum units (p = 10-2 mbar) are applied. This is mainly because of economic considerations, as, for instance, the reduction of cycle times, Figure 9.13. Areas of application are in the automotive industry (pistons, valves, torque converters, gear parts) and also in the metalworking industry (fittings, gauge heads, accumulators). Under extreme demands on the welding time, reduced requirements to the weld geometry, distortion and in case of full material compatibility with air or shielding gas, out-of-vacuum welding units are applied, Figure 9.14. Their advantages are the continuous welding time and/or short cycle times. Areas of application are in the metal-working industry (precision tubes, bimetal strips) and in the automotive industry (converters, pinion cages, socket joints and module holders).
< 1 x 10-6 mbar
< 1x 10 mbar
-4
< 5 x 10-2 mbar ~ 10
-1
mbar
~ 1 mbar
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EB-Welding in Fine Vacuum
Atmospheric Welding (NV-EBW)
Figure 9.13
Figure 9.14
2005
128
A further distinction criterion is the adjustment of the vacuum chambers to the different joining tasks. Universal machines are characterised by their simply designed working chamber, Figure 9.15. They are equipped with vertically or horizontally positioned and, in most cases, travelling beam generators. Here, several workpieces can be welded in subsequence during an evacuation cycle. The largest, presently existing working chamber has a volume of 265 m.
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Machine Concept - Conventional Plant
EBW Clock System Machine
Figure 9.15
Figure 9.16
Clock system machines, in contrast, are equipped with several small vacuum chambers which are adapted to the workpiece shape and they are, therefore, characterised by short evacuation times, Figure 9.16. Just immediately before the welding starts, is the beam gun coupled to the vacuum chamber which has been evacuated during the preceding evacuation cycle, while, at the same time, the next vacuum chamber may be flooded and charged/loaded.
2005
129
Conveyor machines allow the continuous production of welded joints, as, for example, bimetal semi finished products such as saw blades or thermostatic bimetals, Figure 9.17. In the main chamber of these units is a gradually raising pressure system as partial vacuum pre and post activated, to serve as a vacuum lock.
butt weld
T-joint/ fillet weld
a)
b)
T-joint butt welded
lap weld
semi-finished material
endproduct
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ISF 2002
EBW Conveyor Machine
Seam Appearance for EB-Welding in Vacuum
Figure 9.17
Figure 9.18
Systems which are operating with a mobile and local vacuum are characterised by shorter evacuation times with a simultaneous maintenance of the vacuum by decreasing the pumping volume. In the local vacuum systems, with the use of suitable sealing, is the vacuum produced only in the welding area. In mobile vacuum systems welding is carried out in a small vacuum chamber which is restricted to the welding area but is travelling along the welded seam. In this case, a sufficient sealing between workpiece and vacuum chamber is more difficult. With these types of machine design, electron beam welding may be carried out with components which, due to their sizes, can not be loaded into a stationary vacuum chamber (e.g. vessel skins, components for particle accelerators and nuclear fusion plants).
2005
130
In general the workpiece is moved during electron beam welding, while the beam remains stationary and is directed onto the workpiece in the horizontal or the vertical position. Depending on the control systems of the working table and similar to conventional welding are different welding positions possible. The weld type preferred in electron beam welding is the plain butt weld. Frequently, also centring allowance for centralising tasks and machining is made. For the execution of axial welds, slightly oversized parts (press fit) should be selected during weld preparation, as a transverse shrinkage sets in at the beginning of the weld and may lead to a considerable increase of the gap width in the opposite groove area. In some cases also T-welds may be carried out; the T-joint with a plain butt weld should, however, be chosen only when the demands on the strength of the joints are low, Figure 9.18. As the beam spread is large under atmosphere, odd seam formations have to be considered during Non-Vacuum Electron Beam Welding, Figure 9.19. In order to receive uniform and reproducible results with electron beam welding, an exact knowledge about the beam geometry is necessary and a prerequisite for: - tests on the interactions between beam and substance - applicability of welding parameters to
other welding machines - development of beam generation systems.
Seam Appearence at Atmospheric Welding (NV-EBW)
Figure 9.19 The objective of many tests is therefore the exact measurement of the beam and the investigation of the effects of different beam geometries on the welding result. For the exact measurement of the electron beam, a microprocessor-controlled measuring system has been developed in the ISF. The electron beam is linearly scanned at a high speed by means of a point probe, which, with a diameter of 20 m is much smaller than the beam diameter in the focus, Figure 9.20. When the electron beam is deflected through the aperture diaphragm located inside the sensor, the electrons flowing through the diaphragm
2005
131
are picked up by a Faraday shield and diverted over a precision resistor. The time progression of the signal, intercepted at the resistor, corresponds with the intensity distribution of the electron beam in the scanning path. In order to receive an overall picture of the power density distribution inside the electron beam, the beam is line scanned over the slit sensor (60 lines). An evaluation program creates a perspective view of the power density distribution in the beam and also a two-dimensional representation of lines with the same power density.
hole sensor
hole with aperture diaphragm Faraday cup (20 m) cross section of the beam
track of the beam

measurement field
slit sensor
slit with Faraday cup cross section of the beam
beam deflection
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FILENAME: R I N G S T R Accel. voltage: 150 kV Beam current: 600 mA Prefocus current: 700 mA Main focus current: 1500 mA Cath. heat current: 500 mm Max. Density: 26,456 kW/mm2 2 Ref. Density: 26,456 kW/mm
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voltage
Two Principles of Electron Beam Measuring
Energy Concentration and Development in Electron Beam
Figure 9.20
Figure 9.21
An example for a measured electron beam is shown in Figure 9.21. It can be seen clearly that the cathode had not been heated up sufficiently. Therefore, the electrons are sucked off directly from the cathode surface during saturation and unsaturated beams, which may lead to impaired welding results, develop. During the space charge mode of a generator, the electron cloud is sufficiently large, i.e., there are always enough electrons which can be sucked off. In the ideal case, the developed power density is rotationally symmetrical and in accordance with the Gaussian distribution curve. The electron signals are used for the automatic seam tracking. These may be either primary or secondary electrons or passing-through current or the developing X-rays. When backscattered primary electrons are used, the electron beam is scanned transversely to the groove. A
2005
132
computer may determine the position of the groove relative to the beam by the signals from the reflected electrons. In correspondence with the deflection the beam is guided by electromagnetic deflection coils or by moving the working table. This kind of seam tracking system may be used either on-line or off-line. The broad variation range of the weldable maindustrial areas: automotive industries aircraft and space industries mechanical engineering tool construction nuclear power industries power plants fine mechanics and electrical industries job shop material: almost all steels aluminium and its alloys magnesium alloys copper and its alloys titanium tungsten gold material combinations (e.g. Cu-steel, bronze-steel) ceramics (electrically conductive)
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terials and also material thicknesses offer this joining method a large range of application, Figure 9.22. Besides the fine and micro welding carried out by the electronics industry where in particular the low heat input and the precisely programmable control is of importance, electron beam welding is also particularly suited for the joining of large crosssections.
EBW Fields of Application
Figure 9.22
2005
10. Laser Beam Welding
134
The term laser is the abbreviation for ,,Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The laser is the further development of the maser (m=microwave), Figure 10.1. Although the principle of the stimulated emis1917 postulate of stimulated emission by Einstein 1950 work out of physical basics and realisation of a maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) by Towens, Prokhorov, Basov 1954 construction of the first maser 1960 construction of the first ruby laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) 1961 manufacturing of the first HeNe lasers and Nd: glass lasers 1962 development of the first semiconductor lasers 1964 nobel price for Towens, Prokhorov and Basov for their works in the field of masers construction of the first Nd:YAG solid state lasers and CO2 gas lasers 1966 established laser emission on organic dyes since increased application of CO2 and solid state laser 1970 technologies in industry 1975 first applications of laser beam cutting in sheet fabrication industry 1983 introduction into the market of 1-kW-CO2 lasers 1984 first applications of laser beam welding in industrial serial production
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sion and the quantum-mechanical fundamentals have already been postulated by Einstein in the beginning of the 20th century, the first laser - a ruby laser - was not implemented until 1960 in the Hughes Research Laboratories. Until then numerous tests on materials had to be carried out in order to gain a more precise knowledge about the atomic structure. The following years had been characterised by a fast development of the laser technology. Already since the beginning of the Seventies and, increasingly since the Eighties when the first high-performance lasers were available, CO2 and solid state lasers have been used for production metal working.
History of the Laser
Figure 10.1 The number of the annual

3
sales of laser beam sources has constantly increased in the course of the last few years, Figure 10.2. The application areas for the laser beam sources sold in 1994 are shown in Figure 10.3. The main application areas of the laser in the field of production metal working are joining and cutting jobs. Figure 10.2
Japan and South East Asia North America West Europe
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10
1.5
0.5
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2005
135
The availability of more efficient laser beam sources opens up new application possibilities and - guided by financial considerations - makes the use of the laser also more attractive, Figure 10.4. Figure
drilling 1,8% others 9,3% welding 18,7% inscribe 20,5%
10.5
shows
the
characteristic properties of the laser beam. By reason of the induced or the the stimulated emission As
radiation is coherent and monochromatic.

cutting 44,3% micro electronics 5,4%
divergence is only 1/10 mrad, paths beam Figure 10.3 Inside the resonator, Figure 10.6, the laser-active medium (gas molecules, ions) is excited to a higher energy level (pumping) by energy input (electrical gas discharge, flash lamps).
40 kW 20 10 laser power 5 4 3 2 1 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 0 diode laser Nd:YAG CO2
long
transmission significant are
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without
divergences
possible.
During retreat to a lower level, the energy is released in the form of a light quantum (photon). The wave length depends on the energy difference between both excited states and is thus a characteristic for the respective laser-active medium.
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Figure 10.4
2005
136 A distinction is made be-
light bulb
Laser
induced emission
tween
spontaneous
and
induced transition. While

E2
the spontaneous emission is non-directional and in

exited state ground state
0,46"
E1
0,9 4"
coherent (e.g. in fluorescent tubes) is a laser beam generated by induced
polychromatic
(multiple wave length)
monochromatic coherent
(in phase)
incoherent
(not in phase)
large divergence
small divergence
emission when a particle with a higher energy level is hit by a photon. The re-
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ISF 2002
Characteristics of Laser Beams
sulting same
photon
has
the (fre-
Figure 10.5
properties
quency, direction, phase) as the exciting photon (coherence). In order to maintain the ratio of the desired induced emission I spontaneous emission as high as possible, the upper energy level must be constantly overcrowded, in comparison with the lower one, the so-called laser-inversion. As result, a stationary light wave is formed between the mirrors of the resonator (one of which is semi-reflecting) causing parts of the excited laser-active medium to emit light. In the field of production metal working, and particularly in welding, especially CO2 and Nd:YAG lasers are applied for their high power outputs. At present, the development of diode lasers is so far advanced that their sporadic use in the field of material processing is also possible. The indusCO2 lasers are, nowadays, approximately 5 - 20 kW, lasers with powers of up to 40 kW are available. In the field of solid state lasers average output powers of up to 4 kW are nowadays obtainable. Figure 10.6
fully reflecting mirror R = 100%
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resonator energy source
active laser medium
energy source
partially reflecting mirror R < 100%

ISF 2002
Laser Principle
laser beam
trial standard powers for
2005
137
In the case of the CO2 laser, Figure 10.7, where the resonator is filled with a N2-C02-He gas mixture, pumping is carried out over the vibrational excitation of nitrogen molecules which again, with thrusts of the second type, transfer their
0,6
2 thrust of second type 002 transition without emission
vibrational energy to the carbon dioxide. During the transition to the lower energy level, CO2 molecules
001 0,290 eV
LASER = 10,6 m
eV 0,4 0,3 0,288 eV 0,2 0,1 0

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transmission of vibration energy
energy
thrust of first type 1 E = 0,002 eV
emit a radiation with a wavelength of 10.6 m. The helium atoms, finally, lead the CO2 molecules
ISF 2002
100 discharge through thrust with helium
000
N2
CO2
Energy Diagram of CO2 Laser
back to their energy level. The efficiency of up to
Figure 10.7
15%, which is achievable with CO2 high performance lasers, is, in comparison with other laser systems, relatively high. The high dissipation component is the heat which must be discharged from the resonator. This is achieved by means of the constant gas mixture circulation and cooling by heat exchangers. In dependence of the type of
radio frequency high voltage exitaion
gas transport, laser systems are classified into

laser beam
longitudinal-flow and transverse-flow laser systems,

cooling water cooling water
Figures 10.8 and 10.9.

laser gas
laser gas: CO2: 5 l/h He: 100 l/h N2 : 45 l/h gas circulation pump
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vakuum pump
Figure 10.8
2005
138
With transverse-flow laser systems of a compact design can the multiple folding ability of the beam reach higher output powers than those achievable with longitudinal-flow systems, the beam quality, however, is worse. In d.c.-excited systems (high voltage), the electrodes are positioned inside the resonator. The interaction between the electrode material and the gas molecules causes electrode burn-off. In addition to the wear of the electrodes, the burn-off also entails a contamination of the laser gas. Parts of the gas mixture must be therefore exchanged permanently. In high-frequency a.c.-excited systems the electrodes are positioned outside the gas discharge tube where the electrical energy is capacitively coupled. High
turning mirrors Cooling water laser gas: CO2: 11 l/h He: 142 l/h N2: 130 l/h
electrode lives and high achievable pulse frequencies characterise this kind of excitation principle. In diffusion-cooled CO2 systems beams of a high quality are generated in a minimum of space. Moreover,
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gas circulation pump
laser beam
mirror
(partially reflecting)
gas discharge
end mirror
laser gas
cooling water
gas exchange is hardly ever necessary. Figure 10.9 The intensity distribution is not constant across the laser beam. The intensity distribution in the case of the ideal beam is described by TEM modes (transversal electronic-magnetic). In the Gaussian or basic mode TEM00 is the peak energy in the centre of the beam
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f2,57" d0
unfocussed beam
focussed beam
F dF
1 K = 2 . d
0<K<1
with d.= d. 0= d. F=c. 0 F

ISF 2002
weakening towards its periphery, similar to the Gaussian normal distribution. In Figure 10.10
Laser Beam Qualitiy
2005
139
practice, the quality of a laser beam is, in accordance with DIN EN 11146, distinguished by the non-dimensional beam quality factor (or propagation factor) K (0...1), Figure 10.10. The factor describes the ratio of the distance field divergence of a beam in the basic mode to that of a real beam and is therefore a measure of a beam focus strength. By means of the beam quality factor, different and beam quantiwork piece end mirror resonator partially reflecting mirror absorber shutter beam divergence mirror
beam transmission tube
LASER
sources may be compared objectively taively. The CO2 laser beam is

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beam creation focussing system
work piece manipulator
guided from the resonator over a beam reflection mirror system to one or several processing stations, Figures 10.11 and 10.12. The low divergence allows long transmission paths. At the processing station is the beam, with the help of the focussing optics, formed according to the working task. The relative motion between beam and
Figure 10.11
workpiece may be realised in different ways: Figure 10.12 moving workpiece, fixed optics moving (flying) optics
CO2 Laser Beam Welding Station
moving workpiece and moving optics (two handling facilities).
2005
10. Laser Beam Welding In the case of the CO2 laser, beam focussing is normally carried out with mirror op reflective 90 -mirror optic
140
tics, Figure 10.13. Lenses may heat up, due to absorption, especially with high powers or contaminations. As the heat may be dissipated only over the holders, there is a risk of deformation (alteration of the focal length) or destruction through thermal overloading. In the case of solid state laser, the normally cylindrical rod serves only the purpose to pick up the laser-active ions (in the case of the Nd:YAG laser with yttrium-aluminium-garnet crystals dosed with Nd3+ ions), Figure 10.14. The excitation is, for the most part, carried out using flash or arc lamps, which for the optimal utilisation of the excitation energy are arranged as a double ellipsoid; the rod is positioned in their common focal point. The achieved efficiency is below 4%. In the meantime, also diode-pumped solid state lasers have been introduced to the market. The possibility to guide the solid-state laser beam over
flash lamps laser rod
Focussing Optics
Figure 10.13
flexible fibre optics makes these systems destined for

laser beam
the
robot
application,
whereas the CO2 laser appartially reflecting mirror (R < 100%)
plication is restricted, as its necessary complex mirror systems may cause radia ISF 2002
end mirror (r = 100%)
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tion losses, Figure 10.15.

Principle Layout of Solid State Laser
Figure 10.14
2005
141
Some types of optical fibres allow, with fibre diameters of 1 mm bending radii of up to 100 mm. With optical switches a multiple utilisation of the solid state laser source is possible; with beam splitters (mostly with a fixed splitting proportion) simultaneous welding at several processing stations is possible. The disadvantage of this type of beam projection is the impaired beam quality on account of multiple reflection. The semiconductor or
diode lasers are characterised by their mechanical robustness, high efficiency and compact design, Figure 10.16. High performance diode lasers allow the welding of metals, although no deep penetration effect is achieved. In material
processing they are therefore particularly suitable for welding thin sheets. Figure 10.15
Nd:YAG Laser Beam Welding Station
Energy input into the workpiece is carried out over the absorption of the laser beam. The absorption coefficient is, apart from the surface quality, also dependent on the wave length and the material. The problem is that a large part of the radiation is reflected and that, for example, steel which is exposed to wave lengths of 10.6 m reflects only 10% of the impinging radiation, Figure 10.17. As copper is a highly reflective metal Figure 10.16
2005
Diode Laser
10. Laser Beam Welding with also a good heat conductivity, it is frequently used as mirror material.
Nd:YAGlaser CO2laser
142
0,30
Intensity adjustment at the working surface by the focal position with a simulta-
0,25
0,20
absorption A
Cu Al Ag Stahl
neous
variation
of
the
0,15 Fe 0,10
working speed make the laser a flexible and contactless tool, Figure 10.18. The methods of welding and
5 8 10 m 20
ISF 2006
0,05
Mo
0
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0,1
0,2 0,3
0,5 0,8 1
wave length
cutting demand high intensities in the focal point, which means the distance between focussing optics
Wave Length Dependent Absorption of Various Materials
Figure 10.17 and workpiece surface must be maintained within close tolerances. At the same time, highest accuracy and quality demands are set on all machine components (handling, optics, resonator, beam manipulation, etc.). Steel materials with treated surfaces reflect the laser beam to a degree of up to 95%, Figures 10.19 - 10.22. Figure 10.18
power density 1010 W/cm
2
en 106 erg y
shock hardening
4
de ns ity
10
10
[J /c m ]
10
glaz
10
e
0
drilling
10
10
remelting coating
welding cutting
105
10
ma rten sitic
103 10
-8
har den ing
10
-6
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10 acting time
-4
10
-2
10
When metals are welded with a low-intensity laser beam (I 105 W/cm2), just the workpiece surfaces and/or edges are melted and thus thermal-conduction welding with a low deeppenetration effect is possible. Above the threshold intensity value (I 106 W/cm2) a phase transition occurs and laser-induced plasma develops. The plasma, whose absorption characteristics depend on the beam intensity and the vapour density, absorbs an increased quantity of radiation.
2005
143 A vapour cavity forms and
heat conducting welding
deep penetration welding metal vapour blowing away laser-induced plasma
allows the laser beam to penetrate deep into the material (energy input deep beyond the workpiece surface); this effect is called the deep penetration effect. The cavity which is moved though the joining zone and is pre-
laser beam laser beam soldified weld metal
molten pool
keyhole (vapour-/ plasma cavity)
molten pool soldified weld metal
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ISF 2002
Principle of Laser Beam Welding
vented to close due to the vapour pressure is surrounded by the largest part
Figure 10.19
of the molten metal. The residual material vaporises and condenses either on the cavity side walls or flows off in an ionised form. With suitable parameter selection, an almost complete energy input into the workpiece can be obtained.
100
1010
steel rF = 100 m l = 10.6 m
reflection R
60
W/cm
2
40 20
108
material: wave length : laser power: welding speed: working gas:
steel 10,6 m 2 kW 10 mm/s helium
laser intensity I
plasma shielding 107 working zone plasma threshold
penetration depth t
mm 2 1 0 5 10
106 A = 0,1
105 10
-10
A=1 10
-8
10
W/cm
10
10
-6
10-2
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laser intesity I
radiation time t
ISF 2006
Reflection and Penetration Depth in Dependence on Intensity
Calculated Intensity Threshold for Producing a Laser-Induced Plasma
Figure 10.20
Figure 10.21
2005
144
However, in dependence of the electron density in the plasma and of the radiated beam intensity, plasma may detach from the workpiece surface and screen off the working zone. The plasma is heated to such a high degree that only a fraction of the beam radiation reaches the workpiece. This is the reaTransformation of electromagnetic energy into thermal energy within nm range at the surface of the work piece by stimulation of atoms to resonant oscillations
"normal" absorption: "abormal" absorption:
son why, in laser beam welding, gases are applied for plasma control. The gases ionisation potential should be as high as possible, since also the formation of shielding gas plasmas is possible which again decreases the en-
depandent on laser beam intensity:

I < 10 W/cm
6
dependent on laser intesity:

I 106 W/cm
dependent on wave length dependent on temperature dependent on material absorption at solid or liquid surface:
A < 30%
heating up to temperature of evaporation

and formation of a metal vapour plasma almost complete energy entry through absorption by plasma: A > 90% formation of a vapour cavity
formation of a molten bath with low penetration depth
heat conducting welding

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deep penetration welding

ISF 2002
ergy input.
Interaction Between Laser Beam and Material
Figure 10.22 Only a part of the beam energy from the resonator is used up for the actual welding process, Figure 10.23. Another part is absorbed by the optics in the beam manipulation system, another part is lost by reflection or transmission (beam penetration through the vapour cavity).
ca. 5% reflection 85-95%
beam energy
0-2,5% 2,5-12,5% diagnostics beam transmission focussing system
work piece
Other parts flow over thermal conductance into the workpiece. Figure 10.24 shows the most important advantages and disadvantages of the laser beam welding method.
ca. 30% 10-15% recombination ca. 10% transmission
ca. 40%
heat convection heat conduction metal vapour plasma
fusion energy
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Scheme of Energy Flow
Figure 10.23
2005
145
Penetration depths in dependence of the beam power and welding speed which are achievable in laser beam welding are depicted in Figure 10.25. Further relevant influential factors are, among others,
advantages
- high power density - small beam diameter - high welding speed - non-contact tool - atmosphere welding possible
disadvantages
the material (thermal conductivity), the design of the resonator (beam quality), the focal position and the applied optics (focal length; focus diameter). Figure 10.26 shows several joint shapes which are typical for car body production and which can be welded by laser beam application.
process
- high reflection at metallic surfaces - restricted penetration depth ( 25 mm)
work piece
- minimum thermal stress - little distortion - completely processed components - welding at positions difficult to access - different materials weldable
- expensive edge preparation - exact positioning required - danger of increased hardness - danger of cracks - Al, Cu difficult to weld - expensive beam transmission and forming - power losses at optical devices - laser radiation protection required - high investment cost - low efficency (CO2-Laser: < 20%, Nd:YAG: < 5%)
ISF 2002
installation
- short cycle times - operation at several stations possible - installation availability > 90% - well suitable to automatic function
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Laser Beam Welding
Figure 10.24
28 mm
0,2% C-steel CO2-laser
(cross flow)
The high cooling rate during laser beam welding leads, when transforming steel materials are used, to significantly increased
laser power: 15 kW
penetration depth
20 16 12
10 kW
hardness values in comparison with other welding methods, Figure 10.27. These are a sign for the increased strength at a lower toughness and they are particularly critical in circumstances of dynamic loads.
8 4
8 kW 6 kW 4 kW 1,5 kW
0 0 0,6 1,2 1,8 m/min 3,0
welding speed
15
X 5 CrNi 18 10 CO2-laser
penetration depth
mm
(axial flow)
The small beam diameter demands the very precise manipulation and positioning of the workpiece or of the beam and an exact weld preparation, Figure 10.28. Otherwise, as re9
5
4 kW
laser power:
2 kW
6 kW
0
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1 kW
m/min
sult, lack of fusion, sagged welds or concave root surfaces are possible weld defects.
welding speed
Penetration Depths
Figure 10.25
2005

butt weld fillet weld at overlap joint
146
lap weld at overlap joint
flanged weld at overlap joint
br-er10-26e.cdr
Figure 10.26
500 HV 0,4
WMA MAZ MAZ
laser beam weld
hardness
MAZ
MAZ
0
distance from the weld centre
12
weld
submerged arc weld
submerged arc weld

br-er10-27e_f.cdr
Figure 10.27
edge preparation
misalignment
(e 0,1 x plate thickness)
gap
beam
mispositioning
(a 0,1 x plate thickness)
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ISF 2002
Welding Defects
Figure 10.28
2005
147
Caused by the high cooling rate and, in connection with this, the insufficient degassing of the molten metal, pore formation may occur during laser beam welding of, in particular, thick plates (very deep welds) or while carrying out welding-in works (insufficient degassing over the root), Figure 10.29. However, too low a weld speed may also cause pore formation when the molten metal picks up gases from the root side. The materials that may be welded with the laser reach from unalloyed and lowalloy steels up to high quality titanium alloys. and The of nickel high the based carbon
content
transforming steel materials is, due to the high cooling

vw = 0,7 m/min
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vw = 0,9 m/min
vw = 1,5 m/min
material: P460N (StE460), s = 20 mm, P = 15 kw

ISF 2002
rate, to be considered a critical influential factor where contents of C >
Porosity
Figure 10.29
0.22% may be stipulated as the limiting reference value.

welding direction
Aluminium
and
copper
properties cause problems

filler wire gas plasma plasma laser beam laser beam filler wire gas
during energy input and process stability. Highly reactive materials demand,
weld metal
work piece
weld metal
work piece
also during laser beam welding, sufficient gas shielding beyond the solidification of the weld seam. The sole application of
molten pool
keyhole
molten pool
keyhole
forward wire feeding

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backward wire feeding
working gases is, as a rule, not adequate. Figure 10.30
2005
148
The application of laser beam welding may be extended by process variants. One is laser beam welding with filler wire, Figures 10.30 and 10.31 which offers the following advantages: - influence on the mechanic-technological properties of the weld and fusion zone (e.g. strength, toughness, corrosion, wear resistance) over the metallurgical composition of the filler wire - reduction of the demands on the accuracy of the weld
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without filler wire

increase of gap bridging ability
material: S380N (StE 380) gap: 0,5 mm PL = 8,3 kW VW = 3 m/min ES = 166 J/min s = 4 mm
with filler wire
filler wire: Sg2 dw = 0,8 mm
Possibility of metallurgical influence

material combination:
weld zone
weld zone
10CrMo9-10/ X6CrNiTi18-10 PL = 5,0 kW
gap: 0 mm vw = 1,6 m/min
gap: 0,5 mm wire: SG-Ni Cr21 Fe18 Mo
vw = 1,0 m/min dw = 1,2 mm
preparation in regard to edge misalignment, edge preparation and beam misalignment, due to larger molten pools - filling of non-ideal, for example, V-shaped groove geometries - a realisation of a defined weld reinforcement on the beam entry and beam exit side. The exact positioning of the filler wire is a prerequisite
with sensing device; fill factor 120 %
Figure 10.31
for a high weld quality and a sufficient dilution of the molten pool through which filler wire of different composition as the base can reach right to the root. Therefore, the use of sensor systems is indispensable for industrial application, Figure 10.32. The sensor systems are to take over the tasks of - process control,
KB 4620/9 20:1 10/92
KB 4620/6 20:1 10/92
KB 4620/4 20:1 10/92
KB 4620/0 20:1 10/92
KB 4620/41 20:1 10/92
KB 4620/38 20:1 10/92
Probe MS1-6C Probe MS1-5A Probe MS1-4C Probe MS1-3A Probe MS1-2B Probe MS1-1C
0.1 mm 0.2 mm 0.3 mm 0.4 mm 0.5 mm 0.6 mm
KB 4620/12 20:1 10/92
KB 4620/17 20:1 10/92
KB 4621/15 20:1 10/92
KB 4621/12 20:1 10/92
KB 4621/9 20:1 10/92
KB 4621/7 20:1 10/92
Probe OS1-6A Probe OS1-5C Probe OS1-4C Probe OS1-3B Probe OS1-2B Probe OS1-1B
without sensing device; wire speed vD = 4 m/min constant
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1 mm
Figure 10.32
2005
10. Laser Beam Welding - weld quality as surance - beam positioning and joint tracking, respectively.
149
The present state-of-the-art is the further development of systems for industrial applications which until now have been tested in the laboratory. Welding by means of solid state lasers has, in the past, mainly been applied by manufacturers from the fields of precision mechanics and microelectronics. Ever since solid state lasers with higher powers are available on the market, they are applied in the car industry to an ever increasing degree. This is due to their more variable beam manipulation possibilities when comparing with CO2 laaerospace industry automotive industry
- gear parts
(cog-wheels, planet gears)
sers. The CO2 laser is

steel industry
- pipe production - vehicle superstructures - continuous metal strips - tins
- engine components - instrument cases
mostly used by the car industry and by their ancillary industry for welding rotation-symmetrical massproduced parts or sheets. Figure 10.33 shows some typical application examples for laser beam weld ISF 2002
- body-making
(bottom plates, skins)
- engine components
(tappet housings, diesel engine precombustion chambers)
electronic industry medical industry

- heart pacemaker cases - artificial hip joints - PCBs - accumulator cases - transformer plates - CRTs
plant and apparatus engineering

- seal welds at housings - measurement probes
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ing.
Practical Application Fields
Figure 10.33
2005
11. Surfacing and Shape Welding
151 DIN 1910 (Welding) classifies the welding process according to its applications: welding of joints and surfacing. According to DIN 1910 surfacing is the coating of a workpiece by means of welding. Dependent on the applied filler material a further be repair classification made: may
base metal/ surfacing metal
similar for repair welding
dissimilar hardfacing (wear protection) cladding (corrosion prevention) buffering (production of an appropriate-to-the-type-of-duty joint of dissimilar materials)
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deposition
Figure 11.1
welding and surfacing for
the production of a composite material with certain functions. Surfacing carried out with wearresistant materials in preference to the base metal material is called hardfacing; but when mainly chemically stable filler materials are used, the method is called cladding. In the case of buffering, surfacing layers are produced which allow the appropriate-to-thetype-of-duty joining of dissimilar materials and/or of materials with differing properties, Figure 11.1. A buffering, for instance, is an intermediate layer made from a relatively tough material between two layers with strongly differing thermal expansion coefficients. Figure 11.2 shows different kinds of stresses which demand the surfacing of components. Furthermore surfacing may be used for primary forming as well as for joining by primary forming. Figure 11.2
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wear caused by very high impact and compressive stress wear by friction (metal against metal) during high impact and compression stress strong sanding or grinding wear very strong wear caused by grinding during low impact stress cold forming tools hot forming tools cavitation wear parts (plastics industry) corrosion temperature stresses
Components Kinds of Stress
2005
152
In case of surfacing - as for all fabrication processes - certain limiting conditions have to be observed. For example, hard and wear-resistant weld filler metals cannot be drawn into solid wires. Here, another form has to be selected (filler wire, continuously cast rods, powder). Process materials, as for example SA welding flux demand a certain welding position which in terms limits the method of welding. The coating material must be selected with view to the type of duty and, moreover, must be compatible with the base metal, Figure 11.3. For all surfacing tasks a large product line of welding filler metals is available. In dependence on the welding method as well as on the selected materials, filler metals in the form of wires, filler wires, strips, cored strips, rods or powder are applied, Figure 11.4. The filler/base metal dilution is rather important, as the desired high-quality properties of the surfacing layer deteriorate with the increasing degree of dilution.
component (material)
wearing protection (armouring) hard facing on cobalt base nickel base
stress compatibility
coating
manufacturing conditions availability
iron base
corrosion prevention ferritic to martensitic chromium steel alloys soft martensitic chromium-nickel steel alloys
coating material (filler)
consumable
surfacing method
austenitic-ferritic chromium-nickel steel alloys austenitic chromium-nickel steel alloys
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Boundary Conditions in Surfacing
Materials for Surfacing
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.4
2005
153
A weld parameter optimisation has the objective to optimise the degree of dilution in order to guarantee a sufficient adherence of the layer with the minimum metal dissimilation. A planimetric
surface built up by welding FB
determination
of the surfacing and penetration areas will roughly assess the proportion of filler to base metal. When
base metal FP FP + FB
penetration area FP
the analysis of base and filler metal is known, a more precise calculation is
x 100%
AD= AD =
x 100%
(X-contentsurfacing layer - X-contentFM) [% in weight] (X-contentbase metal - X-contentFM) [% in weight]

AD: dilution
possible by the determination of the content of a cer ISF 2002
FM: weld filler metal

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tain element in the surfacing layer as well as in the base metal, Figure 11.5.
Definition of Dilution
Figure 11.5 Figure 11.6 shows record charts of an electron

Cr percentages by mass
30 % 20
beam microprobe analysis for the elements nickel and chromium. It is evident that - after passing a narrow transition zone between base metal and layer the analysis inside the layer is quasi constant. As depicted in Figure 11.7 almost all arc weld-
10
0 0 100 200 distance 30 Ni percentages by mass % 20 300
500
ing methods are not only suitable for joining but also for surfacing.
10
0
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100
200 distance
300
500
Microprobe Analyses
Figure 11.6
2005
154
In the case of the strip-electrode submerged-arc surfacing process normally strips (widths: 20 - 120mm) are used. These strips allow high cladding rates. Solid wire electrodes as well as flux-cored strip electrodes are used. The flux-cored strip electrodes contain certain alloying elements. The strip is continuously fed into the process via feed rollers. Current contact is normally carried out
metal-arc welding - stick electrode - filler wire arc welding with self-shielded cored wire electrode - filler wire inert gas-shielded arc welding - MIG / MAG - MIG cold wire - filler wire TIG welding - TIG cold wire submerged arc welding - wire electrode - strip electrode
via copper contact jaws which in some cases are protected against wear by hard metal inserts. The slag-forming flux is supplied onto the workpiece in front of the strip electrode
electroslag welding - wire electrode
arc spraying - powder - wire
plasma welding - plasma powder - plasma hot wire plasma spraying
by means of a flux support. The non-molten flux can be extracted and returned to the flux circuit.
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Figure 11.7 Should the slag developed on top of the welding bead
power source drive rolls
+
filler metal
not detach itself, it will have to be removed mechanically in order to avoid slag inclusions during overwelding. The arc wan-
flux support flux application slag surfacing bead base metal
ders along the lower edge of the strip. Thus the strip is melted consistently, Figure 11.8.
br-er11-08e.cdr
Figure 11.8
2005
11. Surfacing and Shape Welding Figure 11.9 shows
155 the
cladding of a roll barrel. The coating is deposited helically while the workpiece is rotating. The weld head is moved axially over the workpiece. The
br-er11-09e.cdr
macro-section
and
possible weld defects of a strip-electrode submergedarc surfacing process are Figure 11.9 depicted in Figure 11.10.
Electroslag surfacing using a strip electrode is similar to strip-electrode SA surfacing, weld Figure 11.11.
base metal coarse grain zone lack of fusion mirco slag inclusions sagged weld
The difference is that the filler metal is not melted in the arc but in liquefied welding flux the liquid slag as a result of Joule resistance heating.
br-er11-10e.cdr
crack formation in these areas of the coarse grain zone
gusset
undercuts
The slag is held by a slight inclination of the plate and the flux mound to prevent it from running off. Figure 11.10
2005
156
TIG weld surfacing is a suitable surfacing method for small and complicated contours and/or low quantities (e.g. repair work) with normally relatively low deposition rates. The process principle has already been shown when the TIG joint welding process was explained, Figure 11.12. The arc is burning between a gas-backed nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece. The arc melts the base metal and the wire or rodshaped weld filler metal which is fed either continuously or intermittently. Thus a fusion welded joint develbr-er11-11e.cdr
molten pool
ops between base metal and surfacing bead. Figure 11.11 In the case of MIG/MAG surfacing processes the arc burns between a consumable
rod/ wire-shaped filler metal arc shielding gas nozzle
wire electrode and the workpiece. This method allows higher deposition rates. Filler as well as solid wires are used. The wire electrode has a positive, while the workpiece to be surfaced has a negative polarity, Figure 11.13.
base metal (+ / ~)
tungsten electrode (- / ~) surfacing bead
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ISF 2002
Process Principle of TIG Weld Surfacing
Figure 11.12
2005
157 A further development of the TIG welding process is plasma welding. While the
contact tube shielding gas shielding gas nozzle wire feed device
TIG arc develops freely, the plasma welding arc is mechanically constricted and by thermally a water-
weld filler metal arc
+ -
power source
shielding gas surfacing bead
cooled copper nozzle. Thus

workpiece
oscillation
the arc obtains a higher energy density. In the case of plasma arc
feed direction
br-er11-13e.cdr
Figure 11.13
powder
surfacing
this
constricting nozzle has a positive, the tungsten electrode has a negative polarity, Figure 11.14. Through a pilot arc power supply a non-transferred arc (pilot arc) develops inside the torch. A second, separate power source feeds the transferred arc between electrode and workpiece. The nontransferred arc ionises the centrally fed plasma gas (inert gases, as, e.g., Ar or He) thus causing a plasma jet of high energy to emerge from the nozzle. This plasma jet serves to produce and to stabilise the arc striking ability of the transferred arc gap. The surfacing filler metal powder added by a feeding gas flow is melted in the plasma jet. The partly liquefied weld filler metal meets the by transferred arc molten base metal and forms the
plasma gas tungsten electrode filler metal
surfacing bead. A third gas flow, the shielding gas, protects the surfacing bead and the adjacent hightemperature zone from the surrounding influence. The
workpiece
conveying gas shielding gas
HIG
UNTA
power sources pilot arc welding arc surfacing bead
UTA
applied gases are mainly

br-er11-14e.cdr
oscillation
inert gases, as, for example, Ar and He and/or Ar/He mixtures. Figure 11.14
2005
158
The method is applied for surfacing small and medium-sized parts (car exhaust valves, extruder spirals). Figure 11.15 shows a cross-section of armour plating of a car exhaust valve seat. The fusion line, i.e., the region between surfacing and base metal, is
section A
ZW
shown
enlarged It with gas
on
the
right side of Figure 11.15 (blow-up). hardfacing shows cobalt corrosion
GW
which is high-temperature and hot resistant.
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In plasma arc hot wire surfacing the base metal Figure 11.15 is melted by an oscillating plasma torch, Figure 11.16. The weld filler metal in the form of two parallel wires is added to the base metal quite independently. The arc between the tips of the two parallel wires is generated through the application of a separate power
shielding gas tungsten electrode arc wires from spool surfacing bead plasma gas plasma power source
source. The plasma arc with a length of approx. 20 mm is oscillating (oscillation width between 20 to 50 mm). The two wires are fed in a V-formation at an angle of approx. 30 and melt in the high-temperature region in the trailing zone of the plasma torch.
~
workpiece
weld pool
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hot wire power source
Figure 11.16
2005
11. Surfacing and Shape Welding For surfacing the purposes, arc-welding
159
besides
methods, the beam welding methods laser beam and electron beam welding may also be applied. Figure 11.17 shows the process principle of laser surfacing. The powder filler metal is added to the laser beam via a powder nozzle and the powder gas flow is, in addition, constricted by shielding gas flow. Figure 11.17
Friction surfacing is, in principle, similar to friction welding for the production of joints which due to the different materials are difficult to produce with fusion welding, Figure 11.18. The filler metal is advanced over the workpiece with high pressure and rotation. By the pressure and the relative movement frictional heat develops and puts the weld filler end into a pasty condition. The advance motion causes an adherent, spreaded layer on the base metal. This method is not applied frequently and is mainly used for materials which show strong differences in their melting and oxidation behaviours. A comparison of the different surfacing methods
rotation advance force filler metal
shows that the application fields are limited - dependent on the welding method. A specific method, for example, is the low filler/base metal dilution. These methods
br-er11-18e.cdr
surfacing layer bulge base metal
are applied where highquality filler metals are Figure 11.18

2005
160
welded. Another criterion for the selection of a surfacing method is the deposition rate. In the case of cladding large surfaces a method with a high deposition rate is chosen, this with regard to profitability. In thermal spraying the filler metal is melted inside the torch and then, with a high kinetic energy, discharged onto the unfused but preheated workpiece surface. Figure 11.19
fuel gas-oxygen mixture
br-er11-19e.cdr
compressed air
spraying material
workpiece
flame cone
spray deposit
There is no fusion of base and filler metal but rather adhesive binding and mechanical interlocking of the spray deposit with the base material. These mechanisms are effective only when the workpiece surface is coarse (pre-treatment by sandblasting) and free of oxides. The filler and base materials are metallic and non-metallic. Plastics may be sprayed as well. The utilisation of filler metals in thermal spraying is relatively low. The most important methods of thermal spraying are: plasma arc spraying, flame spraying and arc spraying.
compressed air spraying jet
In powder flame spraying an oxyacetylene flame provides the heating source where the centrally fed filler metal is melted, Figure
adjustable wire feed device spraying wire
br-er11-20e.cdr
non-binding sprayed particles (loss in spraying)
gas mixture
11.19. The kinetic energy for the acceleration and atomisation of the filler metal is produced gas (air). by compressed
fusing wire tip
spray deposit
Figure 11.20
2005
161 In contrast to powder flame spraying,

powder injector
is
for
flame
back frame
isolation ring
gas middle distributor frame
anode carrier
spraying a wire filler metal fed mechanically into the

copper anode
centre cone, melted, atomised and accelerated in direction of the substrate, Figure 11.20. In plasma arc spraying an
jet of particles
cooling water
br-er11-21e.cdr
plasma gas
cooling water tungsten cathode
arc
ISF 2002
Plasma Powder Spraying Unit
internal, high-energy arc is ignited between the tungsten cathode and the anode, Figure 11.21. This arc
Figure 11.21
ionises the plasma gas (argon, 50 - 100 l/min). The plasma emerges from the torch with a high kinetic and thermal energy and carries the side-fed powder along with it which then meets the workpiece surface in a semi-fluid state with the necessary kinetic energy. In the case of shape welding, steel shapes with larger dimensions and higher weights are produced from molten weld metal only. In comparison to cast parts this method brings about essentially more favourable mechano-technological material properties, especially a better toughness characteristic. The reason for this lies mainly in the high purity and the homogeneity of the steel which is helped by the repeated melting process and the resulting slag reactions. These properties are also put down to the faprimary forming (casting)
vourable fine-grained structure formation which is achieved by the repeated
shape welding
subsequent thermal treatment with the multi-pass technique. Also in contrast with the shapes produced by forging, the workpieces
ISF 2002
forming (forging)
joining (welding)
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produced by shape welding

Shape Welding - Integration
show quality advantages,
Figure 11.22
2005
162
especially in the isotropy and the regularity of their toughness and strength properties as far as larger workpiece thicknesses are concerned. In Europe, due to the lack of expensive forging equipment, very high individual weights may not be produced as forged parts. Therefore, shape welding is, for certain applications, a sensible technological and economical alternative to the methods of primary forming, forming or joining, Figure 11.22. Figure 11.23 shows an early application which is related to the field of arts. The higher tooling costs in forging make the shape welding method less expensive; this applies to parts with certain increasing complexity. This comparison is, however, related
br-er11-23e.cdr
to relatively low numbers of pieces, where the

Shape Welded Goblet (1936)
tooling costs per part are accordingly higher, Figure 11.24.
Figure 11.23
/kg
forged products
shape-welded products spherical caps
boiler shell rings
shafts
braces
complexity of the parts

br-er11-24e.cdr
Figure 11.24
pipe bends
2005
11. Surfacing and Shape Welding Figure 11.25 shows the principal procedure for the production of typical shape-welded parts. Cylindrical containers are produced with the Baumkuchenmethode method: the filler metal is welded by submerged-arc with helical movement in multiple passes into a tube which has the function of a traction mechanism (for the most part mechanically removed later). This brings about the possibility to produce seamless containers with bottom and flange in one working cycle.
Klammeraffe Tpfermethode Baumkuchenmethode + several weld heads possible + no interruption during weld head failure - core made of foreign material necessary
163
applications: shafts, large boiler shell rings, flanges + free rotationally-symmetrical shapes + several weld heads possible + weld head manipulation not necessary + each head capable to weld a specific layer + small diameters possible - component movement must correspond with the contour - number of weld heads limited when smaller diameters are welded applications: spherical caps, pipe bends, braces + transportable unit - limited welding efficiency applications: welding-on of connection pieces
Elbows are mainly manufactured with the Tpfer method. On the traction mechanism a rotationally symmetrical part with a semicircle cross-section is produced which is later separated and welded to an elbow, Figures 11.26 and 11.27. The Klammeraffe method serves Figure 11.25
Shape Welding Procedures
the purpose to weld external connection pieces onto pipes. A portable unit which is connected with the
phase 7 phase 6 phase 4 phase 2
traction mechanism
phase 5 phase 3 phase 1
pipe welds the connection pipe in a similar manner to the Tpfer method.
joist
turntable
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Figure 11.26
2005
164 In the case of electron beam surfacing the filler metal is added to the process in the form
1. welding of the half-torus 2. stress relief annealing 3. mechanical treatment 4. seperating/ halving 5. folding 6. welding togehter 7. stress relief annealing 8. testing
of a film, Figure 11.28.
ti tes ng
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Production of a Pipe Bend by Shape Welding
Figure 11.27
electron beam surface layer base material metal foil metal foil feeding
workpiece
feed direction
ka11-18.cdr ISF 1998
Process Principle Electron Beam Surface Welding
Figure 11.28
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
12. Thermal Cutting Thermal cutting processes are applied in different fields of mechanical engineering, shipbuilding and process technology for the production of components and for the preparation of welding edges. The thermal cutting processes are classified into different
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166
Classification of thermal cutting processes - physics of the cutting process - degree of mechanisation - type of energy source - arrangement of water bath
categories according to DIN 2310, Figure 12.1.
Classification of Thermal Cutting Processes acc. to DIN 2310-6
Figure 12.1 Figure 12.2 shows the classification according to the physics of the cutting process: - flame cutting the material is mainly oxidised (burnt) - fusion cutting the material is mainly fused - sublimation cutting the material is mainly evaporat The gas jet and/or evaporation expansion is in all processes responsible for the ejection of molten material or emerging reaction products such as slag. The different energy carriers for the thermal cutting are depicted in Figure 12.3: - gas,
Flame cutting The material is mainly oxidised;the products are blown out by an oxygen jet. Fusion cutting The material is mainly fused and blown out by a high-speed gas jet. Sublimation cutting The material is mainly evaporated. It is transported out of the cutting groove by the created expansion or by additional gas.
- electrical gas discharge and - beams. Electron beams for thermal cutting are listed in the DIN-Standard, they produce, however, only very small boreholes. Cutting is impossible.
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Classification of Processes by the Physics of Cutting
Figure 12.2
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
167
Figure 12.4 depicts the different methods of thermal cutting with gas according to DIN 8580. These are: - flame cutting - metal powder flame cutting - metal powder fusion cutting - flame planing -oxygen-lance cutting - flame gouging or scarfing -flame cleaning In flame cutting (principle is depicted in Figure 12.5) the material is brought to
thermal cutting processes using gas:
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thermal cutting by:
- gas - electrical gas discharge - sparks - arc - plasma - beams - laser beam (light) - electron beam - ion beam
Classification of Thermal Cutting Processes acc. to DIN 2310-6
Figure 1.3
the ignition temperature by a heating flame and is then burnt in the oxygen stream. During the process the ignition temperature is maintained on the plate top side by the heating flame and below the plate top side by thermal conduction and Figure 1.4 However, this process is suited for automation and is, also easy to apply on site. Figure 12.6. shows a commercial torch which combines a welding with a cutting torch. By means of different nozzle shapes the process may be adapted to varying materials and plate thicknesses. Hand-held torches or machine-type torches are equipped with different cutting nozzles: Standard or blocktype nozzles (cutting-oxygen pressure 5 bar) are used for hand-held torches and for torches which are fixed to guide carriages. convection.
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oxygen cutting
metal powder flame cutting
metal powder fusion cutting
flame planing
oxygen-lance cutting flame gouging scarfing
flame cleaning
Thermal Cutting Processes Using Gas
2005
12. Thermal Cutting The high-speed cutting nozzle (cutting-oxygen pressure 8 bar)
168 allows higher cutting
speeds with increased cutting-oxygen pressure. The heavy-duty cutting nozzle (cuttingoxygen pressure 11 bar) is
cutting oxygen heating oxygen gas fuel
mainly applied for economic cutting with flamecutting machines. A further development of the heavyduty nozzle is the oxygenshrouded allows nozzle faster which and even
heating flame
cutting jet
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workpiece
more economic cutting of plates within certain thickness ranges. Gas mixing is
Principle of Oxygen Cutting
either carried out in the torch handle, the cutting attachment, the torch head or in the nozzle (gas mixing nozzle); also in special the
Figure 12.5
cutting oxygen heating oxygen gas fuel mixing chamber
cases
outside
torch in front of the nozzle. As the design of cutting torches is not yet subject to
manual cutting equipment as a cutting and welding torch combination

gas mixing nozzle
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standardisation,
block-type nozze
many
types and systems exist on the market.
Cutting Torch and Nozzle Shapes
Figure 12.6
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
169 The selection of a torch or
heating and cutting nozzle nozzle-to-work distance torch cutting jet kerf width
nozzles important and depends mainly on the cutting thickness, the desired cutstart kerf
ting quality, and/or the geometry of the cutting edge. Figure 12.7 gives a survey of the definitions of flamecutting.
cutting le
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cut lengt h ngth
end of the cut
cut thickness
Flame Cutting Terms
In flame cutting, the thermal conductivity of the material must be low enough to constantly maintain
Figure 12.7
the ignition temperature,

The heating flame has to perform the following tasks:
Figure 12.8. Moreover, the

- rapid heating of the material (about 1200 C) - substitution of losses due to heat conduction in order to maintain a positive heat balance - preheating of cutting oxygen - stabilisation of the cutting oxygen jet; formation of a cylindrical geometry over a extensive length and protection against nitrogen of the surrounding air
material nor form
must
neither
melt during the oxidation high-melting cutting oxides, as these would produce difficult surfaces. In accordance, only steel or titanium mate-
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Function of the Flame During Flame Cutting
rials fulfill the conditions for oxygen cutting., Figure 12.9
Figure 12.8
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
170
Steel materials with a C-content of up to approx. 0.45% may be flame-cut without preheating, with a C-content of approx. 1.6% flame-cutting is carried out with preheating, because an increased C-content demands more heat. Carbon accumulates at the cutting surface, so a very high degree of hardness is to be expected. Should the carbon content exceed 0.45% and should the material not have been subject to prior heat treatment, hardening cracks on the cutting surface are regarded as likely. Some alloying elements form high-melting oxides which impair the slag expulsion and influence the thermal conductivity. The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram illustrates the carbon content-temperature Figure 12.9
steel 1500 temperature [ C]
pasty
The material has to fulfill the following requirements: - the ignition temperature has to be lower than the melting temperature - the melting temperature of the oxides has to be lower than the melting temperature of the material itself - the ignition temperature has to be permanently maintained; i. e. the sum of the supplied energy and heat losses due to heat conduction has to result in a positive heat balance
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Conditions of Flame Cutting
interrelation, Figure 12.10. As the carbon content increases, the melting

cast iron
liquid solid
temperature is lowered. That means: from a certain carbon content upwards, the ignition temperature is higher than the melting temperature, i.e., this would be the first violation to the basic requirement in flame cutting.
ve cur ition ign
Liquidus
Solidus
solid
1000
2,0
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carbon content [%]
Ignition Temperature in the Iron-Carbon-Equilibrium Diagram
Figure 12.10
2005
12. Thermal Cutting Steel compositions may
171
influence flame cuttability substantially - the individual alloying show elements may effects reciprocate
Maximum allowable contents of alloy-elements: carbon: silicon: manganese: chromium: tungsten: nickel: copper: up to 1,6 % up to 2,5 % with max. 0,2 %C up to 13 % and 1,3 % C up to 1,5 % up to 10 % and 5 % Cr, 0,2 % Ni, 0,8 % C up to 7,0 % and/or up to 35 % with min. 0,3 % C up to 0,7 % not suitable for cutting
(reinforcing/weakening), Figure 12.11. The content limits of the alloying constituents are therefore only reference values for the evaluation of the flame cuttability of steels, as the cutting quality is substantially deteriorating, as a rule already with lower alloy contents.
molybdenum: up to 0,8 %, with higher proportions of W, Cr and C
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Flame Cutting Suitability in Dependance of Alloy-Elements
Figure 12.11
square butt weld
single-V butt weld
By an arrangement of one or several nozzles already during the cutting phase a weld preparation may be carried out and certain
br-er12-12e.cdr
single-V butt weld with rootface
double-V butt weld
welding grooves be produced. Figure 12.12 shows torch arrangements for - the square butt weld, - the single V butt weld,
double-V butt weld with root face
Weld-Groove Preparation by Oxygen Cutting
Figure 12.12
- the single V butt weld with root face, - the double V butt weld and - the double V butt weld with root face.
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
172
It has to be considered that, particularly in cases where flame cutting is applied for weld preparations, flame cutting-related defects may lead to increased weld dressing work. Slag adhesion or chains of molten globules have to be removed in order to guarantee process safety and part accuracy for the subsequent processes. Figure 12.13 gives a survey of possible defects in flame cutting. In order to improve the
edge defect: edge rounding chain of fused globules edge overhang cratering: sporadic craterings connected craterings cratering areas adherent slag: slag adhearing to bottom cut edge cut face defects: kerf constriction or extension angular deviation step at lower edge of the cut excessive depth of cutting grooves cracks: face cracks cracks below the cut face
flame-cutting
capacity
and/or cutting of materials which are normally not to be flame-cut the powder flame cutting process may be applied. Here, in addition to the cutting oxygen, iron powder is
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Possible Flame Cutting Defects
blown into the cutting gap. In the flame, the iron powder oxidises very fast and adds further energy to the process. Through the additional energy input oxides the of
Figure 12.13
oxygen water seperator compressed air acetylene
high-melting
the high-alloy materials are molten. Figure 12.14 shows a diagrammatic representation ment. of a metal powder cutting arrange-
powder dispenser
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Metal Powder Flame Cutting
Figure 12.14
2005
12. Thermal Cutting Figure 12.15 shows the principle of flame gouging and scarfing. Both methods are suited for the weld preparation; material is removed but not cut. This way, root passes may be grooved out or fillets for welding may be produced later. Figure 12.16 shows the methods of thermal cutting processes by electrical gas discharge: plasma cutting with non-transferred arc plasma cutting with transferred arc plasma cutting with transferred arc and secondary gas flow plasma cutting with transferred arc and water injection arc air gouging (represented diagrammatically) arc oxygen cutting (represented diagrammatically)
Thermal cutting processes by electrical gas discharge:
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173
flame gouging
gas-heat oxygen mixture gouging oxygen
scarfing
gas-heat oxygen mixture scarfing oxygen
Flame Gouging and Scarfing
Figure 12.15
plasma cutting
arc air gouging
arc oxygen cutting
- with non-transferred arc - with transferred arc -with secondary gas flow -with water injection
carbon electrode
compressed air
cutting oxygen
electrode coating tube arc
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Thermal Cutting Processes by Electrical Gas Discharge
Figure 12.16
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
174 In plasma cutting the en-
plasma gas cooling water
electrode
tire
HF R +
power source
workpiece
must
be
heated to the melting temperature by the plasma jet. The nozzle forms the plasma jet only in a re-
nozzle
stricted way and limits thus the cutting ability of plate to a

workpiece
thickness
of
approx. 12.17. the for
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150 mm,
Plasma Cutting
Figure
Characteristic
plasma cut are the coneFigure 12.17 shaped formation of the kerf and the rounded
edges in the plasma jet entry zone which were caused by the hot gas shield that envelops the plasma jet. These process-specific disadvantages may be significantly reduced or limited to just one side of the plate (high quality or scrap side), respectively, by the inclination of the torch and/or water addition. With the plasma cutting process, all electrically conductive materials may be separated. Nonconductive materials, or similar materials, may be separated by the emerging plasma flame, but only with limited ability. In order to cool and to replasma gas electrode
duce
the
emissions,
plasma torches may be surrounded by additional

water curtain cutting water swirl chamber nozzle cone of water
gas
or
water
curtains
which also serve as arc constriction, Figure 12.18. In dry plasma cutting where Ar/H2, N2, or air are used, harmful substances always develop which not only have to be sucked off very carefully but which
water bath workpiece

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Water Injection Plasma Cutting
Figure 12.18
2005
12. Thermal Cutting also must be disposed of. In water-induced plasma cutting (plasma arc cutting in water or under water) gases, dust, also the noise, and the UV radiation are, for the most part, held back by the water. A further, positive effect is the cooling of the cutting surface, Figure 12.18. Careful disposal of the residues is here inevitable. Figure 12.19 gives a survey of the different cutting methods using a water bath.
plasma gas electrode plasma cutting with workpiece on water surface
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175
cutting with water bath
water injection plasma cutting with water curtain
underwater plasma cutting
Types of Water Bath Plasma Cutting
Figure 12.19
Figure 12.20 shows a torch which is equipped with an additional gas supply, the so-called secondary gas. The secondary gas shields the plasma jet and inFigure 12.20 creases the transition resistance at the nozzle front.
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secondary gas nozzle
workpiece
Plasma Cutting With Secondary Gas Flow
The so-called double and/or parasite arcs are avoided and nozzle life is increased.
2005
12. Thermal Cutting Thanks to new electrode materials, compressed air

cutting speed [m/min]
176
and even pure oxygen may be applied as plasma gas therefore, in flame cutting, the burning of unalloyed steel may be used for increased plasma capacity forming and gases quality. The selection of the
8 1 6 2 4 2 3 4 5
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machine type and plasma medium 1 WIPC, 400 A, O2 2 WIPC, 400 A, N2 3 200 A, s < 8 mm: N2 s > 8 mm: Ar/H2 4 40 A, compressed air
10
plate thickness [mm]
15
20
depends on the requirements of the cutting process. Plasma forming media are argon, helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, air, oxygen or water. Figure 12.21
Cutting Speeds of Different Plasma Cutting Equipment for Steel Plates
The advantage of the use of oxygen as plasma gas is in the achievable cutting speeds within the plate thickness range of approx. 3 12 mm (400 A, WIPC). In the steel plate thickness range of approx. 1 10 mm the application of 40 A-compressed air units is recommended. In comparison with 400 A WIPC systems, these allow vertical and significantly narrower cutting kerfs, but with lower cutting speeds. Figure 12.21 shows different cutting speeds for different units and plasma gases.
- laser beam combustion cutting
Thermal cutting processes by laser beam
In
the
thermal with
cutting beams
- laser beam fusion cutting - laser beam sublimation cutting
processes
only the laser is used as the jet generator for cutting, Figure 12.22. Figure 12.22
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Thermal Cutting With Beams
2005
12. Thermal Cutting Variations of the laser beam cutting process: laser beam combustion cutting, Figure 12.25 laser beam fusion cutting, Figure 12.26 laser beam sublimation cutting, Figure 12.27.
177
The process sequence in laser beam combustion cutting is comparable to oxygen cutting. The material is heated to the ignition temperature and subsequently burnt in the oxygen stream, Figure 12.23. Due to the concentrated energy input almost all metals in the plate thickness range of up to approx. 2 mm may be cut. In addition, it is possible to achieve very good bur-free cutting qualities for stainless steels
lens
(thickness of up to approx. 8 mm) and for structural steels (thickness of up to 12 mm). Very narrow and parallel cutting kerfs are characteristic for laser beam cutting of structural
cutting oxygen laser focus thin layer of cristallised molten metal workpiece
slag jet
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steels. In laser beam cutting, ei-
Laser Beam Cutting
Figure 12.23
ther oxygen (additional energy contribution for oxidising materials) or an inactive

80
cutting gas may be applied

absorption factor
melting
60
evaporating
heating-up
depending on the cutting job. Besides, the very high beam powers (pulsed/superpulsed mode of operation) allow a direct evaporation of the material (sublimation). In laser beam combustion cutting and laser beam sublima-
40
20
-laser) d:YAG 6 m (N er) = 1,0 O 2-las (C 6 m = 10,0
melting point Tm
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boiling point Tb
temperature
Qualitative Temperature Dependency on Absorption Ability
Figure 12.24
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
178
tion cutting the reflexion of the laser beam of more than 90 % on the workpiece surface decreases unevenly when the process starts. In laser beam fusion cutting remains the reflexion on the molten material, however, at more than 90%! Figure 12.24 shows the absorption factor of the laser light in dependence on the temperature. This factor mainly depends on the wave length of the used laser light. When the melting point of the material has been reached, the absorption factor increases unevenly and reaches values of more than 80%. During laser beam combustion cutting of structural steel high cutting speeds are achieved due to the exothermal energy input and the low laser beam powers, Figure 12.25. In the above-mentioned case (dependent on beam quality, focussing,
laser fusion cutting: - the laser beam melts the entire plate thickness (optimum focus point 1/3 below plate surface) - high reflection losses (>90%) materials: - metals, glasses, polymers cutting gas: - N2, Ar, He criterions: - cutting speed is only 10-15% in comparison to cutting with oxygen jet, characteristics melting drag lines
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laser cutting (with oxygen jet)
- the laser beam is focused on the workpiece surface and the material burns in the oxygen jet starting from the heated surface materials: - steel aluminium alloys, titanium alloys cutting gas: - O2, N2, Ar criteria: - high cutting speed, cut faces with oxide skin
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Characteristics of the Laser Beam Cutting Processes I
Figure 12.25
etc.), above
beam power of approx. 3,3 kW, spontaneous evaporation of the material takes place and allows sublimation cutting. Significantly higher laser powers are necessary to fuse the material and blow it out with an inert gas, as the reflexion loss remains constant.
Characteristics of the Laser Beam Cutting Processes II
Figure 12.26
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
179
Important influence quantities for the cutting speed and quality in laser beam cutting are the focus intensity, the position of the focus point in relation to the plate surface and the formation of the cutting gas flow. A prerequisite for a high intensity in the focus is the high beam quality (Gaussian intensity distribution in the beam) with a high beam power and suitable focussing optics. Laser beam cutting of contours, especially of pointed corners and narrow root faces, requires adaptation of the beam power in order to avoid heat accumulation and burning of the material. In such a case the beam power might be reduced in the continuous wave (CW) operating mode. With a decreasing beam efficiency decreases the cuttable plate thickness as well. Better suited is the switching of the laser to pulse mode of (standard HF-excited Figure 12.27 equipment
laser evaporation cutting:
- spontaneous evaporation of the material starting from 105 W/cm2 with high absorption rate and deep-penetration effect - metallic vapour is pressed from the cavity by own vapour pressure and by a supporting gas flow materials: - metals, wood, paper, ceramic, polymer cutting gas: - N2, Ar, He (lens protection) criteria: - low cutting speed, smooth cut edges, minimum heat input
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lasers) where pulse height can be selected right up to the height of the continuous wave. A super pulse equipment (increased excitation) allows significantly higher pulse efficiencies to be selected than those achieved with CW. Further fields of application for the pulse and super pulse operation mode are punching
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Characteristics of the Laser Beam Cutting Processes III
laser 600 W 1500 W 600 W 1500 W 1500 W plasma 50 A 5 kW 250 A 25 kW 500 A 150 kW oxy-flame Stahl Cr-NiStahl 1 10
steel Cr-Ni-steel aluminium steel Cr-Ni-steel aluminium
100 plate thickness [mm]
1000
and laser beam sublimation cutting. Figure 12.28

Fields of Application of Cutting Processes
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
180
Laser beam cutting of aluminium plates thicker than appx. 2 mm does not produce bur-free results due to a high reflexion property, high heat conductivity temperature and large
cuttig speeds [m/min] 10 plasma cutting (WIPC, 300-600 A) CO2-laser (1500 W)
differences
between Al and Al2O3. The addition of iron powder allows the flame cutting of stainless steels (energy input and improvement of the molten-metal viscosity).
1 oxygen cutting (Vadura 1210-A) 0,1 1 10 plate thickness [mm] 100
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The cutting quality, however, does not meet high standards. Figure 12.29
Cutting Speeds of Thermal Cutting Processes
Figure 12.28 shows a comparison of the different plate thicknesses which were cut using different processes. For the plate thickness range of up to 12 mm (steel plate), laser beam cutting is the approved precision cutting process. Plasma cutting of plates > 3 mm allows higher cutting speeds, in comparison to laser beam cutting, the cutting quality, however, is significantly lower. Flame cutting is used for cutting plates > 3 mm, the cutting speeds are, in comparison to plasma cutting, significantly lower. With an increasing plate thickness the difference
6
costs [DM/m cut length] total costs machine costs
in
the
cutting
speed is reduced. Plates with a thickness of more than 40 mm may be cut even faster using the flame
5 4
laser
3 2 1
plasma
flame cutting with 3 torches
cutting process. Figure 12.29 shows the
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
plate thickness [mm]

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cutting speeds of some thermal cutting processes.
Thermal Cutting Costs - Steal
Figure 12.30
2005
12. Thermal Cutting
181
Apart from technological aspects, financial considerations as well determine the application of a certain cutting method. Figures 12.30 and 12.31 show a comparison of the costs of flame cutting, plasma arc and laser beam cutting the costs per m/cutting length and the costs per operating hour. The high investment costs for a laser beam cutting equipment might be a deterrent to exploit the high cutting qualities obtainable with this process. Figure 12.31
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extract from a costing acc. to VDI 3258

flame cutting (6-8 torches) investment total (replacement value) calculation for a 6-yearaccounting depreciation maintenance costs energy costs production cost unit rate costs/1 operating hour plasma cutting (plasma 300A) laser beam cutting (laser 1500W)
170,000.00
220,000.00
500,000.00
/h /h /h
23.50 3.50 1.00
29.00 4.00 2.50
65.00 10.00 2.50
/h
65.00
75.00
130.00
1 shift, 1600h/year, 80% availability, utilisation time 1280h/year
Cost Comparison of Cutting Processes
2005
13. Special Processes
183
Apart from the welding processes explained earlier there is also a multitude of special welding processes. One of them is stud welding. Figure 13.1 depicts different stud shapes. Depending on the application, the studs are equipped with either internal or external screw threads; also studs with pointed tips or with corrugated shanks are used. In arc stud welding, a distinction is basically made between three process Figure 13.2.
variations.
depicts the three variations the differences lie in the kind of arc ignition and in the cycle of motions during
rammed flange
the welding process. The switching arrangement of an arc stud weld-
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Figure 13.1
ing unit is shown in Figure 13.3. Besides a power

capacitordischarge stud welding with tip ignition drawn-arc stud welding with ferrule ignition
drawn-arc stud welding
source
which
produces
high currents for a shorttime, a control as well as a lifting device are necessary.
ceramic ferrule
cold-upset tip ignition
ignition ring
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Figure 13.2
2005
184
In drawn-arc stud welding the stud is first mounted onto the plate, Figure 13.4. The arc is ignited by lifting the stud and melts the entire stud diameter in a short time. When stud and base plate are fused, the stud is dipped into the molten weld pool while the ceramic ferrule is forming the weld. After the solidification of the liquid weld pool the ceramic ferrule is knocked off. Figure 13.5 illustrates tip ignition stud welding.
control device
The tip melts away immediately after touching the plate and allows the arc to be ignited. The lifting of the stud is dispensed with. When the stud base is molten, the stud is positioned onto the partly molten workpiece. Studs with diameters of up to 22 mm can be used. Welding currents of more than 1000 A are necessary.
stud movement
lifting device
welding time adjustment
stud holding device stud
power source
A
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ceramic ferrule workpiece
Figure 13.3
0 L
The arc stud welding process allows to join different materials, see Figure 13.6. Problematic are the different melting points and the heat dissipation of the individual materials. Aluminium studs, for example, may not be welded onto steel.
projection P current
start
L lifting L
time
dipping > (L + P)
end
time
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Figure 13.4
2005
13. Special Processes The relatively high welding currents in the arc stud welding process cause the somewhat troublesome side-effects of the arc blow. Figure 13.7 depicts different arrangements of current contact points and cable runs and illustrates the developing arc deflection (B,C,E). A, D and F show possible countermeasures.
a b
185
In high-frequency welding of pipes the energy input into the workpiece may be carried out via sliding contacts, as shown in Figure 13.8, or via rollers, as shown in Figure 13.9. Only the high-frequency technique allows a safe current transfer in spite of the
c d
ISF 2002
scale or oxide layers. Through the skin effect the current flows only conditionally at the surface. Therefore no thorough fusion of thickwall pipes may be achieved.
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Phases of Capacitor-Discharge Stud Welding With Tip Ignition
Figure 13.5
stud material base meatl unalloyed structural steel S235J0, S355J0 and/or comparable steels (acc. DIN EN 10 025) other unalloyed steels stainless steels acc. DIN EN 17440 heat resisting steels acc. SEW 470 aluminium and aluminium alloys
unalloyed sructural steel S235J0 and/or comparable steels
other unalloyed steels
stainless steels acc. DIN EN 17440
heat resisting steels acc. SEW 470
aluminium and aluminium alloys
2 3
2 3
3 1
2 3
0 0
explanation of the weldability classification numbers: 1 = well suitable (transmission of energy) 2 = suitable (transmission of energy possible with restriction)
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3 = suitable only up to a point (not for transmission of energy 0 = not possible
Figure 13.6
2005
186 Only welding of small wall thicknesses is profitable as the weld speed must be greatly reduced with increasing wall thicknesses, Figure 13.10.
C
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Figure 13.7
moving direction of the pipe
rotary transformer
pressure rollers
Isolation copper electrode wheel (water-cooled) slot pipe
sliding contacts (fixed)
interstage transformer
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pressure rollers counterpressure rollers
HF-valve generator
ISF 2002
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ISF 2002
High-Frequency Welding of Pipes
Rotary Transformer Resistance Welding
Figure 13.8
Figure 13.9
2005
187 In induction welding a process which is
80 4 3 5 6
used frequently nowadays the energy input is received contactless, Figure 13.11. Varying magnetic fields produce eddy currents inside the workpiece, which again cause resistance heating in the slotted tube. A distinction is made between coil inductors (left) and line
m/min 2 welding speed 40
1 20
inductors (right). Also in case of induction welding flows the
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 wall thickness 12 mm 16
current flows only close to the surface areas of the pipe. Only the current part which reaches the joining zone and causes to fill the gap may be utilised. Figure 13.12 illustrates two current paths. On the left side: the useful current path, on the right side: the useless current path which does not contribute to the fusion of the edges.
1: 36 kA; 100 kVA; 60 Hz 2: 57 kA; 200 kVA; 60 Hz 3: 75 kA; 300 kVA; 60 Hz 4: 125 kA; 500 kVA; 60 Hz 5: 150 kA; 1200 kVA; 120 Hz 6: 200 kA; 1850 kVA; 120 Hz
Br-er13-10e.cdr ISF 2002
Welding Speeds in HF-Resistance Welding
Figure 13.10
Figure 13.13
shows
the
moving direction of the pipe moving direction of the pipe
effective depth during the inductive heating for different materials, in dependence on the frequency. As soon as the Curie temperature point is reached, the effective depth for ferritic steels increases.
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pressure rollers
pressure rollers
coil inductor
line inductor
Figure 13.11
2005
188 The application of the in-
duction
2
b b
welding
method
allows high welding speeds of more than 100m/min, Figure 13.14.
b width of the heating inductor s wall thickness of the pipe 1 current penetration depth on pipe backside
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2 d l
current penetration depth at the strip edges outside diameter of the pipe distance inductor- welding point
Figure 13.12
m/min
2 3 6 7 4 5
corrective factor
20 mm 10 8 6 4 effective depth 2 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2
160
100
120
0 0 50 100 mm 200 pipe diameter high frequency 200 - 450 kW
100
weld speed
0,10 0,08 0,06 0,04 0,02 1 4 10 100 200 kHz 1000
80
60
600 kW
frequency f
40
450 kW 300 kW
1 2 3 4 5 6
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steel (ferritic steel (austenitic) brass aluminium copper brass copper aluminium steel (ferritic)
800 C 20....1400 C 800 C 600 C 850 C 20 C 20 C 20 C 20 C
20 200 kW 0 0
ISF 2002 br-er13-14e.cdr
60 kW 100 kW 150 kW 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 wall thickness 16 mm 20

ISF 2002
Standard Values of the Effective Depths During Inductive Heating
Welding Speeds in Induction Welding
Figure 13.13
Figure 13.14
2005
13. Special Processes Aluminothermic
189 fusion
welding or cast welding is mainly used for joining
3FeO Fe2O3
+ 2Al + 2Al
Al2O3 + 3Fe - 783 kJ Al2O3 + 2Fe - 758 kJ 4Al2O3 + 9Fe - 3012 kJ
railway tracks on site. A crucible is filled with a mixture consisting of aluminium powder and iron oxide. An exothermal reaction is initiated by an igniter the aluminium oxidises and the iron oxide is reduced to iron, Fig-
3Fe3O4 + 8Al
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Figure 13.15
ure 13.15. The molten iron flows into a ceramic mould
which matches the contour of the track. After the melt has cooled, the mould is knocked off. Figure 13.16 shows the process assembly. Explosion welding or explosion cladding is frerunner gate riser workpiece preheating gas fuel air c b cut A-B thermit slag thermit crucible slag mould riser thermit bulge weld cross-section thickness of the cast b B
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mould slag mould riser workpiece blow-hole orifice
quently used for joining dissimilar materials, as, for example, unalloyed steel, copor steel/alloyed per/aluminium
thermit steel A channel between riser and runner gate runner gate blow-hole orifice iron or sand plug foundry sand
riser runner gate workpiece cast-around bulge
steel/aluminium. The materials which are to be joined are pressed together by a shock wave. Wavy transitions develop in the joining area, 13.18. Figures 13.17 and
Figure 13.16
2005
13. Special Processes The determined cladding speed must be strictly adhered to during the welding process. If the welding speed is too low, lack of fusion is the result. If the welding speed is exceeded, the development of the waves in the joining zone is erratic. Figure 13.19 shows the critical cladding speeds for different material combinations. Figure 13.17
K
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190
a)
igniter
explosive charge buffer flyer plate anvil Ambo parent plate
b)
igniter
explosive charge buffer flyer plate parent plate
anvil
vd
t
vP B
vd
A'
vF
A' A
vF
vK
B'
B vP B'
vK
B 90 - + /2
vP
vF
90 - /2 B' K vK = vD
B vP B'
vK
Figure 13.20 shows a diagrammatic representation of a diffusion welding unit. Diffusion welding, like ultrasonic welding, is welding in the solid state. The surfaces which are to be joined are cleaned, polished and then joined in a vacuum with pressure and temperature. After a certain time (minutes, right up to several days) joining is achieved by diffusion processes. The advantage of this costly welding method lies in the possibility of joining dissimilar materials without taking the risk of structural transformation due to the heat input. Figure 13.21 shows several possible material combinations. The joining of two extremely different materials, as, e.g. austenite and a zirconium alloy, may be obtained by several interBr-er13-18e.cdr
mediate layers. Figure 13.18

2005
191
measuring amplifier
materials flyer plate/ parent plate aluminium/ aluminium copper/ copper steel/ steel copper/ aluminium aluminium/ steel cooper/ steel aluminium/ zinc copper/ zinc
critical speed [m s ]
-1
working pressure 1,33 mPa
vk1 600 1200 2100 1000 1200 1400 500 800
vk2 1000 1600 2700 1400 1600 2400 1000 1400
vk3
P
hydraulic aggregate unit
>4000 >3600
workpieces
>3900
HFgenerator
pumping station recorder p,T = f(t)
3000 3300
loading device
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ISF 2002
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ISF 2002
Critical Cladding Speeds in Explosive Cladding
Schematic Representation of a Diffusion Welding Unit
Figure 13.19
structural steel stainless steel molybdenum
Figure 13.20 Figure 13.22 shows the structure of a joint

zirconium tungsten tantalum niobium
aluminium
tool steel
cast iron
copper
nickel
material
titanium
where nickel, copper and vanadium had been used as intermediate layers. As the diffusion of the individual components takes place only in the region close to the surface, very thin layers may be realised.
tantalum niobium zirconium tungsten molybdenum titanium nickel copper aluminium stainless steel tool steel structural steel cast iron very good weld quality good weld quality bad weld quality not tested/ results not reported
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ISF 2002
Possible Material Combinations for Diffusion Welding
Figure 13.21
2005
13. Special Processes In cold pressure welding in contrast to diffusion welding - a deformation is produced by the high contact pressure in the bonding plane, Figure 13.23. The joint surfaces are moved very close towards each other, i.e., to the atomic distance. Through transpobr-er13-22e.cdr
192
X10CrNiTi18 9
Ni
Cu
Zr2Sn
sition processes as well as through adhesion forces Figure 13.22 can joining of similar and dissimilar materials be realised. Ultrasonic welding is used as a microwelding method. The process principle is shown in Figure 13.24. The surface layers of overlap arranged plates are destroyed by applying mechanical vibrator energy. At this instance are joining surfaces deformed by very short localised warming up and point-interspersed connected. The joining members are welded under pressure, where one part small amplitudes (up to 50 m) relative to the other is moved with with ultrasonic frequency.
dies d1
As far as metals are concerned, the vibratory vector is in the joining zone, in contrast to ultrasonic welding of plastics. The ultrasonics which have been produced by a magnetostrictive transducer and
specimen A specimen B
guide and buffer d2
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transmitted by a sonotrode lie in the frequency range of 20 up to 60 Hz.
Figure 13.23
2005
13. Special Processes Figure 13.25 shows possible material combinations for ultrasonic welding.
193
Further microwelding processes are methods which

HFgenerator pressure force sonotrode sonotrode tip workpiece anvil ultrasonic vibrator process observation optics
are also called heated element welding methods, as, for example, nailhead bonding and wedge bonding. These methods are applied in the electronics industry for joining very fine wires, as, for example, gold wires from microchips with aluminium strip conductors.
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Figure 13.24 In wedge bonding a wire is positioned onto the contact point via a feeding nozzle. The welding wedge is lowered and the wire is welded with the aluminium thin foil, Figure 13.26. The wire is cut with a cutting tool. In nailhead bonding, the wire which emerges from the feeding nozzle may have diameters from 12 to 100 m. By a reducing hydrogen flame its end is molten to a globule, Figure 13.27. The nozzle then presses this globule onto the part aimed at and shapes it into a nail head. Figure 13.28 depicts this type of weld. A further method related to welding is soldering. The process principle of soldering is briefly explained in Figure 13.29.
aluminium+alloy beryllium+alloy copper, Cu-Zn-alloy germanium gold iron magnesium+alloy molybdenum+alloy nickel+alloy palladium+alloy platin+alloy silicon silver+alloy tantalium+alloy tin titanium+alloy tungsten+alloy zirconium+alloy
Possible Material Combinations for Ultrasonic Welding
Figure 13.25
aluminium+alloy beryllium+alloy copper, Cu-Zn-alloy germanium gold iron magnesium+alloy molybdenum+alloy nickel+alloy palladium+alloy platin+alloy silicon silver+alloy tantalium+alloy tin titanium+alloy tungsten+alloy zirconium+alloy
2005

heated wedge (tungsten-carbide)
194
5-50 m gold wire

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wedge bonding
Al-strip conductor
cutting tool
Figure 13.26
heated wedge (tungsten-carbide)
H2-flame
5-50 mm gold wire
wedge bonding
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Al-strip conductor
nailhead
Figure 13.27
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Figure 13.28
2005
195
The individual soldering methods are classified into different mechanisms depending on the type of heating, Figure 13.30. There are two basic distinctions: soft soldering (melting temperature of the solder is approx. up to 450 and brazing (melting temperature of the brazC) ing solder is approx. up to 1100 For high-temperature soldering solders with high meltC. ing points (melting temperature is approx. up to 1200 are used. This process is frequently C) subject to automation.
In soldering, atomar forces of attraction are effective. Similar and dissimilar metals are joined by addition of a solder with a low melting point. In the boundary area transposition processes occur between solder and base metal. This is called a two-dimensionaldiffusion. In the subsequent diffusion glowing phase (high-temperature soldering) the solder may be completely absorbed by the base metal.
classification according to the type of heating:
- flame brazing - iron soldering - block brazing
A distinction is made between soft soldering (melting temperature of the solder is below 450 and brazing C) (melting temperature of the solder is 450 up to 1100 C C) as well as high-temperature soldering (melting temperature of the solder is up to 1200 Heating of C). the component for melting the solder may be effected in various ways.
- furnace soldering - salt bath brazing - dip soldering - wave soldering - resistance soldering - induction brazing
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ISF 2002
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ISF 2002
Soldering - Definition and Process Principle
Classification of Soldering Methods
Figure 13.29
Figure 13.30
2005
14. Mechanisation and Welding Fixture
14. Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures
197
As the production costs of the metal-working industry are nowadays mainly determined by the costs of labour, many factories are compelled to rationalise their manufacturing methods by partially and fully mechanised production processes. In the field of welding engineering where a consistently good quality with a maximum productivity automation account. is a must, are Figure 14.1 aspects
Designation examples gas-shielded arc welding TIG GMAW movement/ working cycles
torch-/ workpiece control filler wire feeding workpiece handling
manual welding m manually manually manually
partially mechanised welding t fully mechanised welding v automatic welding a

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manually
mechanically
manually
mechanically mechanically
manually
mechanically mechanically mechanically
conse-quently taken into
The levels of mechanisation in welding are stipulated in DIN 1910, part 1. Distinctions are made with regard to the type of torch control and to filler addition and to the type of process sequence, as, e.g., the transport of parts to the welding point. Figure 14.1 explains the four levels of mechanisation. Figure 14.2. shows manual welding, in this case: manual electrode welding. The control of the electrode and/or the arc is carried out manually. The filler metal (the consumable electrode) is also fed manually to the welding point.
Manual Welding (Manual Electrode Welding)
Figure 14.2
2005
198 In partially mechanised welding, e.g. gas-shielded metal-arc welding, the arc manipulation is carried out manually, the filler metal addition, however, is executed mechanically by means of a wire feed motor, Figure 14.3.
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Partially Mechanised Welding (Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding)
In fully mechanised welding, Figure 14.4, an automatic equipment
Figure 14.3
mechanism carries out the welding advance and thus the torch control. Wire feeding is realised by means of wire feed units. The workpieces must be positioned manually in accordance with the direction of the moving machine support. In automatic welding, besides the process sequences described above, the work-pieces are mechanically positioned at the welding point and, after matically welding, autoto trans-ported
the next working station. Figure14. 5 shows an exbr-er14-04e.cdr
ample of automatic welding (assembly line in the car industry). Figure 14.4
Fully Mechanised Welding (Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding)
2005
199 Apart from the actual welding device, that is, the welding power source, the filler metal feeding unit and the simple torch control units, there is a variety of auxiliary devices available which facilitate or make the welding process at all possible. Figure 14.6 shows a
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Automatic Welding (Assembly Line)
survey of the most important assisting devices.
Figure 14.5 Before welding, the parts are normally aligned and
assembly line welding robot machine carrier linear travelling mechanism track-mounted welding robots spindle / sliding head turntable turn-/ tilt table dollies assembly devices
then
tack-welded.
Fig-
ure 14.7 depicts a simple tack-welding jig for pipe clamping. The lower part of the device has the shape of a prism. This allows to clamp pipes with different diameters.
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Devices, however, may be Figure 14.6 significantly more complex. Figure 14.8 shows an example of an assembly equipment used in car body manufacturing. This type of device allows to fix complex parts at several points. Thus a defined position of any weld seam is reproducible.
2005
14. Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures In apparatus engineering and tank construction it is often necessary to rotate the components, e.g., when welding circumferential seams. The equipment should be as versatile as possible and suit several tank diameters. Figure 14.9 shows three types of turnbr-er14-07e.cdr
200
ing rolls which fulfil the demands. Figure top: the rollers are adjustable; Figure 14.7
Simple Tack Welding Jig for Welding Circumferential Welds
Figure middle: the rollers automatically adapt to the tank diameter; Figure bottom: the roller spacing may be varied by a scissor-like arrangement. In general, dollies are motor-driven. ment of This provides
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1 portal with 2 industrial robots IR 400, equipped with tool change system 2 resting transformer welding tongs 3 depot of welding tongs 4 clamping tool 5 copper back-up bar for car roof welding 6 transformer welding tongs for car roof welding 7 driverless transport system 8 component support frame 9 swivelled support for component support frames 10 resting transformer welding tongs for car boot
also an effortless moveheavy components, Figure 14.10. Figure 17.8 A work piece positioner, e.g. a turn-tilt-table, is part of the standard equipment of a robot working station. Figure 14.11 shows a diagrammatic representation of a turn-tilt-table. Rotations around the tilting axis of approx. 135 are possible while the turn-table can be turned by 365 Those types of turn-tables are designed for working parts with weights of just a few . kilograms right up to several hundred tons.
2005
201
set of rollers 1
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set of rollers 2
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Turning Rolls
Turning Rolls
Figure 14.9
Figure 14.10 A turn-tilt table with hydrautable top gear segment table support tilting axis support
lic adjustment of the tilting and vertical motion as well as chucking grooves for the part fixture is depicted in Figure 14.12.
rotational axis
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Figure 14.11
2005
14. Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures In robot technology the types of turn-tilt-tables - as shown in Figure 14.13 - are gaining importance. Positioners with orbital design have a decisive the advantage because
202
component, when turning around the tilting axis, remains approx. equally disbr-er14-12e.cdr
tant to the welding robot. Other types of workpiece positioners are shown in Figure 14.14 the double column turn-tilt-table and the spindle and sliding holder turn-tilt-table.
rotational axis
Turn-Tilt-Table With Hydraulic Adjustment
Figure 14.12
single-column turn-tilt-table
table top table support tilting axis support
orbital turn-tilt-table
table top table support tilting axis support rotational axis
Those types of positioners are used for special component geometries and allow welding of any seam in the flat and in the horizontal position. In the field of welding, special units are designed for special tasks. Figure 14.16 shows a pipe-flange-welding machine. This machine allows the welding of flanges to a pipe. The weld head has to be guided to follow the seam contour.
Turn-Tilt-Tables
Figure 14.13
2005

tilting axis rotational axis table top support table support
203
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ISF 2002
Double-Column Turn-Tilt-Table
Figure 14.14
table tops
spindle holder sliding holder
bed way
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ISF 2002
Spindle / Sliding Holder Turntable
Figure 14.15
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Figure 14.16
2005
204 Plain plates or rounded tanks are clamped by means of longitudinal jigs for the welding of a longitudinal seam, Figure 14.17. The design and the gripping power are very dependent of the thickness of the plates to be welded.
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A simple example of a special welding machine is Figure 14.17 the tractor travelling carriage for submerged-arc welding, Figure 14.18. This device is designed for the application on-site and provides, besides the supply of the filler metal, also the welding speed as well as the feeding and suction of the welding flux. For the guidance of a welding head and/or welding device, machine supports may be used. Figure 14.19 shows different types of machine supports for welding and cutting. Apart from the translatory and rotary principal axes they are often also equipped with additional axes to allow precise positioning.
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Tractor for Submerged-Arc Welding
Figure 14.18
2005
14. Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures To increase levels of

a
boom pillar travelling mechanism main piloting system case
205
mechanisation of welding processes robots are frequently applied. Robots are handling devices which are equipped with more than three axes. user-programmable Figure 14.20 de-
cross piloting system case
auxiliary piloting system case auxiliary piloting system case
scribes kinematic chains which can be realised by

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different
combinations
of Figure 14.19
translatory and rotary axes. The most common design of a track-mounted welding robot is shown in Figure 14.21. The robot
arrangement designation cartesian robot cylinder coordinated robot spherical coordinated robot horizontal knuckle arm robot vertical knuckle arm robot
depicted here is a hingedarm robot with six axes. The axes are divided into three principal and three additional axes or hand axes. The wire feed unit and the spool carriers for the wire electrodes are often fixed on the robot. This allows a compact welding design.
R z y z C B C
A R C z C D B
kinematic schedule
operating space
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ISF 2002
Kinematic Chains
Figure 14.20
2005
14. Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures Varying lever lengths permit the design of robots
206 with different operating ranges. Fig-
ure 14.22 shows the operating range of a robot. In the unrestricted operating range the component may be reached with the torch in any position. The restricted operating range allows the torch to reach the component only certain positions. In the case of a suspended arrangement the robot fixing device is shortened thus allowing a compact design. For the completion of a robot welding station workpiece positioners are necessary. Figure 14.23 shows positioner devices where also several axes may be combined. These axes may either turn to certain defined positions or be guided by the robot control and moved synchronically with the internal axes.
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The complexity and versatility of the axis posiRobot Motions
tions increases with the number of axes which participate in the movement.
Figure 14.21
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Figure 14.22
2005
207 Movement by means of a linear travelling mechanism increases the operating range of the robot, Figure 14.24. This may be done in ease of stationary as well as suspended arrangement, where there is a possibility to move to fixed end positions or to
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stay in a synchronised motion with the other moveFigure 14.23 ment axes.
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Figure 14.24
2005
15. Welding Robots
15. Welding Robots
209
Increased quality requirements for products and the trend to automate production processes along with increased profitability result in the use of industrial robots in modern manufacturing, Figures 15.1 15.2. Since robots have been introduced in industry in the 70s, their most frequently fields of application ranged from installation jobs up to spot welding, and seam welding. The definition says that an
8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 1990 0 1992 1994 1996 Europa Europe Amerika America
Japan Japan
industrial
robot
for
gas
welding is an universal movement automaton with more which than three are axes userIt is
programmable and may be

1998 2000 2002
sensor-controlled.
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equipped with a welding

Inernational Distribution of Installed Welding Robots (1990 -2002)
torch and carries out welding jobs.
Figure 15.1 Core of a modern robot welding cell are one or more seam welding robots of swan neck type. Normally, they have six user-programmable axes; so they can access any point within the working range at any orientation of the welding torch. To extend their working range, robots may be installed in overassembly 10.229 machining 1.767 seam welding 8.749 others 1.562 measurement 1.251 commissioning and palletising 3.234 pressing and forging 2.064 diecasting and injection moulding 4.681
head position. A further extension of the working range can be achieved by installation of the robot onto a linear carriage with Cartesian axes. Such 'external' axes are also userprogrammable, 15.3. Figure
metal cutting machine tools 6022
spot welding 12.349
applying bonding and sealing agents 1.485
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surfacing 2.337
research and training 2.656
other workpiece manipulators 8.214
Figure 15.2
2005
15. Welding Robots
210
To turn the workpiece in the welding-favourable downhand position and to ensure accessibility to any joints, workpiece positioners are used as external axes which are steered by the robot control. Multi-station cycle tables are often used to increase profitability of the complete system installation. The operator feeds and removes the welded workpiece on one side, while the robot is welding on the other side.
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The robot control is the centre of an industrial robot system for arc welding, Figure 15.3
Examples for Robot Arrangements
Figure 15.4. It provides and processes all information for robot mechanics, positioner, welding unit, safety equipment, and external sensors. The robot program transforms information into signals for control of robot- and positioner-mechanics as well as welding power source. Communication with external systems is possible by a host or master computer. Modern industrial robot controls are build as multi-processor controls due to the multitude of parallel calculations and control functions. Figure 15.5 shows the internal structure of such a control. Individual assemrobot mechanics power source safety device welding installation welding gun
blies which are designed for special jobs and equipped with an own micro-processor are linked with the host computer via
positioner tools
link to SPS hostcomputer offline CAD expert
industrial robot control
the system bus. The host controls and coordinates the actions of the components based on the operating system and the robot program. Examples of
2005
sensors MDR
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Industrial Robot System for Arc Welding
Figure 15.4
15. Welding Robots
211
such assemblies, which are mostly installed on individual printed boards, are e.g. the axes computers. They are responsible for calculation of movement and for control of power units of the individual axes. To control the drive motors, two interconnected control loops per axis are available which control speed and position of each axis. Further assemblies control the display screen, the manual programming unit (PHG); these assemblies are responsible for communication with the welding power source, external sensors, and peripheral units via digital and analogue in- and outputs and field bus systems. Or they complete the data transmission with external control systems. To reduce downtimes in the case of malfunction, some robot controls can be connected via internet with telediagnosis systelediagnosis PHG printer bulk memory keyboard screen welding unit sensors welding unit tools positioner
expert system offline programm chaining host Computer welding unit sensors
brake motor
speed control loop
MDR
encoder tacho
tems of the robot manufacturer to support service personnel during troubleshooting and commissioning.
Internet
master programm computer interface
memory assembly
fieldbus
analog I/0
digital I/0
compiler computer
axsescomputer
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Programming of welding robots can be carried out in different ways which are distinguished in On-Line
- X - Y - Z
+
Industrial Robot Control
Figure 15.5
play-back programming
A B C
+
NOT-AUS
gramming out of the robot cell), Figure 15.6. The robot is manually guided along the later track with decoupled
indirect programming (off-line) mixed proced. (online/ offline)
+ + +
NOT-AUS
drives during Play-Back programming. The path of the track is recorded and transformed into a correFigure 15.6
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Programming Procedures for Welding Robots
bot) and Off-Line (pro-
(programming at the ro-
direct programming (online)
teach-in programming sensor supported programming textual programming, teach-in points macropro-gramming, teach-in points chains movement oriented
function oriented
textual programming with point coordinates graphical programming with CAD data knowledge-based programming with expert systems
movement oriented
function oriented
2005
position control loop
15. Welding Robots
212
TEA
1PTP 8 2 3
$1
sponding robot control program. This procedure is

7 5$ 16
4
$2
preferably used for painting jobs. A common technique to program a robot is the
selection of welding parameter set1 move to point 1-3 in PTP operation welding with change welding parameters
point file
point no. CP/ OV/ AUSG X Y Z ALPHA BETA GAMMA PTP SPD 1 2 3 4 EXT1 EXT2 EXT3 EXT4 EXT5 EXT6
0 LIST1=(20,0,0,50,60,75,15,12,0,0) definition of 1 LIST2=(30,0,0,55,70,0,0,0,0,0) 2 MAIN 3 $(1) 4 GP(1-3) 5 GC (4,$2,5,$1,6) 6 GP(7,8,1) 7 END
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
PTP 100 0000 10560 1 17204 PTP 100 0000 10700 1128 15164 PTP 100 1100 10700 1513 14220 PTP 100 1100 10700 2420 14229 PTP 100 1100 10700 3190 13294 PTP 100 1100 10700 3852 14448 PTP 100 0000 10700 4510 15520 PTP 100 0000 10700 4510 15520
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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1317 1344 1344 1344 1344 1344 1344 1344
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
welding parameters
Teach-In procedure. During Teach-In programming programming, unit, of the the with the help of the manual welding torch is moved to
Figure 15.7
notable
points
groove to be welded which are stored with information about position and orientation. In addition, track parameters must be entered, like e.g. type of movement and speed or welding parameter sets. During sensor supported Teach-In programming, the path progress through some typical points is only roughly indicated. Then the accurate path is picked-up by sensors and automatically calculated in the robot steering control. Afterwards the movement program is supplemented by additional information about e.g. welding parameter sets. Textual programming begeometric macro
Length macro
welding macro
longs to mixed procedures. The sequence program in form of a text file is created
= TCP = torch angel - welding parameters
on an external computer and is then transmitted to the robot steering control, Figure 15.7. The recording of the position of points is carried out in the same way as with Teach-In programming: moving into position and recording.
2005
Profile macro = TCP - torch angel - welding parameters - welding programme (ignition, welding, crater filling)
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Figure 15.8
15. Welding Robots
213
Macro-programming is also regarded as a mixed method which shortens programming time at the robot, Figure 15.8. Macros are structured processing sequences which are created online to fulfil working functions and which can be repeated for further similar working functions. Geometry macros contain information about torch guidance to produce certain joints or joint sections. Welding technology parameters welding summarised for individual are in welding situations
macros. This applies for torch positioning, torch inbr-er15-09e.cdr
Quelle:Cloos, Kuka 2002
clination, relative position of beads to root and welding parameters. Figure 15.9
Graphical Simulation of Robot Movement
Using a collection (can be created online or offline) of such macros, the programming time can be shortened for workpieces with often repeated welding jobs, e.g. steel construction when welding stiffeners and head plates Using offline programming practice, the programming work is shifted out from the producing robot cell. This avoids unproductive stoppages and allows for economic-viable, limited number of pieces to be reduced. During ming, textual the program3-dimensional
movement instructions
synchronical PTP procedure (point to point) linear interpolation, CP (continious path) cicule and graduated cicule interpolation continuously programmable tool speed
program sequence instructions

sub program technique jump instruction conditional instructions repeated loops inquiry of entries programmed stop
arithmetical and logical functions

+, -, *, : boolean operations etc.
special functions
3D online and offline transformation of program parts mirroring of program parts processing variables communication with sensors communication with external computers
point coordinates and torch orientations are entered into an external computer in a manufacturer-specific program language. To achieve a complete program sequence, ally. each instruction
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must be entered individuFigure 15.10

2005
15. Welding Robots
214
The graphical offline programming uses CAD data for modelling the complete robot working cell and parts to be welded. Planning of the path is carried out with CAD functions directly at the workpiece which is displayed on a screen. In most cases, the program1
TEA
5
EDI
0 LIST1=(20,0,0,50,60,75,15,12,0,0)
definition of welding parameters
ming systems provide a graphical simulation of the movement, e.g. to check

4
1 MAIN 2 $(1)
selection of welding parameters set 1
3 GP(1-3)
move to dots 1-3 in PTP mode
4 GC(4)
move to dot 4 in CP mode
for collisions between torch and 15.9. workpiece, For the Figure following
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2 3
5 GP(5,1)
move to dot 5 and 1 in PTP mode 6 END
transformation of the program into the robot control, a calibration between Figure 15.11 model and physical robot working cell is required. In the case of knowledgebased ported offline by program1 11 6 10 8 9 2 5 3
120
TEA
EDI
0 LIST1=(20,0,0,50,60,75,15,12,0,0)
definition of welding parameters
ming, the operator is supintegrated expert systems when it comes to creation of robot welding programs, e.g. for determination of jobspecific welding parameters. However, checking and adapting the program must be carried out by the operator.
1 LIST2=(30,0,0,55,70,0,0,0,0,0) 2 MAIN 3 $(1)

selection of welding parameter set 1
4 GP(1-3)
move to dot 1-3 in PTP mode
5 CIRO(1)
with rotating the 6th axis
6 Cir(3,4,5,50)
circle instruction
7 GP(6-8) 8 $(2)
selection of welding parameter set 2
9 CIRO(0)
lock 6th axis
Figure 15.12
Modern robot controls provide the programmer with some functions for movement control and for modification of program sequence, Figure 15.10. PTP movement (point to point) serves to move the robot in the space. All axes are controlled in such a way that they reach
2005
10
10 CIR(8,9,10,0) 11 GP(11,1) 12 END
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15. Welding Robots
215
their set-point at the same time. Thereby the actual path of the torch depends on kinematics of the robot and on current position of the axes. A linear interpolation (CP procedure, continuous Path), Figure 15.11, is used for accurate movement along a straight line, e.g. movement to weld start point or welding. The active point of the tool 'arc' (Tool-Centre-Point, TCP) is moved along a straight line between two programmed points, adapting torch angle and torch inclination between the two points. Circles and graduated circles are entered by means of circle interpolation programs, Figure 15.12. Then the orientation of the torch can be adapted through turning the knuckle axis or 6th axis of the robot and the value of spill-weld at the end of the seam can be indicated. Speed of the torch is user-programmable and, if required, can be superimposed by an oscillation. To control the program run, commands are available for: repeated loops, conditional and unconditional program jumps, waiting periods, waiting for inputs, and working with sub-programs. The software of modern seam welding robots contains as special functions 3-dimansional transfor-mations and mirroring of programs and
y
partial programs, palletisoffset

y
ing functions, processing

z
sensor data and commands for communication with other robot controls (Master/Slave operation)
x x
z
z
as well as with external computers, Figure 15.13.
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Figure 15.13
2005
16. Sensors
16. Sensors The welding process is exposed to disturbances like misalignment of workpiece, inaccurate preparation, machine and device
sensor eye brain strategy
217
hand
control
tolerances, and proess disturbances, Figure 16.1.

welding process
The manual welder notices them by eyesight and corbr-er16-01e.cdr
process disturbances
ISF 2002
rects
them to
manually strategies Figure 16.1
according
Adaptive Process Control Manually - Fully Mechanised
learned and gained by experience. To record process
irregularities and path deviations, a fully mechanised welding plant requires sensors providing control signals which are then used in accordance with implemented rules. Using corresponding control elements, the control loop is closed for the welding process. Scopes of duty of the sensors is finding the weld start point and seam tracking. In addition, with the help of information about joint geometry, process parameters can be adapted online and offline. The ideal sensor for a robot application should measure the welding point (avoidance of tracking misalignment), detect in advance (finding the start point of the seam, recognising corners, avoiding collisions) and should be as small as possible (no restriction in accessibility). The ideal sensor which combines all three requirements, does not yet exist, therefore one must select a sensor which is suitable for the individual
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Sensors for Arc Welding Systems Survey
welding shows
job.
Figure 16.2 sensor
different
Figure 16.2
2005
16. Sensors
218
principles used in welding engineering. The most frequently used systems in practice are tactile, optical, and arc based
V, X Y seam with ball-probe
sensor systems with mechanical arc adjustment. With tactile scanning systems, the simplest type of scanning is a mechanical sensor. Pins, rollers, balls, or similar devices may be used as sensors.
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overlapp seam with ball-probe
fillet seam with ball-probe I seam with blanc-probe edge seam with edge-probe
multilayer seam with ball-probe
Scanning Principles With Tactile Sensors
Such
scanning
systems Figure 16.3
show a long distance between sensor and torch, the
application range is limited. Only grooves with large dimensions and relatively straight seam path can be scanned with these systems. Figure 16.3 shows some examples of different groove geometries. Tactile sensors can recognise 3-dimensional offsets of the workpiece. Through scanning of three levels the 3-dimensional point of intersection can be calculated and the robot program for correcting the deviation can be shifted accordingly thus finding the start point
A A'
of the weld. In this case, the gas nozzle of the torch serves as a sensor, Figure 16.4, which is charged with electrical tension. As soon as the torch touches the workpiece, a current flows, which is then taken by the robot control as a signal for obtaining the level to be
B
C'
B'
scanned.
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Inductive sensors are graded as non-contact measurement systems. Due to their function Figure 16.4
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16. Sensors
219
principle, they can be applied for metallic and electrically conductive materials. The simplest type is a ring coil. If alternating current flows though the coil, ,a magnetic field is generated close to the workpiece.
coil arrangement for distance measurement
When the coil approaches the workpiece surface, the magnetic field weakens.
coil arrangement for groove position

transmitter coil reception coil
groove position
sensor signals
Figure 16.5 shows the distance-dependent electrical signal. Such simple senB
distance A
sors are used to recognise the Using workpiece several position. distance
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Principle of an Inductive Sensor (Single Coil and Multicoil Arrangement)
sensors, also a welding groove can be scanned.
Figure 16.5 With multi-coil arrangements in one sensor, the position of the welding groove, the angle between sensor and workpiece surface and the distance can be recorded. Figure 16.6 shows a principle arrangement. A transmitter coil generates an magnetically alternating field which induces alternating currents in the two receiver coils. In the undisturbed case, these currents are phase-shifted by 180 and neutralise each other. If the sensor is moved crosswise to the groove, magnetical asymmetries will occur in the scanning area, which will show in the presented signal shape. The output signal will be zero, if the coils are positioned exactly above the centre of the groove. The radar sensor in Figure 16.6 uses Doppler's effect to generate a signal. Here the phase difference between transmitter signal and A receiving mathematical signal is Figure 16.6 evaluated. process
br-er16-06e.cdr
functional principle of continuous wave dopplers radar radar sensor
transmitting wave receiving wave
work piece
phase difference
radar sensor
signal path
oscillation
workpiece
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Functional Principle of a Radar Sensor
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16. Sensors
220
transforms such signals into distance values. To record the position and the depth of the groove, the sensor must be continuously moved along the seam. Radar sensors form a so called radar baton, which is focussed onto a measurement spot of about 0,7 mm diameter for this application. Figure 16.6 shows the sensor signal, which represents the relative movement along the workpiece. At the moment, the characteristic values of the weld groove can be determined with a resolution in the range of 1/10 mm. Arc sensors evaluate the continuous change of the welding current with a change of the contact tip-to-work distance, Figure 16.7. A signal for side control of the torch is determined
l l1 IO l2
2
by
measure-
ment and subtraction of the currents on the flanks of a groove. A comparison between actual welding
l1,
l2 l0 I1 side correction l = 0 height correction I = 2 x ISoll
current and programmed rated current provides a signal for distance control
I
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Arc Sensor
of the welding torch. To let this sensor method work, a divergence of the arc or the use of a second arc is required. To realise this principle,
Figure 16.7
mechanical oscillation
twin wire welding
there are numerous possibili-ties. Figure 16.8 shows some variants of signal recording. The most of frequently used method is a
magnetical oscillation
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rotating wire
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mechanical carried out
oscillation by a
Arc Sensor - Signal Detection -
the welding torch, which is rotor
Figure 16.8
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16. Sensors movement with an oscillation frequency up to 5 Hz.
221
The second method is mainly used with submerged arc welding. Both wires are aligned crossways to welding direction and the difference of the two currents is evaluated. Magnetic fields can diverge only the arc itself. The advantage of this method is a high divergence frequency of about 15 Hz. A disadvantage is the size of the electromagnets and the limited accessibility to the workpiece. The last variant of an arc sensor incorporates a mechanical rotation of the welding wire. In this case, the divergence frequency of the arc can reach up to 30 Hz. The signal recording is continuous during the movement. In this way, information about orientation of the torch and groove width is also provided. The arc sensor principle is limited to groove shapes with clear flanks. Together with the tactile torch gas nozzle sensor, it provides a frequently used combination for seam finding and seam tracking during robot welding. Optical sensors can be used for a great number of jobs. The easiest method is the recognition of the radiation intensity, which is reflected during welding. E.g. with laser beam welding, this is carried out through recording the reflected laser radiation with simple sensors for control of penetration depth, Figure 16.9. The procedure is based on the line-up between the degree of reflection and shaft relation (penetration depth/focus position) of the capillary. The amount of back-reflection of the laser beam power is measured, which
NdYAG-Laser CO2-Laser
due
to
multi-
reflection is not absorbed by the workpiece. Changes of penetration depth due to modified laser power or a shifted focus position can be identified by the signal of reflected laser power
and can be used for control of the penetration depth.
Back Reflection Procedure for Laser Beam Welding
Figure 16.9
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However, optical sensors can also be used for measuring geometrical values. Such information may be used for finding the start point of a seam, for seam tracking, and for identification of groove profile. The two last mentioned functions provide the possibility to use the information for filling rate control and/or quality control. Geometry-measuring optical sensors are normally external systems, which are positioned in front of the torch as a leading element. It is practical to equip the sensor with additional axes, because both, torch and sensor, must be moved along the groove. Without additional axes, a robot would be limited in its accessibility to the workpiece and in its working range. Another problem is the tremendous effort to introduce the control-technical integration into the robot control. Among other things, information must be exchanged in real time. Most of geometry-measuring sensors use the triangulation principle or a variant of this measurement procedure. The triangulation measurement procedure provides information about the distance to the workpiece surface. A light spot is projected onto the workpiece surface and displayed to a line-type receiver element under a certain angle. With distance changes
laser CCD camera
emerge corresponding positions on the receiver element, Figure 16.10. Sensors which
lens
use this triangulation principle are applied for recognition of workpiece position and for offline seam finding. Both, the laser scanner and the light-section procedure are based on the triangulation measurement principle. With the laser scanner, Figure 16.11, this principle is complemen-ted by an oscillating axis in parallel to the groove axis. The measurement of a sequence of distances along a line becomes possible and provides a 2-dimensional record and evaluation of the groove contours.
laser beam
depth measurement range
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Triangulation Principle
Figure 16.10
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223
Sensors as part of the light-section procedure, also provide information about the 2dimensional position of the groove. As a function of this system, one or more light lines are projected onto the workpiece surface and displayed to a CCD matrix under a certain angle, Figure 16.12. In contrast to scanning, information about the groove profile is provided by taking a picture scene. Using sensors, it is pssible to obtain additional 3-dimensional information through evaluation of more, in succession taken, while the camera moves over the grooves. Systems, which generate their information through a projection of several light lines, provide additional information about the path of the seam and the orientation of the sensor related to the workpiece surface. Both, scanning systems
laser motor focusing lens
and sensors based on the light section procedure, can be used for recognition of
CCD camera angle transmitter beam deflection mirror oscillation
the welded seam to make an automised quality control of the outer weld characteristics possible. Another optical measure-
lens mirror
workpiece
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ment principle uses, similar to human sight, the stereo procedure to record geometry information across the weld groove. Two independent optics photograph the interesting groove area and displays them onto two image converter elements (CCD-lines or CCD-matrix). Based on the corresponding image points in both picture scenes, the 3br-er16-12e.cdr
Laser Scanner Principle
Figure 16.11
laser ligthing
Diodendiode Laser laser
CCD camera
2-D detector 2-D Detektor
line projection
workpiece
ISF 2002
dimensional position of object points is evaluated. Figure 16.12
Principle of Light-Section Procedure
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224
Figure 16.13 shows the measurement principle, which uses CCD lines as image converter elements, and idealised signals for generating information. The grey scale drop in the signal is ideally used as corresponding image area, which occurs with butt welds due to different reflection intensity between
stereo measurement principle
CCD lines laser display levels
side position :
stereo measurement principle
workpiece surface and gap. Both, the lateral position of the groove and the dis-
left signal
right signal
signal drop
tance to the sensor can be determined by evaluating the centre positions of both signal drops. The width of
light line projection workpiece
distance :
groove width :
the groove is taken from

the width of the signal drop. Optical sensors may also
Principle of Stereo Measurement Procedure
Figure 16.13
be used for geometrical
recognition of the weld pool, to adapt process parame-ters in the case of possible deviations. Figure 16.14 depicts such a system for use with laser beam welding. The welding process is monitored by a CCD camera through a filter system. An optical filter allows to observe the weld pool surface without disturbing effects of the plasma in the near infrared spectrum. Picture data are transferred to an image processing computer which measures the geometry of the weld pool. Geometry data contain information which is used online for control of the welding process. cus Among position others, can be penetration depth and focontrolled. The system also provides the recognition of
protrusion-welded
joints
Weld Pool Recognition
and welding defects like e.g. molten pool ejections.
Figure 16.14
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225
During electron beam welding, the beam is in combination with a detector used for both, to carry out a seam tracking and a monitoring of the welded seam. For this, the beam can be diverged as well as bent, Figure 16.15. Backscattered electrons are recognised by a special detector and converted into grey values. The line or area surface scanning by the spotted
functional principle
(evaluation of back-scattered electrons)
seam tracking
electron beam provides a progressive series of greys across the scanned line or area. During electron beam welding, these signals can
monitoring
be used for seam tracking by scanning an edge which is parallel to the groove. The area-type scanning provides the possibility for
br-er16-15e.cdr
observing the welded seam

Sensor Principle of Electron Beam Welding
or the focus position.
Figure 16.15
2005
Literature
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Literature Dilthey, U. Programmieren von Industrierobotern DVS-Berichte Bd. 118 DIN 1910 Teil 1, Mechanisierungsgrade in der Schweitechnik, Juli 1983 DIN 1910 Blatt 5 Schweien, Widerstandsschweien, Verfahren, Nov. 1972 DIN 1913 Stabelektroden fr das Verbindungsschweien von Stahl, un- und niedriglegiert, Jan. 1976 DIN 1732 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe fr Aluminium, Apr. 1975 DIN 2310 Teil 6 Thermisches Schneiden, Einteilung, Verfahren, Feb. 1991 DIN 8555 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe zum Auftragschweien, Jan. 1978
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DIN 8556 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe fr das Schweien nichtrostender und hitzebestndiger Sthle, Mrz 1976 DIN 8573 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe zum Schweien von Gueisen, Jan. 1978 DIN 8575 Teil 1 Schweizusatzwerkstoffe zum Lichtbogenschwei8en warmfester Sthle, Dez. 1983 DIN 8593 Teil 6 Fertigungsverfahren Fgen, Fgen durch Schweien, Einordnung, Unterteilung, Sept. 1985 DIN 32511 Elektronen- und Laserstrahlverfahren zur Materialbearbeitung, Juni 1996 DIN EN 440 Schweizustze - Drahtelektroden und Schweigut zum MetallSchutzgasschweien von unlegierten Sthlen und Feinkornsthlen, Nov. 1994 DIN EN 756 Schweizustze - Drahtelektroden und Draht-Pulver-Kombinationen zum Unterpulverschweien von unlegierten Sthlen und Feinkornsthlen, Dez. 1995 DIN EN 758 Schweizustze - Flldrahtelektroden zum Metall Lichtbogenschweien mit und ohne Schutzgas von unlegierten Sthlen und Feinkornbausthlen, Mai 1997 DIN EN 760 Schweizustze - Pulver zum Unterpulverschweien, Mai 1996 DIN EN 1089 Ortsbewegliche Gasflaschen - Gasflaschen-Kennzeichnung, Apr. 1998 DIN ISO 857 Einteilung der Schutzgasverfahren, Juni. 1996
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DIN EN 12070 Schweizustze - Drahtelektrode, Drhte und Stbe zum Lichtbogenschweien von warmfesten Sthlen, Jan. 2000 DIN EN 12072 Schweizustze - Drahtelektrode, Drhte und Stbe zum Lichtbogenschweien von nichtrostenden und hitzebestndigen Sthlen, Jan. 2000 DIN EN ISO 9692 Teil 2 Schweien und verwandte Verfahren - Schweinahtvorbereitung Unterpulverschweien von Stahl, Sept. 1999 DIN EN ISO 11146 Laser und Laseranlagen - Prfverfahren fr Laserstrahlparameter, Sept. 1999 EN ISO 9692 Teil 2 Schweien und verwandte Verfahren, Schweinahtvorbereitung Unterpulverschweien von Stahl, Apr. 1998 Dorn, L. u. P. Rippl Prozeanalyse beim Unterpulverschweien Lichtbogenstabilitt und Momentanwertverlauf der elektrischen Gren bei nderung der Verfahrensparameter Schweien und Schneiden 37, 1985, Heft 2 Draugelates, U. u. J. Krohn Plasma-Heidraht-Auftragschwei8en von Hartlegierungen DVS-Bericht Band 81 DVS-Merkbltter, Widerstandsschweitechnik, Fachbuchreihe Schwei8technik Band 68/III DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1979 DVS-Merkblatt 0902, Lichtbogenbolzenschweien mit Hubzndung DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1988 DVS-Merkblatt 0903, Lichtbogenbolzenschweien mit Spitzenzndung DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1989 DVS-Merkblatt 0941, Flldrahtelektroden fr das Verbindungs- und Auftragschweien, Grundlagen und Begriffsbestimmung DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf Mai 1991 DVS-Merkblatt 2901, Teil 1, Abbrennstumpfschweien DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1988 DVS-Merkblatt 2909, Teil 1, Reibschweien von metallischen Werkstoffen DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1989 DVS Merkblatt, Rohrlngsnahtschweien mit Rolltransformator DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1974 DVS-Merkblatt 2934, Preschweien mit magnetisch bewegtem Lichtbogen
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Literature DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1987 Dynamit Nobel Sprengplattierte Verbundwerkstoffe Eichhorn, F. Schweitechnische Fertigungsverfahren, Bd. 1, Schwei- und Schneidtechnologien VDI-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1983 Eichhorn, F., K. Blasig u. H. Nies Entwicklung eines Unterpulver-Engspaltschweikopfes fr Bandelektroden DVS-Berichte Bd. 100, 1985, S. 51-55 Eichhorn, F., E. Engindeniz, D. Pyrasch und J. Remmel Einsatzmglichkeiten des Elektrogas- und Elektroschlackeschweiens von Kehlnhten DVS-Berichte Bd. 90, 1984, S. 130-135 Eichhorn, F. u. H.W. Langenbahn Spritzerfreies MAGM-Impulslichtbogenschweien Schweien und Schneiden 37, 1985 Eichhorn, F. u. J. Remmel Leistungssteigerung des Elektroschlackeschweiverfahrens bei Verbindungen an niedriglegierten Sthlen im Blechdickenbereich von 100 bis 250 mm Schweien und Schneiden 37, 1985, Heft 11, S. 573-579 Ellis, D.J. Submerged-Arc Welding An Update Welding and Metal Fabrication, Okt. 1990 ESAB Firmenprospekt
230
Eversheim, W. u. G. Luscell Stand und Entwicklungstendenzen der Programmierung von Robotern zum Bahnschweien Schweien und Schneiden 42, 1990, Heft 2, S. S.2ff Fischer, Baum Der Schutzgasschweier, Teil 1: WIG-, Plasmaschweien DVS-Schweitechnische Praxis Band 11 Grix, H. Tips fr den Werkstoffpraktiker zum Gasschweien und Flammlten Praktiker 32, 1980, Heft 2, S. 42-44 Grger, P. Engspaltschweien fgt dicke Bleche
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Literature VDI-Nachrichten Nr. 13, 1984, S. 32 Grger, P., G. Groten, D. Pyrasch u. H. Wietrzniok Neue Entwicklungen auf dem Gebiet des Schutzgas-Engspaltschweiens DVS-Bericht 127, 1989, S. 112-119 Grger, P. u. J. Koivula Metall-Schutzgasschweien Verfahrensvarianten des Engspaltschweiens Industrie-Anzeiger 106, 1984, Nr. 39, S. 28-33 Grnauer, H. Reibschweien von Metallen Expert-Verlag, Ehningen 1987 HAANE Firmenprospekt Hase, C. u. W. Reitze Lehrbuch des Gasschweiers und verwandte Autogenverfahren Verlag W. Girardet, Essen 1980 Hirschherg, H. Thermisches Schneiden, Stand der Entwicklung und Anwendung Technica 38, 1989, Heft 13, S. 67-73 Hrmann, E. Hochfrequenz-Widerstandsschweien mit Kontaktelektroden Schweien und Schneiden 12, 1960, Heft 10, S. 431-438 Hoult, A. P. Neuartige Erkenntnisse bei der Materialbearbeitung mit gepulsten Nd:YAG Hochleistungslasern im Kilowatt-Bereich Laser-Praxis, Juni 1989 Industrial Laser Review 1988 International Institute of Welding The Physics of Welding Pergamon Press, Frankfurt 1986 ISO 5182, Materials for resistance welding elektrodes and ancillary equipment, 1978 ISO 5184, Staight resistance spot welding electrodes, 1979 ISO 5821, Resistance spot welding electrode caps, 1979 Kessel, A.
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Literature Wirtschaftliches Schneiden von Baustahlblechen mit Luft-Plasma von 10A bis 70A Metallhandwerk und Technik, 1987, Heft 9, S. 743-744 Killing, R. Handbuch der Schweiverfahren, Teil 1: Lichtbogenschweiverfahren DVS-Fachbuchreihe Bd.76, DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1984 King, F.J. Erhhung des Mechanisierungsgrades beim maschinellen Lichtbogenschweien durch Schweikopf positionierung und Fugengeometrieerfassung Dissertation RWTH Aachen, 1977 Kosfeld, G. Schweiverfahren DVS-Bericht Band 105 KUKA Firmenprospekt Laser Focus Annual Economic Survey 1989 Mair, M. Einflu der Sauerstoffreinheit auf die Schneidgeschwindigkeit und die Schneidkosten beim Laserstrahlbrennschneiden DVS Berichte Bd. 123, 1989 Marfels, W. Der Gasschweier Schweitechnische Praxis Bd.I, DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1982 Marfels, W. Der Lichtbogenschweier Schweitechnische Praxis Bd.II, DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf Marfels, W. u. A. Schneider Vorrichtungen in der Schweitechnik, Manahmen zur Rationalisierung der Fertigung DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1989
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Matzner, H.R. Qualittssteigerung beim spritzerarmen MAGM-Impulslichtbogenschweien durch Regelung der Prozegren Schweitechnische Forschungsberichte Bd. 40 DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf 1991
Meleka, A.H. Electron Beam Welding Published for the Welding Institute by McGraw-Hill, 1971
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Literature N.N. T.I.M.E. Das neue MAG-Hochleistungs-Schweiverfahren Firmenprospekt, Messer-Griesheim Metzbower, E.A., D.W. Moon u. F.W. Fraser Laser welding of structural alloys Proceedings of International Conference on Welding Technology for Energy Applications, Gatlinburg, Tn, USA, May 1982 Meyer, C., A. Rosenthal u. V. Bdecker Festkrperlaser im kW-Betrieb Industrie Anzeiger 51/1988 Mller, P. u. L. Wolff Handbuch des Unterpulverschweiens Fachbuchreihe Schweitechnik Bd.63 Neff, F., P. Scherl, K. Winter u. H. Ornig Neue Verfahren zum Schweiplattieren dickwandiger Stahlbleche und -behlter Schweitechnik Berlin 7/74 Nies, H. u. H. Krebs UP-Formschweien mit Bandelektrode Oerlikon-Schweimitteilungen Mrz 1988 N.N. Laserstrahltechnologien in der Schweitechnik Fachbuchreihe Schweitechnik, Bd. 86, DVS-Verlag GmbH, 1989 Ortmann, R. Werkstoffe zum Verschleischutz DVS-Bericht Band 105 Pfeifer, L. Fachkunde des Widerstandsschweiens Girardet-Verlag, Essen 1969 Plasma-Technik AG Plasma Spraying Technique Wohlen (Schweiz) 1974
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Rabensteiner, G. Werkstoffe zum Korrosionsschutz DVS-Bericht Band 105 Rasche, S.

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Literature Neuere Entwicklungen beim Plasmaschneiden Trennen und Fgen, 1985, Heft 15, S. 55-58 Ruckdeschel, W. Plasmaheidraht-Auftragschweien Ein neues Plattierungsverfahren DVS-Bericht Band 23/1972 Ruge, J. Handbuch der Schweitechnik, Bd. II, Verfahren und Fertigung Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York 1980 Schfer, P. Industrielle Anwendungen von Festkrperlasern Laser und Optoelektronik, 2/1988 Schellhase, M. Der Schweilichtbogen ein technologisches Werkzeug VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin 1985 Schiller, S. et al. Elektronenstrahltechnologie Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Stuttgart, 1977 Schmidt, H. u. K. Ludewig Hochleistungs-Festkrperlaser Laser und Optoelektronik, 2/1988 Schultz, H. Elektronenstrahlschweien DVS-Verlag, Dsseldorf, 1989 Seiler, P. Schweien mit YAG-Laser Feinwerktechnik & Messtechnik, 96 (1988) 7-8 SOUDOMETAL Firmenprospekt Taylor D.S. u. C.E. Thornton High Deposition Rate Submerged-Arc Welding Welding Review, Aug. 1989 Tong S. u. Z. Ding Effect Of Plasma Spraywelding Technology On Dilution Wuhan (China) 1985 Tradowsky, Klaus Laser: Grundlagen, Technik, Basisanwendungen, Kamprath-Reihe Technik
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Literature Vogel-Uerlag Wrzburg 1988 Wahl, W. Auftragschweien Standzeitverlngerung durch gezielten Werkstoffeinsatz und optimale Schweiverfahren Schweien und Schneiden 6/79 Yamamoto, H. Recent Trends in Low Current Airplasma Cutting Welding International 55, 1987, S. 35-43
235
2005

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ISF Welding Institute RWTH Aachen University

Welding Technology 1 Welding and Cutting Technologies

Prof. Dr. Ing. U. Dilthey

4.1 Joining by composition

4.2 Joining by filling

4.3 Joining by pressing

4.4 Joining by casting

4.5 Joining by forming

4.6 Joining by welding

4.7 Joining by soldering

4.8 Joining by adhesive bonding

4.6.1 Pressure welding

4.6.2 Fusion welding

Production Processes acc. to DIN 8580

the case of dynamic stress, as the notch effects are lower.

Production processes 4 Joining

4.6.1 Pressure welding

4.6.2 Fusion welding

4.6.1.1 Welding by solid bodies

4.6.1.2 Welding by liquids

4.6.1.3 Welding by gas

4.6.1.4 Welding by electrical gas discharge

4.6.1.6 Welding by motion

4.6.1.7 Welding by electric current

Heated tool welding

Gas pressure-/ roll-/ forge-/ diffusion welding

Arc pressure welding

Cold pressure-/ shock-/ friction-/ ultrasonic welding

Resistance pressure welding

Joining by Welding acc. to DIN 1910 Pressure Welding

Production processes 4 Joining

4.6.1 Pressure welding

4.6.2 Fusion welding

4.6.2.2 Welding by liquids

4.6.2.3 Welding by gas

4.6.2.4 Welding by electrical gas discharge

4.6.2.5 Welding by beam

4.6.2.7 Welding by electric current

Joining by Welding acc. to DIN 1910 Fusion Welding

ignition temperature [OC] 600 400 200 0

3200 2850 2770 0

Equipment Components for Gas Welding

Properties of Fuel Gas in Combination with Oxygen

2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0

2.0 1.29 1.17

8 C2H2 is produced in acetylene gas genera-

tors by the exothermal transformation of calmaterial lock

gas exit feed wheel

filling quantity : up to 700 l/h

tank car nitrogen vaporized cleaning

Principle of Oxygen Extraction

filling connection still liquid

The cylinder valves also of

different designs. right-hand are

Oxygen cylinder connections show a cylinder thread union nut. Acetylene

Gas Cylinder-Identification according to DIN EN 1089

Single Pressure Reducing Valve during Gas Discharge Operation

Single Pressure Reducing Valve, Shut Down

welding torch injector or blowpipe

hose connection for fuel gas A9 x R3/8 left

acetylene oxygen acetylene

welding torch head injector nozzle coupling nut

welding flame combustion