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8A
1. 2. 3. 4.
Physical Properties of compounds Classification by solubility Elemental analysis Classification test for functional groups
1. 2. 3. 4.
The carbon atom has the capability to bond with four other atoms. However, this ability to bond to several atoms (especially to H atoms) becomes reduced because of the presence of multiple bonds. The presence of double or triple bonds is an indication of the unsaturation of the compound. Alkenes and Alkynes
How to prepare Acetylene? Test for Unsaturation Bromine in Methylene Chloride Test
Preparation of Acetylene
Addition reaction of Bromine (Br2), a red liquid, to a compound containing a double or triple bond produces a colorless Dibromide. (A positive Test!) The double (or triple bond) must be sufficiently electron-rich to initiate the reaction. Therefore, minimal electron withdrawing groups (Deactivators), such as Carboxyl Groups attached to molecule, would hinder the reaction. Unsubstituted Aromatic compounds (Benzene) do not react with the Bromine reagent. Even if the ring has substituted activating groups (donate electrons to the ring) the reaction would be a substitution and not an addition.
Visible Result Unpleasant odor, produced smoke, pale yellow-clear solution Red solution Presence of smoke, cloudy-clear solution Negative test
Benzene Styrene
No visible result
Hexane
No visible result
- Redox reaction
Potassium Permanganate (KMNO4) is an oxidizing agent. It has a Purple color Following the oxidation of an unsaturated compound, the Permanganate ion is reduced to Manganese Dioxide (MnO4), a brown precipitate. The reaction is important because it doesnt work on alkanes (compounds with carbon-carbon single bonds) or aromatic compounds.
Drawbacks: Easily oxidized compounds give a positive test: a) Most aldehydes give a positive test. b) Formic acid and its esters give a positive test. Often, the brown precipitate fails to form and the solution turns reddish-brown. Alcohols with trace impurities give a positive test. Phenols and aryl amines give a positive test.
Visible Result
Benzene Styrene
Hexane
Brown solution, chocolate brown precipitate Dark purple No visible result solution Dark brown MnO2 for the brown precipitate in clear precipitate solution Violet precipitate No visible result
Structure/Formula of Compound Responsible for the visible result MnO2 for the brown precipitate
POSITIVE TEST: The disappearance of the KMnO4's purple color and the appearance of a brown suspension of MnO2 is a positive test.
Ignition test is used for High Degrees of Unsaturation. The ignition test is used to differentiate aliphatic substances from aromatic unsaturated hydrocarbons. Multiple bonds of carbon cause the deposition of carbon in the ignition medium soot positive test!
Highly unsaturated compounds such as aromatic compounds, give off a yellow sooty flame. The yellow color is due to the presence of carbon and the soot is credited to the deposition of carbon. Positive test is indicative of a high degree of Unsaturation and is probably Aromatic
Visible Result Orange-blue flame Yellow flame, soot Yellow flame, soot Yellow flame
Structure/Formula of Compound Responsible for the visible result C C C No visible result for carbon deposition
Benzene derivatives in a general sense react in the same way that benzene does, although there are some interesting differences. Nitration of toluene generates a mixture of products. The major products are those with substitution at the ortho and para positions. In the case of toluene, ortho (and para) attack result in the positive charge being spread over two secondary carbons and one tertiary carbon atom (the one bearing the CH3 group). When reaction of toluene occurs at the meta position, then the resonance forms of the sigma complex put positive charge over 3 secondary carbons - the same as for benzene.
Appearance of the product (Nitration of toluene) : light yellow to darker yellow-green liquid
Visible Result
Yellow color on top of solution; similar to oil-water mixture; smoky; smells like rugby
In the Le Rosen test, same processes in nitration take place. However, instead of HNO3, formaldehyde is used.
p - aquinone
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Aqueous solutions with a pH less than seven are considered acidic, while those with a pH greater than seven are considered basic. When a pH level is 7.0, it is defined as 'neutral' because at this pH the concentration of H3O equals the concentration of OH in pure water. pH is formally dependent upon the activity of hydronium ions (H3O+).
pH 2 4 7 2 5
Solubility will be indicated by the formation of a homogeneous solution, a color change, or the evolution of gas or heat. If soluble, then it is a strong organic acid. If not, then it is a weak organic acid. The most common weak organic acid are phenols. Typically, only a carboxylic acid will react with NaHCO3. Negatively substituted phenols such as nitrophenols, aldehydrophenols, and polyhalophenols are sufficiently acidic to dissolve in 5% sodium bicarbonate.
POSITIVE TEST: Evolution of a carbon dioxide gas is a positive test for the presence of the carboxylic acid
The silver nitrate test is designed to detect strong acids especially carboxylic acids. The presence of an acid is detected by the presence of replaceable H+ atoms and the formation of precipitates. The essence of this test is the reaction between carboxylic acids and silver nitrate. Silver nitrate reacts with carboxylic acids to form salts of the carboxylic acid. To verify the presence of the silver salt, dilute nitric acid should be added. Silver salts are soluble in the aforesaid acid.
POSITIVE TEST: Appearance of precipitate and dissolution of the precipitate in Nitric acid
- Silver acetylide is formed when acetylene is passed into an ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate.
These substitution reactions which ethynes undergo to form compounds with metals are not occur with the alkenes. These reactions can be used as tests to distinguish between acetylene and ethylene. When acetylene is passed through an ammonical solution of silver nitrate or cuprous chloride, at room temperature, precipitates of silver acetylide (white) or cuprous acetylide (red) are formed.
Sample Acetylene
The Beilstein test is a simple chemical test used in chemistry as a qualitative test for halides. In Beilstein test, a green flash is indicative of chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Fluorine is not detected because copper fluoride is not volatile. This test is very sensitive, thus halogencontaining impurities may give misleading results.
Test Samples
Visible Result
Structure / Formula of Compound Responsible for the visible result CuCl2 CuCl2 CuCl2 CuCl2 CuCl2 CuBr2 CuI2
Blue-green flame Green flame Red flame; soot Red-orange flame; soot Green flame Green flame Green flame
this test can be used to differentiate aromatic halides from aliphatic halides. The reaction of an alkyl halide with silver nitrate in ethanol will result in the formation of a white or yellow silver halide precipitate that is insoluble in nitric acid. This reaction quite often proceeds slowly, and occasionally slight warming is necessary. Different rate if silver halide precipitation would be expected from halogen in each of these environments, namely, primary<secondary<tertiary. Alkyl bromides and iodides react more rapidly than chlorides Aryl Halides are unreactive toward the test reagent.
Test Samples
Visible Result
White precipitate White-silver precipitate Distinct 2 layers White precipitate White precipitate White precipitate White precipitate
Structure / Formula of Compound Responsible for the visible result AgCl AgCl AgCl AgCl AgCl AgBr AgI