Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature Review Catherine DuBois University of New England EDU 744 June 20, 2011

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

Ability is what you're capable of doing. Motivation determines what you do. Attitude determines how well you do it, (Holtz). While all three of these factors are very important to education, motivation is the basis of it all. Motivation is what initiates the learning process. If a student is motivated, either intrinsically or extrinsically, they will participate in activities and set some type of educational goal. Motivation is what drives individuals to engage in and achieve desired
and assigned tasks and activities. Thus, by discovering ways to motivate students, teachers are

enabling students to learn more effectively and increase achievement. How individuals obtain this
motivation is the challenge many educators face. As an English teacher in an at-risk, urban school, in which most of my students are Hispanic, I struggle with the motivation to engage my students in reading for school or for enjoyment. They become bored with reading and claim they have larger things to worry about and I continuously try to encourage them regardless of their excuses. However, while I am required to assign particular novels that are a part of our curriculum and I attempt to make them as relevant to the students lives as possible; I still find that motivating my students many times seems impossible. While I dont believe any teacher should give up, I aim to discover if Hispanic students statistically struggle more with achievement and how I can motivate my Hispanic students to want to become more engaged.

Ann Ketch, author of the article Conversation: The comprehension connection (2008), conversation and discussion are very valuable in the classroom. They can provide students the opportunity to practice comprehension skills as well as create and reflect upon their own ideas. Through conversation, students may practice and engage in seven cognitive strategies including, making connections, questioning, mental imaging, determining importance, inferring, synthesizing and monitoring and correcting their own reading comprehension or utilizing fix-up strategies. Connecting encompasses students relating concepts or material to their own background knowledge and lives. Questioning involves students becoming aware of their

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

questions and using such as a means to gain further knowledge. Mental imaging provides students a way of connecting emotionally and indentifying with the material. Determining importance and inferring are based on a students ability to analyze the text. Synthesizing encompasses inferring, connecting, retelling, and analyzing to deepen a students understanding. Fix up strategies allow students to become refocused and regain meaning from their readings. Each of these strategies aids in the development of more effective comprehension skills and a deeper understanding of material and the world. According to Ketch (2005), social inquiry, or conversation, is the method in which all forms of comprehension are brought together. It is the tie that binds, (Ketch, 2005, p.9). The author provides methods of social inquiry including, literature circles, book clubs, think/pair/share, small and whole group discussion, as well as individual conferencing. By providing three examples of the implementation of social inquiry, including a small discussion, think/pair/share, and an individual conference, Ketch (2005), emphasizes the benefits of conversation as an effective strategy in the classroom. Within the examples presented, Ketch (2005) recognizes an increase in student engagement, comprehension and enjoyment. She notes that with an encouraging and respectful environment students are able to create better connections with the material. Therefore, these connections can personally tie the reader and material together thus resulting in a deeper understanding of concepts, the world, and themselves. Family is such an influential part of reading ability and motivation in Hispanic children, as Angela Arzubiaga, Robert Rueda, and Lilia Monzo have discussed in their study entitled, Family Matters Related to the Reading Engagement of Latino Children, (2002). In their longitudinal study that included 18 Hispanic students and parents, Arzubiaga, Rueda, and Monzo

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

(2002) used the Ecocultural Family Interview for Latino Immigrants and Gambrells et al (1996) Reading Survey, to measure the correlations between the ecocultural factors of a family and a students motivation to read. Researchers developed five main features that could impact a students value and motivation in reading. Such features included immigration, culture and language, instrumental knowledge, nurturance, and workload. Immigration referred to a familys ability to assimilate to living in another country as well as obtaining a home and raising children in another country. Culture and language included the incorporation of English and Spanish within the home and the participation in cultural and religious literacy activities. Instrumental knowledge pertains to the knowledge a family has about school, as well as political involvement and social services. Nurturance consisted of a families support and involvement in their childs education. Participation in family activities as well as the presence of emotional support were also included. Workload referenced the domestic and childcare workload a family encountered in their daily lives. According to this article, there is a connectedness between Hispanic families and their childrens motivation to engage in reading. Arzubiaga, Rueda, and Monzo (2002) indentified that workload, culture and language, and nurturance significantly related, in some form, to a childs motivation to read. While childcare workload was not a significant impact on a childs motivation, domestic workload was. As a familys household workload amplified, the childrens desire to read decreased. However, as noted through the analysis of the nurturance and culture and language features, children valued reading and their self-concept of reading much more when families spent more time together, encouraged values, and engaged in religious literacy activities.

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

In addition, Craig Winston LaCroy and Judy Krysik, authors of Predictors of Academic Achievement and School Attachment among Hispanic Adolescents (2008), share the belief that family does have an effect on a childs academic achievement. When introducing their study, LaCroy, and Krysik (2008), address the weaknesses of studies that address factors that could have an impact on academic achievement in Hispanic students. They note that the family background model and the acculturation model are not specific enough in terms of mechanisms that effect achievement and variations within groups. However, LaCroy and Krysik (2008) conduct their study to discover what factors contribute to the differences in academic achievement in Hispanic students (including family background, behavior, and makeup of the school and the influence of peers) as well as address the ethnic variations in school achievement. Using a sample size of 127 seventh and eighth graders, of which 123 were Hispanic, LaCroy and Krysik (2008) used questionnaires to assess, SES, acculturation, school attachment, school involvement, expectations for education, peer group characteristics, parent support, and adolescent GPA, (2008, p.202). SES included parent education, occupation, structure, and economic status. Acculturation concentrated on the language the student used at home and with friends. School attachment and involvement revolved around a childs feelings towards school and their engagement in school activities. Under the category of expectations for education, children were asked if they felt they would achieve the level of school they hoped for. Peer group characteristics categorized how children described their friends by using common labels present and relevant to their everyday school life. Parent support referred to a childs interpretation of their parents assistance and encouragement. Adolescent GPA was determined from the students report card.

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

While there were only little significant differences between white and Hispanic students in regards to factors affecting achievement, (most likely due to the small sample of white students), LaCroy and Krysik (2008) did find that better grades could be predicted for Hispanic students based on parental support, peers and a students attachments to their school. However, given that this study was not tested for testretest reliability or validity (2008, p. 207), and because it was a cross-sectional study, it is conceivable that the results could be reversed as well. Unfortunately, as Thomas G. White and James S. Kim mention in their article, Teacher and Parent Scaffolding of Voluntary Summer Reading (2008) it is also believed that Hispanic students of low socio-economic background, face struggles with reading achievement as they widen the achievement gap during the summer months between grade levels. Thus, these researchers have put forth the idea that voluntary reading throughout the summer can close this achievement gap and increase reading ability and success. While addressing the importance of summer reading, the authors theorize that if minority students had more access to reading material and more guidance throughout their reading, they would become more motivated and find an increase in their enjoyment of reading. Throughout White and Kims research (2008), they provided students with books matched to their reading level and interest, teacher scaffolding at the end of the school year, and parental support throughout the summer. Two experiments were conducted and in one experiment, all students received three lessons at the end of the school year enforcing reading strategies that student may utilize throughout the summer. In experiment one, some students did not receive a book for the summer and others did. In the second experiment, White and Kim (2008) decided to break the groups up into four groups rather than two to yield even more specific results. These groups were categorized in to the following: Books Only, Books with

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

Oral Reading Scaffolding, Books with Oral Reading and Comprehension Scaffolding, and Control. The control group received no reading intervention at the end of the school year or through parent and teacher scaffolding. Using reading surveys and tests on reading achievement and oral fluency, teachers would analyze whether reading was more consistent throughout the summer and whether achievement was increased. White and Kim (2008) found that students who received books and were also provided comprehension and oral scaffolding from teachers and from parents throughout the summer, achieved far more than any of the other groups, with Hispanic students receiving 5.1 months more of learning, which is more than any other ethnic group presented. Thus, one can gather that simply giving books to students is not enough. The teacher and parental scaffolding to enhance comprehension and oral fluency must be provided as well. White and Kim (2008) also include suggestions and techniques that may be used to start a similar reading program as the ones presented in this study.

While it may seem obvious to some, that parents are one of the most influential factors on a students success in school, many people look only to educators as the only component of a students achievement. Although, teachers do play a vital role, the proper support at home will only enhance the probability of a students increase in their motivation to engage in reading and academic responsibilities. Angela Arzubiaga, Robert Rueda, and Lilia Monzo (2002) and LaCroy and Judy Krysik, (2008), recognize the profound impact family and parental factors have on the motivation and success of students. Thomas G. White and James S. Kim (2008) also share these beliefs, but in addition to their analysis of reading motivation and achievement among Hispanic students, they also offer methods of intervention to increase success in reading.

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

There are many family related factors that are an influential part of reading ability and motivation in Hispanic children, as Angela Arzubiaga, Robert Rueda, and Lilia Monzo (2002) have discussed. According to this article, there is a connectedness between Hispanic families and their childrens motivation to engage in reading. Arzubiaga, Rueda, and Monzo (2002) indentified that workload, culture and language, and nurturance significantly related, in some form, to a childs motivation to read. In addition, Craig Winston LaCroy and Judy Krysik, also share the belief that family does have an effect on a childs academic achievement. Parental support, according to Arzubiaga, Rueda, and Monzo (2002) and LaCroy and Krysik (2008), is such a vital factor in the achievement of students. While Arzubiaga, Rueda, and Monzo (2002) concentrate on the affects for Hispanic students, and LaCroy and Krysik (2008) relate this issue to students of white or Hispanic ethnicity, the importance lies in the fact that students are more likely to excel and become motivated in reading and academics when they are given the necessary support at home. Such support consists of the use of language in the household, the presence of culture, the domestic workload and parental encouragement. While both articles do present relevant and pertinent information regarding the influential factor of parental support on Hispanic students, they also acknowledge the fact that there are many other contributing factors that may affect motivation and achievement. LaCroy and Krysik (2008) note that the family background model and the acculturation model are not specific enough in terms of mechanisms that effect achievement and variations within groups. Much research does not narrow down the causes of decreased motivation and achievement. However, White and Kim (2008), pay close attention to the lack of practice as a primary cause. They contribute the lack of achievement in Hispanic students and those of underprivileged homes to the lack of reading and parental involvement in the home outside of school. While

Running Head: LITERATURE REVIEW

White and Kim (2008) share the beliefs of Arzubiaga, Rueda, and Monzo (2002) and LaCroy and Krysik (2008) in that family is a very influential part of student success and parental involvement is necessary, they take this idea one step further and suggest methods of increasing involvement and motivation throughout the summer in between grade levels. White and Kim (2008) believe books, and support from the home will enhance the amount of reading student engage in, as well increase the reading levels of those who are below grade level. They found that students who received books and were also provided comprehension and oral scaffolding from teachers and from parents throughout the summer, achieved far more than any of the other groups, with Hispanic students receiving 5.1 months more of learning. With their program, parents are becoming more involved and as Arzubiaga, Rueda, and Monzo (2002) and LaCroy and Krysik (2008) believe parental involvement is a great predictor in the achievement and success of Hispanic students in reading. As these articles address, many Hispanic students may struggle with achievements in reading due to a lack of parental support. Parents may not be fluent in the cultural language, they may not have the resources or the access to reading material, or they may not be present in the home enough to fully support the increase in their childs achievement in reading. However, while these articles address problems and issues relating to the motivation and high achievement in reading among Hispanic students, they also provide areas in which we can promote improvement and intervention. Reading throughout the summer, in conjunction with parental nurturance, support, access to reading material will promote the increase of reading practice and comprehension, and thus, possibly result in higher levels of reading achievement. With the increase of parental support, students may be better able to make connections to the world through conversation with their peers, question either the material or their peers comments, and

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increase use such comprehension abilities to score higher on assessments and even develop a love of reading. They may learn to better process their own beliefs, opinions, questions and connections of their own and of their peers. Support is the key here. Much of life revolves around support. While we are turning to family, friends, teachers, superiors, or colleagues, support from others can enhance understanding; provide additional insight, and increase confidence and ability. Therefore, support in reading and academics also seem beneficial. Reading skills allow ones mind to grow, think, analyze, comprehend and communicate while also promoting one to express desires, problems, questions, or ideas. If we can increase the amount of parental support and guidance of Hispanic students in reading, they may utilize the necessary reading skills, and thus benefit in all aspects of their lives, in and out of school, while also enhancing other academic skills that may be utilized in all content areas. All the while, students are becoming more independent, critical thinkers that take responsibility for their own thoughts, questions, ideas, and overall learning.

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References Arzubiaga, A, Monzo, L., & Rueda, R., (2002). Family matters related to the reading engagement of latino children. Journal of Latinos and Education. Jan. 2002; 1(4), pp. 241-243. Ketch, A, (2005). Conversation: The comprehension connection. The Reading Teacher. Sept. 2005; 59(1), pp. 8-13. Krysik, J., & LaCroy, C.W., (2008). Predictors of academic achievement and school attachment among hispanic adolescent. Children and Schools. Oct. 2008; 30(4), pp. 197209. White, T. G., & Kim, J. S. (2008). Teacher and parent scaffolding of voluntary summer reading. Reading Teacher, 62(2), 116-125. www.thinkexist.com