3

Stress in English compound words and collocations

3.1 Introduction Stress in English compounds, with its varying position, is a real stumbling-block for Spanishspeaking learners due mainly to the rather fixed occurrence word stress has in Spanish. Two types of phenomena are meant by variation: first, the primary stress of English compounds may go on either the first or the second element in the citation pattern and, secondly, this may also vary in connected speech. On the other hand, all citation patterns of Spanish compounds have the primary stress on the second element, irrespective of internal structure and meaning, e.g. saca corchos, cuatro cientos, cantau tor, mercado negro, radio re loj, etc. This section offers you a simplified taxonomy of the main classes of compounds and collocations. Rather than commit each particular item to memory an impossible task you are recommended to memorize the stress-assignment rules and put them into practice every time you come across a new compound. Associations between patterns and meanings as well as constant comparison between similar structures producing contrasting pairs of the type walking stick ~ rolling stone, etc. will help identify normal examples and exceptions. You are also advised to check word stress in dictionaries whenever you are in doubt and say the words out loud a number of times so as to help fix them in your memory.

3.2 Terminology Quirk et al. (1985: 1567) define compound as a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word. No account for stress is present in this definition, but later on, at pp. 1592-1593, they characterize compound nouns as generally taking the primary stress on the first element, and although they acknowledge the existence of a smaller number of compounds with the primary stress on the second element, they also admit that in some cases we may be in doubt as to whether we should regard sequences with this stress pattern as compounds or as free syntactic phrases. Now, if we leave aside stress placement as the basic criterion of analysis and take the semantic aspect as the decisive factor to identify compounds (i.e. the degree of cohesion between the elements), we will also come across certain word combinations whose compound status might be in doubt. For instance, how should we consider relatively common two-element constructions which frequently co-occur, such as slim chance and feeble hope, none of which are given as individual or even subordinate entries in dictionaries? Furthermore, should we rely on dictionary status for a two-element lexical unit to be considered a

Word stress and sentence accent

37

compound? Notice that a third criterion, that of spelling, has not been brought into the discussion, due to the fact that a fair degree of variation can be found in the way compounds are written as one single word, or as two words, either separated by a space or a hyphen. We shall bypass the difficulty posed by compounds by acknowledging the existence of other word combinations which you would also do well to incorporate into your mental lexicon, irrespective of the fact that they may not conform fully to the category of compound. Following Carney (1991: 1) we will adopt the notion of COLLOCATION, which he conveniently defines in phonological terms: Any frequently recurring two-element structure [...] for which a stress pattern may be predicted. This category includes collocations you will find in EFL dictionaries of a general kind not necessarily specialist pronunciation dictionaries, e.g. virtual reality, national curriculum, etc., plus a few others which have not got (and probably will never get) dictionary status, e.g. insufficient evidence. A random examination of the two standard pronunciation dictionaries, LPD and EPD, reveals interesting differences in the corpus offered, as the following sample of two-element collocations shows, e.g. LPD artificial insemination artificial intelligence artificial kidney artificial respiration bus conductor bus shelter bus station bus stop good afternoon good book goodbye good day good evening Good Friday Good Heavens! good looks goodman good morning good night good offices good Samaritan EPD

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Word stress and sentence accent

goodwill good-hearted good-humoured good-looking good-natured good-tempered

3.3 Compound word stress and EFL dictionaries All EFL dictionaries can be of help in matters of information about stress. As with simple words, we will use the tonetic-stress marking system, of generalized use in the British school of prosody, which indicates stressed syllables by means of (secondary stress) and (primary stress), following Kingdon (1958b), Windsor Lewis (1969), Finch & Ortiz (1982) and Cruttenden (2008). These are distributed in compounds and collocations in such a way that as in simple words only one primary stress may occur and this is always the last stress; the secondary stress always precedes the primary and never the other way round (but note chapter 1, section 1.5.iii): user- friendly Third World Home Office

The following patterns show the distribution of stresses in polysyllabic compounds and collocations as they appear in the standard pronunciation dictionaries and in the present book, e.g.

LPD personnel manager continental breakfast

EPD personnel manager continental breakfast

This work person nel manager continental breakfast

3.4 Labels for stress in compounds and collocations The stress patterns of English compounds and collocations have been given different labels in the literature. Most of them describe the placement of the main, primary stress; these are shown in (a). There is a set of labels which refers to the number of stresses and is given in (b), e.g. English teacher (=profesor(a) de ingls) (a) early stress initial stress compound stress English teacher (=profesor(a) ingls(a)) late stress final stress phrasal stress

Word stress and sentence accent

39

(b)

strong-weak single stress

weak-strong double stress

(i) The labels early and late, which refer to the fact that it is the first element that has more stress than the second, are found in Wells (1990: 150). (ii) Initial and final are the names used by Fudge (1984). (iii) The labels compound vs. phrasal (Chomsky & Halle, 1968) are misleading because the pattern consisting of a primary stress on the second element (which is typical of noun phrases such as an incredible blonde) can also be found in many compounds, as will be shown in the word-lists that follow; a characterization of compounds in terms of stress placement is, then, unsatisfactory. (v) The categories strong-weak (sw) and weak-strong (ws), of rhythmic nature, indicate the relative prominence of the two sequences a basic notion in metrical theory, as expressed, for instance, by Ladd (1996) and, in general, by all supporters of the metrical-autosegmental theory. (vi) The reasons for the labels single vs. double (Jones, 1956; Kingdon, 1958b; Finch & Ortiz, 1982) are that (a) by virtue of a generally agreed principle, a primary stress is also considered the last stress in an utterance; (b) a late primary stress i.e. main stress on the second lexical item can be (and normally is) preceded by a secondary stress on the first element. In this work we will use the terms single and double in order to emphasize the role of secondary stresses in processes such as stress shift. For EFL purposes, compounds and collocations can be organized according to the type of stress pattern e.g. single (early) vs. double (late), i.e. a phonological classification or according to the function of the resulting collocation e.g. nouns vs. adjectives, i.e. a syntactic-functional taxonomy. Here we will take the former criterion as the basis for the organization of the corpus, and will indicate the function of the resulting pattern. The patterns exemplified here are all citation forms, i.e. the patterns of compounds and collocations said in isolation.

3.5 Single stress in compounds and collocations 3.5.1 shopkeeper

(i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 (shop) is the direct object of the action of the agent N2 (keeper). The resulting collocation functions as noun. (ii) The agent usually ends in -er, -or , and can be either human or non-human. (iii) Sometimes the direct object relationship between N1 and N2 is less obvious, as can be seen in (b). (iv) Exceptions are: stage manager, interior decorator.

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Word stress and sentence accent

(a)

ballet dancer bricklayer cement mixer eggbeater goalkeeper housekeeper lie detector painkiller purse-snatcher songwriter tin opener babysitter cradle-snatcher housebreaker schoolteacher theatregoer

bandleader bullfighter DVD player food processor hairdresser landowner mine detector paper fastener screwdriver stallholder tongue twister chain-smoker drug dealer hunger striker screenwriter vacuum cleaner

blood donor cabinet-maker dishwasher fortune-teller hairdryer law-breaker moneylender park keeper shareholder taxpayer word processor churchgoer fishmonger pressure cooker slum dweller

bookkeeper cash dispenser dressmaker glue-sniffer holidaymaker lawnmower newsreader proofreader skyscraper taxi driver

(b)

coat hanger grasshopper scaremonger stockbroker

3.5.2

bookshop

(i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 (book) delimits the meaning of N2 (shop), by stating what type of thing it is. The resulting compound usually functions as noun. (ii) Single stress is the commonest pattern in N1 + N2 collocations. In many other examples, an N1 with more specific reference favours double stress, as in kitchen sink (see section 3.6.1). Similarly, whereas school secretary has specific reference, schoolboy has not. In other pairs this criterion does not seem to operate very clearly, e.g. uni versity lecturer vs. school teacher. (iii) Single vs. double stress can be responsible for changes in meaning, as in (b). (a) address book airline amusement park bank account bedspread birthday card blood bank blood transfusion bookcase boyfriend Christmas card coffee shop advice column airmail apron strings bar code bedtime birthday party blood group blood vessel bookmark bread box clothes brush coffee break aircraft airport aptitude test bedclothes birth certificate birthplace blood presure book club bookstall cash card clothesline coffee cup airhostess air terminal backache bedroom birth control birthrate blood relation book token bookworm child abuse clothespeg coffee table

Word stress and sentence accent

41

credit card daytime dish towel football girlfriend handbag headphone identity card library card money order mountain bike newsagent night shift paper clip phone box pocketbook post office punctuation mark raincoat road works saladbar schoolmate sea level sex appeal shop assistant soup spoon sports car sunglasses tablecloth tea party tear gas timetable video game webpage window seat (b)

crime rate death penalty drug abuse footnote guidebook headache heart attack key ring license plate motorbike mountain range newsletter nightclub paperback phonecard police force postcard puppy dog rainstorm rush hour savings account schoolmistress seaport shock treatment slot machine spacecraft sports jacket sunroof table tennis tea towel teaspoon toilet roll watercolour website windstorm

cupboard love death rate drug addict footpath hairpin headlamp heart failure keyboard life insurance motorcar nail scissors newspaper nighttime paperwork photo album police officer press conference question mark record library safety belt schoolgirl schoolwork seashell shoelace sound effects spacelab stamp collection supply teacher teabag teamwork teatime toothache watermelon wheelchair word order

daylight deposit account earphones footstep hairstyle headline heat wave laptop love affair motorcycle nail varnish newsstand ozone layer phone book pocket money police station price tag question tag roadblock safety pin schoolmaster seafood seashore shoeshop soup plate space suit store detective systems analyst teabreak teapot time bomb toy shop watermill wind instrument wristwatch

family name (=surname) toy factory (=where toys are made)

family name (=family reputation) toy factory (=for a child to play with)

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Word stress and sentence accent

3.5.3

language teaching, time-consuming

(i) Noun + verb [-ing] (N + V [ing]), where N is the object of V, i.e. X teaches language, as in (a); sometimes, however, the role of the noun as object is less obvious, as in (b). (ii) Some resulting collocations can function mainly as nouns, e.g. language teaching, or mainly as adjectives, e.g. time-consuming. (a) bookbinding childbearing hair-raising housekeeping moneylending shareholding thought-provoking wind surfing air-conditioning housewarming pony-trekking window-shopping bookkeeping dressmaking hair-splitting labour-saving painstaking sidesplitting timesaving wire-tapping brainstorming food poisoning shoplifting beekeeping fee-paying heartbreaking mind reading proofreading sightseeing troublemaking word processing handwriting law-abiding ski jumping breathtaking hairdressing horseracing money laundering role playing surfriding troubleshooting wrongdoing hang-gliding oil painting tap dancing

(b)

(c)

Exceptions: data processing, family planning, zebra crossing.

3.5.4

walking stick, lending library

(i) Verb [-ing] + noun (V[ing] + N), where N is not in subject relation to V. Thus, in walking stick, the noun does not do the walking itself; the meaning is rather a stick for walking. The noun sometimes represents the place or time for the action of the verb, as in shopping centre and freezing point ; these examples are listed in (a). (ii) In lending library the noun does perform the action indicated by the verb, i.e. the library lends books, but the single-stress pattern can be explained because the action is not in progress; other examples of this type are those in (b). (iii) Contrasting examples due to single vs. double stress can be found in moving van (=a removal van) and moving van (=a van actually moving). (a) baking powder bowling alley changing room chewing gum dining room boardinghouse breathing space climbing frame dancing lesson drinking water boarding pass building block closing time dialling tone driving licence boarding school carving knife cooking facilities dining car driving seat

Word stress and sentence accent

43

driving test fishing rod insulating tape meeting point parking meter reading matter selling point shopping mall sleeping bag stepping-stone teaching hospital waiting list writing paper (b) answering machine nursing home rocking chair spinning wheel training college washing machine

filing cabinet frying pan ironing board melting point playing field reading room shaving cream singing lesson sleeping car stumbling block teething troubles waiting room

filling station hearing aid knitting needle parking light polling station recording studio shopping bag sitting room sleeping pill swimming pool tracing paper washing powder

finishing school icing sugar living room parking lot purchasing power rowing boat shopping list skipping rope spending money swimming trunks tuning fork whooping cough

cleaning woman operating system rolling pin steering wheel training course watering can

humming bird printing press sewing machine sticking plaster travelling expenses

mincing machine publishing house sparking plug teaching practice vending machine

3.5.5

grandmother, baldhead

(i) Adjective + noun (A + N) collocations are a very common type of construction in English. They usually take double stress by default, as if they were phrases. (Cf. N1 + N2 compounds in section 3.5.2, which are considered to take single stress by default.) There is, however, another group of A + N collocations with a more specialized meaning which take single stress; some of these can be considered to be long-established compounds. The number of adjectives participating in these constructions is relatively small; they are generally one- or two-syllable long and are of low semantic specialization, e.g. black, free, hard, high, etc. (ii) In some cases there is a potential contrast between the specialized meaning of the compound (with single stress, as in blackboard) and the phrase consisting of the same two elements (with double stress, as in black board), as shown in (c). (iii) In summary, the main points regarding A + N collocations are: (1) A + N collocations functioning as nouns normally have double stress, e.g. atomic energy; (2) Some A + N collocations functioning as nouns have a specialized meaning and take single stress, e.g. blackberry and the rest of the examples in (a); (3) Some A + N collocations functioning as nouns and taking single stress are called bahuvrihi /bAhu vrihi/ compounds. They are used to designate a person by

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Word stress and sentence accent

specifying a physical or mental characteristic, e.g. a man who has a grey beard is a greybeard. Others designate objects, e.g. a book with a hard cover is a hardback, etc.; see examples in (b). (a) after effects anything black people bluebird commonplace deadlock everything freelance given name grandpa greengrocer hardware high school hothouse lowbrow middle man old girl right angle short list smallpox special school sweet corn whitewash wildlife bad-mouth greenback lazybones redhead smart-arse anybody blackberry blacksmith Christian name current account dry dock first name freephone grandchild grandson greyhound highbrow high season hotline lowland middle name open day shortbread sickbay small talk strongbox sweetheart wholesale wise guy big-mouth hardback loudmouth redskin thickhead anyone blackboard black spot coldcream darkroom everybody freehand freeway granddaughter grandstand grey matter high jump high street hotplate low season middle school quicksand shortcake sick leave soft spot stronghold sweetshop wildcat anyplace blacklist bluebell comic strip deadline everyone freehold funny bone grandma green belt hardboard highlight highway last name madhouse old boy real estate shorthand sick pay software strong point whiteboard wild flower

(b)

busybody hardtop paleface sleepyhead

fathead heavyweight redbrick slowcoach

(c)

blackbird (=Sp. mirlo) blackboard (=writing surface) bluebell (=Sp. jacinto) common room (=college staff room) crossword (=type of word puzzle) funny man (= a comedian)

black bird (=any bird which is black) black board (=any board which is black) blue bell (=any bell which is blue) common room (=one used jointly) cross word (=an angry word) funny man (=a strange man)

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45

darkroom (=for processing films) English teacher (=teacher of English) greenhouse (=glass building for plants) Greenland (=Sp. Groenlandia) grey matter (=brains) heavyweight (=heaviest type boxer) hotplate (=part of a cooker) special school (=for disabled children) White House (=US Presidents residence)

dark room (= a room which is dark) English teacher (=teacher who is English) green house (=any house which is green) green land (=any land which is green) grey matter (=anything grey) heavy weight (=a weight which is heavy) hot plate (=a plate which is hot) special school (=out of the common) white house (=any house which is white)

3.5.6

moth-eaten, V-shaped

(i) Noun + participle (N + P) in which N is usually the subject of P, i.e. moths have eaten X; more examples are those in (a). (ii) The relationship between N and P is more complex in (b): in corpus based we understand based on a corpus, in toilet-trained, trained to use a toilet, and in egg-shaped, shaped like an egg. (iii) The function of the resulting collocation is adjectival and the early-stress pattern of the citation form does not vary when the compound is used either attributively or predicatively, e.g. citation form: moth-eaten attributive use: a moth-eaten sweater predicative use: Those ideas can be described as moth-eaten. (a) action-packed heartfelt moonlit sunlit windswept air-conditioned gift-wrapped red-coloured white-washed coin-operated hen-pecked snowbound terror-stricken flea-bitten horror-stricken snow-capped weather-beaten frostbitten landlocked sunburnt weather-bound

(b)

blue-coloured heartbroken shop-bought

bed-ridden oval-shaped star-spangled

cigar-shaped pear-shaped type-written

3.5.7

cookbook, daybreak

(i) Verb + noun (V + N) result in compounds functioning mainly as nouns and sometimes as adjectives; they are illustrated in (a). Exception: stop press. (ii) Noun + verb (N + V) collocations function as nouns; see (b).

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Word stress and sentence accent

(a)

breakneck chat show pickpocket stopgap corkscrew sunrise

call girl cutthroat playboy swearword fire escape sunset

carrycot holdall pushchair talk show firefly sunshine

catchword knitwear rattlesnake telltale landslide

cease-fire know-all spendthrift

(b)

rollcall

3.5.8

take-off

Verb + particle (V + Pc), originating double-stress phrasal and prepositional verbs, take single stress when functioning as nouns, e.g. to take off is nominalized as a take-off; see examples in (a). V + Pc can also function as adjective, as in a breakaway faction. backup breakup comeback fallout hangover knockout playback push-up see-through spin-off takeaway blackout brush-up countdown flashback hideaway letdown play-off rip-off shoot-out standby turnover breakdown ckeckin cutback go-ahead kickoff letup press-up roll-on sit-down stopover write-off breakthrough checkout cutout handout knockdown lookout pullover runaway sit-in tailback write-up

3.5.9

background

Adverb + noun (Adv + N) originate compounds which function mainly as nouns, e.g. aftereffect foreground in-patient overdose subsection Antichrist foreman infrastructure overheads supermarket crossroads foresight outlaw overtime underclothes forearm foretaste overcoat postscript underground

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3.5.10

Oxford Street

The noun street does not take stress in street name collocations, which makes the pattern single-stressed. On the contrary, all other words denoting thoroughfares are stressed (see section 3.6.3). Bond Street Regent Street Downing Street Fleet Street Princess Street

3.5.11

Miscellaneous

3.5.11.1 Verb + adverb originate nouns. get-together know-how 3.5.11.2 Abbreviation + noun originate nouns. A-level O level T-junction U-turn

standstill

L-driver V-neck

T-bone

3.6 Double stress in compounds and collocations

3.6.1

city centre

(i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 has specific reference, as in city centre (=the centre of the city). In all cases the resulting compound functions as noun. Sometimes N1 may represent an organization, a location, or a time, as in (a). (ii) N1 can also be a value, as in (b). (iii) Noun-genitive cases are included in (c). (a) academy award bedroom window daylight robbery family doctor fellow creature group therapy kitchen sink mass production office party school hall bank holiday block letters diningroom table family planning girl Friday hall porter life expectancy morning paper pedestrian precinct school uniform bay window bottom drawer district nurse family tree girl guide headmaster life imprisonment mother tongue platinum blonde school year bedroom slippers camp bed family allowance fellow citizen ground floor lawn tennis lump sum night watchman Saturday night shop window

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Word stress and sentence accent

town hall (b) (c) dollar bill devils advocate womens lib

trade union peso coin gentlemans agreement

twin beds pound note students union

zebra crossing

teachers pet

3.6.2

baby boy

Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where the referent is both N1 and N2, e.g. in baby boy the referent is both a baby and a boy. acid rain guardian angel poison gas strip cartoon washer-dryer baby girl infant prodigy queen bee student teacher woman driver clock radio learner driver queen mother twin brother woman writer garden city mother hen radio telescope twin sister

3.6.3

Buckingham Palace

(i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 (and sometimes also N2) is a proper name; the majority are place names, as in (a). Examples of street names are those in (b). Group (c) includes proper noun-genitive examples. (ii) Some exceptions are: Home Office, Lake District, Labour Party. See also section 3.5.10. (a) Achilles heel Chicago Tribune Gaza Strip James Bond London Bridge Mexico City Nobel Prize River Thames Tom Collins Atacama Desert Christmas Day Greater London Jane Eyre Magellan Strait Morse code North Sea Sherlock Holmes Union Jack Cambridge University Davis Cup Hudson River Loch Ness Manchester United Mother Nature Paddington Station Sherwood Forest World Bank Milton Close Spring Gardens Leicester Square Channel Tunnel Father Christmas Hyde Park London Airport Mexican wave Niagara Falls Panama Canal Shetland Islands World Cup Bedford Crescent Plymouth Grove Mancunian Way

(b)

Gloucester Avenue Oxford Circus Stainburn Drive Hammersmith Flyover Penny Lane Oxford Road

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49

(c)

Adams apple

Aladdins cave

Hobsons choice

Noahs ark

3.6.4

apple pie

(i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 (apple) is frequently a mass noun N2 (pie) is made of. All these imply intentionality, i.e. they are man-made. (ii) Exceptions to this rule are single-stressed collocations mainly with juice and cake, e.g. lemon juice, orange juice, cheesecake, chocolate cake; also cornflakes, sandcastle. (iii) Other exceptions involve unintentional accumulations rather than intended constructions, e.g. breadcrumb, raindrop, sawdust, snowflake, soap bubble, waterfall. (iv) Double vs. single stress may produce different meanings, as illustrated in (b). (a) bacon sandwich carbon dioxide crystal ball iron gate mince pie pork chop rubber band silver medal brick wall chocolate biscuit fish finger lemon curd mud pie rag doll rubber stamp stone wall bronze medal cotton wool fruit salad lemon squash plum pudding rice pudding sausage roll suede shoes camomile tea cream cracker gold medal log cabin pork pie rope ladder semolina pudding

(b)

paper bag (=bag made of paper) cheese biscuit (=one made of cheese)

paper bag (=bag for newspapers) cheese biscuit (=one for eating with cheese)

3.6.5

public transport, second- hand

(i) Adjective + noun (A + N) collocations which function as nouns usually take double stress by default, which makes this group a very productive one. The adjectives can be of high semantic specificity, as in (a), and may take the form of -ed adjectivals, e.g. guided missile. (ii) Other, less specialized, adjectives participating in compounds are shown in (b). Most of the items in this section function as nouns and a few, mainly as adjectives. (iii) Section (c) includes collocations involving proper names. The main exceptions in this group are Home Office, Long Beach, West Country, White House. (iv) A + N collocations can also function as adjectives, some of them as either pre- or postmodifiers (i.e. attributively and predicatively), such as double-stress second- hand, and others mainly or only as premodifiers (i.e. attributively), such as single-stress greenhouse in greenhouse effect (see section 3.5.5). The second- hand type of compound is illustrated in section (b). (v) Notice the capacity of double-stressed adjectives to participate in stress-shifted contexts, as explained in section 1.9. This can be seen in some of the collocations in (a), e.g. conti nental ~

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Word stress and sentence accent

continental breakfast; undi vided ~ undivided at tention. (a) absolute majority artificial respiration audiovisual aids cardinal point classified ad current affairs direct object domestic appliance general knowledge honourable mention intellectual property live performance national anthem natural science plastic surgery practical joke private school public library public school secret service sexual intercourse stringed-instrument vicious circle back garden black eye brown rice dark glasses double-decker first-class full house full stop happy medium hard drugs high-class last straw lost property middle finger plain-clothes accidental death atmospheric pressure automatic pilot citric acid common sense definite article dirty trick foreign affairs genetic engineering identical twin intensive care minimum wage native speaker nervous breakdown political prisoner prime minister professional advice public opinion sacred cow sexual discrimination skimmed milk syllabic consonant virtual reality bad news black market brown sugar dark horse easy chair first-rate full moon full-time hard cash hard labour high fidelity long-distance loudspeaker old man red tape best man black pudding close shave dead end false alarm front door free port good cause hard currency red carpet high tea long-term low tide open-air round figures ancient monument atomic energy barbed wire civil war continental breakfast diplomatic immunity domestic animal further education glottal stop industrial revolution literary criticism mobile library natural history personal computer possessive pronoun private detective proper noun public relations secret admirer sexual harassment square root undivided attention wishful thinking bestseller broad beans cold feet double bed first aid front page full-length green fingers hard disk hard shoulder last night lost cause middle class part-time round trip

(b)

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51

safe sex short circuit small print tall story (c) Arctic Circle Good Friday Holy Scripture Old Testament Red Cross Scottish Gaelic

second best short story soft furnishings wet blanket Black Sea Grand Canyon Middle Ages Open University Red Sea Supreme Court

second class slow motion strong language white elephant Common Market Greater London Middle East Pacific Ocean Roman alphabet Wild West

second thoughts small change sweet nothings

European Community Holy Ghost New York Promised Land Royal Highness Yellow Pages

3.6.6

brand- new

(i) Noun + adjective (N + A) collocations give rise mainly to adjectives. These double-stress patterns frequently undergo stress shift: as premodifier they take early-stress and as postmodifier, late stress, cf. a navy-blue sweater ~ I prefer navy- blue; see (a). (ii) A small group of N + A collocations can also function as nouns and are listed in (b). (iii) Exceptions taking single stress are relatively few: homesick, accident-prone, colourblind, poverty-stricken, streetwise. (a) bone-dry class-conscious navy-blue post-free sky-high stone-dead user-friendly bone lazy dirt cheap ozone-friendly rent-free snow-white stone deaf worldwide bottle green duty-free pitch-black sea-green stone-blind stone sober brick-red knee-deep pitch-dark sky-blue stone-cold tax-free

(b)

Amnesty International attorney general notary public poet laureate secretary-general surgeon general

director general president elect

God almighty prince consort

3.6.7

old- fashioned

Adjective + noun + adjectival [-ed] (A + N[-ed]) combinations give rise to a group of very common adjectives with double stress in their citation patterns. Stress shift modifies this default pattern in a way similar to that in the previous sections, e.g. totally absent- minded ~ an absentminded pro fessor.

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Word stress and sentence accent

absent-minded close-fisted empty-handed high-pitched long-winded open-minded short-sighted three-storeyed

bad-tempered cold-blooded empty-headed high-priced middle-aged quick-tempered stiff-necked tightfisted

broad-minded dark-haired fat-bottomed high-spirited narrow-minded quick-witted strong-minded

blue-eyed double-breasted four-legged ill-humoured one-sided round-shouldered sweet-tempered

3.6.8

home- made, ham- fisted

Noun + participle (N + P) and Noun 1 + noun 2 + adjectival [-ed] (N1 + N2[-ed]) collocations result in adjectives with double stress by default; this pattern is modified by the stress shift rule in the regular fashion, i.e. attributively: a self-contained flat and predicatively: she is very self-con tained. air-conditioned hand-knitted man-made self-employed tailor-made bell-bottomed handmade middle-aged self-made value-added filter-tipped handwritten self-centered self-satisfied ham-fisted machine-made self-contained self-taught

3.6.9

rolling stone

Verb [-ing] + noun (V[-ing] + N) originate nouns in which N is usually the subject of the verbal action in V, i.e. the stone rolls. The corresponding collocation with single stress (i.e. section 3.5.4) is much more productive. developing country flying saucer leading article living fossil missing link revolving door shooting star sliding door supporting role working-class falling star floating voter leading actor living memory moving picture running commentary sitting target spitting image underlying form working week finishing touch freezing cold leading author living wage moving staircase running total sitting tenant standing order visiting professor flying colours helping hand leading question loving kindness paying guest running water sleeping policeman standing ovation weeping willow

Word stress and sentence accent

53

3.6.10 dark blue Adjective 1 + adjective 2 (A1 + A2) produce double-stressed adjectives by default, which are readily subject to stress-shift, e.g. Anglo-A merican ~ An Anglo-American a greement. Anglo-American British-American Latin American royal blue Anglo-Chilean dark green light blue Anglo-Saxon deaf-mute light green bitter-sweet double-quick red-hot

3.6.11 good- looking Adjective + verb [-ing] (A + V[-ing]) give rise to adjectives with double stress and, consequently, to the possibility of stress-shifted versions, e.g. An easygoing teacher (attributively) ~ Hes very easy going (predicatively). ever-changing hard-working long-standing everlasting heavy-going long-suffering far-reaching long-lasting outgoing forthcoming long-running

3.6.11 Miscellaneous 3.6.11.1 Self + verb [-ing] originate adjectives: self-catering self-defeating

self-raising

self-supporting

3.6.11.2 Noun (agent) + adverb originate nouns: hanger-on looker-on runner-up 3.6.11.3 Adverb + participle give origin to adjectives: farfetched far-flung far-gone

passer-by

3.7 Three-word compounds and collocations The following lists contain some common three-word collocations in alphabetical order and classified according to their stress patterns. The pattern in 3.7.1, the most frequent, contains mainly stress-shifted modifiers attached to a final stressed noun. Conversely, in 3.7.3, the final noun is unstressed. The great majority of examples function as nouns.

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Word stress and sentence accent

3.7.1

Second World War audiovisual aids blackboard jungle commonsense decision five-star hotel middle-age spread old age pension post-dated cheque roll-top desk soft-boiled egg two-sided problem twenty-pound fine back-alley abortion broken-hearted lover first degree murder happy-go-lucky nationwide broadcast one-track mind read-only memory self-confessed liar ten-pound fee three-ring circus two-piece suit

apple pie bed ballpoint pen closed circuit television five-pound charge hard-boiled egg nextdoor neighbour one-way traffic rearview mirror self-made man test-tube baby top-class model well-balanced diet

3.7.2

morning after pill big bang theory left-luggage office no-win situation parent-teacher association good luck charm love-hate relationship non-stick frying-pan red blood cell

April Fools Day intensive care unit no-go area odd-job man school-leaving age

3.7.3

merry-go-round breast cancer research greenhouse effect water balloon fight coffee-table book inkjet printer windscreen wiper

attention-deficit disorder fire-insurance policy mature-age student

Word stress and sentence accent

55

Practice material 1. The following noun + noun collocations take single stress by default. Mark them and read them aloud: gift shop flight attendant committee member potato grower power cut power point 2. The following noun + noun collocations take stress on the first noun by default. Notice that the first noun is double-stressed, so stress shift does not apply. Mark them and read them aloud: population explosion examination paper concentration camp multiplication table registration number recreation ground Independence Day magazine stand unemployment benefit 3. The following list contains noun + noun collocations, some of which are single- and others, double-stressed. Sort them out, mark them, and read them out loud: rubber ball cycle lane health food head teacher 3. The following adjective + noun collocations take double stress by default. Mark them and read them aloud: frozen food heavy industry natural gas native speaker personal computer preventive medicine illegal immigrant juvenile delinquency derelict house postgraduate student electric car scented candle nuclear disarmament 4. The following adjective + noun collocations take double stress by default. Notice that the adjective is double-stressed, so stress shift applies. Mark them and read them aloud: low-fat food homegrown vegetables occupational therapy heaven-sent opportunity oceanic waters 5. The following verb[-ing] + noun collocations take double stress because the noun is the subject of the verbal action. Mark them and read them aloud: closing remark pioneering work practising teacher cutting edge 6. Some of the following verb[-ing] + noun collocations take single and others, double stress. Identify the stress patterns, sort them into groups and read them aloud: sticking point learning disability firing-squad losing battle running shoe mining industry fishing ground greeting card learning process consulting room pronouncing dictionary 7. The following collocations derive from noun + verb [-ing] constructions and take single stress because the noun is the object of the verb. Mark them and read them aloud:

56

Word stress and sentence accent

habit forming 8.

namedropping

decision-making

phone-tapping

The following + collocati

9.

Mark the following pairs and explain the different patterns: 1. visiting professor - visiting hours 2. family doctor - family man 3. living fossil - living standard 4. drinking water - running water 5. Home Office - home office 6. steel band - steel mill 7. sex offender - persistent offender

10. Organize the following three-word collocations according to their stress patterns: Third World countries infant mortality rate front-page news silver wedding anniversary public-address system peak time traffic computer aided design redbrick university teacher training-college second-class citizen daylight saving time left-hand drive New Years Eve fairy godmother fancy dress party great-grandmother all-night party New York City stone-cold sober old-peoples home 11. Mark the following utterances and read them aloud. Explain your marking: 1. 2. The girl was accused of shop-lifting at a shoe shop. 3. The forthcoming election will certainly be a close-run thing. 4. At my workstation, I have a photocopier, a filing cabinet and a fax machine. 4. some washing-up liquid. 5. We have to go our separate ways. 6. No hard feelings