Chapter 6: Learning

Introduction A Definition of Learning y y y Learning a process through which experience produces a lasting change in behavior or mental processes Leads to a lasting change, more than a fleeting reaction Affects behavior/mental processes

Behavioral Learning versus Cognitive Learning y y y Long standing controversy behaviorists vs. cognitive psychologists Disregard mental processes and focus on observable stimuli and responses Behavioral view too limiting inferences about hidden mental processes needed

Learning versus Instincts y y y y Instinctive behavior/species-typical behavior heavily influenced by genetic programming o Bird migrations, animal courtship, nursing Not influenced greatly by experience Human behavior greatly influenced by learning and not instinct Learning ability to adapt quickly

Simple and Complex Forms of Learning y y y y Habituation learned non responsiveness to stimulation o Relatively simple form Mere exposure effect preference for stimuli to which there was previous association with something pleasant does not matter Behavioral learning classical conditioning, operant conditioning o Connection between two stimuli Cognitive learning insight and imitative behavior require theories beyond behavioral learning

What sort of learning does classical conditioning explain? y y y Ivan Pavlov Animals salivate before food Classical conditioning basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response

The Essentials of Classical Conditioning y y y y y Acquisition y y y y y y y Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) automatically provokes a reflexive response Unconditional response (UCR) reflex UCS-UCR connection no learning Acquisition initial learning stage neutral stimulus pared with UCS Conditioned stimulus (CS) formally neutral stimulus Conditioned response (CR) same response produced by UCS CS and UCS must be presented close together in time Reflex simple automatic response Reflex could be associated with a neutral stimuli Connection can be learned Dogs salivate upon hearing a bell Neutral stimulus stimulus without any reflex-provoking power

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery y y y y Conditioned response not permanent Extinction loss of reaction to CS when UCS is removed Spontaneous recovery conditioned response may reappear spontaneously some time after extinction, generally at lower intensity Extinction only suppresses the CR learning to not respond to CS

Generalization y y y Stimulus generalization process that involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli similar to CS Often present in acquired fears such as fear of all dogs instead of one breed Apply old reflexes in new situations

Discrimination Learning y y Stimulus discrimination when an organism learns to respond to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar Opposite of generalization

Conditioning an Experimental Neurosis y y Experimental neurosis behavioral pattern in which agitation occurs as discrimination between objects become progressively difficult Model for deterioration of behavior in stressed individual

Applications of Classical Conditioning y y Offers simple explanations for many behaviors Tools for eliminating unwanted behaviors

The Notorious Case of Little Albert y y y y y y y y John Watson, Rosalie Rayner first showed conditioned fear in humans experimentally Conditioned an infant (Albert) to react fearfully to a white laboratory rat Rat paired with aversive UCS sound created by striking a steel bar with a mallet Little Albert reacts with fear at rat (CS) alone Generalization of fear fear of other furry objects Aversion to furry objects short lived World War II call to battle stations (CS) for emotional arousal Also provides some tools to deal with conditioned fears o Mary Cover Jones unconditioned Peter (two year old) from a fear of white rats o Increase degrees of toleration o Counterconditioning teaches patients to respond in a relaxed manner to CS o helps with phobias

Conditioned Food Aversions y y y learned behavior to avoid food associated with illness ready formation of association between illness and food food aversions can develop even with a long delay between CS and UCS

A Challenge to Pavlov y y y y Taste aversion learning not entirely learned contradicts part of classical conditioning Tendency to develop taste aversions part of biological nature Require innate disposition to associate sickness with food Don t make same association to nonfood items that accompanied food

Conditioning Coyotes: An Application y y y Aversive conditioning can dissuade coyotes from attacking sheep Toxic lamb burgers in sheepskins coyotes eat and develop a distaste for lamb meat Conditioning involves both nature and nurture

How do we learn new behaviors by operant conditioning? y y y Voluntary behaviors controlled by rewards and punishments not in classical conditioning Operant observable behavior an organism uses to affect the environment Operant conditioning form of learning in which behavior change is brought about by the consequences of behavior

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In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that the behavior will occur again. Accounts for wider spectrum of behavior than classical conditioning Explains new behaviors not just reflexive behavior

Skinner s Radical Behaviorism y y y B.F. Skinner (founder of operant conditioning) idea that most powerful influences on behavior ore its consequences (idea from Edward Thorndike) Law of effect idea that responses that a produced desirable results would be leaned into the organism Things in mind cannot be observed not used, just observable behavior

The Power of Reinforcement y y y Reinforcer a condition (involving either the presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response and strengthens the response Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by occurring after the response and making the behavior more likely to occur again Negative reinforcement the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior

Reinforcing Technology: The Skinner Box y y y y Operant chamber boxlike apparatus that can be programmed to deliver reinforcers and punishers contingent on an animal s behavior Set to control timing and frequency of reinforcement Could be used without researcher s presence baby tender crib not true, just looked like an operant chamber

Contingencies of Reinforcement y y School encourage continual studying with grades throughout the year Reinforcement contingencies relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response

Continuous versus Intermittent Reinforcement y Continuous reinforcement type of reinforcement schedule by which all correct responses are reinforced o Useful early in learning process Shaping operant learning technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response Continuous reinforcement best strategy for teaching and learning new behaviors

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Problems accidental failure to reward means signal that response was incorrect, loses reinforcing quality as organism becomes satiated Intermittent reinforcement (partial reinforcement) type of reinforcement schedule by which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced No need to discriminate correct response from and incorrect one Intermittent reinforcement best way to maintain behaviors that have already been learned Resistant to extinction Extinction (in operant conditioning) process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement y y y Programs specifying the frequency and timing of reinforcements Ratio schedule rewards subject after a certain number of responses Interval schedule provides reward after a certain time interval

Ratio Schedules y y y Rewards based on number of responses Fixed ratio (FR) schedules programs by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, unvarying number of responses (ex. Factory work) Variable ratio (VR) schedules reinforcement programs by which the number of responses required for a reinforcement varies from trial to trial (ex. Telemarketers)

Interval Schedules y y Reinforcement based on responses made within a certain time period Fixed interval (FI) schedules programs by which reinforcement is contingent on a certain, fixed time period (ex. Monthly paycheck) o Modest productivity until near end of interval, then rapid increase before deadline Variable interval (VI) schedules programs by which the time period between reinforcement varies from trial to trial o most unpredictable o less than VR schedule

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers y y y y stimuli that fulfill basic biological needs provide reinforcement primary reinforcers reinforcers that have an innate basis because of biological value Conditioned/secondary reinforcers stimuli that acquire their reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers Token economy therapeutic method, based on operant conditioning, by which individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act as secondary reinforcers; tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards and privileges

Preferred Activities as Reinforcers: The Premack Principle y y Opportunity to perform desirable activities can reinforce behavior Premack principle concept that a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred activity

Reinforcement across Cultures y y y y y y y Operant learning apply to all animals with a brain What serves as a reinforce varies wildly Choice depends on learning and survival instincts Humans secondary reinforcement very important Culture plays large role in determining what acts as a reinforce Culture shapes reinforcement and vice versa Culture set of behaviors originally learned by operant conditioning and shared by a group of people

The Problem of Punishment y y y y Punishment an aversive stimulus which, occurring after a response, diminishes the strength of that response Positive punishment application of an aversive stimulus after response Omission training (negative punishment) removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response, leading to a decrease in behavior, removal of a reinforce Must be administered consistently intermittent punishments not very effective

Punishment versus Negative Reinforcement y y Both involve unpleasant stimuli Used to produce opposite effects on behavior o Punishments decrease a behavior o Negative reinforcement increases a response s likelihood to appear again Positive add, negative remove

The Uses and Abuses of Punishment y y y y y y y y Punishment and threat of punishment keep people inline Produces immediate change in behavior reinforcing to punisher Does not work long term Power of punishment disappears after threat of punishment is removed Punishment triggers escape or aggression Punishment and aggression seen as legitimate means of influencing others Punishment makes the learner apprehensive inhibits learning new and better responses Learned helplessness give up attempt to resist, feeling of hopelessness, can lead to depression

Punishment often applied unequally

Does Punishment Ever Work? y y Can work well in limited circumstances (ex. Stop self destructive behavior of autistic children) Conditions that must be met: o Swift immediate o Certain o Limited in duration and intensity o Clearly target behavior o Limited to situation in which the response occurred o Not give mixed messages to the punished individual o Most effective omission training

Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared y y Difference in consequences of behavior Sequence of stimulus and response o Classical response to past stimulation o Operant directed at attaining some future reinforcement or avoid punishment Operant effective in encouraging new behaviors Classical same responses to new stimuli Extinction o Classical withhold UCS o Operant reinforce withheld Operant not based on automatic reflex, more voluntary

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How does cognitive psychology explain learning? y y y y Insightful events/flashes of sudden understanding hard to explain Cognitive learning responsible for flashes of insight Learning does not always show immediately in behavior learning reflected in mental activity alone Some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone

Insight Learning: Kohler in the Canaries with the Chimps y y y y y Found behaviorists explanation too limiting Sought to develop own theories Mental processes had to be an essential component of learning Chimps could solve complex problems by combining simpler behaviors previously learned Not mindlessly using conditioned behaviors recognizing perceptions of problems

Insight learning form of cognitive learning in which problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions

Cognitive Maps: Tolman Finds Out What s on a Rat s Mind y y Cognitive map mental representation of physical space Used to navigate through familiar environment

Mental Images Not Behaviors y y Cognitive map only way for rat to maneuver through maze More abstract mental representation of maze s spatial layout needed