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Electromagnetic Surveying
Electromagnetic methods are finding increasing use in environmental, engineer-
ing, and archaeological applications hecause of their high resolution and speed
and ease of use. However, the basic physics behind electromagnetic methods is
more complicated than for most other geophysical methods. In this chapter we
try to give you an understanding and appreciation of the basie physics behind
EM induction, rather than presenting these tools as a black box method that is
often used but seldom understood, In addition to geologic applications, the use
of electromagnetic induction is common in everyday life. Electromagnetic induc-
tion is used by metal detectors at airports, by magnetic tape recorders, by digi-
tal computer memory, and by transformers that transmit electric power over
large distances.
Electromagnetic methods are sensitive to variations in electrical properties of
subsurface materials and can map out regions with enhanced conductivity because
of the presence of fluids, metals, or other variations, Electromagnetic induction
instruments induce currents in conductors within the Earth without having to
make direct contact with the ground. Such instruments can collect data rapidly and
have the additional advantage that no cables are needed, Ground-penetrating
radar methods are much like seismic reflection methods but are sensitive to vari-
ations in electrical properties of subsurface layers. They have high resolution but
limited depth penetration. With GPR detailed shallow subsurface radar reflection
images can be made rapidly
In this chapter we begin with an introduction to electromagnetic wave prog
agation and then discuss the basic physics of electromagnetic induction, We
describe the physical properties that electromagnetic waves aro sensitive to,
including conductivity and dielectric permittivity. Factors common to electro-
magnetic wave propagation, such as absorption, attenuation, and skin depth,
are explained. Specific inductive electromagnetic techniques are then covered,
followed by ground-penetrating radar methods and case studies using EM induc-
tion and GPR methods.
4998.14. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Electromagnetic waves include light, radar, radio, microwaves, gamma rays,
X-rays, and others, all of which involve the propagation of electric and mag-
netic fields through space with velocity ¢ = 3 x 10° m/sec. Electromagnetic waves
are produced by the acceleration of electrons or other charged particles, The
differences between the various types of electromagnetic waves are related to their
frequency and wavelength. Figure 8.1 shows the electromagnetic spectrum and
the names associated with frequency and wavelength ranges, which often are
not well defined and sometimes overlap. For example, EM waves with wave-
Jongth about 10 m are called gamma rays if their origin is nuclear and X-
if their origin is atomic. Humans experience EM waves differently depending
on their wavelengths: Our eyes detect wavelengths between 4 and 7 x 10'm
(visible light), whereas our skin detects longer wavelengths (inérared). The sun
emits not only visible light but IR (infrared) and UV (ultraviolet) as well. The
portion of the EM spectrum used in geophysical exploration covers a wide range.
On the high end of the spectrum are EM waves used for ground-penetrating
radar (GPR), ranging from approximately 100 MHz to 1 GHz. Simple metal detec-
tors use the 1-10 kHz range, The Geonies EM31 ground conductivity meter oper-
ates at 9.8 kHz, and the Geonics EM34 operates at frequencies of 0.4-6.4 kHz.
At the lower-frequency end of the EM spectrum are induced polarization tech-
niques, which use frequencies of approximately 10 Hz.
A complete description of EM waves is based on the laws of electricity and
magnetism as expressed in an important set of partial differential equations called
Maxwell's equations, Aithough solving differential equations is beyond the scope
of this book, derivatives and fields changing with time are concepts that are at a
level appropriate for undergraduate geophysics courses, and these are useful to
contemplate to better understand how EM induction works. Maxwell's equations
include the following:
1. Gauss’s Law, which relates an electric field (the £ field) to its sou
divD=q 60
where D is the electric field displacement and q is the electric charge
density.
2, A similar law for the magnetic field (the 4 field)
div B=0 (8.2)
where B is the magnetic induction or flux density.
3. Faraday’s Law, which states that an electric field is produced by a
changing magnetic field
(8.3)
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