SCHOOL OF HOUSING, BUILDING AND PLANNING

REG 162 INTRODUCTION OF STRUCTURE

NAME: NORKAMALIAH BINTI SHAHRIN MATRIC NO.: 103034 MAJOR: URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING LECTURER: DR. NORIZAL MD. NORDIN SUBMISSION DATE: 17.3.2009

LAB REPORT EXPERIMENT 1 TITLE: Beam in reaction. OBJECTIVE: To examine reaction in beam is supported short and experience concentrated burden. INTRODUCTION: Beam is one structural member which supported load on longitudinal axis its. Beam is one long and slender structure. Beam is in the event horizontal customary. Found 4 types beam namely, beam with hanging end, simply supported beam, continuous beam and cantilever beam. Load can be divided into 2 namely, secondary main burden and burden. Main load was dead load, applied load or life, snow and wind loading load. Secondary load also was load contraction, heat load, deposit and dynamic load. APPARATUS: Spring and weight scale.

PROCEDURE: Arrange the apparatus followed diagram 1 and 2. Make sure the beam really horizontal condition using regulator screw. 1. Load the beam with a convergent mass, in a variety distance (x) from left supporter (A). The reaction value of the beam record for every convergent (M) which is using and attention to every distance. 2. Convergent mass of two (M1, M2) as diagram 2 and all the reaction and distance recorded with conscientiously. 3. A convergent mass M3 put it at Y distance. Record the reaction at balance with attention. The value of M3 and Y not give and need to find from the experiment. The reaction of R1, R2, R3, and R4 calculate by using moment principle and compare the value with the reading from the balance spring. RESULT: Single Load for M = 2kg Distance X (mm) 375 500 750 1000 Reaction of R1 to A 26-12 = 14 22-12 = 10 18-12 = 6 12-12 = 0 Reaction R2 to B 20-12 = 8 22-12 = 10 27- 12 = 15 32-12 = 20

Two load for, M1 = 0.5kg, M2 = 1.5kg. Distance m (mm) 125 250 375 Distance n (mm) 875 750 625 Reaction of R3 to A 20-12 = 8 21-12 = 9 22-12 = 10 Reaction of R4 to B 26-12 = 14 25-12 = 13 24-12 = 22

ANSWER Calculation for M3 and y M3 Y

1050-Y

1N (A) F = F ; M3 = 1+14 = 15 N

14 N (B)

Moment at A, 15Y=14(1050) Y=980 Moment at B, 1000=15(1050-Y) 15750-15Y=1050 15Y=14700 Y=980 So, M3 = 15/9.81 = 1.52 kg M3:15N Elucidate Reason inaccuracy reason and give your conclusion. Other reason happened outcome of experiment inaccuracy was: There are several problems rises during experiment carried out namely problem in experiment apparatus. For example, when reading taken from spring scale, parallax error may happen. Eye's condition that does not parallel can influence value achieved.

 Decision inaccuracy also attributed environmental factor. Rugged floor surface, apparatus blowing of wind and equipment unstable could cause reading inaccuracy. Experiment equipment also influence decision inaccuracy. Many apparatus used already long. Among its causes by problem of spring scale. Spring in its not able like clockwork and right verdict unobtainable. DISCUSSION: Had been differences between which decision achieved through experiment and through work method (theory). Case this is because may be consequences occurance of error such as zero error, apparatus error no accurate or inaccurate reading when making experiment. CONCLUSION: Dutchman will react with force when one load imposed upper beam. Beam would stay in equilibrium condition when internal and external force number same. Distance influence in load distribution moment in beam. Reading inaccuracy could be overcome with take some reading to count average reading and replace new experiment equipment. Here by inaccuracy problem reading is able to overcome. REFERENCES: Pengenalan Analisis Struktur (Zulkifli Md. Salleh & Saiful Anuar A.Rahim) Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka 1991. Struktur Untuk Arkitek (Bryan J.B Gauld penterjemah Supiah Samsudin) Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka 1992.

LAB REPORT EXPERIMENT 2 TITLE: Determine bending moment at beam with easy support. OBJECTIVE: 1. To comprehend the action of the moment of resistance within beam. 2. To measure the bending moment at a normal section of a loaded beam and to compare it with the theoretical value. INTRODUCTION: A length of material supported horizontally at two points in such a way that it will carry vertical loads is called a beam. The loading perpendicular to its longitudinal axis causes bending and it most cases transverse shearing. In the simplest example the loads and supporting reactions act in a vertical plane containing the longitudinal axis, and the beam has a rectangular cross section. The loads and support reactions are the external forces acting on the beam and they must be in equilibrium. But in order to study the strength of the beam it is necessary to know how these external forces affect it. As the theory appendix shows, the mathematical method is to assume the beam is cut into two parts by a transverse section and then to examine the equilibrium of each part. To maintain equilibrium it is evident that certain forces must be introduced at the cut is not there these same forces exist internally in the material of the beam. In this experiment a horizontal beam has actually been cut into two part (A) and (B) by a vertical cross section, and is then held together with spring (or spring balances) which must produces a system of forces equivalent to those which would exist internally in the beam at that section if it had not been cut. Since the forces in part (A) acting on part (B) must be equal and opposite to those in (B) acting on (A), it follows that the same values will be obtained by working to the right or left of the section plane. Given a horizontal beam with vertical loading the internal forces will be 1. For vertical equilibrium a shearing forces in the section plane.

2. For equilibrium of moments a moment of resistance due to compression in the top half of the beam section and tension in the bottom half. In the experimental beam the second system of forces is replaced by compression at a hinge in the beam and tension in the under slung spring balance. The vertical restraint is provided by the half housing at the end of part (A) which fits on the ball bearing pinned to the mating end of part (B). APPARATUS: The experimental beam is in two parts, the smaller left hand part being (A) and the larger right hand part being (B). At the section normal to the beam axis where they join a pair of ball bearings pinned in (B) fits in half housings fixed in (A), thus forming a frictionless hinge. A moment of resistance about the hinge is provided by an under slung spring balance which acts at a lever arm of 150mm. Two and bearing on stands support the beam, and the several stirrup shaped load hangers can be threaded onto the two parts of the beam. A sprits level is provided to help set up the beam. However, it is generally sufficient to line up parts (A) and (B) by eye, and to re-align them by adjusting the screw on the spring balance each time the load is altered. PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the beam supports permanently as shown above to provide a span of 900mm. 2. Make a pencil mark on the side of the beam 300mm from the face of the shear section. Use this to position the beam on its supports.

3. Make pencil marks on top of the beam at 100mm from the left hand support and 400mm from the right hand support. Suspend two of the load hangers at these positions and set up the other hanger in the groove just to the right of the shear section. 4. The apparatus is now ready for part 1 of the experiment. 5. The should also be a pencil mark on the top of the beam at 300mm from the right hand support in readiness for part 2. 6. A spirit level is provided to help in aligning the beam, but it is just as good to take a line of sight along the rear top corner of the beam. The beam support have been fixed check at 900mm span as described in the diagram above and that the beam is positioned so that the bearing pin in part (B) is 300 mm from the left hand support A. Part 1 1. Position the load hanger 100mm from A, the second hanger in the groove just to the right of the section (300mm from A) and the third hanger 300mm from B. 2. Align the two parts of the beam using the adjustment on the spring balance and note the initial no load reading in Table 1. 3. Place a 10 N weight on the first hanger, re-align the beam and read the balance. 4. Move the weight to the second and third hangers in turn repeating the procedure. Repeat the whole procedure using a 20 N weight. Part 2 1. Without altering the load hangers put a 5N weight on the second hanger, align the beam and record the balance reading. 2. Then add 10N weight to the first and the third hangers, align, and re-read the balance. Enter the result in Table 2. 3. Move the third hanger to 400mm from B and after aligning the beam record the new no load reading. Try two arrangements of the same total loading by placing 5N on the first hanger and 12N on the third hanger for one balance reading followed by moving the 10N from the third to second hanger for the next reading. RESULT: Part 1

Table 1 Spring balance readings for bending moment at C Load (N) 0 10 20 Part 2 A C B Balance Rdg. (N) / Net Force (N) for load at W1 W2 W3 15 15 15 19 28 22 23 39 29

W1

W2

W3

Table 2 Spring balance reading for bending moment at C Loading (N) 5 25 Loading (N) 0 1 2 Balance Rdg. (N) 22 32 Balance Rdg. (N) 15 28 32 Net Force (N) Bending Moment (Nmm)

Net Force (N)

Bending Moment (Nmm)

PENGIRAAN Bahagian 1 Contoh kiraan (A) dalam Jadual 3.

100mm

10N 800mm

A C Ay a) Jumlah daya ufuk, Fx = Fx Ax = Bx =0 b) Ambil momen pada titik B, B = B 10 (800) = Ay (900) Ay = 80 9 N c) Jumlah daya pugak, Fy = Fy Ay + By = 10 By = 10 80 9 = 10 9 N Keratan rentas pada C: i. Bahagian kiri, A Ambil momen pada C, C = C 10 (200) + M = 80 9 (300) M = 667 Nmm ii. Bahagian kanan, B Ambil momen pada C, C = C 10 9 (600) = M M = 667 Nmm By

Bahagian 2(b) Contoh kiraan (B) dalam Jadual 4.

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10N 5N 100mm 2N 400mm 200mm 200mm

A C Ay a. Jumlah daya ufuk, Fx = Fx Ax = Bx =0 b. Ambil momen pada titik A, A = A By (900) = 5 (100) + 10 (300) + 2 (500) By = 5 N c. Jumlah daya pugak, Fy = Fy Ay + By = 17 N Ay = 17 5 = 12 N Keratan rentas pada C: 1) Bahagian kiri, A Ambil momen pada C, C = C 5 (200) + M = 12 (300) M = 2600 Nmm 2) Bahagian kanan, B Ambil momen pada C, C = C 2 (200) + M = 5 (600) M = 2600 Nmm By

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12

Presumption: - Moment in left side, A equal to moment in right side, B. Part 2(a)

5N 300mm A C 3.33N 1.67N 600mm B

3.33N

0 A

C 0 B -1.67N 999Nmm

0 A C B

-1002Nmm

13

14

5N 100mm A 200mm

10N 200mm C

2N 400mm B

12N

12N 7N

5N

0 A 1200Nmm 1400Nmm

C 0 B -3N -5N

0 A C B

-2000Nmm -600Nmm 10N 100mm A C 15.56N 9.44N 5.56N 0 A 1556Nm m 1112Nmm 168Nmm 0 A C B 0 C -9.44N 0.56N 0 B 200mm 5N 300mm 10N 300mm B

15.56N

-2832Nmm
15

10N 100mm A 200mm

5N 300mm C

10N 300mm B

15.56N

15.56N 5.56N

9.44N

0 A 1556Nm m 1112Nmm C

0.56N 0 B -9.44N 168Nmm

0 A C B

-2832Nmm

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Part 2(b)

5N 100mm 400mm

12N 400mm

A B
9.78N 9.78 N 4.78N 7.22N

0 -7.22N 1912Nmm 978Nmm 0

B
-2888Nmm

Issue: 1. Do outcome of experiment consistence with theory? Yes. Although had been differences between decision and value in theory calculation, but it is not big his difference. This difference may have been caused by several factors. Among them was may have been caused by spring elasticity in spring balance. Reading am being recorded may not be equal with real value if spring has been lost elasticity. 2. How far results from Part 1 explain linear behavior that structure?

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In Part experiment 1, all positions hanger be in same place during experiment. Then nett force of any burden any hanger can be evaluated in proportion form values got in Part 1. Although decision Part 1 other of Part 2, but value get from still ably defined linear behavior that structure. This are because value ratio found will be small, namely 0.97 only. DISCUSSION: Those problems faced: A) Pursuance bending moment determination test in simply supported beam, there are several problems namely experiment error arise. For example error parallax may happen when reading taken from balance. B) Apart from that, found distance movement x during burden adding to suspensors and level beam do not stay accurately horizontal because laboratory floor rugged. This problem is able to overpower with rotate spring balance by slow to seek smoother horizon level. C) By pushing value 'no load' at every spring reading counterbalance, we may determine force 'net' which produces moment in C moment flexible can be computed by multiplying this figure with 150mm. D) Moment = force x distance perpendicular. That System consist linear structure elastic, reading- individual reading may be added to burden case assessment various. E) When burden doubled, bending moment also doubled on C of which decision achieved found experimental value was large by average. CONSLUSION: Beam is defined as an element is supported by horizon on two point and support vertical burden. Burden vertical to his longitude axis result in curve and shear. Burden and reaction in supporter officiated in vertical plane to beam simplest. Objectives carry out bending moment in beam was understand moment of resistance action in beam and measure bending moment in normal section beam is burdened and compare his value with value of theory.

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LAB REPORT EXPERIMENT 3 TITLE: To determine shear force at beam with simply support. OBJECTIVE: 1. To observe and understand the action of a shear in a beam. 2. To measure the shear force at a normal section of a loaded beam and to check its agreement with theory. INTRODUCTION: 1. Beam was element is supported by horizon on two point further support vertical burden. 2. Assume a beam light AB string in horizontal plane above two supporter in every his end, where one 2W's burden set amidst that span. 3. Ps part cut make PB being divided past go down because be instability in that part. 4. To avoid it its happened, a vertical force kea on, S placed and a M's moment, imposed on beam that, take action in fighting clockwise direction 5. This proven that, part beam PB has create one same force his magnitude with S, and a its moment that magnitude same with moment, M just now. 6. Inner strength which acted that is, S named 'shear force' .It measures parallel and like-minded with material surface. 7. While M, was bending moment formed in beam that.
2W A B

---------

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APPARATUS: Load hanger, spring counterbalance, steel bearings, hinge smooth, horizon determinant mercury, pin bearings, beam steel . PROCEDURE: Part 1 1. Position one load hanger 100mm from A, the second hanger in the groove just to the right of the shear section C ( 310mm from A ) and the third hanger 400mm from the right hand support B ( 500mm from A ). Use the tensioning adjustment on the under slung spring and the spring balance to align the two part of the beam. The spring balance reading should be recorded as the no load datum value. 2. Place a 10N weight on the third hanger 400mm from B and re-align the beam using the tensioning adjustments. Read and note spring balance force. The different between this force and the datum value is the shear at C due to the 10N load. 3. Repeat the procedure with 20N on the third hanger, remove the 20N load and place 10N on the second hanger. Re-align the beam and recorded the spring balance force. Finally transfer the 10N load to the first hanger and re-align the beam. Recorded the spring balance force, which should be less than the datum values showing that the shear at C is negative. Part 2 1. Upload the beam and move the third hanger to 300mm from B. Align the beam and note the new no load datum value of the spring balance. 2. Place 5N on the first hanger and 12N on the third. Record the balancing shear force of the re-aligned beam in a table such as below.

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RESULT: Value of the load as shown below, Part 1 A. Load on 3rd hanger ( 400mm from B ) Spring balance force Shear force Qc Theoretical Ratio expt./ theory B. Load on 2nd hanger ( 310mm from AB ) Spring balance Shear Theory Ratio C. Load on 1st hanger Spring balance force Shear force Q Theoretical Q Ratio expt./ theory Part 2 Load (N) at positions W1 W2 W3 0 0 0 5 00 12 5 2 10 5 10 10 Balance Force (N) 2.0 5.6 63 11.3 Shear force Qc (N) Expt Theory Ratio 0 0 3.6 3.44 1.05 4.3 4.1 1.05 9.3 9.3 1.0 (N) (N) (N) (N) 0 2.5 0 0 10 1.4 -1.1 -1.1 1.0 (N) (N) (N) (N) 0 2.5 0 0 10 9.0 6.5 6.56 0.99

(N) (N) (N) (N)

0 0 0

10 6.8 4.3 4.44 0.97

20 11.3 8.8 8.89 0.99

Average of Ratio Expt. / Theory = 1.01 Comment: The flexing of the under slung spring appears to affect the spring balance readings by about 1.15N. The datum value * in Part 2 is too low ( this can be checked by comparing the datum values of Part 1 and @ given a load hanger weighs 2N).

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QUESTION ANSWER AND DISCUSSION: Outcome of experiment would be consistent with theory. For example, for experiment Part 1, experimental value which placed 10N's burden in hanger first was 8.8 N while value get theoretically namely 8.89 N both this value having as much as deviation, (8.89-8.8) x 100% = 1.02% 8.8 fugginess show that this outcome of experiment is pretty similar with outcome of theory. 2.

Consider the vertical equilibrium of the part AX of the beam if it is cut by a section at X

There must be a force Qx acting within the material of the beam such that Qx = RA And the section the equal and opposite internal force Qx acting on the part XB isin equilibrium with and R that is: Qx = P- RB Qx Qx = 0 RA (P-RB) = 0 RA + RB = P

Discussion:

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Throughout the experiments and the text books the definition of positive shear is that it is produced by an upward external force acting to the left of the section. With reference to the above diagram the shear force at section XX is + RA. It follows that to the right of the section downward external forces produce positive shear that is in the above example the shear force at section XX is also given by RB + P. As P is greater than R this is also positive. Shear Force Diagram Using the length of the beam as a base, the ordinates of a shear force diagram give the value of the shear force at the corresponding section of the beam for one fixed position of the loading.

Multiple Point Loads

By moment about A RB = 1/L Wx Shear force at C C Q = -RB + W B

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310

Reaction. Take moment about A 1000 RB (500X10) (200X5) = 0 RB = 6(N) By vertical equilibrium Section XX (to the right) Shear force Shear force Qx = -6 + 10 = +4(N) Qx = 9 - 5 = +4(N) RA = 15 - 6 = 9(N)

Consider the beam is resting on supports at A and B and supporting a load P. If the beam is cut by a vertical section XX, then for the beam to remain in equilibrium each part must be in equilibrium. Neglecting the self weight of the beam any extra forces acting on part (A) to preserve equilibrium must be transmitted from part (B) across the section XX, and vice versa. Also the action of part (A) on part (B) must be equal and opposite to that of (B) and (A). As the load is solely vertical and in the plane of the beam there cannot be horizontal reaction, so equilibrium yield two conditions: 1. Vertical equilibrium 2. Equilibrium of moment

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In the first place these are used for beam as a whole to the reaction at A and B.

For equilibrium of moments take an axis as shown in the section XX to eliminate Q. Then using the sign convention given for part (A) of the beam Internal moment, Mx = RA.a

And for part (B) of the beam Mx = RB.b P (b-l) It can easily be proved that these have the same value by substituting for R and Pl as follow: Mx = (P - RA) b Pb + Pl = Pb- RAb Pb + Pl = - RA b + RA (a + b) = RA a Discussion: The normal sign convention for beam, which have been used throughout the experiments and test books, is to regard the bending moment that causes sagging as positive. The corollary of this of this is that a negative bending moment procedures hogging curvature. Bending Moment Diagram Using the longitudinal axis of the beam as a base, the ordinates of a bending moment diagram give the value of the moment at the corresponding section of the beam for one fixed position of the loading.

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Numerical example

310

Reactions. Take moment about A 1000RB (500 X 10) (200 X 5) = 0 RB = 6(N) By vertical equilibrium Section XX (to the right) Bending moment MX = 6 X 700 10 X 200 = 2200 (N.mm) (or to the left) Bending moment MX = 9 X 300 5 X 100 = 2200 (N.mm) RA = 15 - 6 = 9(N)

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APPARATUS

1. Fix the beam supports permanently as shown above to provide a span of 900mm. 2. Make a pencil mark on the side of the beam 300mm from the face of the shear section. Use this to position the beam on its supports. 3. Make pencil marks on top of the beam at 100mm from the left hand support and 400mm from the right hand support. Suspend two of the load hangers at these positions and set up the other hanger in the groove just to the right of the shear section. 4. The apparatus is now ready for part 1 of the experiment. 5. The should also be a pencil mark on the top of the beam at 300mm from the right hand support in readiness for part 2. 6. A spirit level is provided to help in aligning the beam, but it is just as good to take a line of sight along the rear top corner of the beam. CONCLUSION: Beam is defined as an element is supported by horizon on two point and support vertical burden. Burden vertical to his longitude axis result in curve and shear. Burden and reaction in supporter officiated in vertical plane to beam simplest. Objectives carry out bending moment in beam was to be watching and understand effect shear in a beam and to measure degree shear along a section beam is burdened and make compare between outcome of experiment and theory. Experiment value may be said can validate value of theory because percentage error will be small. Apart from that, when burden doubled, shear force found double.

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LAB REPORT EXPERIMENT 4 TITLE: Steel tensile test OBJECTIVE: To examine the behavior and mild steel specimen nature when stress with tested. INTRODUCTION: Decisions of tension tests (or compression) usually discussed in stress and strain form resultant in specimen when load imposed. Stress () is force extremity and as force is uniformly allocated all over cross section surface area, so () = load imposed/ surface area. Load imposed causing long transformation in specimen. Strain () can be defined as long transformation / long original. Long transformations are measured at specific length (known as gauge length for load test). Strain () usually will be small and sometimes phrased as percentage. Decisions from tension test (or compression) presented as tension arc fight strain. Something material usually is classified based on arc forms this strain tension (Diagram 1). All arc in diagram 1 in started its show linear relationship between () and . This is ELASTIC area and OA's slope is Modulus Elastic Young of material tested. If load imposed to specimen in this elastic in areas throw out, specimen shall get back to form originally. If specimen is burdened until release B, arc will become nonlinear and that material is alleged is in plastic range. Stress in B known as that Yield Stress to load. Material classifications are predicated to his behavior in this area. Some broke material almost only reach to B. Materials like this are brittle (e.g.: cast iron). Other matters (aluminum, mild steel) can be load release B's point they said to be ductile. When one metal ductile is burdened up to plastic range and then that load is throw out, that material be back from C's point through parallel CD's line with OA and a permanent set (OD) formed when all load throw out. If specimen is load again, it will follow DC's line until it converges with strain stress arc in C. Else expansion in strain need stress expansion, strain hardening or hardening work happened. Load may be borne by specimen reach maximum to the level in E Tensile in E known as tensile tension ultimate for that material. When release E, specimen no has been stable, cross sectional area decrease quickly (necking allegedly occurred) and that

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material broke and wide when broke reduction percentage is measurement to elasticity of that material. Stress () is force extremity and as force is uniformly allocated all over cross section surface area, So () = load imposed surface area. Strain () can be defined = long transformation long original. Decisions from tension test (or compression) presented as tension arc fight strain. Something material usually is classified based on arc forms this strain tension (Diagram 1).

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APPARATUS: 1. Torsees Universal Testing Machine. 2. Puncher. 3. Stress Examine Specimen. PROCEDURE: 1. Measure with exact at specimen centre at other mark in gauge length area. Measure the cross-section area. 2. Puncher the specimen with two marks. Raise the specimen in jowl machine. 3. Slowly load the specimen and similar. 4. When it come to yield stress for specimen. Slowly, plus the load and similar to specimen crack. Recorded the load. TEST PROCEDURE: 1. Dimension Survey 1.1 1.2 Using the calipers, measure diameter at 3 place of steel length and find out the mean, D (mm). Using the rule ( D/4 @ j) calculate the cross-section of area A (mm).

2. Mark for Length Percentages 2.1 With Titanium Alloy Puncher do two marks in the steel at distance 5D (E.g. Diameter 10mm, 5D = 5 (10) = 50mm @ Lo)

3. Load using Torsees Universal Testing Machine. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Raise the specimen to machine with clamp at chuck at crosshead up and down. Started load the specimen with 10 N/mm s. Yield Point load detected when red and black needle paused, black needle back track a little and increase again. Maksimum's load or ultimate detect at red needle in highest reading. Crack load detected during heard specimen explosive sound broken.

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4. Lenght Percentages 4.1 4.2 Combined the steel already eximened (crack) and measure the distance between 2 first mark L Value of the length percentages calcutate using formula: L - L x 100 L

5.

Others Data 5.1 5.2 Diameter of spesimen measure after crack. Value of Yeild Stress, Tensile Stress to find.

DISCUSSION AND RESULT: Data from the tensil strees test 1. Yield Load(kg)-Yield Stress(Nmm) Formula, = Yield Load x 9.81(Nmm) Cross-section Area = P (yield) x 9.81 A 2. Ultimate/Maximum load - Tensile stress (N/mm) Formula, = Ultimate Load/Maximum x 9.81(Nmm) Cross-section Area = P (ultimate) x 9.81 A

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Where, P (yield) P (ultimate) A = Yield Load (kg) = Ultimate Load/Maximum (kg)

= Cross-section Specimen Area (mm) (d/4 @ j)

3. Load after crack. 4. Length Percentage (%) = Length Before Test Length x 100 = L - L x 100 L Calculation: Cross-section Area = = M 0.0785 x L 0.550 kg (0.0785 x 0.620)

= 113.01 mm Mild Steel Diameter = d/4 4A = [d 4A = d = [4A = [4(113.01) = 11.99 @ 12 mm

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High TensileDiameter: Weight scale (m) Timber tebal Formula, so = 0.93kg = 0.61mm = m______ L X 0.00785 = 194.2mm Lenght of high tensile and mild steel: = 80.0mm 1) Value of strees and strain: A) Mild steel Stress: Formula, = Load x 9.81(Nmm) Cross-section area = P x 9.81 A = 0.93 x 9.81 198.8 = 0.046N/mm Strain: Formula, = Length Length = = (106.5- 80.0) 80 = 0.33

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B) High tensile Stress: Formula, = Load x 9.81(Nmm) Cross-section area = P x 9.81 A = 0.93 x 9.81 194.2 = 0.047N/mm Strain: Formula, = Length Length = = (100.57-80.0) 80 = 0.26 2) Young Modulus, (E) A) Mild steel: Formula E = Stress Strain = = 0.046N/mm 0.33 = 1.53 N/mm B) High tensile Formula E = Strees Strain

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= = 0.047N/mm 0.26 = 0.18 N/mm Yield load (mild steel) = Yield load x 9.81(Nmm) Cross-section area = P(yield) x 9.81 A = 6778.0 x 9.81 198.8 = 334.47 Yield Load (high tensile) = Yield load x 9.81(Nmm) Cross-section area = P (yield) x 9.81 A = 10274x 9.81 194.2 = 518.9 Ultimate/Maximum load ( mild steel) = Ultimate/Maximum load x 9.81(Nmm) Cross-section area = P(ultimate) x 9.81 A = 10249 x 9.81 198.9 = 505.49 Ultimate/Maximum load (mild steel)) = Ultimate/Maximum load x 9.81(Nmm) Cross-section area = P(ultimate) x 9.81 A

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= 12368.2 x 9.81 194.2 = 624.8 Length Percentage: A) Mild steel Length percentage = Length after test length x 100 length L = 60 L = 83.73 = L - L x 100 L = 83.73 60 x 100 60 = 39.55 % B) High tensile Length percentage = Length after test length x 100 length L = 60 L = 74.60 = L - L x 100 L = 74.60 60 x 100 60 = 24.33 %

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CONCLUSION: Between qualities which indicated by mild steel and tension was: Strength Steel capable of holding tension and compression. However,long steel will be bent when imposed compression. Steel imposed tension force or compression will experience tension and strain. Elasticity Elasticity refering to rate of straining experienced by steel with stress imposed. Modulus elasticity,or modulus young(E) regarded as stress ratio and strain. Each material having modulus certain elasticity. When material imposed stress experience small distortion,it allegedly having modulus high spring. Elasticity Material ductile was material can meet with strain after elastic limit. As Such, elasticity was steel ability through limit plastic before broken or broke. Elasticity can be gauged as elongation percent before broke or broken. Elasticity can be gauged as elongation percent before broke or broken. Contraction percent has happened at zone before broke or broken can be also used to measure elasticity. Mild steel is material ductile. Corrosion Resistance Presence of water and oxygen against steel produce ferrous oxide dehydrated or fondly known as rust. Sulphur dioxide of industrial and salt smoke of sea would accelerate rust process. Corrosion process continuum this will reduce strength of steel. Exposed steel structure to atmosphere could cause corrosion. Such as, to avoid corrosion, steel need to be swept with paint, chrome, oil and others. Fire resistance Steel outstanding feature were weak on high heat change imposed on its. Exposure in high-temperature exceeding 55C in long durations will change steel molecular bond. Strength of steel would be inclined although have been cooled in normal temperature. Steel structure experience long fire need to be replaced because working stress or stress terizinnya has been dropping. Such as, in structure construction reinforced concrete, concrete closing used to prevent heat pouring off steel with instantly and protect steel of fire heat. Contraction and Expansion Steel was material easy to experience pegembangan when imposed warm temperatures and easy contract when cold compared other material such as concrete, wood and brick. Such as, between steel purposes bends at his end is to binding both that material. Apart From that, also found steel which possess flower to increase bond between both the materials.

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