Religious Tourism in Asia and the Pacific foreword This study is a sequel to the intra-Regional Outbound Market Series

of Asia and the Pacific of 2006 and the International conference on Tourism, Religions, and Dialogue of culture held in Cordoba Spain, in 2007 both of which were completed under the auspices of the world Tourism Organization ( UNWTO). Asia and the Pacific is considered the region of the world with the greatest number of pilgrims and travelers for religious events, for both international and domestic tourism.According to UNESCO, 60% of the world population practices a religion and these believers from the demographic base of religious tourism. Many countries include religion in their census. It is estimated that there are approximately six hundred million national and international religious and spiritual voyages in the world, of which 40% take place in Europe and around half in Asia. Asia and the Pacific is blessed not only with religious sites but also because it forms the hub of pilgrim centres, religious festivals and other related cultural activities of a religious nature. Therefore, as with the Tourism Satellite Accounts, there is the need for more and precise information on religious tourism as opposed to cultural tourism.The study has clearly identified areas of interest that appeal to the religious aspects of travel and it is the responsibility of the administrators and the travel professionals to glean this information as accurate and universally applicable data are indispensable for marketing and promotions The Regional program for Asia and the Pacific in 2009. These findings form the basis of this present publication. We are confident that the outcome of the study on religious tourism in Asia and the Pacific will have the way for the Commission for East Asia and Pacific (CAP) and Commission for South Asia (CSA) member States to look at religious tourism as a resource in the same light as the sun, sea and sand holidays that are readily marketed by tourism professionals. We thank Omar Nawaz for providing the technical and editorial support for this study. We are equally grateful to the contributors who provided valuable country-specific information on the status of religious tourism and recommendations for its development. I congratulate the Regional programme for Asa and the Pacific for their imitative to commission this study. Taleb Rifai Secretary-General, World Tourism Organization ( UNWTO)

Executive Summary Section 1-Introductory Essays Pilgrims between East and West Two International conferences, one in 1067 and the latest in 2007, held in Cordoba, Spain, by the World Tourism Organization ( UNWTO), entitled " Tourism and Religions: A Contribution to the Dialogue of cultures, regions and Civilizations", highlight the sociology of religions in world tourism. The Cordoba conference concentrated on the role of tourism in the dialogue between civilizations while the present study focuses on the East and the West taking a journey of self discovery via religious tourism. The importance of Asian and the Pacific in religious tourism is seen by the fact that of an estimated 600 million religious and spiritual voyages, 40% were in Europe and around half in Asia. However, some fundamental problems like the measuring of tourism flows raised in Cordoba, is once again relevant in the analysis of any tourism

investigation because good statistics are vital for the understanding of facts, and this is a missing link in religious tourism in Asia. Pilgrimages and the growing interest for pilgrimage routes in Asia and the Pacific can benefit from Western experiences, especially from that of the most famous in the world, " Camino de Santiago".. finally, sustainable development of religious tourism with education and training given their rightful place is the key of safeguarding the vast cultural heritage of Asia Pacific tourism. The Silk Roads of Faith the Silk road has been the bridge between the East and the West for many centuries, losing its prestige only after the sea-routes opened in the 16th century. the Silk road exemplified crossborder and cross-cultural contact through some intrepid pioneers; some were secular like in Batuta and others religious like Matteo Ricci or Xuangzang who succeeded in establishing a dialogue and contact between the two civilizations.The Central states , though which the Silk Roads ran, are once again seeing a revival in their religion which could be a boon for East-West religious tourism. Moreover the recent shake-up of the Capitalist order has led to a search for ethical values and there is no doubt that Asian spirituality can fill this void which will lead to a new lease of life to the Silk Road. Religious Tourism, Spirituality and Peace- Philosophical and Practical Aspects The debate on the importance of, and distinction between, tourism as a ritual and as a form of spirituality has not been conclusive. However, this distinction needs to be made and explored in order to comprehend the kind of process tourism ( especially religious tourism) is, both physicallyat the individual and social level, and from the cultural and theoretical point of view, in order to realize its benefits and circumvent or limit its negative aspects. It has been noted by many scholars that each of the major, and some of the minor, religions emphasize on spirituality, universal brotherhood and humanism as basic tenets that, if followed, may lead to global solidarity and peace. Spiritual tourism, broadly defined to include tourism that is motivated fully or partly by such values ( especially religious tourism, both domestic and international), is a vehicle for change for the better and can lead to peace of properly guided by codes of ethics and conduct ( for tourists as well as managers) that are sourced from religions and social-cultural values derived from religions, in fact, the philosophies of the four major religions ( in terms of flowers) - Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity- are not conflicting, if we examine their spiritual aspects and bases. all these religions aspire to be world religions, but are hindered by barriers like ritualism, ethnicity and nationalism, so the question of scale is also improtant. this is especially so since contemporary social processes of globalization and localization, which compete with religions as forces for harmony, as well as their paradoxical products- disharmony, discord and conflict- are necessary ion any assessment of religious tourism, its impact and potential. This paper addresses theses issues and argues that tourism is spiritually inclined or favorable disposed towards the values of different cultures and is sensitive towards and cognizant of, differences, has an important role to play in crawling social solidarity at various levels, and hence is crucial in the maintenance of existing social structures and creation of organization and structure where none existed before. This paper looks at religious tourism, spiritual Regional Marketing and Thematic Studies at religious tourism, and the philosophies of all the major ) and some of the minor) religions with respect to traditional, modernizing, and modern societies, and recession and possible self-imposed limitations on travel due to concern for climate change, tourism is and can be a greater force for peace than envisaged by those who thing of it as merely a ritual. It concludes with a summary discussion of practical aspects of religious tourism, such as economic and political benefits and mutual understanding. Religious tourism in South-East Asia Religion has an enormous influence int eh daily life of Asians and the four major religions,

Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and Christianity all play a major role in South-East Asian society. Invariable, religious tourism in the region is closely linked to these faiths. Religions have inspired the construction for some of the most spectacular monuments in the region and all forms of art and architecture find expression in them. However, religious tourism has not been fully exploited due to the high sensitivity of the subject, the lack of scientific data and its overwhelming domestic nature. The paper, while giving available statistical data, makes a case study of three of the leading destinations of South-East-Asia-Indonesia,Malaysia, and Thailand. while Thailand is essentially Buddhist, attempts have been made by the authorities to include ' meditation tourism' into the gamut of religious products while Malaysia and Indonesia toy with the promotion of Islamic tourism. Attention is drawn to the interplay of different religions in these countries and to the different tourism packages which can be marketed as regional products. Islam and Tourism-Asia and the Pacific in Focus The political,culture, and social significance of travel by Muslims for religious purposes in, and from Asia, is to vital importance when one sees that force countries in the region have the following populations professing the Islamic faith: Indonesia: 203 million. Moreover it is incumbent on Muslims who have the means and the ability to perform the Hajj at least once in their lifetime. This along with the Umrah or the ' lesser pilgrimage' constitutes an act of religious tourism that is unparalleled in other religions. The importance of Ziyarat ( visiting sacred sites) also makes travel an integral part of the Muslim psyche. Ziyarat is of special significance for domestic travel especially in Indonesia. Wile elaborating on some of the principle Islamic tenets, attention is drawn to customs and practices such as food habits ( Halal food), the preponderant role of modestly that can influence social mingling and dress codes etc all of which influence religious travel and marketing of products to attract Islamic travelers. From Commoditization to Respect of the Sacred This paper is a theoretical approach to religious-based tourism that calls for socially responsible actions by " respecting the sacred" and through 'stewardship of sacred sites". Four case studiesIndia,Iran, Cambodia and Nepal- illustrate the importance of tourism in general and religious/spiritual tourism in particular in these countries. The involvement of local communities is as improtant as the discerned visitor in protecting and preserving the religious/cultural sites, events and pilgrimages that form the base of religious tourism. Good governance will guaranty the long term future of these 'products' that should not be viewed merely as a source to generate revenue but also as services where participation and care of the communities are vitally improtant. After an analysis of the opportunities and constraints of religious tourism in the country case- studies the authors provide recommendations on socially responsible and sustainable management of sacred sites in keeping with current international initiatives,such as, the global cod of ethics for tourism, Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs), global Partnership for sustainable Tourism Criteria ( GSTC Partnership), and Copenhagen Agreement from the Gotehrnburg Symposium on Tourism and Travel in the Green Economy. Seciton3- Country Monographs Australia-A Country Specific Analysis of Religious Tourism in Australia Religion in Australia is diverse and although the majority of the population is Christian, 22 of the world's major religions are practiced in Australia ( Tourism Australia, 2007). Religion in Australia today can be traced, and indeed is influenced bu distinct historical periods including Indigenous Australia, European settlement and post second world war migration. although not internationally renowned for its religious tourism product there are religious sites and events in Australia that draw international and domestic visitors. For instance the Catholic Church's World Youth Day ( WYD) was held in Sydney in 2008 and received over 223,000 registered pilgrims, including

110,000 from 170 nations making it the largest event hosted in Australia ) WYD, 2008). However, events such as WYD are reasonably rare in Australia and as such, religion is not a large part of the inbound or outbound visitor movement in Australia. As a result, religion is not identified as a separate visitor category on inbound or outbound statistical collections making the task of defining and identifying religious tourists somewhat difficult. similarly, religious tourists are not identified separately in the travel trade or hospitality industry structures and statistics. This country specific analysis of religion in Australia addresses a number of elements pertinent to religious tourism in Australia including: Key aspects of religion/religious philosophies in Australia, socio-economic environment and per captia income a review of all available statistical collections and inbound/outbound market research data related to religious travel ( where such information exists) cultural/religious assets and attractions in Australia information channels and dissemination of religious tourism marketing information in Australia Religious Tourism in China-Domestic and Outbound Tourism China, in the past three decades, has seen a rapid growth in its economy that has had an impact on its tourism industry, fast making it one of the leading inbound destinations in the world, and in the context of the large population of the country with ever increasing disposable incomes, and outbound market is also rapidly expanding. this exponential growth is reflected in the following figures: inbound arrivals shot from 3.5 million in 1980 to 53.05 million in 2008, with reciprocal increases in earnings. religious tourism is as old as Chinese history and given the rich mosaic of Chinese traditions, culture, monuments and attractions it is not surprising that China possesses a large number of world Heritage Sites of UNESCO, of which, one third are classified as religious monuments of Buddhist and Taoist origins. the Buddhist temples and edifices were built on mountain sites or by rivers and they are today being sought after by not only domestic visitors but also foreigners, especially Russian Federation tourists, as a retreat for peace and relaxation from the tensions of urban lifestyles. Buddhist pilgrimages to china are one the rise and they have a further added value in that they comprise many repeat visitors. Neighboring destinations dominate the outbound market and many of them have a cultural content which, even if the primary motif of travel is not for religious purposes, nevertheless exposes Chinese tourists to this element since religion and culture are closely intertwined in Asia. While organized tours are the norm for outbound visitors the internet has opened up a new and large clientele that relishes " self-packages', put together with friends and family: foreign NTOs and the travel trade would do well to market their religious and cultural torus through this channel. Religion and Tourism in China-Tourism and Religious Sites China is the birthplace of Daoism ( or Taoism) and Confucianism, which pre-date the Christian era, and these philosophies along with Buddhism-including Zen- have been at the heart of Chinese civilization. Even Islam found a foothold in china as early as the 7th century AD. In addition, a host of other religious faiths are also practiced, such as Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, Ancestor worship, Bon, Dongbaism and Dragon worship. china also has the particularity of possessing four holy mountains with a Buddhist association dating back to over two thousand years which, along with other religious pilgrimages, attract not only Chinese but also Asian visitors. The author draws attention top the official rapport between the state and religion under ' Religion and the Chinese State' which had been rather tense during the Cultural Revolution but now enjoys official constitutional acceptance and state support in maintenance and development of religious places of worship. The paper gives details of visitor frequentation of important religious monuments and sites. religions ( Buddhism,Daoism, and Islam), religious sites and

religious tourism are all analyzed in detail.There is a direct link between religion and tourism n china due to the economic importance of the latter particularly in the wake of the financial crisis. It is concluded that state support for tourism will continue especially to waste off any negative impact on employment and religious tourism, inbound, outbound and domestic, should see a rapid growth in the future. Religious Tourism in Indonesia Indonesia is a vast archipelago with a population of 220 million people; a majority (89%) of whom profess the Islamic faith making it the most populous Muslim country in the world, but it is also worth mentioning that Indonesia is a secular state. However, Indonesia's rich past of Hinduism and Buddhism has left an indelible mark as seen by the different religious edifices of which the Prambanana Temple and Borobudur, both UNESCO heritage sites are world known. Moreover, Hinduism still continues to flourish in some of the islands with Bali as the most representative example with its temples, traditions, festivals and dances. the colonial past also liked to the introduction of Christianity while the Chinese communities have their own religious practices referred to as Tridharma. If one includes the blend of animist art and Muslim rituals which characterize Indonesian Islam then one gets a destination that is a melting pot worthy of study of students of comparative religions! The paper examines the various religions, beliefs, traditions and practices with an enumeration of religious sites, shrines and pilgrimage centres that all play a major role in Indonesian Tourism. Faith and Domestic Travel: Pilgrimages in Indonesia Indonesia is the world's largest Muslim country and annually sends the biggest contingent of pilgrimages are much less well understood, however, yet because of the size and spiritual leanings of the population these form a significant tourism sector. Generally, less research has been done on domestic tourism in Asia then international tourism, although the movements of people withing their own country far outnumber overseas travel. Indonesia has a population of 240 million, around half of whom live on Java, and with an increasingly mobile and wealthy population demand for leisure travel is high. Part of its demand for the javanese, Balinese and other Indonesians is to visit sites of spiritual importance to pray for guidance or specific blessings; significant sites include the graves of religious or political leaders, certain caves and springs and ancient shrines. Some sites have a significance which pre-dates modern religions and continue to have mening for Javanese and other Indonesians, many of whom retain belief in an intangible cohort of active entities outside the humen spere. Visits to the sites include prayers, meditation and making pfferons, with adherents sometimes staying for hours or even days at a time. Some sites see the arrival of very large numebrs of people simultaneously, especially at times when the barriers between the human and the ' other' world are believed to be particularly permeable and when the spritis are thought to be cooperative towards humans. Management of the sites is sometimes left to the piligrims themselves or to spontaneous community enterprise, while larger and more popular sites may be the focus of local government regulation. Iran and Shia Pilgrimage The report is a country specific analysis of the role and i prntace of Shia pilgrimage in Iran. Topics covered include participants, resources and the organization and impacts of tourism activities. After an iontroduction to the countyr, its torism and the religion, a review of Iran's Shia-related sites, ceremonies and events of significance are enumerated. Shia pilgrims are discussed in terms of numbers, origins, motivations and experiences and overall trends n demand are identified. The management of this form of religious tourism, encompassing the public and private sector, is examined with reference to responsibilities, policy, planning, marketing and regulation. Future prospects are then considered and questions of dealing with non-Muslim tourists at places

of shia pilgrimage are raised. the role of pilgrimages in Iran is quite specific to the country as there is a long tradition of visiting shrines ( Ziyarat) of which there are many in Iran itself as well as in neighboring Iraq that are revered by the Shias. At the moment Iranian religious tourism is mainly domestic but the authorities launched a 20 year Outlook Plan in 2005 with the aim of reaching 20 million visitors in tow decades.One has to also take into account the importance of the annual Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca that is the pinnacle of all pilgrimages where one be Shia or Sunni as it is one of the tenets of Islam and the performance is considered a cardinal virtue. Iran's tourism promotional efforts are hampered by a negative image of the country that is more perceived then real. the vast wealth of religious and cultural sites, events and festivals make Iran an ideal pilgrimage destination for Muslims who are in quest of religious fulfillment not to mention a fascinating destination to others who appreciate art, culture, cuisine and warm hospitality at a relatively modest price. Religious Tourism in Japan Religious tourism in Japan is a blend of the old and the new. It is old because motivation for travel was often associated with it and it is a new phenomenon since the Japanese have become more secular, probably as a result of modernization, but who are now discovering the virtues of traditional religions such as Zen with its appeal to harmony and meditation. This paper examines tourist trends, religious sentiments, the development of religious tourism in Japan, major attractions including pilgrimages and festivals. Attention paid to Christianity and churches, and to the place of Buddhism and Shintoism, especially Shinto shrines, in modern Japanese society.Japan also has its own indigenous religious practices such as Syugendo, which is a unique combination of animistic mountain worship with Confucianism, Taoism and Tantric Buddhism and Shintoism, especially Shinto shrines, in modern Japanese society. Japan also has its own indigenous religious practices such as Syugendo, which is a unique combination of animistic mountain worship with Confucianism, Taoism and Tantric Buddhism. the paper includes an overview of the inbound and the outbound traffic with an inventory of all religious sites, rites and practices belonging to the major faiths, concluding that, 'religious tourism that allows people to experience Japanese religions should be the core of tourism in Japan for people wishing to understand Japan'. Case study: Changing Attitudes in Religious Tourism i Japan: Taizo-in Temple Religious tourism in Japan from the case study of Taizo-in Temple shows a radical change in the past twenty years. Initially people came either to pray or to appreciate the cultural heritage of the site but a majority of present day visitors are participatory oriented wishing to experience Zen meditation and temple lifestyles including tea ceremonies, cuisine and taking lessons in calligraphy. International tourists from America, Europe and Asia appreciate this introduction to Zen culture that has been facilitated by communication with the priests, especially in English. Another area where future growth is envisaged is a spiritual tourism where visitors seek to discover their true identity and in this respect and experience at Taizo-in temple could be replicated elsewhere in Japan. However, in order to promote religious tourism in Japan supportive structures have to be improved. This includes both the material as well as the abstract in the form of a better understanding of religious philosophies and values. Republic of Korea Republic of Korea's religious population has seen a recent surge in numbers, increasing from 17 million in 1985 to 25 million in 2005. This may be partially explained by the fact that according to a census in 2008 that only a little over 50% of the Korean population held any religious affiliation. However, both facts have a bearing on religious tourism in the Republic of Korea. Though Buddhism, shamanism and Confucianism have been the dominant religious faith in Korean history the country is considered a multi-religious society with Christianity, both Protestant and Catholic, of considerable influence, Indeed the percentage of Christians ( 30%) out number those of the Buddhism ( 22%), but for over 1,600 years, Buddhism with influence from Confucianism

Shamanism, Taoism and Christianity. More than 70% of cultural tangible relics existing till to date in the Republic of Korea are originated from Buddhism and these sever as significant tourist attractions dispersed throughout the country. Pilgrimages play an important part in Korean society and due to the intense lifestyles there is an ever increasing demand for a new product in the form of 'Temple-stays' that has come into vogue recently. Religious tourism has been identified by the Korean National tourism organization as an area of future development. The Burge oning of the Beakdu-daegan Trail into a New Religious-Pilgrimage Tourism Asset of the Republic of Korea This research paper is a case-study of the Baekdu-daegan long-distance-hiking trail, which was previously non-existent for all practical purposes and relatively little-known even among Koreans themselves, emerging only within the past two decades and still virtually unknown to the international community. However, it is currently burgeoning into public attention as an adventurehiking tourism route, with potential to become a significant religious-pilgrimage tourism destination-attraction of the Republic of Korea, or for domestic and foreign inbound tourist markets. This paper begins with a review of relevant theory of emerging religious-pilgrimage routes as tourism assets all over the world, and then a brief overview of the history and characteristics of the Baekdu-daegan, the unbroken crest of a mountain range that runs the length of the Korean Peninsula, and the trail that now runs along it. Within the Republic of Korea it has become a viable and nearly-continuous adventure-hiking route in the past two decades, almost 700km long, with a very high density of religious sites and multi-religious and spiritual pilgrimage opportunities. This paper then offers a very preliminary listing of the many different stakeholders involved in the development of this route as a uniquely trans-national tourism site, based on the author's 20 years of reading, observation and experience. The Baekdu-daegan Range of Mountains is now fairly well-known to Koreans as " the spine of the nation', having been revered by cultural-nationalist as a symbol of national unity, identity and vital energy for more than 1,100 years; however, it is virtually unknown to the rest of the world. today it offers trekkers spectacular natural scenery featuring sweeping views; and for spiritually-oriented tourists, it is also uniquely rich with temples, shrines and monuments of four great Asian religious traditions: Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism and Shamanism. In this variety of different religions available to view and experience along the way, it may be unique among the " pilgrimage trials" of the world. It is not yet known about in the international tourism market, and this project is producing the first written studies in English of its emergence as a potential tourism attraction for the Republic of Korea, preliminary-level exploration of the conflicting and parallel interests of the various stakeholders involved, and the extremely high level of religious and cultural heritage that it offers. Case study: Republic of Korea's Efforts to Promote the Buddhist Pilgrimage Market This short case study illustrates attempts made by the Korean Tourism Organization to introduce a new product- Buddhist pilgrimages and visits- to 33 selected sites in Republic of Korea in an effort to revive the religious tourism market in general and the Japanese market in particular that has shown a downturn from 2005 to 2007. the initial results have been excellent singe the promotion has benefited inbound tourism from Japan and at the same time encouraged domestic travel in Buddhist oriented products especially pilgrimages. An additional profitable fall out has been the sustainable development of rural areas in republic of Korea by providing employment and revenue and restricting the exodus to the urban areas.Religious Tourism i Pakistan Situated at the cross-roads of the East and West, Pakistan is home to a number of civilazations of which the Indus Valley is the most famous. while Buddism florusihed in India it included most of present day Pakistan which became the recipient of some of the oldest and most venerable Buddhist sties on the sub-continent. After the decline of Buddhism and the revival of Hinduism, the area in Pakistan were once again influenced and became the theater of Hindu monuments. The remnants of these bygone civilizations provide a very large source of religious attractions that

are extremely useful in the development of religious tourism in Pakistan. However, the least known and probably the most notable religious asset of Pakistan is probably its association with the Sikkh religion. Pakistan is the birthplace of Sikkhgism and the country is a host to numerous Sikkh temples ( Gurdwaras) that attract religious tourists from neighboring India and from the entire Sikkh diaspora in the world. Pakistan is a theocratic State and Islam's pre-eminence cannot be questioned. Apart form the Moghul past with its vestiges, Pakistan is an Islamic state with a culture and religion that dominates the landscape. Unfortunately, due to a security situation there has been a poor perception of the safety of the destination thereby compromising the development of tourism in general and religious tourism in particular. Fortunately, at present, domestic tourism has been the mainstay of Pakistan Tourism providing necessary potential for the development of religious tourism in the future. Religious tourism in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka has a very long history dating to over two millenniums as the flag bearer of Theravada Buddhism in the world. Being a close neighbor of India, Hinduism also has left its mark in the country. Trade with Arab merchants and subsequent intermingling led to the establishment of the Muslim community who profess Islam while four and a half centuries of colonization by the Portuguese, Dutch and British resulted in the introduction of Christianity.Sri Lanka is also unique in that it follows the lunar calendar with each full moon day a public holiday. Sri Lanka's tourism was deeply affected by over two decades of ethnic disturbances, which contrary to popular misconceptions, had no religious bearing. With the recent conclusion of the war agianst the separatist movement, Sri Lankan tourism is bound to see an appreciable growth in which religious and cultural tourism will play a preponderant role. Religious Tourism in Thailand One of the fastest emerging tourism segments in Thailand is religions tourism, also known in Thailand as Buddhist tourism. this niche market not only draws international tourists into Thailand, but also boosts domestic travel and contributes significantly to the local economy. the paper examines religious tourism as one of the emerging trends in Thailand. Profiles of both international and domestic religious tourists are discussed and a concept of religious tourism is theoretically defined as part of special interest tourism. This paper also examines key religious activities in Thailand and how they can be packed as a tourism product. Lastly, attention is paid to a case study of a successful candle festival in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand, and how this festival has turned into a month-long international event which attracts both domestic and international travelers. Recommendations for future researches are subsequently addressed. Religious Travel Industry in India: Prospects and Challenges 'Booming', 'lucrative,' 'high-growth/' 'resilient,' and a few terms that are increasingly used to describe religious tourism in India. A domestic tourism survey conducted by the Indian Ministry of Tourism in 2002 reported that more than 100 million visitors traveled for ' religious purposes and pilgrimages' and eight of the top-ten ranking domestic tourist destinations were pilgrimage sites. According to the Ministry's Tourism Satellite Accounts, religious tourism segment contributed almost 20% towards the total domestic tourism consumption ( approximately INR 2.8 Billion) and this contribution is likely to increase annually. such figures, often based on estimates from formal components ( such as travel costs, accommodation in registered places, ect.), should be considered only as partial indicators of the volume of religious tourism market. This paper shows that religious tourism industry is largely centered on devotion-based informal activities in pilgrimage centres. with examples from religious tourism destinations and by examining aspects such as products offered, services required, major driving forces, organizers and managers, and modes of operation, it draws attention to the structural differences between two important segment within religious travel: religoius tourism and spiritual tourism. Understanding these differences is necessary to develop appropriate strategies for sustainable growth of these

segments and the overall religious travel industry. Understanding Religious Tourism Motivations in India: An Empirical Investigation Religious tourism is an ancient phenomenon that has received considerable attention in both academia and the public at large recently. Over the last two decades, it has substantially increased in number, with various purposes including enhancing local culture, tradition, rituals and history, providing means for preservation of sacred places and contributing to the local economy by stimulating both international and domestic tourism. Despite the increasing popularity of religious tourism, little research has been conducted on the motivations of tourists which have a profound impact on the marketing and promotion of India as a religious destination globally. the study has a two-fold purpose: to investigate various religious motives among the tourists visiting in the Indian religious destinations; and to investigate whether these motivations depend on the demographic characteristics of tourists. A self-administrated questionnaire was collected from 485 tourists in the study area. By employing factor analysis and bivariate correlation analysis the results show that no significant differences were found in motivations among religious visitors from different countries. Further, results revealed that respondents place high ratings on the motivation factors of religious attraction, cultural and educational experience and novelty and knowledge while they placed low ratings on the motivation factors family togetherness and seeking camaraderie. Religious Tourism in India- A Mix, a Fix or an Abiding Concern for Planners? India's tourism potential, despite a wealth of natural and cultural resources, has not been fully tapped and its performance compared to later entrants like China and Thailand into the world tourism market is poor. The paper examines the wealth of cultural heritage, the backbone of religious tours, bestowed by the interplay of major religious faiths, three of which- Buddhism, Hinduism and Sikkhism- were born in India. While the study is largely related to Hinduism, it also covers Islam and Christianity that took an early root in India. the paper draws attention to the shortfalls in Indian tourism marketing and proposes strategies for reinvention religious tourism as a form of cultural tourism that is India's unique selling proposition. these recommendations are applicable to the National and Federal levels, and amongst other stress the value of education, training, cod of ethics, the use of the internet and other communication technologies in the promotion of religious tourism. Religious Tourism in the Native Land of Sri Ramakrishna- A Sustainable Approach The paper draws attention the The Gar Mandaran-Kamarpukur-Joyrambati tourist corcuit which is a popular place of pilgrimage in the state of West Bengal by virtue of being the native land of one of modern India's spiritual giants-Sri Ramakrishna and hos holy consort-Sri Sarada Devi. West Bengal, despite being rich in tourism products has lagged behind other Indian states such as Kerala and Rajasthan in marketing its assets and the circuit affords a wonderful opportunity for the state and India to not only promote a product but also to publicize a spiritual concept that has been echoed by no other than Swami Vivekananda whose teachings and thought have had an enormous impact on the World, including the West. While explaining in detail the work of the Sri Remakrishnan mission which is the core of a worldwide spiritual movement that has its roots in the Hindu Vedata philosophy of harmony the paper details the work of Swami Vivekananda ' India's foremost tourism ambassador' for his untiring efforts to ' to showcase the very best of India's 5,000 year old spiritual heritage, and the importance of developing the Gar MandaanKamarpukur-Joyrambati tourist circuit. this circuit lends itself ideally to the development of responsible and volunteer tourism in keeping with the spiritual concepts and the social work of its founders. the paper goes in to analyze and recommend how best the circuit could be marketed. Introduction

The Regional Programme for Asia and the Pacific of UNWTO called for contributions form academia and tourism professionals for a study on Religious Tourism in Asia and the Pacific in 2009. These findings form the basis of the present publication. The study is a sequel to the Intra-Regional Outbound Market Series of Asia and the Pacific of 1006 and the International Conference on Tourism, Religions, and Dialogue of Cultures held in Cordoba, Spain, in 2007, both of which were completed under the auspices of UNWTO. The first brought home the stark reality that 78% of all outbound tourist traffic from Asia remains within the Asia and Pacific region itself, while the second, highlighted the importance of seeing religion in the perspective of a rapprochement of different civilizations in a world more and more embittered by strife and insecurity. Major religions and religious philosophies of the world ranging from Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Sikhism, have their roots in Asia. Furthermore, these religions have their own offshoots giving rise to a multitude of other religious denominations. In the wake of human movement either through conquests or by trade and travel, the divine and philosophical messages have spread far and wide throughout Asia. The UNWTO estimates that 300 to 330 million tourists visit the world's key religious sites each year. the Asia and Pacific region is blessed not only with religious sites by also because it forms the hub of pilgrim centres, religious festivals, and other related cultural activities of a religious nature. the political,cultural, social and economic significance of travel for religious purposes is an improtant element in the fabric of the Asian society that has not been fully researched nor clearly understood, hence UNWTO sponsored this study to establish a clear-cut picture of religious tourism in and from, Asia and the Pacific. The geographical extent of Asia is vast and it is not possible to include all the countries that constitute it in a study of this nature. furthermore, Asia falls under the purview of different departments of UNWTO to which countries are assigned according to their geographical distribution: The present study s confined to member states of the Commission for East Asia and the Pacific ( CAP) and the commission for South Asia ( CSA).Objectives of the study Analyze the salient features of Asia and the Pacific for religious tourism and potential for growth of inbound, outbound and domsetic traffic at a regional, and country by country level. Familiarize destinations in the region with the strengths and weaknesses of source markets for religious tourism, Inform the destinations about the challenges and opportunities presented by religious tourism in the region. Suggest policies, strategies, and marketing programs which the destinations may adopt to approach the source markets for religious tourism in a most cost-effective and efficient manner. Provide guidelines for sustainable development of religious tourism in Asia and the Pacific. Requests were made for country specific monographs of religious tourism, regional studies and philosophical essays. In keeping with the responses, the following studies are included in the publications: 1) Introductory philosophical essays 2) Regional marketing and thematic studies 3) Country monographs on: Australia China Indonesia Iran Japan Korea Pakistan Sri Lanka Thailand

Case study of India as a major contributor to religious philosophy and its impact on tourism. India being the birthplace of two major religious philosophies- Hinduism and Buddhism- has had a vast impact on the rest of Asia. Islam also became a major force in Indian politics,culture, society and life following the Mogul reign. Western colonization of India led to the introduction of Christianity.Along with the numerous other religious denominations, India is a rich mosaic of culture and religions diversity that warrants this special study. From a pragmatic not of view the rising Indian middle-class offers potential to other Asian destinations to market their products. The response for Indian academics and tourism professionals to the UNWTO call for papers n the subject is a reflection of the interest and enthusiasm that we hope to share with all the readers. Salient characteristics A majority of the contributors have integrated bot marketing and philosophical elements into their studies which has resulted in a certain amount of overlapping of thought and facts. Marketing essays are therefore replete with philosophical insights while those who have dwelled on philosophy have forayed int marketing. Marketing aspects: The dominant religions/religions/religious philosophies of the destination Cultural/religious assets and attractions ( pilgrimage centres, religious sites etc...) of the destination with attention paid to such features as carrying capacity and infrastructure in the areas where the main religious sites/ centres are situated Socio-economic environment in terms of population, wealth, per capita income and particular prosperity to travel for religious tourism purposes; Inbound and outbound traffic Domestic tourism Market information such as: Seasonality of traffic Booking patterns Different types of traffic including: Free Independent Tours ( FITs),package tours, business, incentives, congresses and conferences and different purposes such as: religious gatherings, events and itineraries, pilgrimage routes,secular and modern pilgrimages, education, art and cultural incentives, faithful vs. observers of companions Catchment areas General composition of religious traveler in terms of areas of origin-region/cites, age, gender and social status Single/multiple destination Communication technologies and information channels Philosophical aspects: Religious/nonreligious/inner pilgrimages and tourism Ethical aspects of religious tourism Sustainable development of religious tourism Pros and cons of commercialization of religious tourism Religious tourism and politics Intra and inter religious tourism Religious tourism and innovation Prophets,migration and travel Tourism,religion and peace

Recommendations on development of religious tourism: Further improvements to the existing religious products to enhance their value to the potential tourists. Policies, strategies, and marketing programmes that the destinations should adopt and implement so as to increase the religious tourist flows to the region. Policies and strategies to overcome the seasonality and congestion problems in certain destinations. Sustainability guidelines for the development of religious tourism, in the region. Behavioral issues of tourist for policy makers to resolve. Administrative barriers to be streamlined. Rectification of shortcomings in destinations concerning religious tourism. PR and advertising campaigns to be adopted by destinations to enhance religious tourism based on market intelligence. Innovations of religious tourism e.g. combining it with other types of cultural tourism or other types of tourism. Ways in which the local communities can be involved in religious tourism. Creation of new intra and inter regional markets for religious purposes. Enhancing the potential tourists' knowledge and understanding religious tourism in the region.

Conclusions Religion, faith and spirituality are so intertwined that a clear differentiation of all three aspects are necessary for a deeper understanding of the role of religious tourism in Asia and the Pacific.Indeed, Buddhism and Hinduism may be considered as philosophical thought rather than religions and some of the authors have broached this element and called for a broader definition of ' religious' tourism. Statistics on religious tourism of Asia and Pacific are limited or vague. This is partly due to the close link between religion and culture in Asia where it is difficult to separate the motivation of travel except in the specific case of pilgrimages and religious festivals. Practically all Asian archaeological monuments have some connotation to religion and form the backbone of tourist circuits. therefore, it is difficult to differentiate between the cultural and the religious tourist. As with the Tourism Satellite Accounts there is a need for more and precise information on religious tourism as opposed to cultural tourism. Te study has clearly identified areas of interest that appeal to the religious aspects of travel and it is left to the administrators and the travel professionals to glean this information as accurate and universally applicable date are indispensable for marketing and promotion. While the information provided by the various contributors on marketing of religious tourism in Asia and the Pacific in the publication will be mutually beneficial to all Commission for East Asia and the Pacific (CAP) and Commission for South Asia (CSA) members States, UNWTO's ultimate goal is to develop guidelines for best practices in religious tourism in the region, based on the

results from all phases of the study. Limitations of time, space and interest ( the study is based on the responses to the request for contribution), do not permit the inclusion of all the countries of CAP and CSA nor dies it cover all the religious sites, events, and even religoius beliefs in Asia and the Pacific but it is hoped that this initial foray will pave the way for further research. Section 1- Introductory Essays 1 Pilgrims between East and West Since the " international Conference on the Spiritual Values of Tourism" ( Rome, 1967), travel and the tourism constitute a constant element of attention for the sociology of the religions. Forty years later followed an International Conference, organized by the World Tourism Organization ( UNWTO), to : Tourism and Religions: A Contribution to the Dialogue of Cultures, Religions and Civilizations" in Cordoba, Spain, in 2007. Globalization has opened up religious tourism to a process of commercialization, transforming it into a "marketable product" which it was not in its beginnings. Pilgrims in the past were exempt from taxes and toll levies; it was not necessary to pay to enter the " houses of God". Religious tourism also involves overlapping markets: that of spirituality, of physical and mental health, of leisure activities, of culture, of short stays and city-breaks. Its demographic base is considerable. This awareness of the potential of religious tourism is recent. It opens up enormous possibilities of growth for the tourism sector, particularly between East and West. Pilgrimage is undoubtedly the common denominator of religious and spiritual tourism. The Tibetan word for pilgrimage neykhor means " to make a circle around a holy place". The goal of the pilgrimage is not only to reach a articular destination but also to find certain spiritual values by traveling towards this destination, seeking cures, as an act of penitence. Religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Shintoism,and Shamanism integrate the pilgrimage on their practices and rites but in other such as Judaism and Protestant Christianity, this does not exist, though their followers practice it to visit sites which mark their history. Religious travel is a larger concept beyond the niches of leisure travel with fellowship intent, travel whit a spiritual intent of travel to a religious destination site, ect., according to Kevin Wright, founder and President of the World Religious Travel Association. Religious tourism is practiced to a considerable degree in the developed countries, and in developing countries insofar as disposable income allows the upper and middle classes to travel.In this 21st century the search for values, in the face of the threat of climate change, through religious and spiritual tourism can represent a great opportunity for men and women of all faiths, philosophies and religions. this being the case, its sustainable development should be pursued to make it more accessible to a wider public. today the notion and form of pilgrimages is ever fluctuating; on the one hand it moves mass flows of travelers in an extraordinary way- some pilgrimages surpass records each year for the sheer multitude of numbers attending them and are becoming internationalized; on the other hand, it includes elements of entertainment and education which cater to the needs of the 21st century, in particular for the young people. Lastly, more and more projects are conceived to develop pilgrim routes, roads or ways of pilgrimage and circuits to learn and meet others such as Paths of Abraham in the Middle East, Roads of Wisdom around the Mediterranean, or Spirits of the Mediterranean for rural tourism. The Cordoba Conference on " Tourism and Religions: A Contribution to the Dialogue of cultures, Religions and Civilizations" ( October 29-31, 2007) was mainly aimed to help harness tourism's potential to stimulate and facilitate the dialogue among different civilizations; as well as to analyze the trends observed alongside religious tourism in the strict sense of the term, such as tourism with a lager recreational and spiritual component aimed at getting to know the others, in our case those of East and West. The Difficulty in Measuring Flows of Religious, Faith or Spiritual Tourism The Cordoba Conference evaluated the difficulty in measuring flows of religious tourism and asked " How can the flow of pilgrims and visitors be measured?" as well as " How can such flows be managed when you have to deal with hundreds of thousands or even millions of participants at

major events and gatherings?". Religious tourism is an extremely complex filed of observation. There are no statistics of religious tourism at the international level, even if some figures are suggested by large religious organizations. At the national level, generally, date is neither readily available nor readily to satisfy the expectations of tour operators. The basic reports of the Cordoba Conference put emphasis that insufficient information and/or absence of reliable date regarding the volume, the dynamics and the characteristics of religious tourism flows, represent one of the major obstacles to the development of religious tourism strategies on the part of local, regional or national public organizations and partners in the private and/ or associative sector. There are yet few managers who have a comprehensive view of the issue, and still fewer who utilize the entire array of techniques that exist, which range from the regulation of flows in time and in space for management. Flows at religious sites are mostly managed in the same way as those at cultural sites and the new information and communication technologies make it possible to find effective solutions for the sustainable management of tourist flows. For large gatherings, this is even more difficult. In the face of this situation, other questions arise: can sound planning and good management make it possible for more people to visit these religious sites whilst ensuring their long-term conservation? How can the maximum number of visitors at a place of pilgrimage or a religious monument be determined? Local date is, however, available bu provided by sources which are seldom centralized or shared in data bases: religious organization, nongovernmental associations, trade associations, operators of circuits and pilgriamges, tourist professionals associations or agents of the tourists economy. Now quantitative or qualitative sources have electronic traces left by the pilgrims and the tourists. It is however advisable to distinguish statistics which relate to "flows" ( measuring the discoloration of the people by ticketing optical counting mechanisms or surveys) and the " surges" ( measuring the pressure of visitors on a given territory). The estimates of flows and surges are often based on the same investigations and the same methods. Most of the tourist investigations relate to the territories, " what induces that one can compare territories only insofar if they are of a same size ( what is not the case, for international statistics, which compares very different sized countries). Indeed, excursions or short distance trips are taken into account if they cross the borders of the analyzed territory, but not for an equivalent distance across the same territory" ( Espaces, 2006). Finally, in the majority of the cases. Visitor statistics of arrivals do not distinguish individual visitors and groups of visitors. To evaluate the economic impact of pilgrimages or religious gatherings is a more difficult exercise: Australian investigators developed tools to evaluate the impacts of events with the approach " Triple Bottom Line Evaluation" and the kit of evaluation " ENCORE", tools which could be regarded as good practices and with a wider application. The currently tested methods in a global approach make it possible to obtain better knowledge of the event ion order to better plan, organize the register it in time; to evaluate the impacts and minimize them and/or optimize them. The Importance of Asia and the Pacific Religious Tourism Asia and the Pacific is the region of the world with the greatest number of pilgrims and travelers for religious events ( international tourism plus domestic tourism). According to UNESCO, 60% of the world population practices a religion and these believers are the demographic base of religious tourism. Many countries include religion in their census. It is estimated that there are approximately six hundred million national and international religious and spiritual voyages in the world, of which forty percent are done in Europe and around half in Asia. this estimate ( or hypothesis at this stage of research) comes from much dispersed administrative, religious or associative sources. The 330 million religious travelers' estimate ( in April 2008) by the World Religious Tourism Association does not include date from many Asian Countries. Religious tourism is the main travel motivation for domestic tourism in Asia. For example in India, it is estimated that more than170 million pilgrims travel to pilgrim sites ( Champaner- Pavagdh, Kausiki, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, Yamunotri, Rishikesh, Mandhradevi, Talapadi, Tirupati, Palani, ect.) or participate in religious events such as the Kumba Mela. Buddhists and Hindus consider the subcontinet from the Himalayas to the south shores of the Indian Ocean to the the most spiritual

countries on earth. In India and Nepal, hundreds of low-cost hotels opened in the last few years by making their promotion through the internet for pilgriamges or spiritual tourism. For example, near the Himalayan Sanctuary Cave of Amarnath in South Cashmere, the regional administration put at the disposal of pilgrims, for a few rupees, 140 bungalows during the two moths of the pilgrimage period. In 2006, 10,000 pilgrims used the services of helicopters between Baltal and the Sanctuary Cave of Srinagar booking through travel agencies. In China, religious tourism is included in cultural tourism and may be estimated to account for at least more than 50 million travels trips. A Chinese geographer ( Chen,2003) therefore defines religious tourism: " Traditionally, it refers to the development of religious places of interest to attract believers by the pilgrimage, so that non-religious motivated tourists can also be attracted by reasons for visits or businesses which allows to the indenture promotion of the local economy the tourists are not only attracted by the religious activities, prayers, sermons., etc, it not by activities which are around the resources of the religious sites". In china at a modest estimate there would be approximately 100 millions believers of various religions, 85,000 religious or spiritual sites including 13,000 monasteries and temples, with 300,000 people working there and more than 3,000 groups dedicated to the management and the organization of these sites. Among the 219 most sacred mountains of Buddhism in china, three are Mount Emei in Sichuan,Mount Wutai in Shanxi, and Mount Jiuha in Anhui; among the temples, the most famous are the Shaolin in Dengfeng- Henan and the temples of Taer and Famen in Shanxi. there are 1,500 Taoist temples of which 143 are cultural sites and 20,000 mosques of which 80 are also cultural tourism destinations. In Indonesia, in the island of Java, the sanctuaries of the Wali Sanga of the nine saints attract millions of pilgrims each year. In Sri Lanka, pilgrims also gather in their thousands starting with three main religious ceremonies, Esala Perahara in Kandy, Kataragama Festival in the South and Nallur-Kandaswami Festival in Jaffna. As well, in Malaysia it is an important tourism product promoted by the country as the Dewan Rakyat Islamic tourism while other religious tourism products include Thaipusam, Chinese New Year and Wesak Day. Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar and the Philippines are promoting festivals which include religious ceremonies. In Japan, with the development of the pilgriamges, a network of sanctuaries has been developed. the town of Wakayama with its paths" Kumano Kodo" is the centre of one of these networks. It registered on the World Heritage List with 30.9 million visitors in 2004, a little more then the 2003 record with 29.4 million. the perspective trend is strong enough for many countries to start focusing on religious travel as part of their national sustainable tourism development strategy. the resilience of faith and spiritual tourism was particularly noticeable in Asia and the Pacific according to various data published during 2008 and 2009. while there volume is growing year by year, their content is undergoing changes by even including elements of leisure and education as they appear to respond to the needs of the 21st century society mainly their internationalization in the global world. Lastly, more modalities of pilgriamges are now in place including new routes and circuits where people can learn and meet others. The Growing Interest for Pilgrimages Routes in Asia and the Pacific Pilgrimage routes and religious itineraries have became tourism products and services to which authorities devote their full attention. they allow for improvement and substantial; benefits for all the communities along the way. Pilgrimages on foot, bicycle, horseback or any other mode of non-motorized transport on trails are much more than mere excursions, whether they are carried out for religious, cultural or artistic purpose. They are prepared in advance and their duration is far longer than the travel time. they require physical and spiritual preparation which it itself forms part of the pilgrimage. they are sustainable products with a lower carbon footprint. The most famous of these routes in the world is the Way of St. James or " Camino de Santiago". It has made it possible to highlight the theme of pilgrimage routs in Europe. To take action on the Recommendation 987 ( 1984) wishes to promote the intercultural and inter religious dialogue by a better comprehension of European history; safeguard the development of the cultural and natural inheritance as a factor of improvement of the framework of life and as a source of social, economic and cultural development based on sustainability. This subject has been enriched through the creation of a more general framework, such as in the

context of the Council of Europe, Pilgrim Routes", with three objectives: to identify them, to mark them out using common signage and to coordinate them with a cultural events program in cooperation with governmental, regional and local authorities as well as nongovernmental entities. This may be used as a recommended practice outside of Europe. UNWTO may work to attain such objectives in the different regions of the world. For example, the concept of a pilgrimage rote and tourism itinerary, the " Abraham Path" was launched in the spring of 2007 by the Global Negotiation Project at Harvard University, as part of the projects aimed at the implementation of the United Nations" Alliance of civilizations initiative. This initiative takes the form of a route, like the SilkRoad or the Slave Route, which traces, through various countries in the Middle East, the steps of the prophet Abraham, who is the " ancestor" of the three main monotheistic religions. The idea is to enable the rehabilitation and the promotion of religious sites and pilgrimages in the Middle East. Japanese tourist authorities have recently studies the Ways of Saint James as a good practice for their own sites and pilgrimage networks. Owing to its dimensions and diverse forms ( pilgriamges, gatherings, visits to sanctuaries, spiritual journeys, etc.) religious tourism presents economic and social challenges for territories along these routes and pilgrimage ways. ways of pilgrimage reestablisehd once again their past reputation in Japan such as int eh Kii mounts which extend beyond the Pacific Ocean.several sacred sites, Yoshino and Omine, Kumano Sanzan and Koyasan, connected to the old capitals of Nara and Kyoto, included in the World Heritage List since 2004.The protection of this historical heritage followed standards which can be presented as a good practice. Religious tourism pilgrimage routes and religious itineraries in Asia and the Pacific have to follow the same achievements and benefits of the Silk Road by developing well coordinated partnerships among the host communities, tourism professionals and local populations along the route. One challenge is to reconcile the commercial needs of the tourism industry with the spiritual and religious needs of pilgrims and the frightful ( the catering of the pilgrims for example), while respecting the physical integrity of religious sites and their religious significance. Another objective has to do with modulation entry fees and taxes and finding the revenues that will ensure the sustainability of an sanctuary or a monument as well as the welfare of the communities that manage them or the local populations living around or in close proximity. 1.4 Conclusions Various obstacles could stand in the path of the growth of religious tourism i terms of freedom of movement and respect for human rights, such as the freedom to participate i religious gatherings in accordance with the obligations stipulated by the laws without interfering against the public interest, pr the dignity and respect of peoples. The issuance of passports and visas for these pilgrimages and religious gatherings should be carried out within a framework as flexible as possible. Other rights should likewise be respected such as those of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the right to cultural and historical heritage, the respect of the authentic testimonies created by cultural and religious heritage in order to preserve and enrich the cultural diversity of the world. Concerning the sustainable development of religious tourism in Asia as well as the whole world, many elements must be carefully considered: the measurement and the management of the flows of visitors, the maintenance and the rehabilitation of religious and cultural monuments, the environmental protection of natural sites which proceed religious events, the personal and juridical safety, hygiene, catering of food, the correct use of communication and information technologies, the promotion and marketing of new products and services related to religious or spiritual tourism. In particular the use of the paths and ways of pilgrimage by foot, bicycle or on horseback is an excellent means of taking part in the protection of the environment and saving energy or using renewable energies to fight climatic change. It is a true product of ecotourism. For both destinations and religious tourism operators,training is a decisive element for the sustainable development of religious and spiritual tourism.This training includes broader aspects going beyond just the management and development of tourism and lodging and catering establishments or cultural heritage facilities. Universities, educational institutions and schools should include religious, spiritual and cultural tourism in the curriculum of programs in theology

and history of religious programs, in particular, in the context of intercultural management, in order to deal with multiple cultures and faiths. Signage of religious tourism ( graphic signs and symbols) may be another facet for a better understanding between East and West.In the UNWTO report " Tourism Signs and Symbols: A Status Report and Handbook", published in 2001, a certain number of symbols were presented for the signage of monuments and sites in relation with religious tourism. In the basic UNWTO report for the Cordoba conference on " Tourism and Religions", it was suggested that the symbols referents having for origin the Thailand tourism and transport authorities, could be used as a basis for a harmonized signage of the pilgrimage and religious monuments and sites. Moreover logostypes of routes and ways of pilgrimage such as the " Camino of Santiago" or the " Silk Road" may be viewed as good practices. UNWTO and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) should integrate into their programs of work the creation of harmonized signs and symbols referents for religious tourism. Tourism puts people in contact with other lifestyles,religions, ways of seeing the world, its civilizations and cultures,and its history. It is therefore improtant to ensure that it can be carried out under the best possible conditions of freedom of movement and respect for human rights, in particular for religious and spiritual tourism. To conclude, what is currently being observed in the following: A secularization of pilgrimages and travel for religious or spiritual purposes insofar as such travel must respond to the new expectations of people and of tourism clientele in a modern world that is more festive, open and freer. These forms of tourism require increasingly more effective management and promotion, with intensive use of information and communication technologies.It also entails the urgent need to protect resources and the natural and cultural environment within the framework of sustainable development, to fight poverty and climate change. Furthermore, religious and spiritual tourism between East and West is a factor of encounter and understanding between people and nations of Asian and the Pacific and other continents. Tourism is a peace-making mechanism which may help to bridge cultures and spirtualites. As an illustration, ecumenism is a tendency which can be observed more and more in religious tourism: another trend which supports understanding of other religions and cultures, is known as spiritual tourism very popular in the Himalayas. Tourist destinations are favorable to the interreligious and intercultural dialogue and encounter. Tourist infrastructures and equipment, the beauty and the quietude of the cultural and/or religious monuments and the natural sites facilitate this meeting. Such gatherings, in particular among youths, should be favored within the framework of the interreligious and intercultural dialogue as well as the UN initiative of the Alliance of civilizations. Religious tourism may led to a stronger link between East and West. The Silk Road pf Faith With communism toppled tow decades ago, or left with little more than a label, the political arena as the venue of ideological competition has largely faded away. Instead, the tangible issues of materialism and profit seem to prevail. However, since unchained capitalism has pushed the world into deep crisis, people are asking for a higher purpose: In pursuit f ethics, Faith in God is being ' re-invented'- and religion is back on the agenda. There are winds of change-everywhere, including Asia. Boasting some of the world's most prestigious pilgrim sites,Asia claims to be the cradle of all major religions and home to movements of meditation and deep spirituality.However, overcoming religion determined faultlines of Faith may be crucial to the excesses of fundamentalism. Can travel and tourism help avert the clash of civilizations?- Bridging cultural gaps is proclaimed, readjusting ' points of reference' is necessary. that means: to accept diversity, respect identity and detect commonalitynothing less than the rationale and purpose of the ecumenical movement and core-mission of international travel and tourism. The buzzword is 'mutual respect', and the activity includes 'communication and cooperation', the exchange of ideas and opinions, services,goods. In business it is 'trade'. It cultural benchmark can be found back in the heyday of the world's most

extensive trade network: the Silk Roads. To 'catch the spirit' more and more people go spiritual. With the rise of religion during the past years, pilgrimage as the origin of travel motifs has enjoyed an amazing revival, and monasteries offer a past from hectic business and modern life-style constraints.Many people want to change, and their adventure of displacement is coming true. the myth of the Silk roads is seductive. Travel and tourism on the Silk Roads offer opportunities to experience exciting cultural heritage: impressive remnants of art and architecture,magnificent testimonials of ancient civilizations, and a spiritual revival in the Central Asian and Caucasian Silk Road countries, ever since the Soviet Union broke up back in the early nineties of the past century. Again, culture has remained the pivot of social and economic development and the prime human force to shape a destination's face, with religion having been restored as people express their faith in God. Besides architecture and nature, there are great personalities worth tracking down: explorers and famous travelers who left home as pilgrims or became pilgrims in the course of their journeys. Following their steps will allow both profound insight into their individual mindsets, and also provide the experience of a more down-to-earth way to travel- for the sake of the 'real' thing. In the 629th century.Xuanzang, a young monk, set off from china's Capital Chang'an ( today: Xi'an) to India. Neither imperial prohibitions nor armed robbery, nor the notorious desert storms of the Taklamakan, nor the icy wilderness of the Tien-Shan Mountains, the Pamirs or Hindush, could prevent him from traveling. After 17 years he returned home, with 657 Sanskrit rolls in his luggage. He translated them during his remaining 19years of life. His goal was, as Richard Bernstein from ' The New York times' wrote in his travel report, " to identify the deepest truths about human nature and identity".- Although less well-known today than Marco Polo, the monk from Chang'an has lost nothing of his fascination. Today, there are people like Richard Bernstein who travel Xuanzang's route-tracking down his unbroken myth and sometimes rediscovering their innermost self. 600 years after Xuanzang's journey to India, in 1325, lbn Batuta, an Arabian merchant born in Tanger, left his home place for a pilgrimage to Mecca. After praying at the Prophet's tomb, he was so galvanized by the explorer's fever that not before 27 years later did he return to his hometown, which he had left" like a bird his nest"., having covered about 120,000 km on foot,boat, horseback, donkey, camel , and occasionally in sedans. He visited the Arabian Peninsula,Persia,Afghanistan, India, Sri Lanka and China, before he traveled to different countries in Africa, following a " passionate desire for ever new impressions". Although originally a pilgrim, he became an adventurer and shrewd businessman, who experienced everything that his time and world had to offer of sensations and venues. Italian-born (1552) Matteo Ricci, a Jesuit ,missionary, reached China when he was 31 ears old. He studied the language and and Chinese literature, and dressed himself like a scholar of the country. Matteo Ricci's mission was to teach Christianity as a religion in harmony with the values and traditions of Chinese culture. In 1601, he obtained imperial permission to visit Beijing. His works on mathematics, astronomy and cartography won the Court's administration. Ricci succeeded in establishing a fruitful dialogue between the Orient and the Occident. Today, his example is regarded as a model of successful inculturation. Nowadays, many people regard travel and tourism as a panacea agianst economic crisis. However, serious industry professionals have always underpinned that tourism alone cannot heal an economy, or should it stand as a economic monoistructre..Given its comprehensive social, economic and ecological purpose, tourism, with its functional impacts and ideas. interdependencies upon society and business, may be rather compared to a network, like the Silk Roads, for instance: A unique cultural mixture of Asian and Greek styles had come into being, and traders for East and West took shelter in caravanserais and monastreris to exchange goods, opinions, and However, roads are not worth any more than the places which they connect. As ' points of reference', they provide the real purpose of the road network. When in the 16th century, sea routes between Europe and Asia proved to be safer, cheaper and faster, the Silk roads declined: Their ' points of reference' lost their purpose and the network its function. Systems may lose their function, as ideologies lose their sense. Communism may have gone, but capitalism is tarnished. The more obvious it because that business crime in grand style had its real share in causing the present global economic crisis, the more strongly has resounded the call for ethic values. In an effort to help restore trust, religion claims the moment of truth. Are people

remembering the missing link? One of the most outstanding elements of define 'culture' is religion.But the reasons for an increasing demand in religion and spirituality-focused traveling in Asia-Pacific ( and beyond) are complex: our longing for a life purpose and objective other than quick money and fashionable pleasures, our time; our fear of ecological calamities, economic downturn and social unrest. We have realized that without ethics there is only chaos. However, the cry for 'ethics' was heard, and corporate guidelines were hung on office walls and in visitors' lounges. But too often that was all. Perhaps the reason is, although giving people a ' moral framework', that mere ethics can hardly fill the gap between emotion and rationale between heart and guideline. Readjusting ' points of reference' ,may require a compass. For more and more people ' religion' is it. Religion is the expression of people's faith and therefore prime source of trust and confidence. Faith may be rational and emotional, but never indifferent. Faith may breed love or hate, and religion- the 'brand' of Faith, can be powerful, whether used or abused. Religion provides orientation, identity and identification- and the strongest motivation, as we believers make God's perceived vision ' our cause' Religion demands action: After all, its faith, linked with hope and love, 'that shifts mountains'. Religion gives ethic values a ' higher purpose', and faith ' a face'-for it's the face that shows the 'soul'. Given a renaissance of so-called 'Asian Values' - including approaches to the 'Asian way' of lingterm thinking, tourism can play a key-role as a bandwagon of solidarity, creativity, and as a driving force toward establishing a "Silk Road Doctrine' that spreads cross-cultural values and cosmopolitan hospitality. The unknown stakeholder's quote may be worthwhile: " Change may follow exchange: So change it, love it, or leave it- but don't go on the same way! Educate and train pupils in Responsible Tourism now, from primary class upward. Use ' faith-based development' now, to give the legendary Silk Roads a human dignity-rooted, ecology- related, and future-oriented 'face'. Create a joint 'scintillating' brand for the 'silk Roads of Faith' - now! " 3 Religious Tourism, Spirituality and Peace The relationship between tourism, spirituality and peace has usually been discussed without going into the depth of spirituality's link with tourism. This can come about only if spirituality is not seen as specific to any one religion but what is common to all religions- at least, the major ones. The analysis of the relationship between region and tourism, notably those done by Vukic ( 1996), Cohen ( 2004), Timothy and Olsen (2006) and Raj and Morpheth ( 2007) are, thus, hindered by lack of definitions of spirituality and tourism that go together. This note will seek to address this gap. The approach of this chapter is anthropological or ' ' sociological' in its broadest sense. Anthropologists study world religions as well as 'lesser' religions from the social scientific perspective and the general impression is that religions are the core of a cultre, just as social solidarity that creates and maintains social organization ( at the tribal and community level) or social and societal structure ( at the regional and national level) is at the core of human society. The bases of any sort of social form- to include social organization,social structure, and societal structure- are continuous as well as continual cooperative processes, such as travel and communication ( Singh 2003; Singh 2004; Sing 2009). These include pilgrimage and religious tourism, which constantly affirm core social and cultural values embodied in religions, mores, and other deep-seated norms. such values remain active through spiritual activity and rituals arising from, and directed towards, belief in cooperation and interaction with the supernatural world as well as the social world, hence could be the basis of peace. It should be noted that all cultures and societies envisage interaction with the supernatural, even those tribal ones that do not have a religion but are immersed in magical thinking and magical rituals. It is very hard to separate magic and religion, so that even a famous anthropologist like Evans-Pritchard ( 1940,1956) spoke of an easily identifiable religion of the Sudanese tribe, the Nuer, but ignored their magical thinking. Such thinking was evident in the popular ritual of Ghost Marriage among the Nuer, where a dead man was' married' ( the biological fatherhood being taken up by a living male) to a fertile female and the children born of such marriages attributed ( fatherhood) to the dead man. Thus, death and infertility we equated, and death ( and infertility) negated and ' subjugated' through the magical ritual of Ghost Marriage, which was not considered

strange. So both religions and magic provide answers to practical as well as psychological problems, unlike spirituality which does not appear to deal with such problems either directly or indirectly-though the 'gospel' that saints profess. So, with those values,ideals, norms,mores and philosophies that are common to humanity as a whole, irrespective of ritual differences. 3.1 Tourism : Ritual or Spiritual? It is evident from the above that rituals are not limited tom religions, and thus the opposite of religiosity and spirituality is not magic, since there is something magical about all rituals, which subscribe to them ( Tambiah 1979, Singh 2009) .But most of us 'know' that tourism is not a magical ritual, yet does not seem like a religious ritual either, though often taken up religiously. Tourism is not mechanical or binding on the person/s who wish/es to go on a tour and hence less of a ritual and more of spiritual activity, albeit without an explicit philosophy, or perhaps, to use an oxymoron, a ' spiritual ritual'. Sing ( 2009) has identified many reasons why tourism is not so much of a ritual as a spiritual activity, including the fact that tourism is always an option, as opposed to rituals that have to be performed under all circumstances; since the decision to perform or not to perform ' the act' of tourism is never permanently taken by individuals or groups, unlike is rituals where everything is binding. this does not mean that there is nothing ritualistic at all about tourism; Graburn ( 2001) maintains that tourism is a 'secular ritual.But the core of an unspoken philosophy of tourism and tourists is to seek pleasure in nature and culture, the two broad mainstays or resources for journeys, and it is hard to make costly touristic ventures with such a degree of repetition that they become a ' ritual;'. Moreover, touristic pleasure is not necessarily hedonistic or sensual, as earlier attributed to tourists by Turner and Ash ( 1975), macCannel ( 1976), and DeKadt ( 1979). In fact, the nature of pleasure in pleasure travel is vast and complex, embracing reverence and piety, and somewhat childlike in the Wordsworthian sense ( Fennel 2009; Singh 2009). And to stress the point, religious tourism, which is a substantial part of domestic travel in most countries, especially in Asia ( certainly in India), has naturally nothing much to do with pleasure, but involves hardships that are borne stoically ( Singh 2002a). A kind of universal love for other humans and their most religious tourists, and such love ( to stress the obvious) is not usually hedonistic and epicurena, but often altruistic and termed agape in Greek ( Singh 2002b). Tourism may and may not be a ritual, but has something spiritual about it, when conceived of as a holistic and therapeutic social process that has been going on since time immemorial. Of all the forms of tourism, religious tourism and pilgrimage are the most ancient, accompanied only by tow secular forms of travel, namely, VFR ( visiting friends and relatives) and hunting-for-sport tourism ( Sing 2007). the spirituality of tourism is of a different kind- not only the sort that sees the world romantically and therefore elevates the ordinary ( such as natural features of the earth and once-in-a lifetime events like initiations, wedding, birth and death ceremonies) to a type of spiritual ' embodiment' of God in the social context, but also the un-ritualized canonisation of humans( and not just saints and their teachings), their culture, their values and beliefs -as living representatives of something akin to God or what famous psychologist and philosopher Carl Jung called ' the collective unconscious' and human creativity and culture. The foregoing may appear divorced from usual thinking, but its importance for tourism has scarcely been realized by those studying tourism academically and those who are tourism managers, administrators and policy-makers. There has recently developed a realisation that nostalgia that creates euphoria is a marketable part of tourism ( Russell 2008). Yet, everyone who has been a tourist himself/herself may easily recall the euphoria and elation that one feels before going on a desired vacation and after it ( and often during the journey), though the euphoria mentioned in the seminal work of anthropologist such as the Turners ( turner and Turner 1978)- highlighted and ascribed only to pilgrimage and religious tourism- has led to limited understanding of the function of euphoria in tourism, in general. Singh ( 2009: 150-151) has critiqued this thinking and maintained that such euphoria ( communities and societies ) is experienced and shared not only during pilgrimage but at other times as well, and not necessarily during travel, but even at times when one prays or mediates at home or in a shrine. Mediation also ' transports' one to other mental states/spiritual realms and that is why the Hindus maintained that pilgrimage ( teerth yatra) did not make it binding on a person to travel, but could

be done sitting at home ( Kaur 1985; Singh 2009), implying mediation. It is the purpose of this paper to establish in brief that tourism in general, and religious tourism, in particular, involves a special kind of spiritual experience that can be sustained and enhanced through a correct perspective of social integration through the spirituality in tourism which leads, and can lead, to peace. 3.2 Convergence of Religious Philosophies and Tourism While it is apparent to many observers that religious philosophies differ to a great or appreciable extent, the convergence between them depends on the spirituality they profess. this includes not only universal brotherhood, amity and peace ( offered to all souls after death, including this of prophets) but the coraollary that it is maintained by all majors religions that there is life after death ( e.g., for such belief among Muslims in India, see Akhtar 1998; for such spreading belief among Christians in the United Stages of America, see, for example Fiore and Landsburg 1979, Moody 176, 2001). The Hindus, Buddhists and Jians naintain that souls are born again and again, whereas Christians, Muslims and Jews think that souls are born only once. this may seem contradictory, but its basis among Hindus is that it is up to the individual to do his or her best karma ( action that leads to spiritual merit, or its opposite- in which case it is wrong or 'bad' karma) in this one life and hence the vicious cycle of birth and rebirth can be avoided. In early belief among Hindus regarding whether souls are born again and again, especially during the time of the Buddha ( circa 6th century BC), there was one philosophy that denied God's existence and stressed hedoinism and living a life full of fun and pleasure, was spread by the philosopher Chaarvka ( Basham 1977); it has some adherantes among Hindus in India even today. Other poplar Hindu philosophies are monastic ( advaita philosophy) and dualistic ( dvaita). Relating this to tourism and its unspoken or un- stated philosophy,it is apparent that just as there is variety of philosophies among the Hindus, there is, similarly, differences in philosophy among Muslims, Christians, Buddhists and Sikhs. Since tourists follow different religions, they are, therefore, influenced by different philosophies and some are atheists or not philosophical at all. How does this relate to religious tourism? First, as mentioned earlier, tourist philosophies are centered on elevating the ordinary to the spiritual and even atheists believe in the sanctity of humans and their culture, which tourist set out top explore.Religious tourism of the type that includes New Age Tourism, is therefore, a means of thinking sensitively about ( core) human values regarding what is sacrosanct in nature and culture and ( core) religious beliefs that emphasize brotherhood and peace. This is so since tourism ( especially religious tourism), like pilgrimage, involves a meditation between the natural and social worlds, and between the social and the supernatural ( mainly, the spiritual aspect, as opposed to a similar function performed by mythologist int eh case of pilgrimage) ( Singh 2004, Singh 2009). This brings us back to the relationship between ordinary tourism, religious tourism, spiritual tourism, and pilgrimage. It cannot be denied that often ordinary tourism is hedonistic and concerned with pleasure: for example, sex tourism is often thought of as outright bodily pleasureseeking, although there is shades of romantic tourism that blend with such types of tourism ( Bauer and McKercher 2003). Also, what is considered only sexual activity among tourists may have some, other cathartic purpose and a social function ( see Singh 2002b). religious tourism is tourism that involves reverence of core values and beliefs of various religions but does not involve ritualistic activity, as in pilgrimage. AS mentioned earlier, there is nothing pleasurable about religious tourism, although it does involve euphoria, unlike spiritual tourism where there may be both euphoria and pleasure of a spiritual kind. Religious tourism, therefore, blends with spiritual tourism, on the one hand, and pilgrimage, on the other, but they are distinct after analysis. Spiritual tourism, broadly defined to include tourism that is motivated fully or partly by religious and spiritual values that are universal and not limited to any one religion, is a vehicle for change for the better and can lead to peace if properly guided by codes of ethics and conduct ( for tourists as well as managers) that are derived from religions and social culture values obtained from religions, such as protection of nature from excessive or exploitative consumption ( Fennell and Malloy 2007). Such values are found in all the major religions, such as Hinduism ( Kaur 1985; Singh 2001). Islam ( Akhtar 1998), Christianity and the Protestant Ethic-which gave birth to monetary capitalism, but, in the original,

emphasized frugality and considerate consumption of nature and natural resources( Weber 1958). Buddhism and Jainism also stress non-violence, including towards animals and plants, and therefore underscore wise use of natural resources ( Humphreys 1955; Pandey 1976). such philosophies are the anchors of sustainability and, therefore, their popularization would make forms of religious tourism ideal types of tourism in the long run.Sustainable tourism for such a kind would naturally lead to mutual understanding among diverse humans and hence peace. Religious Values and Tourism: Contradiciton or Commonality? If one goes by the conflict that seems apparent between believers of the six major religions ( in terms of numbers of followers)- Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism,Sikhism and Jewish religion- one may be let to conclude that their philosophies are vastly different. But this view negates the basic tenets of all these religions combined: humans are creations of God, there should be brotherhood and harmony amongst all peoples, who are god's children, and who should live in peace, remembering and praising God and His creation at all times. All major religions aspire to be universal religions and their very purpose is contradicted: if the world is divided into people from various religions and they do not agree on the basic common nature of all religions, or agree in theory but not in practice, how can there be harmony and peace? The barriers to all these religions are ritualism, ethnicity, and nationalism-in that order. So how can these differences be reconciled and help create peace? First, ritualism needs to be suppressed. But that is a difficult or near-impossible task, since most ordinary people stick to ritualism-including image worship, not only among the Hindus, but also, strangely, some Christians, Buddhist and Sikhs; restrictions on what can and cannot be eaten; and who should ( or can) be allowed to be wedded to whom. So the next step could be to eliminate the other barriers to any one religion becoming, or all the world's religions together becoming, universal and harmonious, leading to peace, and that is where tourism comes in. Tourism appears secular ( cf. Graburn 2001) and thus transcends boundaries and barriers, unlike pilgrimage becoming the basis of a universal religion of humankind, which revels in seeking and experiencing differences in cultures, values, beliefs and worldviews, without actually becoming the basis of a universal religion of humankind, which revels in seeking and experiencing differences in cultures, values, beliefs ad worldviews, without actual becoming anything like a religion that imposes restrictions and indoctrinates its adherents. Pilgrimage, moreover, is culture-specific and many peoples of the world, especially tribal and peasant societies do not ave anything like pilgrimage, whereas all have some sort of tourism: it is only religious tourism, therefore, conceived of as dependent on common universal values of love and brotherhood that can bring about peace all over the world. What is more, now of the major religions seek to curtail travel, but some of them do impose restrictions on undertaking pleasurable activities while on a religious journey, such as during the Hajj in Islamic countries or during teerht yatra by Hindus going to pilgrimage centres in India. therefore, theoretically, non of the major religions would place restrictions on religious tourism. So, neither Islam nor Hinduism curbs tourism, and both promote religiously undertaken journeys for attaining purity and spiritual salvation. Recently, Islamic tourism is developing and growing, and spiritual salvation, Recently, Islamic tourism is developing and growing, and some countries, like Iran, are trying to promote tourism that does not involve sensual pleasure and that adheres to ' proper and decent' clothing and behavior by tourist form other countries. This is also true of India, where ( unlike the popular image among some Western tourists of India as the land of the Kama Sutra, an ancient book on sex) most traditional people, who are in the majority- both Hindus and Muslims ( the largest minority), are agianst indecent skin-showing garments. This is a good example of how two religions that appear to be contradictory actually share some core values that are similar. And that is not the only example: in most Asian societies and in India, Christians and Sikhs, wherever they are non-Westernised, also hold similar values regarding clothing and behavior in public. To conclude, the safest way to increase and manage increased visitation is through tourism that is guided by religious values and codes of ethics and conduct, especially so in places that are of religious importance. Religious tourism, this, is the one big, emerging segment of the world tourism market, both on national or domestic levels and internationally. codes of ethics and

conduct, which were guiding factors in managing large-scale visitation in countries like Indiawhether among Hindus in four major pilgrimage centres or dhamas, such as Badrinath in the western Himalayas, or places of greater importance to Muslims, such as the dargah ( shrine) of Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinddin Christi in Ajmer in Rajasthan state-and should continue to guide religious tourism by recourse to, and propagation of, the core values of the different religious philosophies, which they have in common. Indeed, it is easy to see many pother commonalities between Hinduism and Islam: both believe in the eternality of the soul, differentiate between soul ( Hindu jiva, Muslim rooh) and spirit ( Hindu prana Muslim jaan), booth require not treading with shoes within holy precincts, both require quietude on the part of those who enter the place ( and this is especially true for the Hindu shrines in the Himalayas than ion the plains: the latter can be noisy). Finally, it can be pointed out that meditation is an essential part of four of the major religions in the world ( Swami Ramma 1975, O'Brien 1978, Nicholson 1980)- Hinduyism, Islam, Christianity and Buddhism- for coming closer to salvation and in preparation for Judgment Day ( as it is known to Christians, also called Qayamat by Muslims). Meditation involves quietness and stilling of the mind of everyday thoughts. there are different forms or styles of meditation and all of them are associated with intense spirituality. By sharing these commonalities between religions and making people from different faiths aware of the common, underlying or deep-seated values and norms, religious tourism can emerge as a viable and sustainable form of tourism in Asia that leads to peace. Thinking Pragmatically about Religious Tourism It has been noted by many scholars that the entire major, and some of the minor, religions emphasize on spirituality, universal brotherhood and humanism as basic tenets that, if followed, may lead to global solidarity and peace. However, this does not help in understanding the situation today. People from different religions and sects or followings are clashing, and even going to war, belying their own religion's tenets of peace and brotherhood that the prophets taught. The Paradox of religiosity is that due to ritualism that is bound to particular cultures and culturally-bound beliefs, as well as differences in ways of worshiping, eating,drinking, dressing, and marriage, people appear to be more divided than joined by solidarity through religion. this was not the purpose of the messengers of God, the saints and prophets. All the major religions are proselytizing and aspire to be universal .They aspire to be universal in order to eliminate ritualistic differences. their purpose is not to dominate the world through any one type of beliefs and thinking, but to eliminate disagreement and,therefore, clashes and wars between the peoples of the world. Yet it is this aspect that leads to a lack of spirituality and common philosophy and ritualizaiton of beliefs.Tourism cannot take the place of religions, just as science cannot take the place of religions, and there is no explicit philosophy of tourism and tourist, who vary in their mental make-up and behavior to a vast extent. the purposive goal of tourists is not to created social solidarity, yet they do this unintended. the socially-purposive goal ( not at the individual level) of tourism, however, is to create social solidarity and provide recreation in times when societies are witnessing anomie, and stress and tension at the individual levels. AS anthropologists point out, many social processes or institutions have a social funciton that is not known to indiiduals of that particualr socoety. Torusim, remarkable is a sociula process that is common to all societues ( Singh 1007,1009) and its unrealised function is to create social soildarity at various levels-groups,community, regional, national and global. Pilgriamge is unable to do thios becasue it is restricted top particualar cultures, some alive, some'dad' or restricted to a few individuals: for example, the district and town of Kurukshetra in Haryana, India, that is supposed to have been the battlefield of the great prehistoric/proto-historic war., The Mahabharaa finds mention in the Hindu epic of te same name, as in the Indian Middle Ages ( circa 9-10th century AD) scriptures called the Puranas. However, it is not a very popular allIndia pilgriamge centre. Kurukshetra, if promoted properly for religius toruoism, can become an example of communal harmony and a common centre of visitation for Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs formIndia and abroad. Kuruksehtra is not a lone example. The popular tourst destination Goa and its conurbations are also a prome example of historic and current harmony pof Christians and Hindus. It is worth nothign that although the image of Goa among foreign and even domestic

toursts is of a place dominated by Christians, only 20% of its population is Christan, the rest Hindus and Muslims in India: in fact, this town has a substantial nu,mebr of Muslims and they ;ive at peace in harmony with Hidus. If tguis verty apparenbt ' weakness' ( the controversy) was to vbe transformed into a unique selling propositon ( the harmonious exxistence of people from tow major religions) by the Ministry of Tourism of India, Ayodhya and its peaceful population could be popularised for religious tourism domestically and internationally. 3.5 Conclusions Spirituality has been defined as a form of therapeutic mental and corresponding physical behavior that leads to euphoria, and tourism has been identified as a special kind of spirituality ( Singh 2009). Obviously, if more and more people seek therapy in this way , it will lead to social contentment and peace. The more people that are content and happy, the less likely that antagonism at the individual and anomie at the social level will occur, To hone Singh's ( 2009: 147) working definition of spirituality and its corollary definition of tourism, we may say that spirituality is ' therapeutic mental and corresponding ( socially-orientated) physical behavior that leads to lasting happiness and euphoria ( including transcendental euphoria) for members of a quasi-group, group, community, sect or religion'. It is important to note in this amendment that it is only socially-orientated behavior that is truly spiritual. Read this with Singh ( 2009: 150) definition of tourism to understand how spirituality is linked to tourism: 'Tourism is a primarily creative, cooperative ( and therapeutic) process- a form of social, cultural, monetary and intellectual capitalism-that helps in socialization, enculturation, education and recreation of people in a globalizing world. It is a driver of social, cultural, economic, ecological and psychological change that leads to simple and complex social solidarity, domestically and internationally, through the process of continual mobility." From the above it is clear that tourism is also a driver of psychological change for the better that can only come about through spirituality, which is a factor in reducing social anomie and self conflict and tension/anxiety at the individual level, and, therefore ( rightly handled), leads to peace all over the world. to conclude, we can define religious ideas, values, beliefs, norms and philosophy, but unlike pilgrimage in that the absorption of the participants in the activity is not absolute and involves no indoctrination or ritualzation. It shares the function of providing recreation with certain forms of pilgrimage,but, unlike the latter, its participants require amenities and hospitality of a level not usually sought by pilgrims of a particular culture'. Such forms of pilgrimage-like activity is not hemmed in by closed minds and therefore, properly marketed and guided by codes of ethics and conduct, can lead to greater understanding and peace. Section 2- Regional Marketing and Thematic Studies 4 Religious Tourism in South-East Asia Religion-linked tourism should be a " natural" asset in south-east Asia, where all major religions of the world- Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Hinduism-have left their imprint and still have an enormous influence on daily life. These religions have inspired the construction of some of SouthEast Asia's most spectacular monuments-Angkor Wat, Borobudur, Baroque churches or Moorishstyle mosques and palaces- and are still influencing daily living through colorful ceremonies ( Balinese processions, Loy Krathong festival in Thailand or Hari Raya festivities in Muslim countries for example), art performances ( traditional dances, Ramayana or Shadow Theatre in most countries of South-East Asia), food or religious ceremonies ( Chinese temples all across the region). However, this colorful legacy has, so far, not been properly exploited for tourism purposes. Many factors explain the relatively low presence of religious tourism in marketing strategies of National Tourism Organizations ( NTOs). Religion remains a sensitive issue in many countries.Racial tensions based also on religion have

affected, over the last 15 years, countries. racial tensions based alos on religion have affeced, over the ;last 15 years, countires such as Indonesia,Malasia and thailand, with the contention: "we have to remain neutral and look at sensitiviteis in matter of religion to preserve the harmony between various religions." Religious travel remains mostly domestic-focused and until recently attracted very little intentional interest. There has been no scientific approach to religious tourism. In a case study of Gabor Vereczi ( Sustainable development of tourism, UNWTO) presented in 2007, UNESCO already highlighted deficiencies in the application of indicators such as data, regular surveys and monitoring activities. Many of the World Heritage Sites listed in South-East Asia by UNESCO have a religious background. There is also no clear definition of what religious tourism encompasses in South-East Asia. So far it has been assimilated in international tourism to heritage sightseeing ( Angkor Wat, Sukothai or Borobudur temples) or religious festivities ( Hari Raya for the Muslims, Thaipusan for Indians, Loy Krathong for Thai Buddhists). The role of meditation in tourism is slowing beginning to emerge as an important element and is still considered as " not compatible" in Muslim countries ( Yoga is for example declared as unfit Islam in Malaysia). Despite being the largest religion in south-East Asia, Islam has been ignored as a potential centre for travelers. Strict rulers also prevent non-Muslims in participating more actively in the discovery of Islamic art and attractions such as, historical Mosques or Islamic schools ( Pondok). Confronted with these different problems, there are, however, attempts to look at tourism with a religious perspective n some countries: Three types of activities are already available in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand: 1) Sightseeing linked to a religious area which is more related to traditional visits of monuments and historical sites. 2) Meditation and spirituality which can be also linked to well-being and spa tourism 3)Participation in festivities with a religious character or background. 4.1 Definition of Religious Tourism Religious tourism is difficult to quantify in Asia as religious practices is widely spread and is part of daily life. A definition of religious tourism in South-East Asia has been already applied by the Tourism Authority of Thailand which has developed a series of products with a religious background. According to Mrs Runjuan Tongrut, Director for Policy Planning Division at the tourism authority of Thailand, religious tourism can be categorized by three main streams: Type 1- Spontaneous religious tourism including people visiting a temple or a place to pray or pay homage when staying nearby. Such homage is thought to bring good luck ( Buddhist and Taoist Buddhist) or is done purely because of religious motivations ( Muslims). going to visit a religious site is however not a primary purpose for travel. Type 2 - Visit of a religious monument and object as part of a sightseeing tour for heritage tour. Architecture,history and art are the main motivations. A religious purpose does in most cases not characterize those specific travel patterns. Type 3- Travelers to a religious site involving a religious activity such as pilgrimage, spiritual retreat ( meditation) or religious teaching. The total number of domestic travelers for Thailand is calculated from total trips and from total number in accommodations in Malaysia and Vietnam. Estimations for Cambodia travel has been taken form Cambodia's national data. Methods to define religious tourism still do not exist in any of the countries studied. All surveys carried out to assess activities or travel motivation by foreign tourists do not include religion as a purpose for travel. However, religious motivation features under 'leisure or sightseeing' for the

visit of religious objects or monuments and spiritual motivation under ' health/well-being'. No National Tourism Office has, to date, conducted precise research on religious tourism including definitions, motivations and the need to develop such markets. this is most likely due to the above mentioned religious sensitivity of populations in the region. 4.2 Thailand Thailand has,so far, developed the most proactive marketing strategy to promote religious tourism. Religious tourism is part of the daily life of Thai people. Most of them, being Buddhists, are used to paying a visit to a temple or a shrine of any importance when passing in its proximity so to attract good lunch or good fortune. there are thousands of temples, shrines or revered statues that can be found all around the Kingdom. some of the most famous religious sties include Wat Pho, Wat Phra Keo and Doi Suthep and Chiang Mai, wat Phra Sing in chiang Rai, Wat Phra Keo, Wat Si Chum and Wat Chedi Sao in Lampang, Wat Phra Boomatat in Surat Thani, Suphan Buri temples, wat Phra Sri Rattana Mahatat in Phitsanulok ( which has a Buddha image considered as one of Thailand's most beautiful representations) and Wat Phra Mahathat in Nakhon Si Tammarat ( a listed temple in Southern style). However, over the last three years, Thailand has started to look seriously at Type 2 and 3 0f religious tourism. For Type 2 ( Temples or sacred sites visit sightseeing tours), the Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT has generally been providing information for travelers in the form of travel guides. A budget has been allocated to print material by there is no specific budget dedicated to religious promotion', explains Rungjuan Tongrut at TAT. Printed Material Printed materials refers mainly to the brochures printed about Bangkok and Chiang Mai temples, Ayuttaya, sukhothai and historical parks in Isaan province such as Phimai or Phnom Rung. More specific brochurs on Thai languages sites have been printed and sold ( US $7 per copy) but only in the Thai language. However, TAT assures that translations will soon be available. guide books on Northern Thailand's most famous temples or on Buddha statues and relics that cater to international travelers are still scarce. Misperceptins about the interest and motivation for travel of international tourists still persists in the mind of Tah tourism officials, in the case of Sikh tourism. When asked about te lack of promotion, they generally answer by considering many sites as " unfit to receive international travelers who are supposedly more sophisticated. Interestingly, in 2009, the TAT provincial office in Narathiwat ( covering the Malay speaking southern region) printed a brochure on Islamic art, architecture and heritage for the Arabian Travel Mart in Dubai to promote Islamic attractions in Thailand's Southern provinces of Narathiwat, Pattani and Yala. Over 1,500 brouchers were printed for this promotional opportunity with the main purpose to attract Arab Muslim travelers. Another brochure in Malay language ('Menjejaki Tamadun'-tracking civilizations') was also published. It lists all Islam-related cultural sites of Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat including local rulers' palaces as well as graves of local royalties and Islamic clerics. 4.2 Destinations Destinations in Thailand with a religious background to be considered are: 1. Bangkok Rattanakosin Island ( Royal Palace with Wat Phra Keo0Wat Pho), Chao Praya River and Yapwarat ( Chinatown) districts. 2. Chiang Mai Temples: Thailand's Northern capital is dubbed as the 'city of a hundred temples' of which twelve to fifteen are included in classical tourism circuits. the former Northern Thai Kingdom of Lanna is one of the most picturesque for temples and sacred sites excursions and tours. Cities such as Chiang Saen,Chiang Rai, Lampang, Lamphun, Mae Hong Son,, Nan, or

Phraw are renowned for their exceptional temples. Chiang Mai is turning into a meditation centre owing to its high number of Buddhist temples, and the opportunity provided to approach monks, talk to them and learn about Buddhism practices. 3.Ayuttaya,Lopburi and Sukhothai are old cities which have numerous ruins of sanctuaries still used as sacred venues for Thai Buddhists. Sukhothai enjoys strong tourism activities during the Loy Krathong festival in November as thousands of candles illuminate the temples. 4. Isaan Angkor-style temples such as Phimai,Phnom Rung are located in Historical Parks which are seen as part of a trans-border circuit that includes the splendour of the AngkorKings heriutave and terminates at Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Religious Fervour Creates Tourism Demand : Nakhom Si Tammarat Nakhon Si Tammarat is considered as the spiritual centre for Southern Thailand especially with Phra Mahathat being one of the largest and oldest temples. In 2007, Nakhon Si Tammarat became the centre of a business with thousands of people- majority domestic travellers- coming to buy and sell good luck amulets and medals ( Jatukham Rammathep amulet). According to newspapers, the craze- which lasted roughly a year- brought 10,000 travellers on average to Nakhon everyday, generating over 100 Bath in revenues for the city every month ( around US$ 3 million). the 6,000 hotels rooms in NJakhon were fully booked and domestic airlines added up to four daily flights from Bangkok. Between 2006 and 2007, the total number of tourists spending at least one night in an accommodation establishment grew by 17.5% from 538,941 to 632991. As the Jatukham Rammathep amulet's craze died out, the total number of travelers staying overnight n accommodation establishments declined in 2008 by 4.3 % representing 605,670 guests Religious Festivals TAT is marketing more festivals with a religious background as part of Thailand's travel experience. The TAT website contains a page listing all festivals b location and province or by events. Songkhan and Loy Krathong festivals are now major points of tourism promotion for Thailand, especially in Chiang Main, Northern Thailand and Sukhothai. In Sukhotai, the event includes the ' Dawn of Happiness Ceremony", king Ramkamhaeng Brahman Ceremony, and a Royal Given Lamp and Krathong procession parade. the Buddhist let Day is marked by tow [popular festivals in Isaan: a candle festival hosted in July in Ubonb Ratchathani to make the start of Buddhist Lent and the Naga Fireball along the Mekong River in Nongkhai and Vientiane ( Laos) in October, marking the end of the Buddhist festival. In early October, Tak province host " Tak Bat Devo" a festival originating from " Devorohana", the return of Buddha from Heaven to Earth. An increasingly popular festival with a religious background is the international Vegetarian Festival in Phuket, which also embraces the concept of well- being and healthy living. the festival is based on Taoist traditions coming from Hokkien Chinese who arrived in early 19th century with a vegetarian diet in honour of some gods. The faith became so popular that the festival has been since celebrated every year between the fist and the ninth evening of the ninth lunar month ( generally in October). It is celebrated with processions, incantations, fire walking, prayers for good luck and tasting of vegetarian dishes. A similar festival has now been initiated in Krabi province. Meditation Tourism Furthermore, TAT is paying attention to promoting meditations tourism, in conjunction with wellbeing and health tourism " We look to market a healthy life by presenting Thailand as the best destination to the path of inner peace and well being," says Rengjuan Tongrut. A glossy brochure in English has been produced recently on Meditation in Thailand which lists meditation centres such as the Young Buddhist Association of Thailand, the dhamma Kamala Meditation Centre, the International Buddhist Meditation Centre, Wat Mahathat Yuwaratrangsarit

and Wat Pathumawanaram in Beangkok as well as meditation centres in Chon Buri, Kanchanaburi, Nonthaburi, Lop Buri, Ubon Ratchathani, surat Thani and Chiang Mai. The TAT website also contains a list of all meditation centres that might interest international travelers. Some 40 meditation centres and agencies specialized in Yoga and meditation as well as attractions and temples are listed under " Meditation". Most of them offer courses in English from foreign travelers. Japan and Europe are the largest markets for sightseeing of sacred sites. The Japanese are the leading tourists in Ayuttaya with a market share of over 40%. Europe is dominated by France. With 29,016 visitors, France represents 10.4% of all tourists in classified accommodation in Ayuttaya and with 39,139 visitors almost 34% of all tourists in classified accommodation in Sukhothai. the Netherlands is Europe's second largest incoming market in Ayuttaya ( 16,348 tourists with a 5.8% market share) while Germany is Europe's largest incoming market in Sukhothai ( 35,558 tourists with a 30.7% martket share). Low Profile for Islam tourism Thailand still has difficulties promoting tourism linked to other religions such as Christianity and Islam. Despite a high number pf historical mosques-Ksu Se Mosque in Pattani and Telyuk Manoke Mosque in Naratjwat that are over 500 years old, tensions in the Southern Provinces of Thailand with acts of violence and regular bombings have put on hold any attempts to promote the area which has one of the greatest Malay-Muslim heritages in South-East Asia. Besides the Most Southern Provinces, there is little promotion done regarding visits to Islam related sites in the rest of Thailand. Promoting Buddhism Tours with Neighbors As Thailand occupies a central position within the Greater Mekong Area, with deep roots in neighboring countries such as Burma ( Myanmar), Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam, TAT has been keenly promoting over the last decade, trans-border circuits involving the visits of temples and religious sites. North-East Thailand is part of the Emerald Triangle Tourism Zone a US$ 14.9 million project funded since 2004 by Asian Development Bank. Promotion for tourism is done to link together Ancient Khmer historical sites, including 8 temples and shrines in Tahiland-Phnom Rung n Buriam Province, Sikhorapum and Khampaeng Yuai in Sisaket Province, Wat Phu in Champassak district ( Laos) as well as Siem Reap with all Angkor temples. Private tour operators organise circuits form Bangkok to Siem Reap stopping at Phimai ( Nakhon Ratchasima) and Phnopm rung under the Thematic circuit of " Old Khmer Kingdoms". Sporadic tensions between Cambodia and Thailand over borders have quickened the development of a Buddhist circuit/Pilgrimage tour involving India and ASEAN. TAT has been actively participating in working project groups with Myanmar since 2008. An educational trip has been organised to promote a new " Buddhist Circuit" linking Chaing Rai-Tachileik ( Myanmar) Kengtung- Bagan- Yangon and Bangkok. Representatives from the Association of Thai Travel Agents as well as the Tourism Council of Thailand have been involved in this educational trip. Since a circuit will, however, remain ASEAN-oriented due to visa constraints for overseas travelers who want to visit Myanmar. A third circuit promoted is being put in place with Indonesia (Sumatra) and Northern Malaysia within the frame of the IMT-GT working group ( Indonesia-Malaysia- Thailand Growth Triangle). The region wants to promote common heritage and traditions between Southern Thailand, Sumatra and Northern Malaysia. It is a first attempt to integrate within one circuit the visit of historical sites from Islam in the region. In 2008, a Visit Year IMT-GT was initiated. Farm trips were organised while tourism companies from Sumatra and Malaysia joined during the same year the Thailand Travel Mart in Bangkok. However, the Visit Year IMT-GT went almost unnoticed around the world due to a lack of proper exposure and the difficulty to " brand" it. 4.3 Malaysia

A very soft, careful approach has been given to religious tourism in Malaysia due to the potentially extreme sensitivity of the population regarding this subject. Over the last three years, Malaysia has seen a rise in ethnic tensions, which also takes its roots in the " not-so-easy" cohabitation of four religions: Islam, Buddhism, Christianity and Hinduism. some Malaysian States apply a stricter application of Islam which expands to the banning of some customs of cultural events originating from items prior to Islam and dubbed as " non-fit" in an Islamic society. However, Malaysia has full potential to develop original products based on religious tourism. This potential may be fostered through a better education process to explain to the local population the benefit of religious tourism, especially when linked to Islam practices. Monuments and sightseeing are an important part of travel experience in Malaysia according to surveys conducted by Tourism Malaysia. Almost 100% of all travelers to Malaysia named city sightseeing as a main activity. However, only 3% of all travelers link cultural events and historical sites as main features for promotion ( source: Malaysia Tourism Profile 2008). More interestingly, one of the tourists surveyed named religion as a motivation for travel or as an activity. In a survey conducted in the State of Kelantan on the visits to tourism objects, Masjid Muhammadi- Kota Bharu historical mosque was not named at all by foreign travelers despite its prominent position in the city centre. Responding to the growing importance of the city tourism, Malaysia Tourism and promoting Board published for time in 2009 a brochure listing major sites of worships. It includes the presentation of some 50 mosques across the country as well as Chinese, thai temples, Hinduist and Sikh places of worship as well as churches. Other brochures include the promotion of festivals with a religious background, many of them being a colourful- ven spectacular- event such as Hinduist Taipusam, chingay Parade or Chinese Hungry Ghost festival. Malaysia tourism Promotion Board ( MTPB) is also promoting more " Street of Harmony", generally places where all faiths cohabite with worship sites standing next to each other in a single street. This is the case for Melaka and Penang-especially following their inception into the UNESCO world Heritage List- but also i Johor Bahru, Kuching or in Brickfields district in Kuala Lumbar. Islam-Related Tourism Objects " We are encouraging strongly sites with a Muslim background to open more to foreign nonMuslim travelers. It is not always easy as we face resistance in many cases. We already organise round-table discussions to see in which ways tourism and the Islamic faith can work together." says Ahmed Zaki Mohd Salleh, Assistant Director Research and Industry Development for Malaysia Tourism. Opening up Islamic boarding schools to foreign travelers who visit has been faced with resistance. The biggest Muslim event to be promoted abroad is Hair Raya, which marks the end of the Ramadan fasting month. It is a time when visitors are encouraged to visit the numerous celebrations-generally around huge food feasts-being organised around the countries as well as to participate in " open House" celebrations where people are spontaneously invited to join celebrations at people's homes. Many initiatives have recently been implemented with the potential to make Malaysia a country where foreign ( non-Muslim) travelers can get a better knowledge of Islam principles and customs through their own experience. In 2009, the Central Government created Malaysia's Islamic tourism Centre (ITC) as a company limited by guarantee.It is supervised by a Board of Directors comprising of both Government officials and representatives from private sector. The Islamic Tourism Centre's core activity's is to help the Ministry of Tourism in undertaking strategic research for tourism policy formulation that will enhance travel and sustainable tourism development with Islam principles. the Centre exercises tourism market intelligence on emerging tourism markets such as the Middle-East and formulates policies ( for example relating to the creation of hotels working on Islam-principles). It also looks at sustainable tourism best practices related to the religion; at developing strategic partnerships with governmental, inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations and at facilitating tourism study visits. In 2009, its budget allocation was RM 3 million ( US$ 900,000). The first event organised by the ITC was the International Islamic Tourism and Halal Week

( IISTHAL), with the theme showcasing Islamic Wonders, held in Kuala Lumpur at the MATRADE Exhibitions and Convention Centre (MECC) from 30 October 2009-03 November 2009. It included the Global Islamic Tourism Conference and Exhibition 2009 (GITC 2009) and the Malaysian Halal Conference and Exhibition 2009. An increasing number of mosques are now opened to non0Muslims. Mosques have placed signs explaining behavior etiquette, even providing clothing accessories ( such as longue tuniques and scarves) for first time visitors. The most recent mosque opened to the public was the National Mosque of Putrajya as of June. 2009). Islam is taught in religious schools named pondoks. following the request of Kelantan Sultan, the State of Kelantan in Northern Penbinsular Malaysia opened in 2009 three Islamic boarding schools for tourists where they can learn about traditional Islam teaching. According to Kelantan tourism authorities, it could be possible to have one or two schools accommodating non-Muslim foreign travelers eager to learn about Islam. The State of Terengganu has opened the fist Islam-thematic park in the world, " Taman Tamadun Islam" or " Islam Civilization Park". The theme park displays 21 replicas of famous Muslim sites such as the Malaysian National Mosque, Alhambra Citadel in Granada ( Spain), and the Taj Mahal in India. The park includes an amphitheater artificial lagoons, a coffee shop as well as the Crystal Mosque, a unique monument as it is the only Mosque made exclusively from glass and steel. Prayers are proposed every day in the mosque. In total, Taman Tamadun Islam has already attracted two million visitors during its first year. Attracting Muslims from Singapore is Hari Raya Haji ( or Hari Raya Korban) a Muslim festivity celebrating Abraham's sacrifice. As such, sacrifices of animals such as lambs, goats, cows, bulls and camels are performed. the animals are slaughtered in accordance with proper religious rites. Packages for Hari Raya Haji are proposed to Muslims from Singapore as the practice of animal sacrifices is prohibited there. Three Days-Two nights packages linked to home to stay and agro-tourism ( farm visiting) are proposed in the States of Johor Bahru, Negeri Sembilan and Kelantan. Malaysia Tourism has also tired to introduce Ramadhan package tours during the fasting month of selected markets. this package allows the tourist to encounter and experience the Ramadhan in Malaysia and the preparation for Hari Raya. Malaysia also organizes and hosts an annual International Al-Quran Recital. Every year many people from the region, especially ASEAN go to Kuala Lumpar to hear the recital from participants from all over the world. Other Religious-Related Sites or Worship Sites Issues such as the ban by Kelantan of some traditional activities such as Mak Yong Dances ( considered as not conformed to Islam due to its animist character) has distortion the fact that Malaysia generally accepts any other religious customs-even if the country is not always keen to promote them. Even Kelantan lifted its ban partially by authorizing revised Mak Yong performances for tourists at the Kelantan cultural Centre performed only for tourists. Labelling Bujang Valley temples as UNESCO World Heritage Sites would help to promote Buddhism. Until recently, little has been doe to properly promote the Bujang Vallet-home of a 1,500 year old Buddhist/Hindu Malay Peninsula, the Bujang Vallet applied officially to become Malaysia's third UNESCO World Heritage Site for culture. Such an award would bring then awareness to a large public of domestic and international travelers and highlight the Buddhist/Hinduist past of Malaysia. the Bujang Valley spreads over450km and had up to 50 temple located in the area. Some of them have been excavated and partially reconstructed. the largest Candi ( temples) today are Candi Bukit Batu Pahgat ( the most significant temple), Candi Pendiat, Canid Bendang Dalam and Candi Pengkalan Bujang. The on-site archaeological museum receives some 100,000 visitors per year, mostly consisting of scholars and students. Kelantan records some 20 Thai temples as the State has a Siamese population representing 15,000 to 20,000 people. Most Siamese live in the Tumpat district where the majority of Thai temples can be found. Even if temples are mentioned in Kelantan brochures, there is no specific marketing program to attract Thai or foreign travelers to visit Kelantan's historical Thai temples such as Wat Photivihan, Wat Machimarram or Wat Mai Suvankhiri.

Chinese temples generally enjoy " week-end' pilgriamges when local Chinese visit to pray to seek some good luck. Some Chinese temples in Malaysia now have an international reputation and welcome Chinese from all over the world ( Kuan Yin Teng Temple in Penag, Sze Ya Temple and Thean Ho Temple in Kuala Lumpur, the Pahang Buddhist Association Temple, Cheng Hoon Teng and Poh San Teng Temples in Melaka. Cheng Hoon Teng Temple is the oldest Chinese temple in Malaysia and an already famous place to visit for Mainland Chinese, Taiwanese and Singaporeans. Other famous Chinese temples are also to be found in Kuching ( tua Pek Kong Temple) and Sibu ( Seven stories-Pagoda) as well as Miri ( Largest Taoist temple in South-East Asia) in Sarawak. Penang's Thai Burmese temples Wat Chaiyamangalaram and Wat Dhammikarama also see a large number of domestic and foreign Buddhism followers.Penang prosperity was achieved in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as the city of Georgetown became a major trade port for the Malacca Straits and became home of various communities coming from all over the world. Penang social fabric was made not only from Chinese, Indian or Malay but also from A Chinese, Arabs, Burmese, Javanese, Thai and Europeans. As Penang has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2008, the city and its administration are now pushing not only its architectural heritage but also its cultural diversity and fusion, highly visible in religious events and site4s. Following a visit to Georgetown with Indian's Thaiupusam and Chinese New Year being held together in 1998, UNESCO Cultural Adviser to Asia Richard Engelhardt declared, after seeing Indian believers praying at the Chinese temple of the Goddess of Mercy that " This is not just a mix of cultures, it is cultural fusion." The declaration of World Heritage is now transforming the approach of Penang to tourism with many events with a religious background receiving worldwide recognition. Religious pluralism supported by religious festivals is now becoming a major tourism attraction for the city. Travelers are invited to pay a visit to the " Street of Harmony" where all religions have their sanctuary- Kapitan Keling Mosque, the Goddess of Mercy Temple and the Sri Maha Mariamman Temple followed closely by the St George Church. the " Street of Harmony" is seen as the best example of peaceful cohabitation of world religions and was determined to list Georgetown on the UNESCO List. Many sites around Penang demonstrate this religious harmony considered as " intangible heritage". Another important tourism activity is annual processions, most of them being held for over 100 years. Feasts and religious celebrations are observed with all the attendant rituals, decorations and ceremonial foods. Penang tourism currently promotes 10 festivals: Thaipusam, Chinese New Year, Hungry Ghost Festival, mooncake Festival, nine Emperors god Festival, Hari Raya Aidifitri, Deepavali, chingay Procession and Dragon Boat Festival. Prophet Muhammad Birthday and Wesak Day ( Buddha's birthday) are also celebrated. UNESCO is also looking to preserve religious communities such as Muslim settlements around the Mosque in Aceh Street or the Catholic community behind the Eurasian church. world Heritage listing is helping to transform Penang's tourism industry through the creation of heritage trails that incorporates its to ethnic and religious communities. The benefits of tourism should spread to all Penang citizens and foster the conservation of traditions. It could also help to make Georgetown a target for education tourism especially by presenting to students Georgetown's melting pot and social fabric through the cohabitation of various ethnics and religions. Georgetown could become an open-air museum of Asian civilization. Religious Festivals An important part of tourism activities related to religion comes in the form of festivals hosted all year around, mostly by communities other than Muslims. the most popular are Chinese and Indian festivals such as Chinese New Year, the Autumn Mooncake Festival, the Festival of Hungary Ghosts, Taipusam, Deepavali and Chingai. Another major event with a religious background takes place in East Malaysia. Gawai Festival celebrates rice harvest among ethnic tribes and is linked to many rituals such as the sacrifice of cockerels as well as offering to the Gods.

Hindu Thaipusam is a celebration of the birthday to the Hindu deity Subramaniam in February. Hosted in Batu Caves with its temples, and with a sacred site 15km away from Kuala Lumpur, it attracted over 8000,000 persons in 2008. Every year, Batu Caves attract an estimated 1.5 million pilgrims, making it the most popular Hindu shrine outside India. Is Meditation Possible in Malaysia? With health and well-being tourism growing in importance, meditation activities could play a more active role on Malaysia. However, the practice of Yoga has been subject to polemics following a November 2008 fatwa from Malaysia's top Islamic body ruling agianst Malay practicing yoga, saying it has elements of other religions that could corrupt Muslims. It was then followed by a declaration of Malaysia's Government who reassured Muslims that they can perform yoga if they do not chant religious mantras. Such a polemic is likely to restrict a larger development of meditation centres. Or if it does happen, MTPB might find difficult to promote it due to the religious background. Looking at the research engine on Malaysia Tourism web, there is no link to " Meditation" or "yoga". Meanwhile, in Penang or East Malaysia where there is a sizeable population of Buddhists or Chirstians, meditation centres could be promoted. Penang is already famous for its Malaysian Buddhist Meditation Centre or Kuantan ( State of Pehang) with the Malaysia Vipassana Centre ( Dhamma Malaya). The centre was completed in 2007 and can accommodate up to 70 students. Langkawi also offers Yoga retreat packages sold by travel agencies with yoga sessions at sun rise, in padi fields and waterfalls in the rain-forest. Luxury meditation packages are available at the Shangri-La Tanjung Aru resort near Kota Kinabalu in Sabah. The chi Spa was opened in 2008 and offers a yoga pavilion as well as relaxation courses ( Tai Chi and yoga prices range from US$ 25 to US$ 30). 4.4 Indonesia Indonesia's acknowledgment of four official religions twined with national Pancasila's philosophy ( " unity in diversity") gives good opportunities for the development of religion-related tourism. However, Indonesia will still need to take a more scientific approach and develop new products able to attract more travelers for a religious based travel experience, following the spirit of Indonesia's slogan " ultimate in diversity". At Indonesia's Ministry of culture and Tourism, the product development department is watching trends for religious tourism. But likewise, it lacks the real knowledge to properly foster tourism based on religion and culture, specially in the way to promote Islam, Date on foreign visitors' arrivals to Indonesia by purpose of visit indicates 58.19% of the total number of travelers come to Indonesia for a holiday, 33.93% come for business and 7.88% for other motivations. Religious tourism is included in the third component. However, further precision on the purpose of visit is not provided. Indonesia is generally a tolerant country but some of the rules set are sometimes too strict. They are for example no clear rules about opening mosques to the public Permission from the local Imam must generally be received in order to enter a Mosque. However, walking in compounds is possible. Indonesia is keen to promote historical sites and traditions linked to any religions as it is part of the Archipelago's living heritage. Over the last three years, the Indonesia Ministry of Tourism has published a brochure covering heritage and culture as well as a comprehensive calendar of all festivals hosted in the country. It is complemented with another brochure on " Ultimate in Spa" which records major spas areas offering also relaxation and a holistic approach. the Culture and Heritage brochure lists only Indonesia's most famous temples, especially in Bali and Central Java/Yogjakarta Provinces. Two sentences in the brochure mention Mosques, explaining that there are mostly recent, implementing that they bring little value compared to Hindu-Buddhist temples in Prambanan/Borodur ( while Islam is the prevalent religion across much of Indonesia, reflected in the myriad of mosques, most of those are relatively new and it is the older religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, that provide the exceptional temples and monuments")

Redefining and Reinventing Islam Tourism Interests Indonesia's shyness to present Islam as a centre of interest for tourists is unfortunate as Indonesian Muslims continue to practice their faith mixed with other customs, giving sometimes an unusual " twist". Wetu Telu Muslims in Lombok are local Sasak people praying three times a day only or performing Ramadan three days a week.They also use Balinese style temples to perform Muslim prays. In West Sumatra, Minangkabau people follow Islam and matrimonial principles with woman being empowered. Javanese Islam mixes old rites from Buddhist and animist times prior to Islam's arrival. However, beside travel guide books, there is little being taught to foreign travelers to discover all of these peculiar customs. Little is done also to promote old historical mosques or pondoks, mosque's traditional architecture and local customs. A local magazine " Travel Club Indonesia" listed in its September, 2009 issue that 60 destinations accommodate for religious tourism. they include mostly Islam-related sightseeing with 12 located in Sumatra, 26 in Java, two in Bali, 11 in Kalmantan ( Borneo), five in Sulawesi ( Celebes) and four in West Nusa Tneggara. According to Indoensia's Ministyr of culture and Tourism, a circuit has been establisehd to visit the graves of Walisongo, Indonesia's nin revered saints of Islam. it targets only domestic travelers as the nine Walisongo locations on Java Island- where the graves are located- and attracting people for ' ziharat' local pilgrimage. Religion-based Tourism for Bali and Yogyakarta/solo The presence of temples in both Yogjakarta/Solo area and Bali is turning both areas into major tourism attractions with a religious historical background. With the assistance of an independent management company, PT Taman, Wisata Borobudur is promoting the religious sites of Borobudur and Prambanan. Special programs are proposed to see the sun rising over Borobudur temple. Two hotels are located near Borobudur: Manohara Resort Hotel, within the temple compound and the Amanjiwo Resort, a five-star exclusive property, dominating Borobudur Temple from a nearby hill. At Prambanan, taman Wisata Borobdur organizes Ramayana Performances in a nearby Open Theatre, early morning gym sessions every Sunday, bird song contests and various guiding tours. the website also promotes the possibility to play golf, discover life in surrounding villages, see volcanoes and enjoy a spa treatment. A Buddhist teaching centre is also installed in the village where the Borobudur temple is located. As Balinese have a strong sense of spirituality, religion is intimately linked to daily life on the island. the Balinese culture is boundless, as there is no separation for Balinese between the secular, religions and supernatural. Processions and prayer sessions are seen everywhere and Bali tourism has been keen to promote such in its advertising, using images of processions or in kecak spiritual dances. from all of the tourism sites accounting for almost 50% of all visits. Bali tourism Board has also endorsed this spiritual heritage through the Bali tourism Slogan " Shanti, Shanty Shanty". Promotion is consequently developed to attract tourists to Bali for spiritual retreats and mediation courses. A website, Balispirit.com lists all spiritual activities and centres on Bali Island. the web has sections on healthy food and eating, massage and spas, yoga and meditation courses, yoga teachers and guides as well as information on art events. Some tours operators( Danu Torurs for example) are even specialised in yoga and mediation tour packages. But, like for other tourism activities in Indonesia, Yoga and meditation tourism lacks strong structures as well as communication budgets to market and brand themselves on a larger scale. The spirituality concept could be included in the future to neighboring Lombok where a large Balinese community lives. It could also be part of tourist programs in North Sumatra, around the pristine Lake Toba where chritianized ethnics ( Batak) have been living for centuries. Another strong area where Buddhims took its root is in the Province of Riau on sumatra Island.Maura Taks Temple is located 135km from Pekanbaru and is one of the best preserved Buddhist sites of the Srivijaya Kingdom. tours are already organised to visit the temple and its surroundings and a

Buddhist procession is organised on Waisak Day. A Spiritual Festival takes off in Bali the Balispirit Festival began in March 2008 and is the fruit of the cooperation between the cofounders of the Balispirit.com website The Balispirit Festival is based on the vision of creating an event that would bring people together from all over the world to participate in creative workshops and performances in yoga, music and dance, all taking place in Ubud, strictly respectful of the environment. the festival also aims to be a place to learn about he Balinese vision of life and their spiritual way of life. The festival has been a success: from a four-day event in2008 it grew to a six-day event in 2009, welcoming a larger number of international and local artists. In 2009, Balispirit Festival acclaimed Yogis and outstanding performers form Ghana, Guinea, Uganda, USA, Canada, Mexico, United Kingdom, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, India, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, china: and Indonesia. According to Bali data for 2007 regarding visits by foreign travelers,temples or sacred sites recorded the largest share of visits. In 2007, temples registered 1.95 million foreign visitors out of a total 4.18 million. this represents a share of 46.67% of all visits. Tanah Lot, Bali's most iconic temple, received alone 1.30 million travelers in 2007, or 31.1% of all foreign travelers' visits. Missing the Opportunity of Market Java Traditional Vision of Islam In 2006, the Indonesian Government and Indonesia Minister of culture and tourism celebrated the shortened translation of one of Java's most celebrated legend book, the Centhini Story ( Serat Centhini). the book written in the 19th century tells the story of three Princes traveling during their entire life through Javanese Mataram Majapahtt and Pajajaran Kingdoms, embracing all beliefs, magic rituals, spiritualism, religious credentials and well as dances, art and traditions presented in the villages,cities and palaces. According to Soewito Santoso, author of the English version, the lovely heritage described in the Centhini Story is still very much present in Java today as another great opportunity to expose Java culture and beliefs has not been cultivated through any tour. such a tour would highlight the way Javanese ancient beliefs and traditions have mixed intimately with the practice of Islam. According to Santoso, the success of Islam spreading in Java comes from the integration of religion and local cultural elements, created a unique religious culture. Old Javanese traditions can still be seen in Bogor and Cirebon ( West Java), the Magelang/Solo/ Yogyakarta area ( with the Demak Mosque being the oldest in Java and being proposed to be a UNESCO World Heritage Site) as well as East Java ( Surabaya/Malang area and mojokerto Trowulan, the centre of the Majapahti Kingdom with its six temples). the official East Java tourism website has a comprehensive page on Mojokerto with the Trowulan tourism area. Religious Events and Festivals Every year, The Ministry of Culture and Tourism publishes a comprehensive calendar of festivals for the entire archipelago and sponsors some of the events to preserve cultural traditions and bring awareness to travelers. Many of those festivals are centuries-old and have religious significance. Rituals taking their roots from official religions and animist beliefs can be observed during the celebrations. Many provinces are also promoting their festivals to international travelers to preserve traditions and boost economic benefits. "Trail of Civilization" A Buddhist circuit across ASEAN countries " Trial of Civilization" has been initiated under the lead of Indonesia. It was the motto of an international conference held in Borobudur in August 2006 with the attempt to link common historical and archeological heritage around Buddhism for Indonesia, Cambodia, Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Swedagon Pagoda in Yangon or Bagan in Myanmar, Ayuttaya or Sukhothai in Thailand as well as My son in Vietnam are seen as strong symbols of the organizes an annual performing arts show of the Trail of

Civilization presented by the six countries ( Indonesia, Cambodia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam) and has published a guide book in English. Governments should now foster the establishment of air links which would make visits to these Buddhism heritage sites easier for travelers.

4.5 Conclusions Religious tourism still remains in its infancy in the three South-East Asian countries studies ad it is dubbed as a " natural way of living" generating only tourism activities for nationals. this misconceived idea of religious sites generating interest only amongst the local population has restricted the potential to develop new tourism, products based on religion-based heritage and sightseeing. More ambitious marketing budgets for religious tourism as well as more " scientific" approach to its evolution should help to target this important tourism asset. the Tourism Authority of Thailand is the first to have seized the opportunity from a business perspective by developing new products around Buddhism and spirituality. However, it still has not tapped the potential to promote other religions, especially Islam. Meanwhile in both Indonesia and Malaysia, the perception of the value of Islam as a religion remains a difficult factor to over come for the implementation of a more open tourism policy towards non-Muslim travelers. Attempts are made to soften the position of religious authorities who are still the driving decision makers for opening up Islam r- related sites. Malaysia and Indonesia must first focus on launching an education process to highlight the local population and religious authorities and benefits that tourism could generate for their community. A good example could be taken from counties outside of Asia such as Morocco, Jordan or Turkey. Islam as a religion must also be considered as part of south-East Asia's historical heritage. With this core value in mind, Islam sites could then become more accessible to a larger number of travelers. UNESCO could provide precious help by giving advice and adding more sites to its world heritage list. circuits emphasizing historical sites linked to Islam should then be created to bring a new light to this religion. Products modeled after Buddhism spiritual heritage are also possible for the teaching and learning of Islam principles or even healing methods ( such as Urut " Traditional Medical Massage") Transnational circuits could also be created. Thailand is already working closely with Myanmar, Cambodia and Laos for Buddhist-related circuits. More opportunities with Malaysia and Indonesia could be developed around the idea of old " Malay Kingdoms and Sultanates" including also Singapore. 5 Islam and Tourism 5.1 Asia and the Pacific in Focus The aim of this chapter is to examine the volume, growth, and economic importance, as well as political, cultural and social significance of tourism by Muslims. It is written for a global audience and thus initially discusses some aspects of Islam that Muslims will find common knowledge but which may not be clearly understood amongst other peoples of the world. In Islam, as for other religions, one may distinguish between practicing and non-practicing Muslims and also those who strictly follow its precepts strictly. In this section these groups are all termed " adherents." In the first few part, a brief history of Islam and its geographic extent are discussed in order to provide a partial explanation for the significance of the religion. another issue of importance is eh centrality of Islam in the daily lives of the 1.6 billion adherents worldwide and especially the role of law. In Islam, there is no separation of religious and secular law; instead, the Qura'n identifies objects or actions which are [permissible to use or engage in. As such, undertaking tourism is not

merely a personal decision but must be permissible; emphasizing the personal and social significance of it for Muslims. A second theme of this chapter is that Islam has adherents in many countries,cultures, and ethnic groups.Thus , it is important to distinguish between issues of culture or ethnicity and religion. In particular, there may be a belief in some countries that Islam is a faith of the Arabic peoples. It is true that it originate in the Middle East and specifically in the western coast of the Arabian Peninsula; however today, the country with the largest Muslim population is Indonesia. the religion also now includes Sunnis, Shiites, and other groups that vary in their beliefs as is found in other religions. Shiites are concentrated geographically in Iran and Iraq, while the people of Indonesia and Malaysia, for example , are predominately Sunni. Yet despite these differences and complexities, there is no particular unifying them in the Islamic faith: the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. Making a pilgrimage to Mecca (Muhammad's birthplace) is one of the five pillars of Islam and therefore of central prominence for all Muslims. In 2008, around 2.5 million adherents made this pilgrimage, with around1.7 million of these from outside the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia ( Saudi Arabia, 2009a). this annual event of great importance influences the lives of Muslims form around the world. a massive logistical undertaking, it is organized by the Saudi Ministry of Hajj. Today most foreign pilgrims arrive by air. In addition each year millions choose to undertake Umrah or the " lesser pilgrimage" which may be performed all year round. Beyond this pilgrimage, Muslims globally are also influenced by their religion in their day to day activities, while traveling, as well as in the choice of a destination discretionary travel. This paper draws on broad and scattered literature in a number of disciples to provide what can only be an introduction to the political, culture, and social significance travel by Muslims for religious purposes in, and from, Asia. In order to appreciate the significance of Islam for tourism, the paper begins with some brief comments on the history and beliefs of Islamic religion. History Islam began in western Arabia which the preaching of the prophet Muhammad ( ca.570-632 CE) and has since spread through expansion, economic trade, missionaries, and migration. During his lie, Muhammad was able to unite virtually the whole of the Arabian Peninsula under Islam. After his death, Islam expanded north into Syria ( 636 CE), east to Persia and beyond ( 636 CE) and west into Egypt ( 640) and then to Spain ( 711 CE) ( Donner, 2004). the arrival of Islam did not lead to forceful conversion of the population and many non-Muslims participated in the growing Islamic state. Distension about this procedure for choice of the leader( caliph) led to the proclamation of a rival caliph in Damacus in 661 CE and the establishment of the Siite faith ( Donner 2004). Islam arrived in the area known today as Pakistan in 711 CE, when the Umayyad dynasty sent a Muslim Arab army which conquered the north-eastern part of Indus Valley from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea ( Esposito and Donnor, 1999). Presently, in the Asia Pacific study area as defined by this book, shiites Muslims constitute the majority of the population in Iran as well as significant minorities in Pakistan,India, Iraq and Afghanistan. Although such expansion was important to the spread of Islam, trade was also an important factor especially in India, Malaysia and China. Numerous Muslim merchants, usually of Arab or Persian origin, established a colony in eastern Sumatra in the 7th century ( Gardet, 2005). Arab merchants establisehd a colony in eastern Sumatra- had a Muslim ruler by the early 15th century. In both cases the wealth and commercially based assertiveness of these trading cities restyled in the spread of Islam to neighboring areas ( Donner, 2004). In china, there was a large colony of Muslim merchants in Canton by the 9th century and while it was largely expelled by the Chinese in 878 CE, some Muslims remained. the Silk Road also brought Islam and Buddhism to china. A Buddhist, Empire in the Hotan region of what is now the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region on the southern part of the Silk road was conquered by Arab armies in the 8th century, and grew wealthy on the proceeds of the caravan trade that traveled the route between China and the West. the largest communities of Muslims in china were establisehd in Xinjiang during the 13th and following centuries, during the period of Mongol rule of china (Donner,2004). Hotan still is a centre of Islam in xinjiang and the tomb of Imam Asim, once of the first missionaries of Islam in the region, is a pilgrimage centre and site of festival. China today has 10 significant Muslim ethnic minorities and a Muslim

population of 22 million. In other countries. Islam arrived through immigration. for example, in Australia it was the religion of camel drivers from Afghanistan who were brought to the central desert to help with the transport of goods ( Stevens, 1993). 5.2 characteristics of the Religion The Islamic faith is articulated in the Qura'n, a book that for Muslims contains the written words of God. they believe that God's word was revealed to many, including Adam, Moses, and Jesus who are also reversed by people of the other faiths. the basic spiritual duties of all Muslims consist of five pillars of faith ( YU, 1999): 1. Declaring one's complete faith that Allah is the only Supreme Being and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah 2.Performing five prayers a day 3. Donating 2.5% of annual income through Zakat, a charity tax to help the needy 4. Fasting ( which includes no eating, drinking, nor intimacy) during the daytime in Ramadan 5. Making a pilgrimage to Mecca ( Muhammad's birthplace) at least once in one's lifetime, if financially and physically capable As noted above, Muslims do not distinguish between the religious and the secular but consider Islam to be a complete way of life ( Hussain,1999). this way of life is served form the teaching of the Qura'n and from the Sunnah ( the recorder sayings and behavior of Prophet Muhammad). Islam is based on concepts of human well-being and a good life which stress brotherhood/sisterhood and socio-economic justice. This requires a balanced satisfaction of both the material and spiritual needs of all humans ( Rice and Al-Mossawi,2002). In the Islamic world, adherents must follow many rulers in order to gain access to divine reality and religion is an integral part of daily life. Islamic teaching forbid the consumption of alcohol and pork, and prohibit gambling. Alcoholic beverages, like any intoxicant or narcotic, are believed to be harmful to the health.They take away an individual's productivity, and cause much harm to society ( YU,199). Pork is prohibited to Muslims as is consumption of by-products such as marshmallows made with gelatin from pigs. Eating flesh and other products from carnivorous animals or from those that eat carrion is strictly prohibited. Meat which is slaughtered according to special rules ( i.e halal) is to be consumed by all Muslims. Fish is an especially appropriate choice because the restaurant operators or hotel food and beverage directors do not have to worry about buying halal meat ( YU,1999). Islam explicitly enjoins or encourages certain forms of travel such as the express obligation to undertake Hajj.visits to local or regional shrines ( Brhardwaj, 1998) and travel in search of knowledge, Rihia, provide further examples of religiously inspired visit for cultural encounters, to gain knowledge, to associate with other Muslims, to spread God's word, and enjoy and appreciate his creations ( timothy and Lverson, 2006). 5.3 Population Distribution A recent study has estimated that there are 1.57 billion Muslims in the world today representing 23% of an estimated 2009 world population of 6.8 billion ( Pew Research Centre, 2009). This study found that more than 60% of Muslims live in Asia and about 20% in the Middle East and North Africa. More than 300 million, or one-fifth of the world's Muslim people, live in countries where Islam is not the majority religion and these minority groups are often quite large. India, for example, has the third-largest number of Muslims residents worldwide. Of all Muslims globally, 10-13% are Shiia and 87-90% are Sunni.Most shiites ( between 68-80%) live in just four countries: Iran, Pakistan,India, and Iraq ( Pew Research Centre, 2009).

In 2009, of the 10 countries with the largest Muslim populations, five are in Asia: Indonesia ( 203 million), Pakistan ( 174 million), India (161 million), Bangladesh ( 145 million), and Iran ( 74 million). Of the remaining five, three are in North Africa (Egypt, Algeria and Morocco), one in Europe ( Turkey), and one in Sub-Saharan Africa ( Nigeria). Those living in the Asia-Pacific region constitute over 50% of all Muslims worldwide. About half of the Muslim population within Asia lives in South Asia (505) and the remainder are somewhat equally divided between this region ( 26%) and Central-Western Asia ( 24%). Very few ( <1%), however, live in the Pacific ( Pew Research Centre, 2009). About 13% of all Muslims in the world live in Indonesia: while Pakistan, India , and Bangladesh together are home to nearly a third (31%). Indonesia also accounts for about 80% of all people of the Islamic faith living in South-West Asia. Other Asian countries with more then 20 million Muslims include Afghanistan ( 28 million), and china (22 million). Muslims are found in every province of china with the highest concentrations in the west, primarily in xinjiang, Nigxia, and Gansu, with other significant populations in Henan, Qinghai, Yunnan, Hebei, and Shandong. xinjiang is the only Muslims-majority province of China, accounting for approximately 53% of the total population. 5.4 Travel and Tourism Patterns There is no known estimate of the number of Muslim travelers although it may be inferred that this is a significant proportion of all travel based on the global Muslim population. Further, because of population growth, this market will be increasing in categories: one, travel to Mecca for the Hajj and for Umrah; two, visits to Muslim shrines and mosques, an important feature of Islamic tourism, and, three, travel to, from, and within the region by Muslims for other purposes such as business or pleasure. this later group is important for this chapter since travel by nonpilgrimage Muslims is influenced by Islam just as it influences every other part of a Muslims life. Hajj and Umrah According to statistics from the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Hajj, less than 100,000 people attended the Hajj in 1950, but numbers rapidly increased after this and reached 645,000 in 1972, the number of pilgrims coming from abroad exceeded one million for the first time. due to this rapid growth, in 1900 the Organization of the Islamic Conference passed a resolution to specify a Hajj quta for each country as a fixed percentage of its population. The vast majority arrive by air ( though the gateway city of Jeddah), with a small percentage arriving by land and sea. As already noted, Umrah is a pilgrimage to Mecca performed by Muslims which can be undertaken at any time of the year. Overall 2,250,000 people completed Umrah in 2008 ( Saudi Arabia 2009). Companies that provide travel services for the Hajj and Umrah require licensees that are issued or authorised by the government. Ziyarat: Travel to Muslims Shrines and Mosques Ziyarat involves a visit to sites associated with Muhammad, his family members and descendants, his companions, or other venerated figures in Islam, such as the Prophets, Shaikhs, and Islamic scholars. Sites of pilgrimage also include mosques graves,battlefields, mountains, and caves. Whereas the Hajj places Islam in a global context, Ziyarats point up the spatially distinctive cultural traditions of Islam populations ( Bhardway, 1998). Shrins are located all over Asia ( Bhardway, 1998) and such shrine pilgrimage has long been an important undertaking for some groups of adherents. In spite of the non-obligatoru mature of a Ziyarat, more people participate in them every year than in the annual Hajj to Mecca. Unfortunately, adequate records of Ziyarats are not available. Non-Hajj pilgrimages also may be considered as symbolic of the regional cultural expression of Islam, especially in the non-Arab countries. Major events or festivals are associated with particular shrines and may include stalls and " entertainment", thus becoming important economic activities for rural areas. In addition, these

locations and their events become attractions for non-Muslims visitors. Examples o pilgrimage sites include the Imam Reza's tomb and surrounding areas in Mashhad, Iran. this is the largest and holiest shrine of Iran which is visited by 12 to 15 million pilgrims every year( Pinto, 2007). another popular shrine, among many more, in that country is Hazrat Masumeh in Qom. In India, the dergat of Muinuddin chishti in Ajmer, Rajasthan, where the Mughal emperor Akbar ( 1543-1605) made annual pilgriamges, is generally accepted as the most important shrine for Muslims and is revered by Hindus as well. In Iraq, provinces like Najaf and Karbala, also receive Shiite pilgrims for places like Iran and Pakistan ( pinto 2007). Inbound tourism Development Many Islamic countries are increasingly considering tourism s an important economic source and therefore are applying Islamic principles, as the foundation of society and order of law to its development ( Timothy and Iverson, 2006). these principles are influencing tourism policy, development objectives, and the management and operation of the industry. A number of studies have examined the dynamics of tourism in countries where Islam is the state religion ( Alavi and Yasin, 200; Burns and Cooper, 1997; Din, 1982, 1989; Henderson, 2003; Sharpley, 2008). Din ( 1989) argues that, due to religious beliefs, tourism is discouraged in some Muslim countries, chiefly because of its impact on the local community. However, it is also possible to see its development as expanding through consultation and planning where the local social and religious context is taken into account ( Shunnaq, and Ried, 2008). Apart from the important issue of tourism development, Muslim countries will often create promotional material and this raises issues of what images to use to attract tourists form overseas. a number of studies have examined the destination images used in Muslim countries ( Hashim,Murphy, and Hashim, 2007; Schneider and sonmez, 1999) with a focus ion four categories: arts and architectures, festivals, conduct, and dress code. the area of destination promotion also highlights the potential conflict between using ( for example) women in bikinis as possibly attractive to people from some cultures versus images of a more traditional dress. However, for Muslims, " Even when the religious-p0olitical motivation is absent, religious attributes in the guise of architectural forms, history, festivals and rituals and lifestyles have always featured prominently in promotional literature" (Din 1989). this " unlike m,ass tourism which for Muslims is ' characterized by hedonism, permissiveness, lavishness" ( Sonmez, 2001), religion plays a role in decisions regardless of whether the motivation to travel is religious or not.

Muslims are avid tourists and today travel is gaining increasing popularity. In participation there is a growing outbound volume form Islamic countries. For example, Indonesia outbound travel grew from 3.5 to 5.2 million travelers between 2003 and 2007 ( UNWTO, 2009). However, the same growth in the economics of developing countries that is creating increased wealth and the ability to travel internationally is also leading to increase cultural self-confidence and to a questioning of vales and culture associated with liberalism, consumption, and, from a Muslim perspective, excess. to some extent, these values have been reflected in the image of tourism as a hedonistic and excessive activity; a view of tourism that emphasises holidays as a context of escape form social bounds. Because of these views, it is important to be aware of the distinctive behavior Muslim travelers in terms of food and visitation patterns ( timothy and Lvrson, 2006) which may require some adjustment in the tourism offering of destinations. A number of countries and destinations are seeking growing arrivals from Muslims countries. For example, Western Australia is seeking to attract Malaysian and began targeting them in its tourism campaigns in 2003 ( Hamid, 2003). Islamic Travel The issues discussed above also suggest a developing trend for Muslims to go to other Islamic countries for their travel. In visiting such locations, Muslims are encouraging the development of

other Islamic destinations, and secondly, are likely to create less social impacts on places where the customs and social mores are similar. such travel may serve to strengthen relationships with a person's family and in-laws and among the wider Muslim community. Thus, growth in Islamic tourism has been noted by some authors ( Din, 1989). This trend is not simply based in religious pilgrimage, though this may be an element,but also to give more local and regional cultural context to travel. As Al-Hamarneh and Steiner note, " Part of the vision includes reorienting tourist destinations towards less consumption and ' Western culture loaded' sites and towards more Islamic historical religious and cultural sites. A special place in this concept is held by the new ' touristic' interpretations of pilgrimage and efforts to merge religious and leisure tourism in joint programs". Another impetus among Islamic counties has been the flow on effect of the September 11 bombing in New York. Perceptions of terrorism and political instability added to the fear, particularly by Western tourist, of visiting Muslim countries . At the same time, tight security and travel regulations increased the number of Muslim holidaying in countries such as Malaysia. Responding to these effects, Malaysia now promotes its tourism as " Muslim-friendly". The four countries that dominate inbound Islamic tourism globally; Morocco,Egypt,Turkey, and Malaysia, received 17.5 million guests in 2004. There is a call to open and promote Muslim countries' tourism attractions, as reflected, for example, by the November 2005 inaugural Tourism fair for Islamic countries in Istanbul ( Hashim, Murphy, and Muhannad, 2003). Serious discussions about boosting Islamic tourism in Malaysia began in the middle of 2008, during the inaugural Global Islamic Tourism Conference and Exhibition held in Kuala Lumpur.An Islamic Civilization Theme Park in Kuala Terengganu attracted 1.9 million tourists in 18 months from February 2008 when it opened ( Taman Tamadun Islam,2009). Singapore holds the Hari Raya Festival annually, a month-long cultural event celebrating the country's rich Muslim roots. In 2007, the largest destination for Saudi travelers in the region was Malaysia ( 78,298), followed by Indonesia ( 39,238). 5.5 Economic, Political,Cultural and Social Significance The Muslim market, both for religious and personal reasons, is of great significance for Asia and the world.The numbers of Muslims undertaking Hajj and Umrah, as well as visiting shrines and other religious sites ( Ziyarat) each year are impressive. these numbers are expected to multiply in the future as at the global Muslim population increases. Further, as Al-Hamarneh and Steiner (2004) note, the importance of intra-Muslim traffic has led to a focus in some countries on Islamic tourism. The Muslim market has also become of political importance and, for example, pilgrimage is managed as a tool of national economic development and nation building within Malaysia. ( McDonnell,1990). According to Al-Hamarneh ( 2004), " Saudi Arabia is developing a new strategy for tourism that is based on a new interpretation of pilgrimage that includes leisure activities besides the traditional pilgrimage that includes leisure activities besides the traditional pilgrim visits to the holy sites. Tourism promoters in other Muslim countries are offering or working on similar programs. Islamic sites such as Mu'ta and Mazar in Jordan, Qum in Iran, Islamic missionary routes in Oman, various shrines in Morocco, old mosques in Bosnia, and the historic cities of Samarkand and Bukhara are already addressed in tourist promotions programs in Arab and Muslim countries". One of the social impacts of Muslim tourism derived from a study on the longer-term effect of participating in the Islamic pilgrimage found that communities become more open after the Hajj experience. entitled " Estimating the Impact of the Hajj: Religion and tolerance in Islam's Global Gathering", clingingsmith, Khwaja,a dn Kremer ( 2009) found that the Hajj experience promotes peaceful coexistence, equality, and harmony .Specifically, the report statues that the Hajj increases belief in equality and harmony among ethnic groups and Islamic community and that those who have performed this duty show increased belief in peace, and in equality and harmony

among adherents of different religions. However, beyond all the economic, political, and cultural significance of Muslim tourism, such travel and the Hajj in particular creates an intense personal experience ( digance,2006) and shared understanding of the core of Islam ( Metcalf, 1990). 5.6 Conclusions The size and growth in the populations of Muslim countries and their increasing economic wealth indicates that there is likely to be growth in both the Hajj and Umrah in Saudi Arabia. this suggests a need to increase the capacity of infrastructure to cater for increased numbers of pilgrims, a situation known to the Kingdom and reflected in its tourism master plan. It is also likely that Shrine tourism in Asia will grow in popularity among both Muslims and nonMuslims. the local or regional nature of the visits to shrines offers opportunities for many destinations in the study area to develop new products and services such as events that complement the religious observances. However, such development must be sensitive to both the wishes of the local people and to the needs of Muslim travelers. To accommodate increasing numbers of Muslim tourists , especially from the Middle East, Destination Management Organizations ( DMOs), particularly in Western countries, may wish to add Muslim relevant information to their websites, such as prayer times and locations where mosques and halal food can be found ( Timothy and Lverson, 2006). DMOs need to understand and respect Muslim attitude when choosing visual images and text for the purpose of Promotion. tourism operators may also educate their staff on cross-cultural communication to allow them to accommodate Muslim tourists appropriately ( Timothy and Lverson, 2006). As they observe a dress code and avoid free mixing, hotels offering separate swimming pool and recreational facilities become a strategic decision ( Hashim,et al., 2007). Hotels that cater to the Islamic market are now found in a number of countries ( Cohen, Forthcoming). It is also recommended that tourism authorities become more aware of the variation in attitudes and behaviors amongst Muslim's from different countries. Clearly, the growth of Muslim travel is a topic of global religious and socioeconomic significance, and one abut which there is a lack of detailed information and research. It is therefore recommended that further investigation of Islamic tourism, is fostered in academic circles and put into practice in the field of operation.

6 From Commoditization to Respect of the Sacred " It is the duty of every cultured man or woman to read sympathetically the scriptures of the world. If we are to respect others " religions as we would have them respect our own, a friendly study of the world's religion is a sacred duty". Mohandas K. Gandhi The religions of Asia and the Pacific evoke a plethora of exquisite mental images. One instantly envisages the beautiful covers of National geographic, regional iconography of movies and novels, vast vistas of temples and ancient shrines, bronzed Buddha's and the commonplace nature of ancestor alters throughout the remote countryside. The imagery transcends all senses induced by the constant smells of glowing incense, clamoring of gongs, enrapturing displays of traditional dances, and the vibrating chants from the monastic orders. The religions of Asia and the Pacific are diverse and traveling to these regions exposes the sojourner not only to the ancient scriptures but also to humanity of the modern era.Although travelers may have different attitudes towards religion, they are cognizant that Asia is the birthplace of many of the world's major religious philosophies ( such as Hinduism, Buddhism and

Taoism). While these forms of religious expression are often romanticized, travelers form many faiths voyage onto today's spiritual pluralism to better understand and connect with other societies and cultures. This article will examine the theoretical approach to religious-based tourism and provide recommendations on socially responsible and sustainable applications for preserving the cultural and ecological integrate of sacred attractions. A few case studies are provided to illuminate the opportunities and constraints of religious tourism in the respective ares. Given the diversity of religions and cultures in the Asia and Pacific countries, analyzing a meta-theory of general trends does not provide a clear understanding of country specific religious tourism. However, it does require critical flight, environmental degradation, labor exploitation and human rights abuses. While not the focus of this paper, keeping in mind these interrelated aspects will inform the international community on the future pattern and development of religious tourism. This article examines insight on the emerging trends and the outlook of religious tourism that will either ensure viability or degradation and exploitation of Asia and the Pacific's sacred sites. Defining Religious and Spiritual Tourism " Behind the panorama of the great religions with their founders and scriptures, behind even the world of the ancient empires with the writing systems and sprawling political-economic entities out of which the former mostly emerged hangs the backdrop of the religious world that went before. That was a religious world of the ancestors of all living human beings for hundreds of thousands, perhaps millions, of years between the emergence of humanity as a distinct way of life on earth and the appearance of writing, large political units, and the rest of what makes up the form of human culture we call civilization." Robert S. Elwood, Jr Excitingly, the vast Asia and Pacific has a rich array of religions and the open-minded travelers will be exposed to diverse belief systems concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe. As the nature of religion is to consider divinity and the creation or our superhuman agency ( or agencies), when traveling, one has the opportunity to experience religious expression, and devotional and ritual observances from local perspectives. Let's consider then what one means by religious tourism and later expand to the context of faith in the Asia and Pacific regions. Defining religious tourism and other associated terms has often been a topic of great debate. As a starting point, this study categorizes tow terms commonly applicable in the modern era, religious and spiritual tourism, and further define pilgrimage in the context of each genre. Religious tourism or, " travel motivated by religion or faith' has historically had a long-stand lineage with the practice of pilgrimage ( Sharpley and Sundaram, 2005). The concept of pilgrimage exists in all major religions but with various meaning depending on the religious structure. For some, a pilgrimage is " a journey in search of truth, the sacred and holy and experience with the Divine by traveling to sacrosanct sites that have been ritually separated form the everyday life" ( Timothy and Olsen, 2006).; OR the act of pilgrimage is a journey to sacred places for a particular religion that rewards the devotee with purification of the soul and attainment of specified objectives ( Bhardwaj, 1983). Regardless of the defined therm, the significance of pilgriamges for many religions is filed by the same purpose- to travel for sacred or divine purposes. In the modern era, however, religious tourism also encompasses a vast range of non-pilgrimage related activities that extends beyond the traditional religious connotations of communing with the Divine. this has led to a separation of what is perceived as spiritual, apart from the sacred as defined by organized religions. the new motivations for pilgrimage tourism are based on more personal interpretations of what is sacred and includes activities such as visiting religious sites for recreation and sightseeing, national landmarks that represent idealistic values, places that symbolize cultural ideals, war memorials, New Age sites, sporting events, and places associated with famous people such as authors and musicians ( Olsen and Timothy 2006; Mu et al., 2007). this interpretation of the spiritual from religious lends to the term spiritual tourism, which

encompasses tourism based on the exploration of spirituality regardless of religious institutional or beliefs p[practice. For the purposes of this paper, religious tourism is therefore used to describe- pilgrimage based travel, travel of ' Divine nature and spiritual tourism related to travel of a non-religoius nature. religious tourism is further defined in context of the integral concepts of 'respecting the sacred' and ' stewardship of sacred sites'. Respecting the Sacred The application of business ethics and standards can be applied to the religious and spiritual tourism industry to enhance tourism's interface with human knowledge empathy, and local and/ or national stewardship of holy sites. To begin with, the ethic and practice of " Respecting the Sacred' seems so simplistic and yet it is often a glaring problem in conventional tourism ( Everette and Salters, 2005). respecting the sacred is considered the foundation of any people-to people encounter ( or tourism venture), and require an awareness of anthropological theories and an understanding of historic power relationships in the host community as well as between the traveler and the host. Respecting the sacred is integral in maintaining the integrity of cultural and religious-based elements that also provide tourist attractions. This poses an extra challenge as sacred tourist attractions represent a convergence of two vastly different components- religion and tourism. the opposition exist when the local community " lives their faith" by expressing their belief systems in their holy sites and in contrast, the tourist visits the site for experiential purposes. the negative interface fully transpires when a traveler visits a site in a respectful and responsible manner. thus, respecting the sacred allows the traveler to better understand the cultural elements of sacred sites and consciously bridges the gap between traveler and host community. Stewardship of Sacred Sites Stewardship is vitally important albeit multifaceted. AS Block defines ( 1996), stewardship is a set of practices and principles " which have the potential to make dramatic changes in our governance system. It is concerned with creating a way of governing ourselves that creates a strong sens of ownership and responsibility for outcomes at the bottom of the organization. It means giving control to customers and creating self-reliance on the part of all who are touched by the institution". Clearly the role of economic management of a sacred site is not merely to generate revenue but to focus on service, participation and care of the community. Local and cultural stewardship of current and archeological, sacred sites is important for effective management and also for the conservation of the physical site ( White and King, 2007), White and King indicate that archaeological surveys can benefit not only archaeologists but also other professionals such as land managers, planners, finances, and developers of historic and sacred sites. The assessments aid in identifying future use and management of cultural resources and site stewardship. Assessing the stewardship of sacred sites addresses many concerns and issues for preserving the integrity of the sites while simultaneously providing an authentic experiences for visitors. for example, as visitors are granted access to temples and other sacred sites how will this affect the practice of traditional rituals conducted by local community members? When opening a sacred site for tourism purposes who is considered the financial beneficiary and how will the finances be distributed? What is the carrying capacity limit of the site in terms of visitation, human and ecological imparts? when evaluating the many aspects of site stewardship, these questions need to be addressed in regards to the underlying tenet of involving the local community in management and development of religious tourism. Local participation is integral for ensuring the sustainability of cultural and environmental site stewardship. The Importance of Tourism for the selected Case Studies The state of religious tourism is examined for the following four case studies Cambodia, India, Iran and Nepal. Although statistical information about the direct constitutions of religious tourism

is not entirely know, indirect analysis provide ample information about the prevalence and status of religious tourism in the four destination countries. As initial glance at each country's gross domestic product ( GDP). Estimates for 2009 specify travel and tourism contributions to the GDP comprise of 17.5% for Cambodia, 6 % for India, 8.2% for Iran and 6 % for Nepal . A more indepth examination of each case study elucidates the presence of religious tourism in each country. 6.1 Nepal " In Nepal, religion permeates every facet of life with festivals, daily rituals, family celebrations and religious observances. AT every step one can see temples and shrines, processions and devotional music. Although Nepal is famous as the world's only Hindu Nation, it is an intricate and beautiful tapestry woven of Hinduism, Buddhism and other faiths living together in tolerance and harmony". Government of Nepal Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation Religious Tourism in Nepal Contrast and majesty abound throughout every corner of Nepal. the beauty of this country is world renowned for its snow capped eternal snows of the Himalayas, rich biodiversity of climate, scenery, flora and fauna, and the variety of cultures and religions that comprise the Nepalese. the phenomenal cultural and natural elements of Nepal are the contributing factors that entice the approximately 500,000 annual tourists to the country consisting 2.6% of the country's total GDP ( Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation, 2009). Nepal's robust tourism industry is clearly one of the country's major foreign exchange earners generating millions of dollars. Tourism in Nepal contributes 3.5% to the country's GDP and 15% of total foreign exchange earnings. The substantial growth rate of tourism is expected to continue and by 2015, is estimated that there will be up to 1.2 million tourist arrivals to Nepal ( Raj, 2007). The fact that modern tourism developed partially as an offshoot of religious pilgrimages the historic trading routes is nowhere more evident that in Nepal. Kathmandu lies in the heart of two improtant routes, the north-south route between Patan and the Himalayas ( which facilitated trade to Tibet) and the local route that lies between Swayambhu and Baudha ( sanday, 1989). Today, the visitor can easily spend several weeks traveling from the Valley's three main cities to the any of the countless villages and religious sites. Nepal's Ministry of Tourism ( 2009) lists elven religious sites that are of particular significance for homage and pilgrimage tourism. And according to the UNESCO World Heritage List ( 2009a), seven relgious sites are found in the Kathmandu Valley including; the Durbar Squares of Hanuman Dhoka ( Kathmandu), Patan and Bhaktapur, Buddhist stupas of Swayambhu and Bauddhanath, and the Hindu Temples of Pashupati and Changu Narayan. Another important sacred site in Nepal is Lumbini. According to historical records, Siddhartha Gautama, the Lord Buddha, was born in 623 B.C. in Lumbbini and it soon became a place of pilgrimage. Today, the site has been developed as a Buddhist pilgrimage centre, where the archaeological remains associated with the birth of the Lord Buddha from a central feature for pilgrimage travel. Lumbini represents just one of Nepal's many religious tourism sites. Clearly, Nepal houses a rich array of devotional places to experience and continues to attract travelers interested in cultural and religious tourism as well as trekking and ecoadventures. Opportunities and constraints of Religious Tourism The abundance of cultural world heritage sites and Hindi and Buddhist holy sites will continue to attract travelers and be a driving force for Nepal's growing tourism industry. The vast potential for religious tourism has not fully been realized in Nepal although there has been a growing awareness of the opportunities. According to the Nepal News Daily ( 2006), " Reports say over

900,000 people visit Vaishno Devi temple in conflict-hit Jammu of India annually. then, why not in Nepal that boasts of Pashupatinath, Janakpurdham Lumbini and Muktinath? Tourism entrepreneurs say Nepal has yet to explore and " market" exotic religious detonations like Damodar Kunda ( in northern district of Mustang), Goasi kunda, Bhairav kunda, tilcho lake, Sworgadwari, Kakbhusnudi sarovar and the birth place of Lave and Kush, the twin sons of Lord Rama, to name a few". As a country rich in Hindi and Buddhist culture and religion, Nepal is ideally positioned for boosting the economy b expanding on religious tourism. As a result of the popularity of Nepal as a tourist destination, the number of tourists visiting many sites has exceeded carrying capacity limits and has resulted in negative impacts and degradation on the cultural and natural aspects. One major challenge over the past few decades has been the deterioration and unsustainable management of the sites.In Kathmandu for example, the impact of over-visitation is quite evident. The heritage sites at Pashupatinath and Bodhnat are urbanized, congested and pulsating with devotees and masses of locals and tourists performing rituals or absorbing the local culture. To counter these issues, efforts have been implemented to restore and properly manage many sites throughout Nepal. For instance, The Hanuman Dhoka Conservation Project is an exemplary conservation program that has successfully restored the Sasantapur and Bhktapur Towers as well as many beautiful wood carvings and other architectural features ( Sanday, 1989). An additional challenge that continues to confront Nepal is the impact of politics in the country's international image as a safe destination. The political milieu of Nepal is unique as historically, the country was never directly colonized yet endured major political upheaval and a civil war that lasted for over a decade ( Hangen,2005). When the civil war ended in 2006 and the democratic process restored, a wave of sociopolitical and economic changes have slowly been implemented, with the need to address impunity and human rights issues still at the forefront ( Amnesty International, 2009). Although an exciting time for the country to progress, many challenges still remain. the Maoist insurgency continues to be a concern for both individual and group tourists as the potential outbreak of political instability is still present. Travelers receive warnings bout political instability on the internet from federal and international sources. For example, the U.S. Department of State issues travel warnings on Nepal because the tour operators, faith-based and educational institutions in the United States of America ( and other developed countries) may be subject to legal action if groups visiting Nepal are harmed as a result of political instability ( U.S Department of State, 2009). The issue of political instability and affects on tourism will be mitigated as Nepal shifts towards democratic pluralism in the coming years ( EuroMonitor International 2009). The economic improvement of Nepal is another major impediment to the country's sustainable development of the religious tourism industry. the socio-economic conditions lend to the country's ranking as the 26th poorest nation in the world, with 42% of the population unemployed, 33% living below the poverty line and 51% considered illiterate ( Zabaldo, 2009) Poverty alleviation and the funding of social institutions for the Nepalese are increasingly improtant for the future of a diversified tourism sector. Resources are clearly needed to maintain Nepal's heritage sites including the employment of staff and the protection of Nepal's Natural heritage sites, forests and biodiversity. Excitingly, the government has created a new tourism policy that incorporates support for these critical aspects and makes tourism more inclusive in the 2009 Nepal Tourism Policy ( THT,2009). In fact, the high probability exists that 2001 will be declared as " Nepal Tourism Year". Feasibility studies are afoot to open new trekking routes on Lamjung-Annapurna , Lamjung-Manaslu, gorkha-Manaslu and up to Mansarovar indicating Khaptad in western Nepal as the new base point. The provision also consists of agricultural developments, tourism training and enhanced marketing efforts. the cumulative outcome of the new initiatives will provide tourism benefits to the residents located on the trekking routes, and inclusion and local participation throughout the process ( Upadhayaya and Upreti, 2008). this is a positive step forward in incorporating local participation and forums of sustainable tourism development, which is vital for Nepal's long-term economic well-being. 6.2 Cambodia

Religious Tourism in Cambodia since the 5th century CE, Buddhism has existed in Cambodia with some sources placing its origin as early as the 3rd century BCE. The national religion,Theravada Nuddhism, dates back to the 13th century CE ( in exception of the Khmer Rouge period), and is currently estimated to be the faith of 95% of the population( U.S, Dept. of State, 2009b; Patheos 2009). Thus, the presence of Buddhism can be traced to the Funan Kingdom and was later followed by the spread of Buddhist traditions of the Mon Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Haripunchai ( chandler,2008). the strong ties of Hinduism in Cambodia soared during the Angkor period, which started at the beginning of the 8th century. Hindu sect were supported by the Angkor Kings, especially the cults of shiva and Vishnu, and Hindu cosmology maintained a great legacy on the Cambodian culture. Therefore, Theravada Buddhism is a combination of Hindu and Buddhist philosophies and has formatively influenced the country to become national religion in 1989 . Cambodia conjures up exquisite images of some of the most stunning temples in Asia, magical ruins, lush forests, parades of pilgrims and monks, wast rise paddies, mountains and the Mekong. This imagery is also tempered by the travelers' glimpses of the brutal history of the American War in south-East Asia ( or known as the Vietnam War for U.S. audiences). the years of the Khmer Rouge, the killing fields and the current poverty and political corruption that effects the country. this complexity shares Cambodia, also called" the temple capital of Asia" and is an integral force pf religious tourism in this region ( Ray and Robhinson, 2008). Significantly, Cambodia is home to Angkor Wat, one of the only tow temples in the world dedicated to Bhrama and is also religious tourism, Cambodians also practice Islam ( or known as Khmer (Islam), Christianity and tribal based religions that are animist-based. According tot he World Trade Organization ( WTO), tourism accounts for 79.8% of Cambodia's export of transport, travel and commercial services combined ( WTO Trade Profile, 2007). clearly, tourism plays a vital role in Cambodia's social and economic well-being with any fluctuation in the industry resulting in dramatic impacts. Notably, the Kingdom of Cambodia, Ministry of tourism's 2008 reports indicate annual, visitor arrivals to Cambodia numbered approximately 2.125 million international arrivals which was a 5.48% increase form the previous year. Major arrival destinations included Siem Reap Province with over 1.05 million visitors ( constituting 49.87% of total tourism arrivals) and Phnom Penh and other destinations brought in a total of 1.06 visitors ( constituting 49.87% of total tourism arrivals) and Phnom Penh and other destinations brought in a total of 1.06 visitors ( or 50.13% share of total arrivals) ( Sopheareak and Vanny, 2008). Opportunities and constraints of Religious Tourism Cambodia is well suited to expand and further develop the country's religious tourism sector. In addition to the two famous UNESCO World Heritage Sites of Angkor Wat and the Temple of Preah Vihear, at least eight other sites have the infrastructure to accommodate visitors and support the local communities surrounding the sites. The other ancient sites include: Bantaey chhmar, Banteay Srie, Bayon, Beng Mealea, Kbal Spean, Koh Ker, Prasat Preah Vihear, sambor Prei Kuk and ta Prohm ( Ray and Roinson, 2008). According to UNESCO ( 2009b), an additional ten sites are listed on the tentative list and will serve to further highlight, protect and develop religious and cultural tourism. A major constraint for increasing religious tourism development in Cambodia is site degradation due to the massive influx of visitors. For instance, thousands of visitors a day frequent the famous Ankor Wat which strains the surrounding ecosystems and deteriorates the structures. Cambodians and tourists adore this 12 Th century architectural treasure and " tourist also embrace the place ,at sunset, swarming one tower like bargain hunters clamoring up the escalator at a year-end scale" ( Gluckman, 2007). In 2002, a section of Angkor Wat collapsed due to the structure's vulnerability form the masses of tourists and lack of sustainable management. the severity of the situation continues to raise concerns and highlights the need for conservation and sincere stewardship as the temples confront the future of mass tourism. In 2002, technical advisers irged the relocatin of Siem rap Airpaort firthjer waway from Angkor wat in order to re,mediate architectural damage as a result of high volume of air traffic near the temples. However, such plans were never realized due to te rapid expansion of direct flights to

Siem Reap to meet the demand of the increasing volume of of tourist arrivals. In fact, conditions have been exacerbated due to imncrease development around Angkor Wat over the years. As Fawthrop ( 2007) explains, " ove 100 hotels have sprung up in a matter of a few years with little regard to water use, safe sewage disposal and environmental safeguards. Water is scarce and a lot of it is suddenly needed for all those thousands of new showers and toilets. Hotels are now pumping water from underground. At a recent symposium in Siem Reap organised by the Japanese Conservation Team for Safeguarding Angkor, experts warned that the famous Bayon temple was in danger of collapsing, despite having endured 800 years. It sits on sand that is suddenly sinking, due to the amount of water being drawn out from underneath it. the massivelyheavy temples may sink, as groundwater is pumped away by the incessant demand of new hotels. " No body has really studied that," admits Mr Teruo Jinnai, UNESCO chief representative in Cambodia". 6.3 India " In religion, India is the only millionaire-the one land that all men desire to see, and having seen once, by even a glimpse, would not give that glimpse for all the shows of all the rest of the globe combined". Mark Twain Religious tourism in India

India is often regarded as a country that offers transcendental and enlightening experiences due to the multitude of religions that exist in the country. The presence of many faiths transcends throughout India's vibrant heritage, culture, mythology, traditions, festivals and daily life. India is the birthplace of Hinduism and Buddhism, and also home to two other major world religions ( Christianity and Islam). In addition, numerous cults and regional sects are practiced as well as two significant Indian-based religions of Jainism and Sikhism ( Lord and Bell,2007). consequently, the presence of faiths transposes in the form of symbolic designs of architecture, the arts, and cultural and heritage representations. this conglomeration of faith-based elements that proliferates throughout the country historically, and in modern times, constitutes the driving forces and ' attractions' of India's tourism industry. The intertwining of religion and tourism in India has been in practice since ancient times, and most commonly in the form of tirthayatra or pilgrimage travel ( singh, 2001; Gupta et al., 2002). The basic tenets of pilgrimages originate in the philosophical background of Hinduism, the country's main religion. In Hinduism, the act of journeying for sacred purposes is one of the many ways to attain self-realization and bliss. The journey allows the sojourner times to detach from daily life and focus on prayer and spiritual contemplation. As the contrary's primary religion, this influences the domestic tourism market which accounts for approximately 95% of travel undertaken for religious purposes ( such as taking pilgriamges) ( Singh, 2001; Bhardway, 1983).Therefore religious tourism constitutes a significant portion of India's 562.9 million domestic tourists ( Ministry of tourism of India, 2009). Since the 1960's, India has grown in popularity as a spiritual destination for Western tourists. Although not as prolific as the domestic sector, international tourist arrivals have grown annually since 2002 and with 5.37 million foreign tourist arrivals recorded in 2008 ( Ministry of Tourism of India, 2009). India's appeal as a spiritual getaway attributable to the kaleidoscope of religions and plethora of festivals and sacred sites ( sharpley and Sindaram, 2005). the diversity of religions ranges from Hinduism ( practice by approximately 80% of the population), Muslim, Christianity, Sikh, Buddhism and Jain ( census of India, 2001) .Each religion has specific pilgrimage and sacred sites in addition to festivals and other religious activities. This diverse array of religious ' attractions' appeal to international travelers for example; Kumbha Mela, the most important Hindu festival that occurs every three years; Buddhist pilgrimage sites in the Ganges Valley and other regions; famous Taj Mahal depicting the masterpiece of Muslim art and heritage; Hari Mandir, the holy shrine of sihhism; and the Jain temples found throughout India.

Opportunities and constraints of Religious tourism in India Regarding India as a religious tourism destination, various opportunities and constraints can be identified that will affect the longevity and growth of this industry. In 2008, Europe and North America comprised five of the top foreign tourist arrivals to India with the rankings of; one for the United States of America, two for United Kingdom, five for Canada, six for France and seven for Germany ( Ministry of Tourism of India, 2009). Even during 2008, the number of tourist arrivals to India increased despite the impact of the global economic recession and terror attacks in Mumbai.The number of foreign tourists arrivals ( or FTAs) was 5.37 million, or approximately 5.9% higher as compared to 5.08 million the previous year ( Wall Street Journal, 2009; Incredible India, 2009). In the context of India's religious tourism sector, there exists growth potential with the North American and European markets ass the number of Westerners in search of renewal and spiritual getaways is set to continue to increase int he upcoming years. As indicated by Smith and Kelly( 2006), " the recent trend, is for Western tourists to seek solace in Eastern philosophies and therapies ( e.g., Chinese medicine, Buddhist meditation, Indian Ayurveda, and Thai massage)." The ministry of Tourism has responded to the growing interest from international tourists with the 2006/7 incredible India campaign that markets to niche sectors such as spiritual tourism ( Koldowski and Martin, 2008). Another area of growth is Buddhist tourism, which the national and state level Indian governments are currently promoting extensively to other Asian markets. The potential of this market derives form Patna, a city in the state of Uttar Pradesh that is considered the gateway to the ' Buddhist circuit'. During the peak, ' Buddhist circuit' travel period form October to March, an influx of arrivals to Patna and other Buddhist sites are generated form : china, Japan, Thailand,Malaysia, Hong kong, Chinese Tapei, Korea and Singapore ( Koldowski and Martin, 2008). India has also implemented measures to strengthen ties with china, such as the April 2008 opening of India's first tourism office in Beijing ( Niyogi, 2009). As infrastructure continues to provide easier access and augmented services to travel to religious sites, the expansion of religious tourism will continue in the coming years. For example, in mid 2007, a luxury train was created by the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation ( IRCTC) to visit major Buddhist pilgrim centres and was specifically teared to tourists from various Asian markets.Additionally, rather measures have been taken for infrastructure developments along the Buddhist circuit with the assistance of Japanese investors (Koldowski and Martin,2008).One of the biggest challenges facing India's international image ( in the tourism industry) is the immense stratification of wealth and socioeconomic poverty of the population. Ir implemented sustainably, tourism can aid in poverty alleviation while improper applications will continue the pattern of economic inequality. It is protected that by 2020, India's tourism industry will generate Rs 8,50000 crores to the GDP ( or approximately US $ 1,800 million). If distributed evenly, every person in India could benefit by Rs 7,000 which clearly exemplifies the vast potential tourism holds for poverty alleviation ( India Core, 2009). to increase the reach of tourism's benefits, the Ministry of Tourism's Market Development Assistance ( MDA) scheme promotes lesser-known destinations while emphasizing improvements towards " capacity building for rural tourism and sustainable livelihoods" ( Incredible India,2009). the infusion of capital to support infrastructure, sustainable development, education and vocational training for local communities will open up more opportunities for religious and pilgrimage tourism to more of India's incredible sacred sites. 6,4 Iran " Do not attach yourself to any particular creed exclusively, so that you disbelieve all the rest; otherwise you will miss much that is good, indeed, you will fail to see the real Truth. God the omnipotent and omnipresent is not contained by any one creed, for He says in the Quran, ' Wherever you turn, there is the face of Allah."

Sufi Grand Master Ibn Arbi. Religious tourism in Iran When most people think of the Islamic Republic of Iran it is easy to summon images of women in the chadors and manteaus, the beards of mullahs, the goatees of young men, and the bustling population and air pollution in Tehran. At times, travelers assume the country has religious homogeneity instead of realizing that the majority of the modern Iranian population is Shia Muslim. Iran has the only Shiite Muslim government on the globe and the Constitution declares the " official religion of Iran is Islam and the doctrine followed is that of Ja'fari ( Twelver) Shi'ism" ( ICL, 1995). when traveling in Iran however the rich cultural tapestry and the vibrant history of ancient Persia is evident and amplifies the travelers' understanding of the cultural and religious diversity in Iran. This diversity is a distinct aspect of Iran,, especially in comparison to the majority of the country's Sunni neighbors. current statistics state that 89% of the Iranian population practices Shiism, Sunni Muslims constitute about 9% and the remaining 2% comprise of 'other' religions primarily Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish ( Kwintessential, 2009). Notable, government officials in Iran and proud of the history of religious tolerance and freedom of worship written in the constitution. In exception of the outland Baha ' l religion ( Buck, 2009), the practice of other ,minority religions is allowd and toruits can meet with Sufis , excahnge with Zoroastirans, visit with Jewish communities and journey to the Shia holy cities of Mashand and Qom. In 2005, Iran's travel and tourism industry accounted for 10% of GDP and provided approximately 1.7 million jobs, or equivalent to 9 % of total employment ( Bharat Book Bureau, 2007). in 2004, the government established the Iran Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization ( ICHHTO) as a series of initiatives to promote Iran as a tourist destination. As a result, Iran tourism industry dramatically increased in 2005, with 2 million inbound tourist arrivals, which represented an increase of 6% from 2004 ( Bharat Book Bureau, 2007). In 2007, the tourism boom continued as Iran's Vice President also noted that the country experienced a 100% growth in foreign tourists arrivals ( Press TV, 2008). Clearly the government and tourism industry in Iran is planning on developing religious tourism especially given that the country is prosperous in historical and UNESCO World Heritage Sties. Travelers can explore the vast array of archeological sites that mark old trade tours, the Silk Road Caravan ruins, Armenian Monastic orders, as well as the famous Biblical sites of Pasargadae ( UNESCO, 2009c). One example of an improtant religious tourism site is Mashad, the provincial capital of Khorasan. Mashad has been a site for religious tourism for centuries and houses the holy shrine of Imam Reza ( C. 768-818). The holy shrine and courtyards provide wonderful examples of Islamic architecture and receives the highest umber of pilgrimages in Iran ( Iran Travel, 2009). Opportunities and constraints of Religious Tourism The inherent opportunity that Iran has to develop and benefit from religious tourism is reflected in its cultural, historical and UNESCO World Heritage sites. Travelers can explore the splendor of the beckoning biblical and archeological sites. The list of sites is compelling form Bam's cultural landscape in the Dasht e Lut desert, Persepolis, to the Takht-e Soleyman ( Throne of Solomon) UNESCO, 2009c). With at least 60 UNESCO sites listed, the possibilities are endless to explore ancient holy sites and fuel tourism growth for Iran;'s religious tourism industry. The most pressing challenge facing Iran's religious tourism industry ius the country's international image. The political climate and appearance of human rights issues has negatively affected the flow of European and American tourists to Iran. However, not all tourist are deterred from visiting Iran. Although U.S visitor arrivals decreased by 15% and Geramn arrivals by 50% from 20022003, visitors form Arab countries " are soaring to unprecedented levels and are expected to contribute to 70% of Iran's tourism by 2007" ( Bharat Book Bureau, 2007). In recognition of the country's negative image, Iran's tourism sector admits that marketing at the international level

requires vast improvements ( Irpedia, 2009). Current initiatives in ' Iran's 20-year Vision' includes investments in tourism development of over US $ 32 billion that is forecast-ed to augment Iran's status to account for two percent of international tourist arrival by ( Press TV, 2008). 6.5 Recommendations on Social y Responsible and Sustainable Management of Sacred Sites Although unique in each region, the case studies presented on religious tourism for ---Nepal,Cambodia, India and Iran demonstrate several similar aspects that correspond to religious tourism as a whole. These aspects are recommended to be included future religious tourism studies, in order to address the following emerging issues: * the consumer propensity for religious and spiritual travel * effective communication and marketing of faith-based practices * effects of economic and environmental conditions on travel to holy sites and surroundiing communities * the potential for price premiums for religious travel products * the integration of religious tourism management and development with current international * initiatives, such as, the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs), Global Partnership for Sustainable tourism criteria ( GSTC partnership), and Copenhagen Agreement from the Gothenburg Symposium on tourism and Travel in the Green Economy integrating religious tourism with international initiatives will help guide efforts in capacity building,sacred site stewardship, community involvement, sustainable management and other key facets of the industry's development. For example, on 21 December 2001, The United Nations general Assembly adopted The Global Code of Ethics for Tourism ( UNWTO,2001). the Articles that are outlined in the Code are highly relevant and can be molded to the cultural and religious idiosyncrasies in the Asia/Pacific region. If the coeds were universally applied, tourism would significantly improve the needs of local and national populations. Additionally, sacred sites can be highlighted in the articles addressing the importance of cultural heritage sites. Determining best practices in religious tourism, three crucial areas should be highlighted and included in order to progress towards sustainable management and contribute to the aims of the MDG's, GSTC Partnership and Copenhagen Agreement.The three areas pertaining to religious tourism include: participation of local residents and custodians of the site; a sense of ownership in the project development and management, and taking into account of local people's cultural and faith-based needs ( UN DESA, 2005). Religious tourism can be further interconnected to the issues of poverty alleviation, climate change and environmental sustainability as addressed in the MDGs, GTSC Partnership and Copenhagen Agreement ( GTSC Partnership, 2008; Silence, 2009). Taking into account all initiatives, local communities should be able to use their sacred sites, as needed, without dealing with voyeurism of interference by tourists. clearly, holy pilgrimage sites can generate capital and donations, but long-lasting community development is not generated through the raising of income alone. Poverty eradication and economic development can occur simultaneously with the maintaining of community unity and preservation of local cultural and faith-based traditions, while also preserving the physical well being of the site and its outlining ecosystem. When these are achieved then religious tourism brings about sustainable development that caters specifically to the needs of the people that project aims to assist. 6.6 Conclusions- Travel as a Sacred Act " Among the implications of religious interdependence is that we each depend upon the 'other' to know us as we would like to be known. We are therefore the keepers of one anther's image. In the village of a thousand people, there is now way we can avoid facing up to the need for basic

education about our neighbors. Yet as most of us look down the roster of religious communities in this village, we note how little, even now, we understand one another. What are the five pillars of Islam and what do they mean to a Muslim? who was the Buddha- a man or a god? What does it mean for the Jewish people to speak of being 'chosen'? We can scarcely address the problems that beset the world without first tacking the basic ignorance, the fear, and the misunderstanding that separate us from one another." Diana L. Eck In this globalized age the world's problems are all pour problems. How can one not realize the impacts of climate change are not just localized issues of rising waters in the Maldives and Bangladesh but are issues facing humanity? How can we not all see how a " war on terror" or global recession impacts all nations? Faith can thus be a lens to highlight this shared condition or it to atomize a group. religion is often used as a reason to divide peoples, to justify control over another, to fear another, to terrorize another or to dismiss the beauty and humanity of another. the higher calling for the spiritual or religious tourist is to cultivate a devote understanding of our common humanity. The traveler can be more than a seeker on a quest, by becoming an ambassador and welcoming the opportunity for people to-people understanding and by fostering peace. Section 3- Country Monographs 7 Australia- A Country Specific Analysis of Religious Tourism in Australia

The interconnectedness of tourism and religion has a long history with travel-an important aspect of religious traditions in Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism, among others. As such, in each of the major religions, numerous physical locations ave developed into important focal points of which travelers (i.e pilgrims) are drawn ( rinschede, 1992; smart, 1995). Reasons for religious travel ( or Pilgrimage) are varied and can include: making a journey to reinvigorate faith; visiting places associated wit the holy figures and religion founders; a demonstration of piety or faith; or simply to explore the sights associated with religious traditions and religious/spiritual beliefs ( Nolan and Nolan, 1989; Raj and Morpeht, 2007; Rinschede, 1992; Vukic, 1996). Alternatively, religious tourists are travelers who visit the same religious sites and spiritual places for their interest in the archaeological or historical content the site has to offer, or as part of a broader destination itinerary, as opposed to visiting for any particular religious meaning. for example, Canterbury Cathedral in England Attracts over one million visitors annually- it is likely, however that only a small proportion of these visitors would describe themselves as pilgrims. distinguishing religious tourism from other forms of tourism is notoriously difficult,and in part explains why there is a paucity of data on this topic- especially within a predominantly secular country such as Australia. This country-specific analysis of Australia is hindered by the lack of available data on either inbound or outbound religious tourism. this is due to the fat that Australian statistical collections focus on macro level intentions for travel i.e. holiday, business, etc.Assumptions can also be drawn that the relative significance of religious tourism in Australia does not warrant more detailed examination. Arguably, Australia is not a major inbound religious tourism destination in the Asia Pacific region, nor is it a major source market of religious tourists for Asia Pacific countries. However, while religious tourism per se is not currently significant, cultural-heritage is certainly a major component of Australia's tourism product. This analysis of religious tourism in Australia explores religion in Australia, including the tendency towards secular and civil religion. Inbound and outbound religious tourism is discussed and, given the importance of cultural-heritage tourism, attention is also given to this segment of the market. Major attractions for inbound religious tourists in Australia are reviewed, as are the inbound and

outbound opportunities and challenges for religious tourism in Australia. 7.1 Australian Religiosity There is some agreement among authors that the Western world is becoming increasingly more secular. Even with this shift towards secularism, Australia has been considered more secular in orientation that other Western countries. Australia has been described as post-Christian ( Hannaford, 1985; Wilson, 1993) and more recently by Tacey as post-secular ( Tacey, 2000; 2003). Indeed, Australia's growing secularization has resulted in reduced affiliations among most Christian denominations since the early 1940s ( Australian Bureau of Statistics ABS 2006). Although Australia is home to a wide variety of religious traditions, over 64% of the population identify with either one of two Christan traditions, Catholicism or Anglicanism. Slightly less than one million Australians ( approximately 5%) identify themselves with another major world religion such as Buddhism, Islam or Hinduism ( according for 419,000, 340,000 and 148,000 people respectively) ( ABS, 2006). Indeed, Australia hosts over 27 major types of religious denominations, including Eastern Orthodox, through to Scientologist and Zoroastrian. According to Humpyreys and Ward ( 1995) these traditions are represented by over 245 different religious bodies. Australian population census data shows that 1 %of population describe themselves in terms of the great variety of other religious and semi-religious organizations which are located within Australia. Analysis of census data over the past six decades indicates a number of changes within the Australian religious profile; such trends can be viewed as an indicator of changes in Australian religious beliefs and subsequent religious practice. Australian religiosity suggest that the proportion of Australians reporting to have no religion continues to grow, mainstream Christianity has steadily declined, while some of the religious groups that have generally represented smaller proportions of the population such as Islam and Hinduisms are increasing, primarily due to immigration. An interesting trend is the increase in those individuals choosing to report no religion. For example between 1971 and 2006, the proportion of people who stated 'No Religion' increased from 6.7% of the population to 18%. Younger generations are less likely to adopt the religious views of their parents or grandparents, and comprise a high proportion of those who stated no religion. consequently, the main Protestant denominations ( i.e. Anglican, Presbyterian and the Uniting Church) have all decease since 1996 and have older age profiles than the overall population. In addition to the changes seen within christian denominations and major world religions such as Islam, Buddhism and Hinduism, Australia is experiencing significant growth in imported religious beliefs such as the Earth-based traditions of Gaia, Goddess religions and witchcraft ( Bouma,2003). According to census data, the number of people identifying with Wicca/Witchcraft increased from 1.849 in 1996 to 8,214 in 2006, a growth of 344%. Similarly, Paganism increased from 4,353 to 15,516 ( an increase of 256%) and Spiritualism increased from 8141 to 9279 ( an increase of 14%).While some of these spiritualities are criticised as being 'new age', according to Bouma ( 1997; 2003) and Tacey, ( 20003) they represent the very tip of the iceberg of the changing face of religiosity and spirituality in Australia. while statistics such as those presented above give indications of religiosity with Australia, adherence to a religious denomination does not necessarily translate into religious practice. for instance it has been claimed that Australians tend to overestimate their church attendance. In response to a Gallup Poll question of " Were you in church last Sunday?" approximately 16% of those surveyed reported they attended church the previous weekend. However, when compared to actual attendance figures sourced from the churches themselves attendance ranged from only 2% through to 10%. this indicates that there is a significant proportion of the Australian population who identify themselves with the Christan church, but who have no regular attendance or behavioral obligations to their churches. Additionally, research shows that most Australians consider that religious identity makes little contribution in describing who they are ( Hughhes, Black, Bellamy and Kaldor, 2004). Indeed, religion was rated only 10% of respondents as being the 'most improtant single thing'. religion was rated by 4% as being not important at all. According to this survey, overall, character and personality, being Australian, gender, occupation, income,

education and country of origin were all rated as being of greater importance than religion. Only social class and political affiliation were rated as having less importance than religion ( Hughes et al.2004). Australian Civil Religion While available data indicates a significant decline in Australian religiosity, several authors have suggested that rather than the nations religiosity simple disappearing; it has merely been directed elsewhere. commentators maintain that a change in Australian spirituality can be attributed to factors such as a renewed interest in Indigenous spirituality and environment concern ( Bouma, 1992; Brown, 1991; Drew, 1994; Flannery, 1998). for instance, Bourma ( 1992) suggest that there has been a move to reinterpret traditional forms of Christianity through the eyes of Indigenous spiritual traditions, resulting in some ma9isntream, non-indigenous representations of Indigenous spirituality.Further. Brown ( 1991) discusses the notion that Australians have been drawn to the idea of a spiritual centre at the heart of the Australian landscape, and that a fascination with the Australian Outback has become entrenched in the Australian psyche. this quest for the Australian centre has resulted in Uluru ( also known as Ayers Rock) becoming a central theme for Australians ( Drew,1994). Commenting on Australia's apparent lack of religiosity, Tacey ( 200) stated that Australia does not appear to be very religious, because hardly any of our religion is articulated or on show." Tacey ( 2000) instead utilizes the term secular spirituality and considered this to be the predominant religion of Australia. An example of this secular spirituality can be seen in Australia's devotion to civic ceremonies and memorials of war and remembrance. Perhaps the most recognised examples of these civic ceremonies can be viewed ion the context of war remembrance services such as ANZAC ( Australian and New Zealand Army Corp) Day which is also a national holiday and the growing numbers of Australians who travel to Gallipoli, Turkey or Kokoda in Papua New Guinea to commemorate Australians who have served the country in war. Inglis ( 1998) suggests that typical activities seen at such places as the Canberra War Memorial, such as the solemn and reverent approach to the memorial,touching place names and leaving poppies and flowers on the memorial are evidence of the ANZAC tradition taking on a cult status. As such, Inglis ( 1998) considers Australia's commemoration of its war dead has become a civil religion. the Australian War Memorial and similar dedications to the ANZAC tradition do not just promote respect, but an awareness of the holy and strident defense if the idea is contested ( Inglis, 1998). Most notably, Mol (1983) discusses the appropriation of religious language when referring to the remembrance of war victims in the west. AS such, rituals traditionally seen in churches across Australia are now being played out each weekend at military gravesites and war memorials. A review of the current state of Australian religiosity indicates that the distance between practicing and nominal Christians, which describes almost half of the Australian population, is being redressed through secular spiritualities or at least non-church institutional contexts. As such, the opportunities for religious tourism in a traditional sense show less scope for growth than secular or civil religion. Undertaking journeys to such places as the Canberra War Memorial for domestic tourist, or internationally traveling to significant Australian battle sites such as Flanders Field, Gallipoli or Kokoda are becoming an increasingly improtant part of the Australian travel experience which will be explored further. whether one can consider such journeys as religious tourism is in for debate. As Tacey argues, however, perhaps this civic-tourism, to places such as Uluru or Gallipoli, is just the next stage in Australia's evolving religiosity. 7.2 Religious Tourism in Australia Although there has been a good deal of academic interest in the phenomenon of religious tourism in recent years ( Raj and Morpeth, 2007), very few studies have been undertaken that have focused specifically on religious tourism within, or to, Australia. This can no doubt be attributed to the paucity of data on inbound, outbound or domestic tourists traveling for religious purposes. In terms of inbound religious Australia does indeed have religous tourism sites such as chrhces, cathdrals and generally visited as part of general destination itineraries.The most significant

religious sites in Australia would arguably be classified as cultural heritage attractions such as Indigenous spiritual sites and lands and secular sites such as the national war memorial in Canberra which are popular with domestic and international visitors alike. in terms of outbound religious tourism again any discussion is hindered by a lack of data on this market segment. Certainly Australians would visit significant religious sites during their international travels yet the extent to which they are visiting for a religious sites during their international travels yet the extent to which they are visiting for a religious purpose is impossible to clarify. It is likely that such visits form a component of their overall destination experience and as such, visits to religious sites simply occur alongside the more traditional pleasure-based tourism activities undertaken on the same trip. Anecdotally, more Australians are traveling for secular or civic tourism to was remembrance sites such as Gallipoli in Turkey or Kokoda in Papua New Guinea. 7.3 Australian Inbound Religious Tourism As previously discussed, there is limited to no data on inbound religious tourism in Australia. this is due to the fact that Australia's tourism statistical surveys do not collect such specific data. Both inbound and outbound visitor data is collected by the ABS and administered by Tourism Research Australia ( TRA). Although data is collected on Purpose of visit,or, the major reason for visiting a particular location, categories are broad, and do not include either religious or cultural heritage tourism categories. Categories used by TRA are: * Holidays Travel:includes holidays, travel for leisure, entertainment, sport as a participant or spectator, shopping, relaxation or just 'getting away' * Visits to friends and relatives * Business * Other: includes for the purpose of education,personal appointments, health-related travel and emolument/leisure travel ( for example,working holidays). while data relating specifically to religious tourism is not available, there is some data relating to cultural-heritage tourists. cultural-heritage tourism, of which religious tourism could be considered a component , (such as in the case of Indigenous tourism), is recongnised as a significant and growing sector for the inbound tourist market. Many international visitors desire a cultural experience, often an Indigenous tourism experience, while visiting Australia and the popularity of this niche can be seen in the estimated AUD$ 12 billion it generates annually and employment of approximately 90,000 people ( Tourism Queensland, 2003) . However, research conducted by Tourism Queensland (2002) showed that the primary motivator for visitors engaging in indigenous tourism is visiting natural landscapes, rather than any significant interest in Indigenous spirituality. According to a report of cultural-heritage tourism produced by TRA, of the 2.6 million international visitors to Australia in 2006 who participated in culture or heritage activities during their travel, most ( 61%) visited historical or heritage buildings, sites or monuments; or museums and/or galleries (56%) Australia's cultural-heritage products are also important for the domestic market. for instance, of the 73.6 million overnight trips undertaken bu domestic travelers in 2006, 13% participated in at least one cultural and heritage activity. As some studies indicate, the most common cultural activity undertaken by domestic visitors was visiting museums or art galleries ( 43%). Indigenous tourism and visiting historical-heritage buildings accounted for nine percent and thirty-one percent respectively. Religious Sites and Attractions in Australia In relation to religious sites, while data on the exact number of physical religious sites in Australia is not known, arguably there are only a small number of religious sites that attract international or domestic visitors on a regular basis. Excluding indigenous sites, those religious places which

attract the largest numbers of visitors are Christian or Buddhist sites. A review of some of the key sites and events in religious tourism in Australia are outlined below inducing sites of Indigenous spiritual significance. However, when information on visitor numbers is provided for the cases these generally originate from the site management, or respective tourism authority. Church of Our Lady of Yankalilla While not quite as well known as pilgrimage shrines in the Holy Land or Europe, one of Australia's most important pilgrimages sites- the Church of Our Lady of Yankalilla is located in South Australia in the small town of Yankalilla. According to media reports,on August 24, 1994 an image of the Virgin Mary appeared on the wall of the Anglican Church in Yankalilla. since 1996 pilgrims have been coming to this church from all over the world. Yankalilla is the world's newest Marian Shrine ( shrine dedicated to apparitions of the Virgin Mary). It is also only the second known apparition of Mary in an Anglican church. In recent years the shrine has received widespread national and international media exposure. When first reported, the image of the Virgin appeared to be shaped like the Madonna cradling the Christ Child. Over time, the image has changed to now appear to be the Virgin Mary holding the crucified Jesus. Although the site only came to public attention in 9197, as many as 1000 people visited the church over the Easter period in 2000. site managers now estimate that approximately 100 visitors per day visit the shrine. In the year 2000, research suggests that over 50,000 people visited the site. According to various media reports, the numbers of pilgrims to this shrine are reported as between 30 and 100 per day, with up to 1,000 on a special weekend.(Hannaford, 2001). in addition to its notoriety of the Marian apparition, Yankalilla's other attraction is the small shcoolhouse in the local township. The schoolhouse was fist built for and lived in by Josephite nuns, begun by Australia's saint in waiting, Mary MacKillop ( Hannaford 2001). this schoolhouse was restored during the 1990'2. According to tradition, the new owner, in response to a miracle cure for her grandson at the Shrine of Our Lady of Yankalilla, purchased the schoolhouse and converted the front room into a small chapel. The schoolhouse is now used as a bed and breakfast to house pilgrims visiting the shrine itself. World Youth Day Christian Pilgrimage, Sydney 2008 One of the most innovative religious social phenomena in recent years is the involvement of large numbers of young adults in World Youth Day (WYD). WYD was establisehd during the pontificate of Pope John Paul II, and has since been continued by his successor Benedict XVI. the WYD celebration has been held every tow or three years since 1985. It is now one of the largest intentional gatherings of young people in the world ( Rymaz,2008). during the millennium year of 2000, the WYD pilgrimage was attended by more than three million pilgrims. The most recent WYD pilgrimage was celebrated in Sydney in 2008 from the 15th to the 20th of July. Preliminary celebrations were also held in Brisbane, Queensland as well as other states during the proceeding week. WYD 2008 attracted 223,000 registered pilgrims; including 110,000 from 170 nations making it the largest event ever hosted in Australia. While the majority of participants were catholic, the event was open to all young people, regardless of their religious beliefs. Buddha's Birthday Festival (various Locations) The introduction of Buddhist practice into Australia is a very recent event int he 2,500 year history of Buddhism, with the first record of Buddhist presence dating from 1880's. In recent years, Australia's contact with Buddhist presence dating from 1880's. In recent years, Australia's contact with Buddhism has increased through visits of prominent Buddhist leaders, most notable His Holiness the Dalai Lama, the growth in spiritual tourist travel to Asia and the influential profile created by Hollywood personalities such as Richard Gere and Stephen Segel.

Buddhism was introduced into Australia during the mid-19th century by Chinese immigrants. According to the 2006 census, there are now approximately 420,000 Buddhists, ( 2% of the population) residing in Australia. The growing appeal of Buddhist philosophy and meditation has seen the number of Buddhist organizations throughout Australia steadily increase. for example, in Brisbane, Queensland, the number of Buddhist organizations has increased from just four in 1982, to forty in 2004. The Buddha's birthday festivals are celebrated throughout Australia in the month of May ( the actual birth date of Buddha occurs on the eight day of the fourth month in the lunar calendar) ( Smart, 1995). the festival is a celebration of the life and teachings of Buddhism's founder, Sidartha Gautama ( c. 56-484 BCE). Attendance at the Buddha's Birthday celebrations increases annually, indeed the festival is now one of the latest multi-cultural festivals in Austria. For example, in 1997,in its first year, the Buddha's Birthday Festival in Brisbane attracted 5,000 people, whereas in 2009 approximately 150,000 people attended, making it one of the largest Buddhist celebrations in the world.Uluru ( Northern Territory) While not solely the purview of religious tourism, Uluru, ( formally known as Ayers Rock), in the Northern Territory, is one of Australia's most iconic landmarks. Organised tourism to Uluru began around 1947, and according to unpublished management statistics, in 2000, Uluru attracted over 500,000. According to most estimates, approximately half of all visitors to Uluru are Australian residents. For many Australians, Uluru represented an opportunity to escape to he Outback and is seen as the country's " geographic and spiritual or emotional centre" ( McGrath, 1991). Although Australia is one of the world's largest urban cultures, Australia is also the largest market ( per capita) of four-wheel drive vehicles. MacKay (1993) argues this is an indication of Australia's obsession with all things rural. Digance ( 2000) suggests that the real ' Australian' replete with authentic Australian values and skills dwells in the Outback, with the most authentic manifestations of bush values and actions considered to be located in the Centre, or Central Australia. In addition to being a sacred site for Australian Aboriginals, Whittaker ( 1994) suggests that Uluru embides " a sacredness for non-indigenous Australians, and is the pilgrimage Mecca for all Australians". As a place of pilgrimage, Uluru, like Stone Henge and Avebury,can claim to be all thin gs to all people in terms of its value as a tourist destination and as a sacred site. while the site features predominantly in Aboriginal spirituality, it is also the focus of many Australian Christians and New Age practitioners alike. while there is n o date specifically relating to religious or spiritual tourists as Uluru there are now several organized pilgriamges to Uluru each year,primarily organized through spiritual organizations, church groups and a small number of specialist travel companies. 7.4 Australian Outbound Religious Tourism In th year ending March 31, 2009 australians took 5.2 million international trips (TRQ, 2009). the most popular internqational destinations foraustralians were New Zealand ( 16%), followed by the United States of America and Canada ( 10%) and the United Kingdom (8%), with a numebr of Asia Pacific countries featuring prominently in the most visited destinations including Thailand, Indonesia,china, Singapore, hong Kong, China; and Malaysia. the most popular reason for Australasian to undertake international travel was holiday (53%), visiting friends or relatives (24%) and business (21%). While it is possible that osme of these trips may have been specailly for relitous purposes, as noted reviously, Auystralina tourism authorities mdo not specifically collate information relating to this form of travel.Aside from the civic case presented below, the only date relating to Australia pilgrims that travel to the Hajj each year.The Saudi Embassy estimates that approximately 3,000 Australians participated in the pilgrimage in 2006 ( Haq and Jackson, 2009). Further, there are 18 officially recognized travel agencies throughout Australia that are able to provide entry tickets for those wishing to partake in the Hajj pilgrimage, arguably, a rare example specific religious tourism travel trade in Australia. Religious tourism is usually calssified as cultural heritage tourism and generally considered to be combined with other forms fo tourist activity, as opposed to pilgiramges; thereforethe majority of

outbound Australian visitors to holy places are unlikely to conmsider themselves as religous toruists. Although it is not possible to determine specific destinations chosen by Australian religious/cultural-heritage tourists, assumptions can be made that outbound Australian tourists would also visit improtant religious tourism sites as part of their overall tourism experience within the respective country they are vising. Available evidence does suggest that the destinations that attract the majority of Australia's outbound religious/cultural tourists are those that have the greatest associations with the events depicted in the narrations of significant religious traditions or described in important religious texts such as the Bible, the Qu'ran, and the many other texts associated with miraculous events attributed to Saints or spiritual leaders ( Russell,1999). Battlefield Pilgrimages and Memorials-Gallipoli, turkey Of the many battlefield pilgrimages undertaken by Australians, it could be argued that Gallipoli is the most important. Other Australian civil pilgrimage destinations include Long Tan(Vietnam), TobrUnited Kingdom ( NorthAfrica), Menin Gate ( Belgium) and Kokoda ( New Guinea. former Australian governor General sir William Deane, when referring to Gallipoli, stated that Australian governor General Sir William Deane, when referring to Gallipoli, stated that Australian left behind the graves of more than 8,000 m Australians, and that it is a "sacred site" for ANZAC nations ( Herald Sun, April 26, 1992). Indeed, several authors refer to Gallipoli as the focus of Australia's secular or 'civil religion' ( Bouma, 1992; Inglis, 1998; Kapferer, 1988). the numbers of visitors traveling to Gallipoli to commemorate ANZAC day ( 25 April) from Australia, as well as from other countries has rise steadily over the past two decades. In 1988, 200 people attended the Dawn Service at ANZAC Cove, in 2,000 this has risen to approximately 15,000 Austrian and New Zealanders, and in 2004, 18,000 visitors attended the ANZAC day ceremony. In fact, Turkish authorities have had to implement significant site management strategies to cater to the growing number of visitors attending the annual ANZAC service. similarly, the number of Turkish visitors to the site has also increased markedly. In 2003, an estimated 600,000 Turkish people visited Gallipoli; in 2004, the number had risen to 1.2 million; and in 2005, approximately tow million Turkish visitors attended the site. 7.5 Opportunities and challenges for inbound and Outbound Religious Tourism While religious tourism per se is not currently a significant sector of the Australian tourism industry, the popularity of spiritual and cultural-heritage sits certainly are. As such, there are many opportunities and challenges to increase both Australia's strengths as an unbound destination as well as for Asia Pacific countries to attract outbound Australian travelers. Australian Inbound Religious Tourism : Opportunities and Challenges Globally the demand for religious tourism is increasing ( Griffin, 2007) which presents Australia with a number of opportunities and challenges. While Australia does not figure highly on the world stage in terms of its significance as a religious destination, most Australian states and territories have cathedrals, historic churches and the like that are also popular sites for tourists to visit while ion the destination. However, very few are marketed as religious tourism attractions, primarily due to the often negative connotations associated with tourism, and tourist behavior. Australia does however, have a respectable stick of cultural-heritage attractions, and sacred natural landscapes. Australia's cultural-heritage tourism sites are a draw card for both international and domestic visitors alike, and are certainly an economically important contributor to Australia's tourism industries. these economic impacts are particularly considerable for rural and remote areas of the country which have limited economic alternatives. Although cultural events are not a new phenomenon in Australia there is considerably untapped potential to target religious, including secular and civil, festivals and events. Tourism authorities may consider partnering with church groups and similar bodies to leverage off existing religious events and activities for the benefit of tourists. Furthermore, religious tourism and events have

been shown to help revitalize interest in religion and improve congregation attendance ( Rotherham,2007). As Rotherham ( 2007) notes, tourism also provides religious faiths with an opportunity to foster awareness and understanding of their particular tradition-an improtant opportunity in Australia's post-secular climate. As with all forms of tourism, the environmental and social consequences of religious/culturalheritage tourism must be appropriately managed to ensure the sustainability of the site and broader destination community.Carrying capacity of vulnerable sites is an issue, as is meeting the needs and wishes of the host community. Arguably, large volumes of visitors can damage an important religious heritage site, and the spirituality, which can be enhanced by large visitor numbers, can also be lost with large groups of people ( Rotherham, 2007).A religious/spiritual site can be both a cultural attraction or point of interest for one group of visitors, and a very religious or sacred place for prayers. While this creates many opportunities, it also creates a number of problems for those who manage the sites, as this disconnect can be seen in the case of Uluru. Large numbers of visitors are attracted to this iconic Australian site each year and many wish to engage in 'climbing the rock'. However, as this is an Indigenous spiritual site such behave can cause offense to the local Indigenous community who consider Uluru to be a sacred place. when dealing with religious/cultural-heritage sites as tourism products sensitivity to the needs and wishes of key stakeholders is of the utmost importance. Data from specialist travel operators and private study-tour providers does suggest that there is an increasing demand for holidays to religious and historically signification destinations ( Russell, 1999). This demand is primarily led by an interest in archaeology, Indigenous culture, and anthropology.Certainly , there is much scope to enhance Australia's religious tourism sector to complement the broader cultural-heritage attractions given that the focus of religious tourism can be on the landscape itself ( such as Uluru), long-standing or permanent sites( such as St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney), or one-off events and annual festivals ( such as the World Youth Day Pilgrimage or the Buddha's birthday celebrations). Opportunities can be capitalised upon by improved marketing and positioning of existing sites as tourism attractions as well as the potential of religious event tourism to attract inbound visitors.Although often these experiences do not generate considerable expenditure as free access is available ( such as the Buddha's birthday festival or visiting Churches), they do serve to improve the overall attractiveness of a destination and encourage visitors to stay longer which generates economic benefits for the destination. further, Australia's multiculturalism provides opportunities for tourism enterprises to specialise in religious travel, and provide unique travel opportunities for adherents of many of the world's religious traditions; most of which are now represented within Australia.Renewed attempts to end the Middle East conflicts have seen an increase in the numbers of pilgrims and tourists traveling to countries such as Egypt,Jordan and parts of Israel. Even political tensions in places such as Nepal and Tibet have not detracted from religious tourism. Indeed, research suggest that even in times of unrest, religious tourism and pilgrimage are the last forms of travel to see a decline in traveler numbers ( Bhattarai,Conway and Shrestha, 2005; Blackwell,2007). this can be attributed to the fact that this clientele is generally upmarket, with research showing that cultural-heritage and religious tourists are prepared to pay more for an experience which combines history and culture together ( Russel,1999). Australian Outbound Religious Tourism: opportunities and Challenges Again, little is known about Australia's outbound religious tourism market. while demographic profiles of Australian visitors who travel for religious reasons can no presently be determined, research undertaken at specific international destinations ( such as European churches and cathedrals) does suggest that the majority of religious tourists tend to be in the older age groups ( 50 years and above) and are either pre, or post retirement ( Davis, 1992; Francis, robbins, and Annis, 2007). Socio-economic data also suggests that religious tourist are more affluent than other tourist segments . However, there is some anecdotal evidence that indicates that the age of religious tourist is decreasing, particularly if pilgrims to battlefields such as Gallipoli are included. What is known is that Australians are generally mobile as evidenced by the 5.2 million international trips taken during the year ending 31 March 2009. this figure should also be considered in light of Australia's total population of 21 million people and the economic crisis

during this period which has softened demand for travel. Yet in spite of the lack of data, it would be reasonably safe to conclude that, the potential of Australia's increasingly multicultural population, and immi9gration from countries in the Asia Pacific, offers scope for these residents to return to home countries in the Asia Pacific, offers scope for these residents to return to home counties for improtant religious festivals or to visit important sites such as Hajj. Australia currently lacks a significant religious tourism travel trade. currently there are only a small number of tourism operators within Australia who do specialise in servicing the outbound religious tourism market. Russel ( 1999) suggests that travel and tour operators who specialise in religious travel tend to limit the scope of their operations to specific religious traditions. for example, there are those who focus solely on organising travel for Hajj pilgrims. Other may focus on christian travel only. Given the highly specialised, and sensitive nature of such travel, it is not surprising that there are only small numbers of operators focusing on this niche market. Furthermore, given that religious tourists often have specialized needs and expectations, business catering to religious travelers tend to specialise in only one destination or cater for only one religious faith. On-line travel companies such as www. Expedia.com.au which offer a range of travel options under such headings as "Spiritual Odyssey"; " Biblical tours" ; " Church tours", " Pilgrimage/Spirituality"; and " Yoga and Spiritual Experience", may prove to instigate demand for religious tourism in the Asia Pacific region. there is potential to partner with such organizations to further promote these products to the Australian market. Although not specifically focuses on Australian religious tourist, recent research examining various aspects of religious tourism suggests that there is a change in what religious various aspects of religious tourism suggests that there is a change in what religious tourist are seeking from their experiences ( Belhassesn, 2006; Belhassesn, Catton and Stewart, 2008). For example, while traditionally the pilgrimage market was the domain of the more budget-traveler, evidence now suggest that modern pilgrims ( and religious tourists) are less likely to frequent backpacker hostels and camp sites, and are increasingly searching for more upmarket accommodation ( russell, 1999, Schott, 2006). Furthermore, religious tourist are also more likely to desire an educational or study-focused experience, combining their spiritual journey with other archaeological or cultural endeavors. For outbound tourists interested in religion and culture there are many new destinations emerging. Visitors to Eastern European destination such as Medjugorje in Bosnia, increase annually. Other important religious destinations now include Pannonhalma Archabbey in Hungary, and St Vitus Cathedral in Prague. Both these sites are attracting international attentions since being listed on the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage list. Furthermore, as Eastern religious philosophies such as Hinduism and Buddhism become more popular in the west, Countries such as India, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and China are now becoming improtant destinations for religious and cultural heritage tourists. 7.6 Conclusions: Looking Forward The future for both inbound and outbound religious and cultural tourism in Australia appears positive and certainly an area with scope for growth.Major festivals such as the Christan WYD celebrations and the Buddha's birthday festivals, as well as the significant international interest in Australia's Indigenous heritage serve to highlight that A|Australia does have potential as a destination for religious and cultural-heritage tourists. A mobile population and interest in religious philosophies from Asia Pacific countries are also promising for Australian outbound tourism for the region.Within Australia, the promotion of religious tourism is sporadic at best due to the highly specialized nature of the market. Certainly, further attention could be directed to developing Australia's religious and cultural-heritage attractions. In particular, this emphasis could be directed towards marketing Australia's archaeological and cultural heritage attractions. Australian's love of the Outback, and reverence for the landscape could be used as a catalyst to created an interest in more spiritually-focused travel, directed both at the natural landscape, and/ or at some of the many historic church or religious buildings that cover the country. The paucity of data on Australia's inbound religious tourism market suggests that greater emphasis needs to be given to research and date collection concerning religious tourists. A major

reason why there is so little Australian data available on either inbound or outbound religious tourism is primarily because of the fragmented nature of the market, both within the outside of Australian date available on either inbound or outbound religious tourism is primarily because of the fragmented nature of the market, both within the outside of Australia. According to Russel ( 1999) the source of the majority of religious travel is church parishes or the equivalent bodies in other religious traditions. when individual parishes do arrange inter-intra state and international religious travel, arrangements are usually made between ch8irch leaders, travel agencies, and service providers at the destinations- they do not usually come under the purview of tourism authorities. As ' religious tourism' is not a specific category of tourism identified by national tourism authorities, religious tourists ( unless registered as a pilgrim for the Hajj) for the most part are simply categorized as tourists or holiday makers. Religious tourism offers many lucrative opportunities if managed and marketed correctly. Without accurate date however, it is not possible to fully assess the importance of religious tourism for Australia, nor the significance of the outbound religious tourism market. 8 Religious Tourism in China 8.1 China- Domestic,Inbound and Outbound Religious Tourism The past three decades witnessed a rapid development of china inbound tourism. The overnight inbound tourists increased from 3.5 million in 1980 to 53.05 million in 2008. china's rank in the world tourism market consequently climbed from the eighteenth to the fourth potion . In 2008, the total tourism foreign currency earnings reached US $ 40.84 billion, the fifth in the world. Among overnight inbound tourists, 37% are foreigners, while the rest come from Hong Kong, China; Macacu, china; and Taiwan. In 2008, china received 24.33 million foreign tourists, of which 19.70& were overnight tourists. "In 2008, the top ten inbound source markets were Republic of Korea ( with 3.96 million visitors), Japan ( 3.45 million), Russian Federation ( 3.12 million), United States of America ( 1.79 million), Malaysia (1.04 million), Singapore ( 0.88 million), the Philippines ( 0.8 million), Vietnam ( 0.74 million), Mongolia ( o.71 million), and Australia 0.57 million). For the geographic span, the top five destinations in china in terms of inbound tourism revenue are guangdong, shangaie, Bejing, Jiangsu and Zhejiang. among the five destinations, Beijing and Shanghai are municipalities, while Guangdong, Jhiangsu and Zhejiang are provinces covering larger geographic regions. the visitor number statistics for provinces covering larger geographic regions. The vistor number statistics for provinces may be inflated due to the repeat counting of cities within hte province. Of inbound tourists in guangdong, the majority come from Hong Kong China; and Macau, china. Inbound Religious Tourism Religion has long been associated with travel throughout history. Religious followers were, in fact, the first travelers. the religious sites are key attractions in many destinations. china possesses the most number of UNESCO world sites in the world. Among the 37 world heritage sites, one third are religious sites, such as Buddhist mountains like the Emei Mountains and the Wutai Mountains; Taoist Mountains; religious temples like the Potala Palace in Tibet and temples around Chengde Imperial summer Resort; religious heritages like the Mogao Grottoes in Dunhuang, Longmen Grottoes, Yugang Grottoes and Dazu Rock Carvings.The 'Silk Road', connecting Europe and Asia, which is a well-known trade route in the history of ancient civilization originated in china. the 7000-km-long route that lasted for over 2000 years played a key role in the economic, cultural and social development of the en-route countries. thousands of years of history has bestowed a rich cultural heritage on china with many relics, colorful ethnic cultures and customs. among those relics, colorful ethnic cultures and customs. Among those relics and heritages, many are related to different religions: Buddhist heritages like the Big Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi'an; Mogao Caves and Labrang Monastery in Dunhuan, Gansu Province; and Islamic heritages like Etigar Mosques, the Emin Minaret in Xijiang; and the Big Mosque in Xi'an. the UNESCO heritage site of the Mogao Caves, a magnificent art gallery of architecture, painting

and sculptures is the largest and richest Buddhist art museum still existing in the world. It attracts large numbers of international and domestic tourists. In East Asian history, many eminent monks traveled across the seas to spread their faith and culture, thereby becoming regional communication ambassador. The monk Jianzhen's visit to Japan was a milestone in the history and Sino-Japan cultural exchanges. Jinazhen sailed to Japan to spread Buddhism, and took across the highly development culture of the Tang Dynasty. Jianzhen also contributed a lot of Japan's architecture, sculpture, pharmacy, art and printing techniques. Jianzhen's voyage succeeded only in its sixth attempt. the spirit of Jianzhen's selfabnegating zeal in spreading Buddhism to a larger public has been admired by people of both countries.Nowadays, many followers of Buddhism in Japan and China still keep a close relationship maintaining religious exchanges between the two countries. the Tiantong Temple in Ningbo, China, is known as the starting point of Caodongzong, one of the Japanese Buddhism branches. A large number of Japanese pilgrims visit the Tiantong Temple every year. In history of cultural exchanges between china and the Republic of Korea, the eminent Korean monk, Kim Qiaojue is a very famous personality. Kim sailed to China during the Tang Dynasty. He lived in Jiuhua Mountain and practiced and spread Buddhism thereafter until his death. He was later referred to as Ksitigahba Buddhisattva. With Jiuhua Mountain being associated as the pale of enlightenment for Ksitigahba Buddhisattva, it became one of the four major Buddhism Montains in china. Every year, many Korean visitors travel to Jiuhua Mountain for sightseeing and pilgrimage. In recent years, with more convenient transportation, especially after the introduction of direct chartered flights between Seul and Hefei, Korean visitors to Jiuhua Mountain have increased considerably. Religion is intertwined with culture. the Temple is a very improtant recipient of Chinese traditions. Many ancient art works and poems are related to temples.Hanshan Temple is suzhou owes its notoriety to a famous poem that ran as follows: " Outside Suzhou Hanshan temple is in sight; its ringing bells reach my boat at midnight." People believe that ringing the bell of the Hanshan Temple may ease their pressure and troubles in life. each New Year's eve, the Temple organizes the bell-ringing event. the bell tolls 108 sounds with the last sound at midnight representing the beginning of a lucky and happy new year. the bell-ringing has been taking place for the past 30 years attracting more and more people to the event. Many Japanese, who studied the poem in their high school, also attend the bell-ringing event. Inbound Religious Tourism Products The key feature of China's religious tourists attractions is that most sites are built on mountains or by rivers. religious sites like temples, caves, pagodas, and carvings are located in scenic areas with a combination of natural attractions and rich culture.Inbound religious tourists products can be divided into the following four categories: Cultural Tour People visit religious sites to appreciated its architecture, sculpture, are and paintings, and to attend religious rites at the same time. Even in normal urban tourism, visiting temples and churches is also a very improtant component of excursions enjoyed by most tourists. In the classic China tour route, Bejing-Xi'an-Shangahai-Guilin- Guangzhou, often chosen by first timers, tourists visit world heritages like the Palace Museum and the Great Wall in Beijing, terra-Cotta Warriors in xi'an, and religious attractions like Lamasery in Beijing, Jade Buddha Temple in shanghai and the Big Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi'an. the Yangtze River cruise route is popular with the European and American markets. Lectures on Chinese culture are very popular on these cruises.On of the most popular lecture topics related to China's Buddhism. Once the ship docks at Chizhou, very few people remain on board, with all keen on visiting the sacred Buddhist Jiuhua Mountain, after hearing the precious lecture. Health Tour Learning Qigong or Gongfu in the temples in mountain resorts, enjoying the fresh mountain air,

calming one's hearth and keeping the body in a good and balanced state is another key attraction. Shaoling Temple in Henan is fully representative of such a type of holiday resort. People from all over the world come to the Temple to learn martial arts. they usually stay there for a few weeks to finish certain phases of training. Some people are repeat visitors who return to improve their martial skills. Russian Federation is the third largest source market of China with an annual inbound flow of over 3 million. They used to stay in sea-side resorts within china. In recent years, a certain number of Russian Federation visitors have opted for holidays in mountain resorts to practice Tai Ji, Yoga, and Qigong, to keep fit or seek treatment for chronic diseases.Since 2007, Tianzhu Mountain has been receiving more attention in the Russian Federation market as more and more Russian Federation visitors come to practice Qigong there. most Russians Federation visitors are affluent. They try to improve their health condition by taking a Qigong holiday. Normally, to practice Qigong, people need to stay for about 2 weeks. Many visitors who benefit from their stay in Qigong tend to become repeat visitors particularly returning when their health fails and they feel uncomfortable. To meet the increasing demands, there are charted flights from Moscow to Hefei, capital of Anhui province, with an annual capacity of 5,000 visitors. A resort financed by a Russian Federation entrepreneur is under construction. Study and |Adventure Tour Climbing steep mountains of religious fame is not merely a sporting activity but also one that challenges people's physical and mental strengths. Through such their culture, rites, architecture, art and music. A number of sacred mountain centres organize lecutes given by eminent monks, thereby opening the doors to domestic and overseas visitors. One of the four major Buddhists Mountains, Putuo Mountain, reserves few temples to those who practice Buddhism only. Normal visitors are not allowed to enter. People stay there to attend daily lessons only. Normal visitors are not allowed to enter, People stay there to attend daily lessons, participating in the same vegetarian diet of the monks, and experiencing Chinese and Buddhism culture in-depth. Pilgrimage Tour Tourists for this type of tour follow the pilgrimage routes to worship at the sacred sites, pray, or redeem a vow to a god.There are fur major mountains in china associated with Buddhism. they are Mount Emei in sichuan province, Mount Wutai in Shanxi province, Mount Putuo in Zhejiang province and Mount Jiuhua in Anhui province. two out of the four are already listed in the UNESCO world heritage catalogue. These temples have close relationships with other temples in the world, particularly in Asia. Many Buddhism followers or monks form South-East Asia and East Asia visit these sites when they are in China,combining a pilgrimage with a cultural tour. there are many pilgrimage groups to such Buddhism sacred mountains. The repeat visitor rate for Buddhism tourism is higher than for normal tourism. the four Major Buddhism Mountains enshrine and worship different Buddhas, Mount Emei for Bodhisattva Samantabbadra, Mount Putuo for Kwan-yin Buddha, Mount Wutai for Bodhistthava Manjusri, and a strong desire to tour all four mountains.This is one key element for the promotion of these sites. In the 1990's, China National Authority ( CNTA) developed a series of tourism products related to Islam, targeting the South-East Asian market. travel agents distributed such products along with their services. the key for such a campaign is to meet the demand of Muslim tourists by providing them with a room to pray, indicating the direction of Mecca in hotel rooms, and providing halal food. the need for such a campaign arose as more people from South-East Asia and the Middle East indicated their wish to visit Muslim routes or Muslim attraction areas when applying for Chinese visas. 8.1.2 Domestic Religious Tourism In the past three decades, china's economy has been rapidly developing. Chinese people are enjoying a better quality of life. the amount of disposable income and the number of public holidays have increased so that more families include traveling in their expenditure planning. china's domestic tourists reached 1.712 billion, and brought RMB 874.93 billion yuan revenue.

In the domestic market, religious tourism experienced a climbing spiral with different phases: Phase I. Sightseeing and pilgrimage, Phase II. Pilgrimage and experience, Phase III. Practice and holiday. In the process,religious tourism has shown change along with the changing demands and maturity of consumer. Sightseeing and Pilgrimage Pilgrimage is one of the first and main priorities of religious tourism. Mount Tai is listed in both UNESCO world natural and cultural heritage lists. Emperors of various Dynasties used to offer sacrifices to the deities of heaven and earth, here, in Mount Tai. The ceremony encompasses a lot of cultural messages including connotations of religion, politics, literature and many other aspects. to reach the summit of the mountain, people have to climb 6293 steps, a challenge to people's faith and strength. There are may stone carvings and historical relics en-route for climbers to enjoy and learn about Mount Tai's culture and history. Religious buildings and arts make up a major part of china's tourism resources. they appeal for their beauty and aesthetic value.For example, the caves of Dunhuang, world heritage site, built in 366AD, are composed of 492 caves, 2415 Buddha statues and 45000 sqm of wall paintings. These art works reflect the history of Chinese Buddhist art and social development of that time. Another world heritage site, the Imperial Mountain Resort and Outlying Temples in cyhengde is a symbol of national unity and unity of different ethnic groups in china. the building itself reflects features of many nomadic tribes and nationalities. In the 1990's, as domestic tourism boomed, more and more tourists visited religion- related attractions by combining sightseeing with religious purposes. Religious tourism led to the protection of religious sites. Many old temples were renovated and repainted. religious art and music also received an impetus. Religious attractions received more tourists than believers. such tourist flows brought new infrastructure development; thereby promoting local businesses by bringing in more accommodation and catering facilities. tourism also brought more job opportunities to people, thus pumping in new vigor to local economies. In an economically developed region, people with more money demand new leisure and cultural activities. New religious attractions are built. In Wuxi, along the Taihu Lake on the Xiaolingshan Hill, there used to be a temple called Sha Xiang Fu Temple, built in 700 AD the original temple was ruined. In 1997, Wuxi started to re-build the Temple at the original venue. the construction included the temple itself and a giant Buddha outside. Now, the Lingshan Giant Buddha is slow as one of the five famous Buddhas protecting five directions. They are lingshan Guiant Buddha, Wuxi, Jiangsu province for East; tian Big Buddha in Hong Kong, China for South; Leshan Guiant Buddha in sichuan Province for West; Big Buddha in Yugang Grottoes in shanxi Province for North; and Big Buddha in Longmen Grottoes in Henan Province for Centre. LIngshan Giant Buddha has been a popular tourist attraction, attracting visitors from China and abroad. Such new attractions promote the religious cultural development and, at the same time, boost the local economy through tourism. Pilgrimage and Experience It has been a tradition for temples in China to provide accommodation to visitors and followers. Most temples make rooms available for visitors. Nowadays, experiential style tourism is becoming popular. More and more tourists visit religious sites for real experience, rather than for simple sightseeing. The fast pace of contemporary society has created a new demand, i.e. more and more urban salary-earners who long for a calm and relaxing holiday in quiet temples in remote mountains. The pagoda and the bell-stroke of the temples convey a certain kind of Buddhist wisdom, remind you of past days and encourage you to challenge new limits. Quiet evenings, ringing bells, relaxing leisurely in the fresh air, appreciating picturesque nature, enjoying Buddhist music, count as a lifetime experience. Many visitors are not satisfied with a simple day tour, but request for overnight or weekend stays. Many temples pro,mote experiential type products for visitors. Emei Mountains establisehd a new Buddhist school to organize activities like Buddhist practice attending lectures, tea-picking, and photo contest, etc. Shaolin Temple for example has created a new live show, Shaolin Zen Buddhist Grand Music Show, to attract more overnight

visitors, and to give those day tourists one more reason to stay longer. Soon after that,, Dengfeng city, the nearest city in proximity to Shaolin temple, experienced difficulties in offering enough hotel rooks for dramatically increased overnight demands. More hotels were constructed. The city is gaining prosperity with more business opportunities in the wake of the increasing number of tourists. In the 21st century, as china's economy and tourism development is making good progress, religious attractions are also prospering. Wudang Mountain is a famous Taoist mountain with over a one-thousand year cultural history. the whole complex is composed of 9 palaces, 8 temples, 36 nunneries, and 72 caves. the attraction is a combination of Taoism, martial art, music, health care, and tea ceremonies. as the site is located in remote mountainous region in Central china, the area is hard to access. In 1994, the Wudang Mountain was listed in the UNESCO world heritage catalogue. However, at that time, the area faced a lot of problems in tourism development, including low accessibility, poor infrastructure and lack of professional and qualified staff. In 2003, Hubeu Provincial Government decided to set up Wudant Special tourism Economic Zone, to develop tourism in the region based on the principles of protection, utilizing scientific planning and strict management. In the past 6 years, vast progress has been made. The first important project was to renovate the historic building by investing over 70 million yuan. At the same time, all cultural relics were recorded in electronic file for better management. 15 million yuan was invested for fire control and security control facilities.The second project related to tourism infrastructure with cumulative investment of over 600 million yuan. the project includes railway station re-construction,Wudang Museum re-construction, a commercial pedestrian street, a visitor information centre, a parking lot, transfer facilities inside the complex, digital entry control and CCTV system,etc. In 2003,Wudang Mountain received 300,000 visitors, earning 57 million yuan revenue. In 2008, the visitor number increased to 1.22 million, and tourist earning jumped to 560 million yuan. The special tourism economic zone of Wudang has proved to be a success in protection and development, under local government initiative and patronage. As tourists became mature and experienced, leisure featured as the major type of domestic tourism. Consequently, religious tourist destinations' visitor structure also saw a change. religious destinations are growing in popularity as they are all located in picturesque environments. Many salary-earners from metropolitan cities like Beijing and Shanghai show an interest to take holidays in temples to experience a totally different life style including sleeping and getting up early, keeping to a vegetarian diet, attending Buddhism lectures, listening to Buddhist music, and relaxing the body and mind. Current business executives are well-educated, with some of them having studied abroad. such successful urban citizens search for high-end mental relaxation. By taking a religious holiday, they are enlightened by knowledge of life and social responsibility.In Putuo Mountain, Zhejiang Province, an area known to be the pl;ace where eminent monks taught Buddhism doctrine there is a forum platform, and an open area with a rock platform, capable of accommodating a few hundred people. It is now a Buddhism lecture classroom and has hosted corporate incentive groups. Buddhism lecture and practices became a selling point of Putuo. In recent years, as life standards and quality increases the urban population is enthusiastic about organic food, and green life.To breathe fresh air and enjoy organic food is a dream of many urban people. Religious destinations are considered a good choice that caters to this trend. Buddhist monks keep to a vegetarian diet, plants their own organic vegetables on the temple land, and stay in a naturally beautiful mountain area with fresh air and clean water. Temple vegetarian food has become a fashion among urban people. In the early days, many followers visited temples but brought along their own food. Now, visitors would rather eat meals prepared for monks. Some people even organize banquets in temples or invite people to temples for dinner. Themed hotels have recently emerged to cater for the tastes of holiday makers. religious theme hotels can be built in religious destinations or holiday resorts. In Shenzhen, there is a religious theme hotel,chanyue Hotel, in the newly built Eastern Overseas Chinese Town. There are only 22 guest rooms in the hotel, but are very high-end with a strong flavor of Buddhism. In the resort, there is a grand multi-media show about Buddhism, martial arts, tea culture and the Silk road. Close to the hotel, there are golf courses, spas, and shopping centres. The Buddhism theme is a unique selling point of the resort.

8.1.3 Outbound Religious Tourism Chinese going on outbound tours increased from 3.74 million in 1993 to 45.84 million in 2008. these post 16 years witnessed a 12-fold growth of the market. It took eight years to reach 10 million, another three years to reach 20 million, and only two years to reach 30 million and 40 million respectively.Since 2000, major destinations for overseas toursim have changed. southEast Asia, which first became Approved Destination status (ADS) for Chinese outbound tourism, has a falling rank. Japan, the Republic of Korea, Vietnam and Russian Federtaion have rising ranks. Intercontinental countires like United States of America, Australia, Germany and United Kingdom are also listed. In 2008, the leading destinations were Japan, Vietnam, korea, Russia, United States of America, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia,Australia, Germany, Indonesia and United Kingdom. Among these 12 destinations, seven were inner-continental whiole five were intercontinental. Outbound tourism is basically divided into several regions surrounding the three major cities: Beijing-tianjin region with Beijing as its port, the Yangtze River Delta with Shanghai as is port and the Pearl river Delta with Guangzhou as its port. More than 50% of organized tourists nationwide come from these three areas. the spending trend of the three major generating areas plays a pioneering role in market. the high-end market of the outbound market overlaps with that of the domestic market. They show similar trends. There are very few products for religious travel only. Religious attractions are mixed with other attractions and packed in the same product. For example, many Chinese tourists to Thailand will visit the pagoda heritage in Woraburi Ayothaya, to worship the only ancient golden Buddha in the golden Buddha Temple. The Msque in Kuala Lumpur, Angkor Wat in Cambodia, todaiji in Nara, Japan, and Kyomizu Temple in Kyoto are popular attractions. India and Nepal are even more appealing and mysterious in the market due to their religious background. Self-package tours in china's outbound market are increasing in popularity. There is an emerging trend to organize a group of people sharing similar interests, via the internet media, to travel together. Many people are fascinated by exotic religious art and culture, represented by destinations like Angkor Wat in Cambodia, and Borobudur in ypgyakarta. Indonesia. Travelers have all kinds of interests with photography- especially in the wake of digital cameras- becoming a fad. some like to photograph pagodas, other like wall-paintings, and still others may wish to take pictures of monks. People share their pictures in different ways, such as organizing a posttrip party to show pictures, or display their works on their blogs. they exchange their works, their ideas, sharing their dreams, and planning for the next trip. The web is a vanguard of fashions. Many outbound travelers seek information and make reservation online. Over 80% of bookings on most popular travel website, www.ctrip.com are for self-package products. Expedia started its business in China also. people can find outbound travel products form its home page, and start booking form the second page. such booker-friendly web design is really welcomed by those into DIY's (do it your self). Religious tourism is an important component in most tourist websites. There is even a web of temples : www.simiao.com. 8.2 china-tourism and Religious Sites In china religious tourism based upon travel motivated by a wish to worship exist as in many other countries, but specific conditions exist that possibly makes it different to that experienced elsewhere. First in an era of ' Socialism and a Chine Face' religious activities as described below are subject to degrees of State intervention not considered normal in most countries.Second, under concepts of ' social Harmony based in a Scientific Tradition' the State recognizes the contribution that religion has made to china's cultural heritage, its continuing influence ( especially within a Confucian tradition that emphasizes reciprocal patterns of authority and social relations), and the identification with religious beliefs among bot minority peoples in china and the Han majority.Third, tourism itself is an improtant component of economic polices sanctioned by the Chinese government to address income gaps between rural and urban areas and as a means to generate economic growth.

As in many countries, China has a long tradition of religious pilgrimage that extends for several hundreds of years, which,in this case, is based upon its Buddhist and Daoist faiths. With the Buddhist faith in China the four holy mountains of Wutai,Emei,Jiuhua and Putuo each possess a history of at least 2,000 years. At wutashan the earliest temples date form approximately 68AD and from 1985 modern tourism to Wutaishan grew with the relaxation of restrictions on entry to the area. In 1992 the first tentative steps in the development of festival tourism in Wutaishan commenced with the establishment of an annual cultural festival in Taihua. In 2002 the cultural festival was enlarged to more specifically include Buddhism with the first Buddhist Festival being held simultaneously with the cultural Festival, and partly as a reslut tourism has grown. In 2004 nearly 1.8 million people visited Wutai and many of these were pilgrims drawn specifically to make requests or pay thanks to Boddhistave Manjusri ( Wenshi shuli) while others sought deeper understanding of the dhamra. By 2008 this figure had increased to 3 million doemstic visitors and 18,000 foreigners, developments that will be further aided by construction of a multi-lane highway that joined in 2010. An additional factor in the development of tourism in china's seeking of World Heritage Site status for places of religious significance. To again use Wutaishan as an example, in June 2009 wutaishan was confirmed by UNESCO as such a site, and given past experiences of such sites located in china there is little doubt that wutaishan will feature strongly in tourism promotion and experience future significant increases in tourist numbers. As consequence, visitors to Wutail will show in terms of the nature of the tourists and experiences being sought. Over time, what has thus far been significantly a place of pilgrimage will become an attraction for the visitor not motivated by faith, but by more general interests in china's culture and heritage. Following the ideas enunciated by MacCannell, the soingnpositng of Wutai as a place of heritage also signs the location as one to be visited, as possessing a 'must see' quality, and thus over time one can expect the simply curious to be drawn to swell the crowds, and possible Wutaishan will increasingly appear on the brochures of the tour operators. For that to happen, significant investments in areas other than just transport accessibility will need to take place as currently accommodation is limited to a small number of hotels. Consequently, in future years, tourists to the area will comprise not only of pilgrims but also tourists with more general interests. This is quite consistent with many other places of pilgrimage around the world and in that sense all places of religious tourism are multiple demand destinations serving the needs of pilgrims, those interested in heritage and the more general types of tourists drawn by a wish to see something different and outside of their normal patterns of experience , and for whom the sight of the pilgrims and their devotions becomes part of the touristic landscape. In that sense all pilgrimage places represent challenges for those responsible for tourism planning and promotion. Of course pilgrimage to an area like Wutaishan precedes these developments by several centuries. for example the Japanese monk, Ennin ( 794-864) took woodcut images of Wutai back to Japan, and during the Qing dynasty Tibetan tourism became influential in the region. Gimelo (1992) reports that by the ninth century Wutai had become a major centre for pilgrimage for much of east Asia. similar stories can be told of many other locations. Wutaishan is, of course, not the only site with centuries of pilgrimage history. the seventeenth century Chinese novel Hsing-shih yin-yuan chaun includes two chapters about a T'ai Shan pilgrimage, the role of tour operators, the intra-group dynamics and trials and tribulations suffered as the pilgrims made their way from Ming-shui, a town in rural Shantung, The work is well known for its grotesque episodes and for the domination exercised by the lead female character, hsueh Su-chieh, over her husband. Not for the only time in the concept of pilgrimage used by an author ( in the case an anonymous author) to use caricature to question and challenge hierarchies ( one has only to think of Geoffrey chaucer's Canterbury tales with its use of bawdy stories and theft that questioned religious organization in his day). Hence, to consider contemporary religious tourism today in china requires a consideration of more than simple evidence of a history of religious faith motivating travel. As already noted, tourism in china is very much part of 'Socialism with a Chinese character', and thus all forms of tourism are associated with economic and social policies that seek higher income levels and employment for rural china-factors that if anything have become even more important after the recession of 2008-10 as it became evident that future Chinese economic well-being could not depend upon exports alone. alone among the major world economies china has comparatively

little dependence upon patterns of domestic consumer demand for economic growth, but at the commencement of the second decade of the 21st century it became increasingly obvious to the planners of the Chinese Communist Party that future growth depends upon growing consumer demand from the rural part of china. In the period after the commencement of Deng's "Open Door" policy of 1978-9, rural china provided a significant economic impetus in at least tow key ways-a) faster food production and b) the migration of labour to the cities. from 2010 onwards, after a decade or more of falling behind the urban centres in income growth, the future well-being and social harmony that is an objective of Hu Jintao's government is again dependent upon the success of economic growth and consumer spending in the rural secotr of the economy. The development of tourism in such areas is one feature of government attempts to reverse the rural to urban patterns of migration and thus, as illustrated by the story of the religious festivities at Wutaishan, Religious tourism has its role to play. Consequently any attempt to understand religious tourism in China requires a consideration of not only the roots of faiths that were ridiculed during the Cultural Revolution as mere superstitions ( and need many areas were deliberately vandalized -even at Qufu, the birthplace of conscious), but of the organization of faith today by the state and the state's role as a patron of religious sites and tourism at those sites. Writing in late 2009 it perhaps also needs to be noted that data sets are incomplete research into issues of faith and pilgrimage and its links with Chinese tourism is more noted by its absence rather than its presence and equally it still remains a topic is more noted by its absence rather than its presence and equally it still remains a topic that is sensitive in certain official quarters as the Chinese State grapples with organizations perceived as wanting independence form the State. This is demonstrated in many different ways- one being the nature of the relationship between Chinese Catholics, the Vatican and the Beijing Government where the choice of bishops and cardinals becomes an issue of 'face' and compromise. therefore, to being any discussion of religious tourism in China requires consideration of the relationships between religious organizations and the Chinese state. 8.2.1 Religion and the Chinese State Religion and the cultural Revolution The opening ceremony of the Beijing Olympic Games in August 2008 contained many important symbols of Chinese culture, including the Confucian statement ' Friends have come from afar, how happy we are.' current Chinese Government policies often refer to a ' Harmonious Society' and these represent an older Confucian tradition as the Chinese Communist Party seeks an ideological legitimization s the ruling party when obviously the older Maoist Tenets of faith are no longer held. AS the modern Chinese state celebrated its 60th Anniversary on 1 October 2009 references to an ideology that in the past helped support a centralized government are increasingly being heard.In deed several traditional festivals are being reinstated, as happened 9in 2008 with the Qing Ming, the honouring of the ancestors and the sweeping of their graves. Just how drastic are these changes can be demonstrated when considering the period of the Cultural Revolution form 1966 to 1976. At that time many older temples of Confucian and Buddhist beliefs among other swear subjected to vandalism and destruction. Under Maoist influences religious beliefs were castigates as being little more than superstitions without a place in modern society. Traditional culture, ideas, customs and faiths were identified as the 'Four Olds' in the early days of the Revolution and the Red guards were sent out under slogans such " Smash the four Olds or Anti-Four Olds. The current situation Religious tourism represents arguably a curious phenomenon in China and open about which there are mixed messages. there is, legally, religious freedom in China and documentation obtained from the Information Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of china notes that china has many religions including not only Buddhism but also Daoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism, to which may be added the beliefs of the different ethnic groups within China that include animism, and Confucianism, which while not a religion in that it does not portray a

specific notion of God, nonetheless continues to exert significant influences upon china as discussed below.Other religion practiced in China include Hinduism, Judaism, Ancestor worship, Bon, Dongbaism and Dragon worship.Article 36 of the Constitution stipulates, 'citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy freedom of religious belief.' Additionally it states ' No State organ, public organzation or individual may compel citizens to believe in, or not to believe in, any religion; nor may they discriminate agianst citizens who believe in, or not to believe in, any religion.' Again,'... the State protects normal religious activities' and 'No one may make use of religion to engage in activities that disrupt public order, impair the health of citizens or interfere with the educational system of the State.' Article 36 also notes that no religion is subject to foreign domination- and at times therefore relationships in particular between The Vatican and the State have been tense, but the main issues tend to lie between the State and the Dalia Lama as the head of Tibetan Buddhism. In addition Falun gong and xiantianism are banned by the Government. Shi Jinagtaw (2009) is of the opinion that even whilst ' The party has tightened its control in the past decade, with an unprecedented media censorship and a massive crackdown on dissent. More people have turned to traditional culture, festivals and even characters have gained momentum in recent years.Confucian temples are back in vogue on college campuses and at primary schools. Several traditional festivals were reinstated last year' However while the Chinese Communist Party has often shown itself to be comfortable with many tenets of Confucianism in recent decades, and indeed President Hu Jintao's adoption of a " Harmonious Society" represents a return of Confucian values; it can be argued that such an adoption is selected as a traditional support for a strong centralised government. xiang Xiaguang at Beijing's Renmin University is of the belief that this means that Confucianism rather than Marxism or Western Liberal Democracy is the meas by which a one-party state will maintain social stability,overcome social and economic differences between rural and urban China, and East and West China, and so guide China's development .It is also the Confucian ' brand' that is used in the Confucius Institutes to propagate links with non-Chinese universities.Given the past centuries of Chinese adherence to Confucian doctrines, the outward signs of Confucian respect for the elderly have merged with what might be termed a popular concern with rituals for key phases of life where respect is paid to the gods and to the ancestors. Pray are offered and rituals honoured although understanding of the sacred writings of the belief systems may be relatively shallow. In some ways Chinese attitudes toward religion resemble actions in the secular west where some will seek to marry in a church, and perhaps be buried in accordance with Christian ritual even if, at other times of their lives, attendance at church is more notable by its absence. There is, perhaps, a sense that key stages in personal life ought to be marked by more than a secular non-religious ritual. For many Chinese therefore travel to sties of religious significance is motivated by a wish to mark stages of their lives, for example to get married, or increasingly to respect the past and in this sense religious tourism is, for the most part, a form of heritage tourism, a reclaiming of past Chinese glories to match the growing confidence felt in China in the post-Beijing Olympic glow of the first part of the twenty-first century. This was again demonstrated in Beijing at the 60th Anniversary of the Chinese Communist State in 2009, albeit in a carefully stage managed manner, but which nonetheless evoked great pride among many Chinese. This search for the past as a search for heritage is evident in many different ways, and not only at the temples and shrines of China's great religions.For example, at Grand View Gardens in Beijing, a site built as a replica Qing Dynasty Palace for the filming of the 17th Century classic novel, the Dream of the Red Manision by Cao Xuenqin, many come motivated not simple to visit the site of what remains a popular novel and television series, but also to possibly better understand the novel which is continually interwoven with Buddhist and Taoist allusions that all is, perhaps, an illusion. Tourism itself has often been associated with illusion int eh sense that many tourist attractions displace events and buildings form their original grounds only to be replicated elsewhere whit varying claims to educated and provide a heritage experience. There are many replicas of the Eiffel Tower, including in Shenzhen,China and the canals of Amsterdam can be found outside of Nagasaki ad medieval jousting can be found in New Zealand. In Quanzhou City in Fuijan Province exists what has been the termed ' the word religious museum' with other sites representing Buddhism, Qinqjing Mosque ( the oldest in china) representing Islam and in addition

the Grass Temple as a unique remnant of Manicheism with other sites representative of Taoist, Hinduism and Brahmanism. Quanzhou was thus certified by the Chinese State Council as one of 24 historical and cultural cities of national importance in July, 2009. Quanzhou is representative of much that is happening in terms of Chinese heritage tourism today. the basis of the tourism development possesses what some may term as 'authenticity'- the Kaiyuan Temple was first constructed in 685 AD and this has a long history. Quingjing Mosque was originally built in 1009 in the Arabic tradition and was subsequently amended with more traditional Chinese structures, sometimes in response to earthquake damage. today these traditions have become part of a wider portfolio of attractions that include seminars, re-enactments and other activities designed to attract the more general tourists who can thus enjoy the theme parks, the museums and visit the temples as well as observe the performance of rituals by the more religious among their number. the addition of events and festivals to the sties of religious importance can be observed in many different locations. The first of the 24 national cities of historical and cultural importance to be listed was Qufu, the birthplace of Confucius. the Kong Family Mansion, the Cemetery of Confucius and the Temple of Confucius are thus significant tourist locations in themselves( and have been recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO since 1994), but today several additional events and reconstructions have been built for the entertainment of the tourists. Examples of this include the daily Confucius Dream ceremony, the re-enactment of opening the city gate of the Ming dynasty twice a week, and various forms of worship eight times a month. Additionally there are two significant special events-an international Confucian cultural festival and an international Confucius study tour festival.The cultural festival has emerged to not only highlight Confucian philosophies but has become a restatement of wider Chinese culture and Chinese identity. Another example of the way in which past religious beliefs is linked to current tourism promotion is provided by the international Tour and Food Festival in Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan Province, and which was started in 2003. In 2008 the Festival formed the basis of an application of UNESCO under its Creative Cities Network initiative that seeks to recognise, among other things, places and initiatives of cultural significance. Part of the proposal made reference to the 6th century Chengdu Food Festival that was held to commemorate the founding of Taoism and thus the festival links with themes of flowers and temples. Indeed the Temple of the Marquis of Wu (Shu) in downtown Chengdu is dedicated to Zhuge Liang and is the site of a famous food street. the festival also draws upon the Ming Dynasty novel, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Consequently drawing on themes of food, religion and literature, this festival, like others , links religious tradition and practice as part of a cultural heritage to be used for the promotion of tourism quite independently of any issues of integrity and strength of current belief in these faiths. Chengdu was among the first cities in China in 2007 to be recongised as China's Best Tourism City. Given the State's tacit support for Confucian values that stress obedience and benevolent rule based on a reciprocal relationship of ruler and ruled ( but which reinforces patterns pf privilege) the questions arise, how do other faiths progress, and what contribution might pilgrimage make to tourism? Numbers of Believers Religious tourism, is partly dependent upon the numbers of adherents to a faith, and generally the Chinese authorities have long adhered to a figure of 00 million followers of different faiths. However, this figure is widely doubted and it is thought that today the figure may be nearer to 300 million. One source is a survey of those over the age of 16 years undertaken by Shanghai University in 2007 that found that about 31% of their sample stated that they considered " themselves religious'- but such a statement does not in itself mean membership of an organised religion. Other sources place belief in Buddhism , Daoism and the different fol religions of China at even higher numbers- perhaps as high as 600 million, while Confucianism, as noted above, underlies many of the values found in China today. Attendance at any Buddhist or Daoist temple will certainly provide evidence of the performance of religious ritual by both local people and domestic tourists, but such observance of religious forms needs to be placed within the context of Chinese belief systems. For many Chinese, beliefs

in good fortune represent a key fundamental attitude in their approach to the different incarnations of Buddha or Dao. Requests are made for good fortune, success in examinations, for pregnancy and for a long and healthy life.Priests may provide interpretations of randomly drawn spills that contain folded messages. The wealthier can ask priests to undertake rituals on their behalf, while those fortunate to gain their requests will come on pilgrimages to give thanks for their good fortune. Buddhist monks will characterise such believes as Xian-Ke, ( literally means guests who offer incense sticks), and will often regard such believers as being little more than scratching the surface of Buddhism, and as having little to do with the each for dharma-the way to internal Buddhahood. Given this approach religious tourism tends to be located toward specific locations that historically have been allocated high regard in traditional Buddhist and Daoist belief such as the four holy mountains of Buddhism ( Wutaishan, Jiuhuashan, Putuoshan and Emeishan) and the five holy mountains of Daoism -but regionally other sites of significance can be found and these will often attract either adherents of a specific deity, hero or heavenly manifestation or more generally believers from a religion perhaps unable to make pilgrimage to the more famous locations due to a lack of time or finance. For the period since 1990, the attitudes of the Chinese State toward religion have been promulgated in a number of different documents.The 1994 speech, President Jiang Zemin reiterated the Government's recognition of freedom of religious belief, but he also added that " We should energetically give guidance to religion so that it will keep in the line with the Socialist society and serve ethnic unity, social stability, and modernization." In the January 2000 statement " Several Policy issues Concerning Current Religion World" past themes of a need to be vigilant agianst outside influences, the pernicious nature of 'cults' a need to be mindful of growing religiosity within the Party itself and the need to manage religious affairs we yet again restated. Today these concerns still remain.There are six requirements for the registration of venues for religious activity: possession of a meeting place; citizens who are religious believers and who regularly take part in religious activity; an organized governing board; a minimum number of followers; a set of operating rules; and a legal source of income. One can summarise the current position as being one of growing tolerance for the 'patriotic', culturally approved Chinese faiths of Daoism, Buddhism and Confucianism with current State funding for the restoration of registered temples and the promotion of festivals and sites as tourist attractions especially if World Heritage Status can be conferred on them. This latter policy is this consisted with economic policies and additionally can be seen as evidence of the policy of religious freedom. However, for those religions such as Islam and Christianity, the policy is more cautious,especially when it is felt that there may be loyalties present, other than with the Chinese State. 8.2.2 Changing Attitudes: Tourism and Sites of Religious Significance Buddhism Within china, Buddhism came to unintentionally lend itself toward tourism in the contemporary age of a number of reasons, one of which was the movement in the 8th century towards Buddhist monasticism that occurred between the years 785 to 806. At that time, two monks, Dao Yi and Wai Hai, decided that for Buddhist monasticism to survive in china and allow more people to become monks and nuns and focus on studying Buddhism, some changes in the traditional Buddhist monastic model inherited form India had to be made. Dependency on alms form the faithful was thought contrary to Chinese patterns of thought, and consequently there was that China today has inherited several hundreds of temples and monasteries of great antiquity that can be used as heritage and tourist sites. Whilst the support of the State for Confucianism has been noted, the State also has sought to support Buddhism, and it has been engaged in the restoration of many tramples and monasteries, and has aided in the construction of many statues of Buddha, including some of the largest in the world. In 2005 the 108 metre high stature of Bodhisattva Guan Yin on the south coast of Hainan in the Nanshan culture Zone was completed. Other major works include the Vairocana Buddha completed in 2002 at Lushan at 128m and the Grand Buddha at Ling Shan completed in 1996.

As noted, there are four holy mountains of Buddhism in China, and each has become a major tourism site. Reference was made above to Wutaishan, and thus little need be added to this. Putuo is a small island off the East coast of only 12.5 square kilometres and is very close to the cities of Ningbo and Shanghai. In Buddhist belief it is the home of Bodhisattva Acaloktesvara who is believed to be the bridge between the Samara ( world of reincarnation and rebirth) and nirvana ( world of the ending of sufferings and place of eternal happiness). Put up received 4.65 million tourists in 2006, 5.26 million tourists in 2007 and approximately 3.3 million tourists in 2008 and offers not only its temples and monasteries but also scenic beauty and a range of restaurants with a specialty being sea food. As in the description of Wutaishan the site is multidimensional in its offerings of culture, heritage, accommodation, scenic landscapes and a boat ride to the island. Observation at the island reveals that hsu yuan ( prayer of request) and Huan yuan ( prayer of gratitude) referred to in Hsing shih yin-yuan chan remains very much in the Chinese minds as incense sticks are purchased and burnt , with the increasingly larger sticks being used to emphasis the 'strength' of the prayer. It should also be noted that entracne to the National Parks or Heritage sites where the temples may be visited is not free, and in addition one needs to pay to enter individual monastires. These entry fees add uo and may cost about 100 to 200 yuan a day. While to the ionteratnal visitor this may represent a very small amount for many Chinese this represents a significant expenditure and may represent several days' salary. In research undertaken at such sites by the author there is often a distinctive skew in visitor profiles toward younger, urban based professionals with university education- a profile that represents the growing Chinese middle class that can afford domestic tourism. Given this, it is possible to speculate that a strong motivation for visitation is not so much a trip inspired by ' deep' levels of devotion, but rather trips to sties to burn incense sticks, or to watch other burn incense, to learn something about China's heritage and culture or simply to view something outside their normal urban daily lives. For many in the West the part of China that is most often associated with Buddhism is Tibet. In March 2009 what can be regarded as the official Chinese perspective on Tibet was published by The information Office of the State council in a white paper titled Fifty Years of Democratic Reform in Tibet, which, while commemorating the events of 956 also in part represented a response to the riots of a year earlier. the document commenced by nothing the existence of a feudal state prior to 1959, and the improverished state of those in serfdom. that document noted that over 700 million yuan has been spent on the restoration of temples, monasteries and key cultural sites within Tibet , including 300 million Yuan for the repair of the Potala Palace, and the Norulingka and Sakya monasteries. It is noted that today over 1,700 religious centres exist in Tibet with more than 46,000 resident monks and abhiskeka(consecration). Since the 1980's more than 40 religious festivals have been resumed and the faith is today growing in numbers of adhernets who are better educated than prior 1959. While the Potala Palace attracts many tourists as an iconic representation of Lhasa, a major centre for the truly devote is the Jokara Monastery,considered as perhaps the holiest place in Tibetan Buddhism. Around 641 AD, a Chinese princess was married to the Tibetan King.She brought with her a giant Buddha Statue and Jokara Monastery is its resting palace. Thousand upon thousands of people make the trek of Lhasa to walk around the monastery and to prostrate themselves in front of it. At Sera Monastery, in the afternoon, the Buddhist monks come to debate and then vie communal prayers. In the Tibetan Buddhist tradition of questing, those who sit on the ground are asked the question, the standing questioner claps his hands to indicate an answer is expected, while further claps may denote what are thoughts to be wrong answers. A heated debate is thus accompanied by intense clapping. The fact that strong religious beliefs exist is evidenced in a number of ways, and such belief motivates travel. For example in late June and early July 2009, for then days, the number of visitors to Beijing's Yunju Temple reached approximately 10,000 per day compared to the normal total of several hundred. the reason for the increase was because of the display of the Buddha sarira ( or sheli in Chinese) that were found in the cremation ashes of Shakyamuni.These are two red crystal like objects the size of a rice grain, and this was the first time they had been placed on public show. the sarira are supposed to encompass the peace, wisdom and living essence of the masters with which they are associated. Of these, these sarira associated with the cremation ash of Buddha sarira found in the cremation ashes of Shakuamuni ( Buddha) are

supposed to be the greatest. One might also note that presence of the sarira are expected to generate future increased visitation and a Chinese Park of Sutra Inscribed Stone Tablets, the biggest of its kind in the world, is currently being built beside the temple with an investment of more than CNY 300 million. Earlier, on May 9th, 2009 nearly 30,000 people were estimated to have attended the ceremonies held at Famen Temple's inauguration of a new stupa built to house its finger remains of Shakyamuni, an event also attended by local dignitaries and popular entertainers such as Jet Li and Faye Wong, who are both lay Buddhist.It is also of note that when reporting the event China Daily also stated: After the inauguration of the Heshi Stupa, ticket prices for Famen Temple have risen from 28 yuan ( US$4) to 120 yuan. Developed by a company under the government of the Quijiang New Area of Xi'an, a 9km Buddhism-themed tourism zone is being built beside the temple, including a sanitarium, eco-agricultural garden, medical centre, amusement park, marital arts club, shopping mall, and a group of hotels and apartment buildings. The report by Mu Qian, dated July 2nd, 2009, went on to comment that, as a key project of the 11th Five-Year Plan ( 2006-2010) of Shaanxi province, the Famen Temple tourism zone is expected to achieve a yearly tourism income of 0.6 billion yuan by 2010, and 1.8 billion yuan by 2016. In addition various Buddhist items in the Famen Temple are open for donations, which range from 4,800 yuan per year for a 'heavenly tree' to a one-0ff 10 million yuan for a 'dharma pole'. While it is difficult to present overall date for the contribution made to toursim by religous sites, there is little doubt that the numbers of tourists to sties associated with Buddhist reliugous signifance continue to grow each year.In 2007 it was reported that, during the Spring Festival, the Shaolin Temple in Central China's Henna Province received at least 20,000 visitors while Yonghegong Lamasery in Beijing was flooded with at least 10,000 visitors on the first day of the Year of Pig. Sales of DVD's books and arts and crafts are higher than at any other time previously. Indeed, in 2007 Shi Yongxin, the 230th head abbot of Shaolin Temple, was presented with a sports dedan car worth 1 million yuan for his contribution to the local tourism industry.Indeed Shi has created a multi-million yuan for his contribution to the local tourism industry based on the Kung Fu associated with the Shaolin monastery. This aspect of Buddhist Faith has become not only the subject of Hong Kong, china and Hollywood films, but in Beijing's Red Dragon Theatre the production ' the Legend of Kungfu' has been performed over 3,100 times at the time of writing, and still continues to attract international and domestic audiences, some of whom may wish to consider the essential religious themes that lay behind the story of a search for dharma. Shaolin is also associated with Zen Buddhism. Hence one of the stories of Shaolin is that of Huike who waited for Bodhidharma, ( the Indian monk who reputedly created Chinese Zen in AD 517 in Shaolin). Denied entrance for months, Huike was finally told by the mast that he would only be permitted entry if there was red snow. cutting his arm and letting his blood fall to the snow, he passed the test, and in due course became the second abbot of the Shaolin Temple. Today shaolin offers marital arts course at a cost of US $2,000 to $ 2,500. From 1974 tp 1982 the total number of visitors to Shaolin was 200,000 per annum. Once the film ' Monks of Shaolin Temple" staring Jet Li was released, visitor numbers soared and in 1984 2.6 million entrance tickets were sold. For much of teh 1990's the annual number of visitors was 1.5 million, but since the early part of the 2000s the numbers have climbed due to the commercial initiatives of Shi Yongxin-albeit it must be noted these activities have attracted some criticism. These activities have permitted the monastery to invest over 50 million yuan in renovation and restoration in 2004: the renovated buildings included Jinnaluo Temple, Liuzhu Temple, a storehouse, and a library. Revenue form the sales of tickets alone at the monastery is estimated as being at least 60 million yuan, of which the monastery receives 1.5 million. shaolin continues to appear to popular culture. For example, in 2006, 40 contestants for the first Chinese 'Miss Tourism International Contest' spent six days at the monastery to study the martial art and " Cultivate a sense of Chinese Zen"these televised events also help to attract yet more visitors. Daoism

Many f the observations about motives and behaviors described in the above section on Buddhism would also apply to sites of significance to Daoists, except that in many ways it can be argued there are a greater number or regional or local sites of religious significance to believers because of the greater of heroes, gods, spiritual beings and other entities that exist within the Daoist faith. Additionally many of the sites parts of China it is not unusual to see temples housing both Daoist and Buddhist figures. One of the oldest Daoist sites attracting tourists ins the Taiqing Palace, which is the oldest and largest Daoist temple on Laoshan Mountain, and which has a history of 2,100 years being initially built during the Western Han Dynasty ( 206 BC-AD24). China Daily comments that it is a site where tourists come to touch the calligraphy representing more than 100 Chinese character known as fu- meaning auspicious- and in ding so pray for happiness and good luck. these features are characteristic of many such sites. Like many such sites Laoshan has not only religious but also literary significance as the seventeenth century writer, Pu Songling, lived in the area and the Laoshan forms a background to many of the stories found in his Liaozhai Zhi Yi ( Strnage Stories from Chinese Studio). this work still carries weight in Chinese culture and in Chinese is still referred as 'Tales of Foxes and Ghosts' and references to the sexuality that forms one part of the Daoist tradition is reinforced within this work, making, for the informed tourist, a visit to Laoshan a visit of multiple levels. As minford ( 2006) notes, Daoist priests lead far less austere lives than their Buddhist counterparts, had far more liberal attitude towards drink and sex and another aspect of the qi ( life force) that exercised their minds lay in both alchemy and the exotic. Modern facets of this that help reinforce a contemporary interest in Daoism can be fond in the Music of the contemporary Chinese Rock/Reggae Band, the Dragon God who infuse their lyrics with Daoists texts, thereby speaking to a younger audience, some of whom then become interested in visiting sites such as Laoshan. As noted, Daoism is one of the official religions of china and thus attracts State aid in the reconstruction of temples and institutions, especially when they can be used for purposes of tourism. One such example is provided by the Ba Xian'an Monatery in Xi'an. this temple, the largest in this part of china, not only has Daoist values, but also is of historical importance in that the Emperor Guangxu took refuge here in 1900 when the Eight Allied Force invaded Beijing. In 1983 the State undertook a rebuilding of the total temple complex in its original architectural style and thus it contains a number of palaces including the Linggong, Baxian, Luzu and other palaces, while every 9th September major Daoist celebrations are hosted.Today it is estimated that there are approximately 1,600 Daoist temples and about 26,000 Daoist priests in China, but it might be safely stated that few Chinese have deep understanding of the registers writings and talismans required for the ordination of Daoist priests. Nonetheless, as an antecedent of Buddhism i Chinese culture it can be said that Daoist attitudes still percolate Chinese culture even if few will have read Daogejing- the text allegedly written by the Old Master Laozi. although Daoism is difficult to define,that has not stopped a growing interest among those who seek ' harmonious meaning' in a way that appeals to the divine within humans without necessary reference to divinely inspired laws. drawing on this growth of interest, different provincial governments are seeking Daoist locations for the propose of using those traditions for the development of tourism. One such place is MT. Qiyun in Anhui Province, where the provincial government has permitted a private investor to build a cable car to the village at the top of the 584m mountain as part of the development of the portfolio of tourism products near Huangshan (The Yellow Mountains). Indeed this development serves as a case study of the way in which, provincial China the different tourist administrations use religious sites as part of the construction of themed tourism resources. the Anhui Provincial Tourism Administration has been undertaking a significant extension of its portfolio of tourism assets to better capitlise upon the presence of the Yellow Mountains in order to attract more tourists, extend the duration of stay of tourists and to disseminate the economic advantages that accrue form tourist spending. current adverting by the Tourist Administration on CCTV ( central Chinese Television), the internet and in print, and in negotiations with tour operators, no longer concentrate alone on the yellow Mountains but on the torri ( arches) of the Bao villages, rural villages and rural architecture as at Nanping village as well as the World Heritage sites of Xidi and Hongcun. New initiatives include the aforementioned cable car to the Daoist Village of Mt Qiyun and the combination of religion, gastronomy and scenic values involved in teh Bagong Mountain tourism Festival where Buddhist ceremonies at Baita Temple become involved in a festival that highlights the region's bean curd

or tofu foods. In short, a religious heritage becomes combined with architecture, history for the international tourist while additionally helping to create a sense of Chinese identity approved by the State. Islam Islam has a long history in China-almost as long as the history of Islam itself. In circa 650 A.D Saad ibn Abi Waqqasra, one of the companions of Prophet Muhammad visited the Chinese Emperor Yung-Wei permitted the establishment of a mosque in Ch'ang- and which still stands today.With such a long history of Islamic involvement in China, significant inter-marriage between the Han and the Hui Islamic people took place and until the Qing Dynasty became establisehd by the Manchu in the seventeenth century. There is little record of any serious discord between the groups. However, this changed under the policies of the Qing relationships were exacerbated further after Mao Zedong's 1948 Revolution with those of Islamic faith.Especially the Uighur people in Xinjiang where they formed the majority of the population, being subjected to severe oppression leading to rebellion in 1953 and continued tension as again manifested in 2009. Even State sources now acknowledge that in the 1950s over 350,000 Muslims were executed and 20,000 mosques closed down. Today, in spite of recent issues, it can be stated that progress has been made. Over 28,000 mosques exist in the People's Republic and major component of religious tourism in china today is participation in the Hajj by Chinese Muslims,which each year number several thousand. It s estimated that today there may be about 20 million number several thousand. It is estimated that today there may be about 20 million Muslims, half of whom are Hui people. Of the remainder, about half form the Turkic groups are found primarily in Kansu and Xinjiang. Another significant concentration of Islamic hui number just less than 2.0 million and are concentrated in Ningsha. traces of the Islamic faith can be found in many major cities-for example it is thought 60,000 live in Xi'an which also posses a mosque-albeit one with strong Chinese influence in its structure. In 2001 the State established the China Islamic Society with a view to ' helping the spread of the Qur'an in China and oppose religious extremism'. The Society has won various concessions for those of the faith including the right to observe Islamic holidays and the restriction of the breeding of pigs in areas of significant Islamic populations. As already noted, a much visited mosque is Qingjing Mosque in Quanzhou which was started in 1009 AD. However, even though the mosque is promoted by local tourism agencies much of it remains in a relatively degraded state although locals Muslims have built an adjoining hall and it remains a place of worship. It might be said to be primarily visited by those of the Islamic faith who do not reside in Quanzhou, both domestic and international tourists, and those with a specific interest in china's heritage, although a scan through the internet can find tours that include it in their itineraries. For many visitors to chine who are interested in visiting aspects of China's Islamic heritage one of the best maintained mosques is that of Niujie in the xuanwu district of Beijing.Built in 996 AD it covers 6,000 m and serves a local Islamic community of about 10,000. In 2005 the mosque was subject to a significant investments and restoration programme costing about 20 million yuan which included a primary school and other buildings as part of the wider mosque complex. It is thought that this was part of the preparation for the Beijing Olympics, but be that it may, real gains for the Islamic community in Beijing occurred. 8.2.3 Conclusions In china religious tourism has many features that separate it form the forms in which it may be manifested in many other counties, especially those of the West. Pilgrims to western places of pilgrimage such as Lourdes and Fatima are primarily motivated by faith and an unbroken tradition of several hundreds of years. In china the period from 1949 to 1979 sought to overthrow the old ' superstitions' and temples and monasteries were subject to attack and vandalism. However, just as in western histories belief in Christianity survives such attacks, so too has a belief in Buddhism and Daoism continued in China. However, as in the West, a growth of secularism funded by new economic prosperity and scientific understanding has arguably generated an attitude wherein

many see these religions belief, subject to the religions not challenging the hegemony of the State by posing threats to 'Social Harmony'. Certainly the Chinese government has invested several million Yuan in restoring temples and aiding the establishment of monasteries and the monastic orders, it arguably its motives are not solely those of encouraging the various beliefs. Rather, just as tourism itself is permitted as a means of economic advancement, and private enterprise is permitted within tourism for the purposes of aiding State economic policies of employment and income generation to address the poverty of the 400 million or so Chinese who remain trapped in low income region, so too religion is harnessed for the same ends and for aiding the continuing legitimacy of the Chinese Communist Party as the ruling party in China. these attempts are also aided by appeals of a Confucian tradition of values that respect authority and reinforce a notion of reciprocal responsibilities whereby the ruler can expect obedience by attending to the needs of the subject. By providing economic advancement the Chinese communist Party expects acquiescence in it forming the government of china. Yet there is a genuine sense of pride and confidence in being Chinese at what many see as the commencement of the Chinese dominated 21st century s evidenced by the Beijing Olympics and the 1st October 2009 60th Anniversary celebrations. But pride also demands a sense of identity, and the Daoist, Buddhist and Confucian Traditions provide a guttural sense of a Chinese history that goes beyond a mere listing of past emperors, and to that end the Chinese State not only condones but promotes its places of religious significance as tourist locations. In doing so however, a complex nuanced story has evolved by which festival activities and the linking of religion with other cultural icons locate the religious within the touristic.In short, religion is signaled and signed as a thing of the past with its contemporary purpose being to entertain and inform the tourist for economic ends. Its religious significance is restricted to hsu yuan- to outward forms and prayer for material advancement or personal happiness-rather than, on the whole, a contemplation of the individual human and wider society and relationships to the eternal. There is, at the heart of contemporary Chinese belief systems a conundrum wherein the Confucian appeal to the communal sense that reinforced past Maoist appeals to the commune is given the form of prayer for individual success in exams, acquisition of material well-being and personal well-being and personal happiness, good fortune and good health. the smoke form the lit incense sticks that represented an intangible link between the individual and divine still remains a visible sign of intangible complexities, wafting on the wind of fortune, but a wind today of tourist spending to deliver the economic benefits required by the Chinese State. some might say that in itself this simple perpetuates the past practices on Chinese Emperors. Religious tourism in Indonesia 9.1 Overview:Religion in Indonesia The historical development of a religion, faith, culture and tradition cannot be separated from the context in which it developed, especially the process of 'enculturation' or integration of elements of the local culture into that tradition. this fact is even truer than most in a country like Indonesia which in many ways is unparalleled in its physical, cultural and religious diversity. In order to fully understand and appreciate contemporary religious tourism in this archipelago that spans onesixth of the equator it is very improtant to first understand the setting or stage ion which it has taken root and is still practiced today. Indonesia officially recognizes five major world religions: Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Catholicism and Christianity and all Indonesian citizens must designate one of these for their national identity document ( KTP). Within this governmental schema, Protestantism and Catholicism are recognized as separate official religions within Christianity.Chinese religious practices, referred to as Tridharma, are grouped within official Buddhism and some local religious traditions as a form of Hinduism. these arrangements are remarkable and unique among the nations of the world. This fact is even more noteworthy when we remember that the overwhelming majority of Indonesia's population (89%) is Muslim. although Hinduism and Buddhism were the first of the world religions to arrive in Indonesia, it is Islam that has some to predominate throughout most of the Indonesian archipelago today. Islam spread in Indonesia from different areas of the Islamic world over a period of many centuries. As a consequence, Islam has put down deep but distinctive roots that are derived from

its various founding traditions. throughout Indonesia, along with recognition of its rich Islamic past, there is a continuing development of the modern nation. Perhaps nowhere in the Islamic world is there, at present, as lively an intellectual dialogue between tradition and modernity. With over 220 million people, Indonesia is the world's fifth most populous nation in the world and the one with the most Muslims. It is impossible to exaggerate Indonesia's diversity.The country stretches for 5,200km (3,200 miles) from west to east- further than from Los Angeles to New York or from London to Baghdad. this tropical archipelago consists of approximately 17,000 islands ranging from tiny coral atolls to vast, mountainous landmasses like java, Sumatra, Borneo and Papua New guinea. Indonesians speak perhaps 500 different languages and officially practice five religions with innumerable subsect and variations. Indonesians a perpetual fascination for anthropologists and students of comparative religion because of the " melting pot" nature of the country. It is somewhat unique in that all the major religions- Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam- have had and continue to have followers living there. sukarno, the first President of Indonesia ( Dates of Presidency: 1945-1965), preached nationalism in the fight for independence from dutch colonialism. It went beyond ethnic identity to embrace " all human beings who, according to geopolitics ordained by God Almighty, live throughout the entire archipelago of Indonesia from the northern tip of Sumatra of Papua." Indonesians have strived to let these differences continue to exist but also to use them to unite the nation in harmony, like the harmonious beauty of a multi-coloured rainbow.The national motto is Bhineka tungga; lka ( unity in Diversity). It is a noble sentiment and arguably one that Indonesia has practiced consistently.Christians Bataks, Hindu Balinese and Muslim Javanese co-exist with relative ease; intermarriage, even across faiths, is common enough to be unremarkable. However, the secret to this harmony is not a genetic or cultural predisposition of the Indonesian archipelago but conscious government policy President Suharto's New Order regime ( 1965-98), for example, was fond of using references to the Ramayana, the Hindu epic, and the tradition of wayang shadow puppetry.This haphazard blend of animist and Muslim rituals is typical of traditional Indonesian Islam.The Muslims of Java are perhaps 20 times the number in Saudi Arabia but scrape away the thin soil of Javanese Islam and you find cultural bedrock of the preceding millennia of Hinduism, Buddhism and animism. While the vast majority are officially registered as Muslims, most practice a tolerant, syncretic creed that neither evangelizes nor excludes. during the New Order period, tourism was used by the Suharot government to promote Indonesian culture to the international community. Pariwisata Pancasila ( Pancasila Tourism) was an attempt to project Indonesia as a stable, pluralistic and tolerant society that had a great cultural diversity. It was based on the Pancasila, the official state philosophy adopted by the revolutionary Indonesia government following Independence. this form of tourism was based on the pre-Islamic culture, artefacts and religious shrines throughout the country and Bali and Yogyakarta in particular became symbols of the cultural heritage. the harmony desired by Indonesia is based on the official government philosophy of Pancasila which was ardently promoted by Suharto and sincerely meant. a philosophy of " live and let live" makes eminent sense in a country with so many latent tensions-between the Chinese minority and the indigenous ( pribumi) majority; between poor and rich. the hope under Suharto was that economic progress and Pancasila would be enough to suppress the latent conflicts within Indonesia. The first sila or principle, is Belief in One Supreme God. The second is just and civilized humanity. the third is the Unity of Indonesia. the fourth is Democracy led by Justice for the Whole of the people of Indonesia. the five principles are displayed on practically every government building with ten rules of supportive behavior inscribed on government notice boards. Even the garuda- the eagle that is on the state's coat of arms- has its instructive role: various features indicate the date of independence; the shield on the eagle's chest has the symbols of the five silas; the motto gripped in the talons is Bhimeka tunggal lka ( Unity in diversity). Set yourself in an Asian context and the message of Pancasila becomes far form superficial. Sila One- Belief in One Supreme God- is a carefully contrived rebuttal to fundamentalist Islamic hopes of setting up an Islamic state. The revolutionary leader and founding president, Sukarno, rejected

a proposed Muslim amendment tagged on " with the obligation of practicing the laws of Islam for the adherents of that religion" because it would officially establish a Muslim state. Instead, the Christians, Buddhists, and Hindus minorities legally have equal status with the Muslim majority although tensions have always existed to a greater or lesser extent. Interestingly, unlike Malaysia-which has even larger non-Islamic minorities within its borders- Indonesia is not officially an Islamic state but a secular one. In terms of religious tourism, this tension- and the attempt to balance the rights of the minority without offending the beliefs of the majority- can be seen in the case of Borobudur. It is now a UNESCO-designated World Heritage site and is a 9th century Buddhist temple located in Central Java. Borobudur is officially designated by the government as a cultural heritage, the collective property of the nation, and is administered under the Department of Culture, in the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. However, Buddhists see it as a religious site and on Waisak, the annual official Buddhist holiday recognized y the government calenders, many thousands of pilgrims assemble there. In addition, to give it official sanction, the President or Vice-President always travels to Borobudur to witness and join in the Waisak celebrations by Indonesian and foreign Buddhist pilgrims. this is a typical Indonesian compromise between trying to balance the rights of the minority without offending the beliefs of the majority. However, it does not do away with tension. this compromise limits the ability of the tourism authorities to promote Borobudur as a religious tourism destination year round to an overseas audience. Nevertheless, it is important to keep the problem in perspective. Some 190 million out of 220 million Indonesians identify themselves as Muslim. However, only a very tiny proportion of these could be said to hold fundamentalist views. Throughout the country, many Christians and Hindus hold senior post in the army, the bureaucracy and business without comment or protest. Major holidays from other religions beside Islam are all official public holidays on the government calendar including Good Friday Chinese New Year, Waisak, and Nyepi ( a Balinese festival). AS noted, the President, while a Muslim, is always seen conspicuously appearing at ceremonies for all major religions. 9.2 Profile of the Five Official Faiths in Indonesia The arrival of the five major faiths in Indonesian archipelago, and their contemporary relationship to religious tourism will be briefly profiled below: Islam ] The beginnings of Islam in Indonesia are obscure due to a shortage of contemporaneous and reliable evidence. It is generally believed that traders and perhaps other travelers form already Islamized regions were visiting Indonesia from early in the Islamic era. There is, however, no acceptable evidence of the establishment of Indonesian Islamic communities on a significant scale before the late 13th century. Early Evidence The evidence is provided by early gravestones from Aceh ( located on the tip of the north Sumatera, on the trade routes form the Malaysian peninsula). The older one mark the death of Sultan Sulaiman bin Abdulllah bin al-Basir in 1211 and thus confirms that an Islamic community had been founded in the early 13th century. Other gravestones document the presence of Islamic societies, or at least the presence of Indonesian Muslims, in the 14th century on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula and n East Java, at the site of the great Hindu Javanese court of the Majapahit Empire. Around 1,400 AD the famous Malay entrepot state of Melaka was founded on the southern Malay Peninsula and within a few decades it had become a Muslim state and, evidently, a promoter of Islamisation elsewhere in the Malay-Indonesian area. Since the Islamisation of Indonesia took place over a long period of time, during which Indonesia was a major crossroads of international trade, it is probable that Muslims form many parts of the Islamic world were present and played a role in the spread of Islam. There is also strong evidence that in some parts of Indonesia, Islam was spread by Muslims from other parts of the

Indonesian Archipelago which had already embraced Islam. Wali: The First Preachers of Islam in Java In Indonesia, the term " Wali" is used as a shortened form of " Wali Allah" ( " friend of God"). Wali, in this sense, refers to the Muslim who first brought the message of Islam to Indonesia and, in particular, to those who introduces Islam of Java. There is now an accepted tradition that there were nine Wali-referred to as the Wali Songo- who were principally responsible for converting Java to Islam. The book that has been most responsible for the contemporary tradition of the nie Wali is Solichin Salam's popular publication Sekitar Wali Songo ( 1960). In this influential volume, which is based on various sources, the nine Wali are identified by their Javanese title and by their personal, usually Arabic, names. The tombs of these Nine Wali are all important sites where contemporary visitors come to pray. there are five tombs in East Java, three in Central Java, and one in the West Java. In Indonesia, the uncompromising principle of Islam-that God is the sole and independent creatorhas resulted in a transformation of older deities, the san hyang, into ancestors who deserve respect and veneration, but not worship. the concept of the Javanese Kings as incarnations of God held by older traditions is explained through traditional ancestral narratives. Older spiritual beliefs were taken over, accommodated into and refined to fit Islamic ideas: that spiritual; beings are God's creatures whose existence is acknowledge vis-a-vis physical beings. The names and attributes of various terrifying and malevolent spirits in older traditions have sometimes been retained, but all are encapsulated as setan or jin kafir ( evil spirits). the benevolent spirits, on the other hand, had been categorized as heavenly spirits ( malaikat) and good spirits, or Jin Islam. In Indonesia, especially Java, the practice of visiting the tombs of Muslim saints (Wali) is widespread and drives much of domestic Islamic religious tourism. the term ziarah ( from the Arabic "visit"), is used to refer to such activities. In Java, sowan ( Javanese for "visit") and nyekar ("laying of flowers' upon a grave) are also used for used visitations and is widely practiced by people of all faiths.Ziarah is an ac of piety (badah) believed to provide baraka ( God's blessings) in this world and on the Day of Judgment. Wali Songo Tombs Visit The nine Wali were intellectuals who were considered highly enlightened for their era.They are famous for not only spreading Islam in Indonesia but also for promoting new ways of living in the fields of health, agriculture,trade, culture, art, and government administration. Today their teaching and legacy have become guidance and learning for Muslims in Indonesia. these nine sages lived in three important areas in Java-surabaya-Gresik-Lamongan in East Java, DemakKudus-Muria in central Java, and Cirebon in West Java. their toms have mosques and all are a destination for religious tourism by Museums of Indonesia and overseas. These venerated sites include: Tomb and Mosque of sunan Kalijaga, tomb and Mosque of Sunan Bonang, tomb and Mosque of Sunan Drajat, tomb and Mosque of SunanKudus, tomb and Mosque of Sunan Giri, tomb and Mosque of sunan Muria, tomb and Mosque of Sunan Gunung Jati.As is common in many forms of religion, the worship conducted by its followers is not only performed at home or in their own environment but can also involve travel or pilgrimages to sacred or holy sites. One of the most famous 3examples of this is the Muslim obligation to try to go on Hajj to Mecca in Saudi Arabia at least once in their lifetime.However, besides the compulsory ( wajib) worship, there are also a number of complimentary ( Sunnah) ones. For example, visiting ( ziarah or pilgrimage) the tombs of ancestors and pray for them. In this context, Indonesian people have developed a culture and tradition of visiting spiritual sites and tombs of honorable Islamic leaders as part of worshiping. this activity has grown so popular that it has spread beyond strictly religious reasons. some people visit to ask for prosperity and similar materialistic things. People hope they can find peace, serenity, and harmony which comfort their souls after the visit. ziarah and Tirakat refer to fasting a mediating and ngalap refers to petitions for prosperity.

Tourism The tourism activities regarding tombs are mostly religious but also involve sightseeing. these are plans by local authorities to increase local prosperity. These include comprehensive visits to the tombs; festival or cultural events; and even learning about Wali songo teachings by becoming students at Wali Songo Islamic boarding schools (pesantren). The Purpose and Practice of Ziarah Besides being a means to acquire baraka, ziarah is also a means of showing reps ct for the dad and a way of maintaining continuity between the living and the dead. In Java, the tombs of holy figures that are visited as keramat ( holy places). There are literally such sites, great and small, which are the object of reverence and visitation thought the country. 9.3 Hinduism Hindu cosmology posits that the world is an ordered place, but it is constantly challenged by a disorganizing force.Hinduism seek to maintain a balance between these opposing forces. In the Indonesian, and more particularly Balinese context, ( where the overwhelming majority of Indonesia's Hindus live) order is personified by the gods and disorder by demons. Basic doctrine consists of five beliefs, the Panca cradha: Brahman, the belief on god and His various manifestations; Atman, the belief in the permanent soul; Karma Phala, the belief in reincarnation; and Moksa, the belief in ultimate happiness, which is the total unity or "oneness" with God.A Hindu believers that every person,animal and thing is an integral part of the ordered universe and has an established relationship with every other part. It is a person's religious duty( dharma) to behave, or act, according to his allotted place in order to maintain harmony. Hence dhrama controls the way people conduct their lives and relationships with others. Inappropriate behavior may lead to chaos, which can manifest itself in the form of disease, famine and volcanic activity, for example. The Way a Hindu behaves will be rewarded or punished according to how closely he follows this life and in the next, for Hinduism also posits the idea of continual cycles of reincarnation. a person will continue to be reborn until the spirit ( atman) reaches a state of moska, when it is freed of all desire. At this point, the spirit fuses with the prime mover of the universe ( brahman) representing both order and disorder. The belief in the soul and reincarnation means that Balinese Hindus must treat their dead well, in order to help the deceased find their way to heaven, and to be reincarnated later at a higher level. this has led to the performance of a ceremony after a person's death, ngaben le ( cremation), an elaborate ceremony which has become an improtant focus for cultural ( not religious) tourism for many visitors to Bali who are not Hindu.since the Balinese see the world as being populated by forces of good and evil, by gods, humans and demons, each with their allotted place in the universe. A large part of Balinese Hindu practice to keeping these forces and being in their place. This is achieved by certain rituals, offerings and sacrifices, coupled with individual practices. Consequently, the practice of Hinduism in Bali varies considerably, providing its adherents with a choice of religious teachings to suit their particular situation. The performance of these sacred duties often takes the form of festivals. It is easy to find elaborate parades of Balinese in special dress carrying offerings along highways and through villages. this is a common almost daily sight in Bali all the year. Consequently, although not scheduled for visitors, they have become a major cultural attraction for tourists who encounter these fascinating spectacles in their travels. In so doing these visitors feel they have witnessed the real Bali. Besakih Temple s one of the nine temples that are part of teh Sad Kahyangan group. Based on archaeological evidance, the temple originated during the stone Age, that is, 3000 BC. It is located along the slope of Mount Agung in the village of Besakih. Besakih Temple is called the "

mother Temple" of Bali becuase it is identified as part of the Balinese cultural development starting form Pre-Hindu age. As the biggest temple in Bali, Besakih Temple has special aspects . First, the temple site is as wide as 12 square Kilometers and has more than 40 temple sites, each with special functions, philosophy, and architectural form. Second, form the Hindu cosmological perspective, Besakih is the palace for the god Ciwa whose statue is placed at the centre of the shirna and thus ius the centre of all religious activities. The most important Hindu ceremonies are held at Besakih Temple. All Hindus in Indonesia especially the Balinese are involved in these ceremonies. the Besakih Temple is maintained by local people and this responsibility is in the hand of Pekraman Besakih villagers.

Religious Activities The main religious activities carried out in Besakih Temple during a full moon are the ceremonies of Bhatara turun Kabeh ( every year), Panca Bali Krama ( every 10 years), and Eka Daca Rudra ( every 100 years), At the Barata Turun Kabeh ceremony, Ida datara comes down to earth ( katedunang) in the ling high pavilion of Besakih Temple.This means that all God's manifestations bless the entire human race according to their function and profession. therefore, all professions and functions of humans can be synergized in the name of God's blessing.This synergy can work out to solve all the problems faced in individual and social life. Besakih temple is a historical site as well as the main destinations for Hindus in their holy journey ( tirayatra). There are also places for discussion and sharing of knowledge. Many visitors come to mediate hoping to achieve spiritual serenity even if they are not practicing Hindus and include New Age spiritual seekers. Tourism Activities Breaking Temple is open for all visitors, not just for the Hindus who are worshiping; consequently, tourists can experience its uniqueness. these tourist activities include enjoying the freshness of Mound Agung with its charming temple, watching its distinctive ceremonies and buying unique souvenirs. As a matter of temple policy, religious visitors are not charged an entry fee for worshiping but non- religious visitors are charged a modest fee that goes to help maintain the temple and its surroundings. Many Names- One Religion The syncretism and variation among the Balinese have made the naming of their religion a matter of debate, particularly when the Balinese were trying to get Hinduism formally recognized by the government. It is known by several names, including Agama Hindu Bali,, because this type of Hinduism is uniquely Balinese; Agama Tirta, because tirta, or holy water is a crucial element at al rituals; Agama Bali, as most of the teachings are, in fact, of Balinese rather than hindu Vedic origin; and Agama siva-Buddha, because the dominant sects of the amalgam are devoted to Siva and Buddha. currently, the formal name is Agama hindu or Hindu Dharma. Most Balinese do not discuss theology and philosophy, but follow the instructions of their local priests. More literate individuals will have some knowledge of the local gods and their genealogical relationships with each other. It is interesting to note that all the higher-level local gods are of Javanese origin. the popular belief is that when Bali was empty and unstable, the peak of Mount sumeru ( itself a peak of Mount Mahameru) was transferred to Bali to become Mount Agung. To guard the island, the God in Java ( sang Hyang Pacupati) sent his seven sons and daughters to reside in Bali. these batara became the progenitors of the lower local deities. The spread of religious teaching to most Balinese was achieved mainly through mask dance, puppetry and theatrical performances. Other sources of this religious teaching are the Veda as well as the Javanese versions of the epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, babad ( traditional

chronicles) and tutur or satura ( oral history). All Balinese performing arts are important cultural attractions for visitors to Bali. The adapted, non- religious versions of performances have long been a staple of Balinese art and culture offered to domestic an international tourists. 9.4 Buddhism Origins and Historical Basis The origins of Buddhism, like Hinduism, lie in the Vedic religious thought of India. Buddhism and Hinduism thus share many common aspects, including the idea of reincarnation or transmigration of the soul. However, some of these ideas are interpreted differently by the two religions. For example, Buddhism does not accept the idea of ( soul) as in Hinduism. Instead, Buddhism postulates the idea of anatta ( non-soul or non-self), so the idea of transmigration of the soul is modified, but the principle with the law of karma which gives Buddhism its moral code. these explain the problem of evil and suffering in the world. the major issues addressed by the Buddha. Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism Over the centuries, there have developed two major schools of thought in Buddhism: Theravada and Mahayana. The Buddhism that dominated the Sriwijaya and Majapahit period in Indonesia was mainly of the Mahayana stream, which became very mixed with Hinduism towards the end of the majapahit period.The Indonesian motto Bhinneka tunggal Ika originated from this time. This quote from the sutasoma indicates that the two new religions lived harmoniously side by side. Historical Foundations of Buddhism in Indonesia The earlier inscriptions from maritime South-East Asia indicate the presence of Buddhist merchants from the 5th century. Buddhists in Java and Sumatra were in contact with Buddhist centres in India until the 12th century, and a network of Buddhist monasteries encouraged the movement of monks. Buddhist teachers from India and china visited Sriwijaya in south Sumatra and Java. conversely, rulers of Sriwijaya sponsored monastic communities in India. Visiting Scholars Sriwijaya ( 7th-14th centuries) in south Sumatra ws one of the earliest Buddhist kingdoms in South-East Asia. Lying on the sea route between china and India, it was visited by buddhist monks on their way to and from India. In 671, the Chinese monk L- ching travelled to India via Sriwijaya. He recorded that in the foritfied city of Sriwijaya there are more than a thousand Buddhist priests whose minds are focused on study and good works. They examined and studied all possible subjects exactly as in India; their rules and ceremonies were identical with those of India. If a Chinese priest wished to go west to understand and read the original scriptures there, he was advised to spend a year or two in Sriwijaya and practice the proper rules there. He might then go on to India.After ten years in India,l-Ching spent another ten years in Sriwijaya translating Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Chinese and writing his memoirs. The great 11th century renewed of Tibetan Buddhism, Atisa,, studied Tantric Buddhism in Sriwijaya for 12 years. Borobudur Temple Borobudur, is the Buddhist temple built in the 9th century by Mahayana Buddhist during the Syailendra Reign. This temple is located in Borobudur village, Magelang, Central Java. It is approximately 100 km to the South-West of Semarang and 40 km to the North-West of Yogyakarta. Borobudur was rediscovered in 1814 on a hill which was full of gravestones by the famous Samford Raffles, then the Deputy Governor of the Eas Indies during the brief period of British rule in Indonesia. The massive restoration project on Borobudur was first started from 1905 to 1910 under the supervision of Dr.TB van Erp during the Dutch colonial era.

However, the major restoration that brought Borobudur to its current status was organized by the Indonesian Government as a major national heritage project. with support by UNESCO, this final restoration to rebuild Borobudur was carried out by Indonesian and foreign archaeologist from 1973 to 1983. The vast majority of the local people living around Borobudur temple are no longer Buddhist but rather Muslims. therefore, in 1992, to protect and preserve this temple, the government establisehd the Borobudur area as a cultural heritage site and appointed a state company to be responsible for the preservation and operations of this site. During its development, the government set up zone divisions for the Borobudur site in which the main zone 1 includes the temple altar and is a conservation zone. Zone 2 covers an area suitable for tourism and Zone 3 functions as supporting or sustaining zone. The lavishness of Borobudur in terms of its architecture is obvious in almost every corner with its great details, deep philosophical meaning reflecting a masterpiece, as well as its stone structure made form thousands of temple blocks held together without mortar. The Mountain Mandala Architectural and sculptural remains at Borobudur provide evidence of Buddhist devotion in ancient Indonesia. this great stupa forms a giant mandala enabling the visitor to focus their minds. the friezes decorating the terraces lead the pilgrim from worldly attachments, through the life of the Buddha, to follow Prince Sudhana's quest for knowledge, finally emerging into open circular terraces of formlessness. Although Borobudur is an architectural mandala it is also a divine mountain, and a statement of temporal power, its royal patrons being the Saiendra, the " Lords of the Mountain". Complementary traditions In the early Indonesian kingdoms, Buddhism and Hinduism were practiced alongside each other. They shared the Sankrist language, had a common view of the world, and of the nature of spiritual power and religious life. There is no evidence of conflict. Reliefs on borobudur depict Brahmans worshiping a Buddhist stupa, and Prince Sudhana seeking instruction from Lord Siva. Buddhsit and Sivaite communities alike lived on lands endowed by royal charter, some associated with the shrines of royal ancestors. In the east Javanese court of Majapahit ( 14th century), the religious superintendents of the Buddhists and of the Sivaites had equal statues as seniero ministers. Religious activities Borobudur temple functions as a main component in the Buddhist Waisak ceremony which is celebrated during the full moon in May. Waisak is remembered as the moment of birth, death and when Sidharata gautama attained the highest wisdom by becoming Buddha shakyamuni. All the three events are called trisuci Waisak ( three holy elements of Waisak). this ceremony in modern times is focuses on three Buddhist temples by walking form Mendut temple to Pawon temple and finishing at the Borobudur temple. Many people come from all over the world to contemplate and meditate here. As well as the temple itself, there are two vihara (i.e Mendut and Graha Padmasambhava Vihara) around this temple functioning as worship sites and centres of learning for Buddhists. Tourism activities The Borobudur temple complex provides a number of tourist attractions, such as Borobudur temple and the tourism area, Dagi Hill, Mendut Temple, Mendut Vihara, Pawon temple, Elo river, Progo river, and village tourism featuring agro tourism ( such as Bumisegoro Village, tuk Songo Village, and Majaksingi Village). A number of tourism activities have been specially designed to attract more visitors and cost more than the general entry fee.The most popular of these special packages is the sunrise tour of

Borobudur temple which takes place before the park officially opens. In 2008, the numbers of tourist visits to Borobudur consisted of 1.9 million domestic tourists and 107,000 international visitors. 9.5 Catholic Pilgrimages and Religious Tourism in Indonesia Historically, the Catholic church has long had a tradition of fostering pilgrimages to its many shrines around the world including the most famous Marian shrines at Lourdes in southern France and Fatima i Portugal. In keeping with this trend, Catholics in Indonesia have spontaneously developed their own shrines including the very popular one at Sendangsono, a small village outside the central Javanese city of Mutilan. It is officially under the St. Maria Lourdes parish in Promasan, Central Java. This site is heavily visited by pilgirms from all over Indonesia especially during the mnths of May and October when devotions are popular as well as at Christmas and Easter. throughout the year the shrine receives a daily average of about 200 people but this number increases dramatically to 1,000 or more at times of major feasts. In 2008, the local government tourism agency estimates the annual total of visitors to be more than 212,000 people band set a target of 265,000 for 2009. Unlike major UNESCO-recognized World Heritage sites such as Borobudur ( Buddhist) or Pramban ( Hindu), which receive many cultural ( non-religious) tourists, Sendagsono receives few ordinary leisure tourists and virtually all visitors have to be considered as religious tourists. However, the large number of annual visitors resulting in significant revenue and employment creation has prompted the local ( Muslim majority) government to encourage local residents and private entrepreneurs to promote the site as a tourist destination by sponsoring non-religious tourist attractions such as sports artistic and educational vents and activities. The majority of the Pilgrims come to play quietly whether individually or with a group at the Sendangsono shrine. It is also a place where pilgrims obtain special holy water from its springs with the belief that this water has curative powers. Other come to enjoy its beautiful and unique architectural design. It was originally a place of rest for travelers between Borobudur ( in Magelang) and Boro ( in the Kulon Progo district of Yogyakarta province). The main attraction of the place is the spring which supplies water ( sendang) between the trees ( sono). Hence the name of the place: Sendangsoni. In addition to Catholics, the place is also popular with Buddhist monks (bhikku) because of its coolness and pleasant atmosphere. there is a local legend that the place was also a dwelling for the goddess Dewi Lantamsari and her only son Den Bagus Samidja. Hence the site has roots in Hinduism, Buddhism as well as Catholicism and once again reveals Indonesia's syncretic religious roots and belief systems. Adherents of all three religions come to pray here. The history of Sendangsono is that on 14 December 1904 a Dutch Catholic missionary, Father van Lith,S.J. baptized 171 local residents using the water from the spring at Sendangsono. Among the group was Barnabas Soekariyo who was the first lay teacher ( catechist) of the Catholic religion. He was very instrumental in introducing aspects of the Javanese culture in the Catholicism practiced in this area.For example, Javanese music was incorporated in many Catholic religions practices including Eucharists celebration or Mass. Many feel that he was the person most responsible for the conversion of these local residents. On 8 December, 1929 Sendangsono was officially proclaimed a Catholic pilgrimage site and the statue of the Blessed Virgin located there was a gift from the Queen of Spain. In 1945 some Indonesian Catholic youths were able to visit Lourdes and brought back a foundation stone which was placed at the food of the statue. Since this stone was considered to be a relic from Lourdes, the official name of the place became Gua Maria Lourdes Sendang Sono ( The Grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes at Sendangsono). the site has slowly but surely been built up in stages since 1947 using contributions of the faithful who visit the site. Father Y.B Mangunwijaya, a Catholic priest who was also an artist and architect, gave the place an architect's touch with a distinctly Javanese naunce using raw materials form the surrounding area. In 1991 the building complex at Sendangsono received an award from tha Association of Indonesian Architects under the category of " buildings for special purposes". On 17 October

2004 the local Catholic archbishop Monsignor Ignatius Suharyo, Pr. led the celebration for the 100th year anniversary of this shrine. Sendangsono is located several kilometers from the main road and part of the journey us along narrow and winding roads that only permit the use of cars rather than min-vans or buses. Along the way there are vendors who sell religious goods including candles, rosaries and bottles for holy water. Although originally only about 300m, the complex itself is now three square kilometers. The facilities include the Tritunggal chapel; church of Mary; places to obtain holy water; an outdoor prayer area with candles and incense; and a place to accommodation pilgrims who wish to stay overnight. It also includes a set of the 14 stations of the Cross based of the passion of Jesus Christ which is a very popular Catholic devotion in Indonesia. These stations were originally in the Catholic church on the site and the length covered in doing this religious exercise is about one kilometre. the Catholic church also serves as a monument because it contains reliefs depicting the baptism of the first Catholics in Java. Sendangsono is a living example of the inculcation that has taken place within the Catholic church throughout the entire world. Its history and development is closely related to the development of Catholicism in the Central Java and Yogyakarta area of Indonesia. This fact is also seen in the recent re dedication of the Hati Kudus Tuhan ( sacred Heart) Catholic church in Ganjuran which was destroyed during the May 2006 earthquake. Established in 1924 as the first Catholic church in the region, the newly rebuilt house of worship blends Catholic motifs and traditional Javanese architecture heavily influenced by both Hindu and Islamic traditions. the Javanese traditions stands out in the church's ornamental design. The main building was built in the Joglo Javanese traditional hall style, with no walls and every inch of it is covered with meaningful Javanese carvints. At the re dedication ceremony the current Sultan and Governor of Yogyakarta, Sri sultan Hamengkubuwono X, praised it as an improtant piece of social capital that will also play an important role in the cultural development of the surroundings. The Sultan also expressed hope that in the future the church would play a role in the uniting of interfaith communities. As well, there are other Marian shrines in Java including Goa Maria in Kuningan ( west Java), Goa Maria Jatiningsih and Goa Pohsarang ( East Java). Goa means " cave" or " grotto" and is the place in Javanese tradition for meditation and important decision making. Besides praying, there are many pilgrims who take the opportunity for sightseeing and enjoying nature tourism. Pohsarang is a sacred place for Catholics with 14 hectares of statuary, chapels, a grotto of Our Lady, graveyards, a cave, water gyshing from a rock, a columbarium and a mausoleum- the only one in East Java. The pilgrims come from many parts of the archipelago an are mainly ascetics seeking a spiritual experience. "New Age" spiritual Tourism In the mid- 1960's, with the emergence of the boomer generation and counter-culture, there was the rise of the "hippie" trail to Asia which consisted of a steady stream of people form North America and Europe traveling to Asia seeking wisdom form ancient Asian religions and cultures. These travelers, mostly in the younger demographic at first but in recent decades reaching all generations, were in essence on a different type of spiritual pilgrimage than those prescribed in mainstream religions. India with its rich variety of religions and beliefs was, and remains, the most important destination for these types of " New Age" spiritual travelers. These" New Age" travelers are usually not converts to any one religion; rather they see beliefs as a sort of spiritual banquet table whee they can pick and choose a tailor made mix of what suits them. Hence, many practice a mish-mash of yoga, meditation, astrology, numerology, crystals, belief in alien visitation, and so forth.If there is any mainstream religion they draw from, it is usually Buddhism especially the precepts of vegetarianism, Yoga and meditation Indonesia- and especially Bali- has also benefited from these spiritual seekers or religious tourists who do not fit easily not fit easily into any one category. Bali is a legendary,e exotic tropical island, with Hindu cosmology and deep cultural roots in animism. thus it is not surprisingly a highly attractive destination for " New Age" travelers/' In recent years, along with the usual individual travelers and small groups coming to Bali for its spiritual resources, a number of well known " New Age" teachers who live elsewhere ( often California) have come to Bali to do

workshops and seminars which can last up to a week or more. these have attracted people from all over the world to come to Bali to join the workshop or retreat. As or visitors it has a double benefit. they can enjoy the world-renowned charm of Bali while at the same time seeking new spiritual paths. Statistics are not kept for this particular category as they usually blend in with other visitors and simply receive the usual 30 day visitor visas that every leisure visitor can obtain on arrival for US$ 25 fee in 2009. Structure of religions Travel Trade Government Authorities Anything to do with religious matters in all five religions and any sect comes officially under the Ministry of Religion. when it comes to religious sites such as Borobudur ( Buddhist), christian shrines ( example: Sendangsono) Islamic shrines ( example: Wali Songo) or Hindu temples in Bali there is a mixture of government authorities in charge of maintenance, access, rules and regulations. these can include any combination of local authorities, provincial authorities, specific religious associations, the Ministry of Religion and/or the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. For example, Borobudur, a 9th century Buddhist temple is officially designated as a cultural and historic heritage site rather than a religious site and therefore comes under the administration of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. The site is managed by a state corporation-PT Taman Borobudur, Prambanan, and Ratu Boko- who are in charge respectively of a Buddhist site ( Borobudur), a Hindu site ( Prambanan), and the ruins of an ancient royal palace ( Ratu Boko). However, every year, the major Buddhist holiday of Waisak is celebrated here with thousands of pilgrims coming to Borobudur to spend 24 hours in prayer and meditation. Currently Indonesia's Ministry of Culture and tourism has not fully staffed National Tourism Offices (NTOs) but rather nine " branded offices" or marketing representations overseas ( VITO- visit Indonesia tourism Offices) to promote tourism to Indonesia. There is as yet no specific marketing effort for religious tourism even under the " special interest" category which includes such diverse segments as golf, diving, trekking, adventure, backpacker, spa etc. Therefore, any marketing effort for pilgrimage/religious tourism is currently entirely in the hands of the private sector, and/or religious associations. In Indonesia, there are a number of specialist religious tourism travel agents who focus on religious tourism, pilgrimages, spiritual retreats and the like. As would be expected, each usually specializes in one religion with the majority and the like. As would be expected, each usually specializes in one religion with the majority being Islamic with a sizable number of agents focusing on christian pilgrimages. With the growth of the internet, there are a number of foreign based travel agents who offer " New Age" style travel to Indonesia, especially Bali, and who have links with general travel agents to handle logistics but who supply the specialist guides or teachers to accompany the New Age groups coming to Indonesia. Safety and Security Factors for religious Tourists On 27 May 2006, an earthquake of 6.2 magnitudes on the Richter scale stuck the south coast of Central Java. the event had caused severe damage around the region and casualties to the nearby city of Yogyakarta, but Borobudur remained intact. In proof of this, on 28 August 2006 the Trail of Civilizations Symposium was held in Borobudur under the auspices of the governor of Central Java and the Indonesian Ministry of Culture and Tourism, also present the representatives from UNESCO and predominantly Buddhist nations of South-East Asia, such as Thailand,Myanmar, Laos Vietnam and Cambodia. Indonesia has also suffered a number of terrorist attacks on tourist in general rather than attacks on religious tourists. for example, the most horrific incident was the Bali bombing of 2002 resulting in more than 200 casualties. from time to time there have been various anti-American or anti-Western bombing on international targets such as hotels or embassies, including the United States of America and Australia for its successful efforts. Today, Muslim extremists have few adherents among the public in Indonesia. Furthermore, Indonesia has the best track record of any country in the world for bringing to trial major

indigenous and foreign terrorist figures and their followers, there fore, religious tourism flourishes in contemporary Indonesia and worshipers of all faiths follow pilgrimages throughout the archipelago with only routine security and safety precautions. Formalities-Visa and Immigration there are no special religious visas for any religion and leisure visitors to Indonesia.Whether seeking sun or spiritual solace all leisure and religious visitors obtain a visa-on-arrival ( VOA) when they arrive at an Indonesian airport or port. The VOA in 2009 cost US$ 10 for a three day stay and US$ 25 for a 30 day stay, the maximum allowable for leisure visitors at present. VOA is widely available to virtually all major countries; while ASEAN country citizens have visa-free entry into Indonesia. 9.6. the role of Government and its Implications Because many sacred sites are the foci of complex political or religious power struggles, the government has a responsibility to determine who may use the site. in what may be used and for what purpose. In some cases, people ask the question: whose site is this?, when the religious tradition for which the site has been constructed no longer exists, its current utilization becomes both contested and politicized . Many religious sites and buildings do not fall within the publicsector but may in fact be worthy of government funding because of their value to the tourism industry. Physical/Tangible Aspects Sacred site4 should be maintained, conserved and repaired. This is a specialized business, usually requiring specific materials and specialists to carry out the work e.g. stained-glass windows. Spiritual/Intangible Values The core product of a sacred site is an intangible and subjective one including atmosphere and spiritual experience which is captured in the : spirit of the place". The task of sacred sites is to manage the mysterious because the more use a place receives the less it is regarded as sacred. For example, ignoring dress codes is universally taken as insulting and can be sometimes cause embarrassment to visitors and locals alike, hence, the importance for whatever religious site of maintaining a dress code. Product Planning Like other tourist attractions, sacred sites need strategic planning. Any consideration of managing sacred sites must examine the concept of sacred sites as visitor attractions, look at the nature of their " product", the ways in which and product is " sold" to visitors ( whether or not any money is actually involved), the nature of the visitor experience and the links between sacred sites and associated service providers, including accommodations, merchandising and catering. Planning includes the following steps: identifying strengths and weaknesses; identifying strengths and weaknesses; identifying threats and opportunities and allocating resources more effectively. " Pay Parameter" " Pay parameter" is that portion of the site that can only be accessed after payment of a fee. It is argued on moral, religious or ethical grounds that sacred sites should not exhibit socially divisive means for limiting their visits. However, in reality access to sacred sites is near equal. Any site is accessed selectively either by self selection or by employment of some other criteria such as finical ones.

Managing the Attraction through a Zoning System and Facility Development Sacred sites ha certain optimum visitation level or carrying capacity. visitor flows are easier to control if the site has a firm parameter. Efficient means of contorting visitor flows requires a great deal of careful planning and the development of cooperative partnerships between sacred site managers and those involved with the management of external visitor facilities Zoning systems that clearly designate which areas are for purely conservation or religious purposes, and which may be used for tourism or commercial use is a globally recognized method of dealing with this challenge. It has been employed to good effect in major sites in Indonesia such as Borobudur and Prambanan. Marketing Sacred Sites the effectiveness of marketing of a sacred site is related to three principle factors: the nature of the religious tradition that is represents; the type of site ( its shape, structure and characteristics) and the political structure of the actual site management. Authenticity Authenticity is a quality which is greatly sought after int eh experience of visiting a sacred site. Market Segmentation It is difficult to define the market for the product of a sacred site. However,this market will always consist of different, and sometimes conflicting, segments. Those who are there to worship,pray, meditate or otherwise reflect on the sacredness of the site. the other major segments are those who are visiting primarily as tourists. responsible Marketing and Promotion It is argued on moral, religious or ethical grounds that sacred sites should not exhibit socially divisive means for limiting their visits. However, in reality access to sacred sites is never equal. Access to tourism destinations has always depended on an individual's motivation, financial state, gender, religious persuasion and state of health 9.7 community Interaction Control over sacred sites may be politicized at a local and national level with consequent sociodemographic implications. Hence the local faith community should be involved in decisions related to the development of the sacred sited rather than the tourism industry and government alone. The definition of a sacred site needs to encompass four factors: How is the site recognized? who owns it? who has rights of access? What does the site means to different individuals and communities? 9.8 Conclusions Sacred sites are not only powerful cultural symbols but they need to present the visitor with an evocative experience by creating a visitor environment within which the original spirit of the place is retained while still creating adequate facilities and providing sufficient information. The central challenge of today's sacred sites is therefore not the conflict between tourism and pilgrimage, between religious and secular usage but managing sacred sites. Both recreation and religion are concerned with personal well being, self realizaiton and the quality of life. The post modern world has produced multiple and often contradictory expressions by the individual seeking a realization of self-hood in new ways.

10 Faith and Domestic Travel-Pilgrimages in Indonesia Tourism within Asia is increasing rapidly as regional populations expand and become wealthier. the phenomenon has been examined in a number of recent publications, including Cochrane ( 2008), Hitccock, King and Parnwell (2009), Singh (2009) and @Winter, Teo and Chang (2009). Some interesting differences between Asian and Western travel patterns have been noted, for example the influence of family, social and diaspora networks on travel and souvenir purchasing decision ( Ghimire, 2001 Huang, F-Y,, 2008; Arlt, 2008; Carroll, 2009; Thirumaran, 2009) and the popularity of pop-culture and film tourism amongst Asian youths and soap-operas fans ( Ng, 2008; Choe, 2009). Many of these recent studies illustrate how stocks of social and cultural capital are added to through accumulating greater first-hand knowledge of touristic sites nationally or within the wider Asian region. Religious tourism in Asia has also received some attention, especially in South Asia where it is thought to account for 90% of domestic travel in India ( Shinde 2007 in Raj and Morpeth) and 85% of Sri Lankan tourism to Nepal ( Travers, 2004). Singh (2004) has explored the role of pilgrimages as touristic journey in the Indian Himalaya. the tourism industry is well aware of the potential of this niche secotr: for instance Sril Lankan tourism providers target the Indian market to visit sites of significance to Hindus on the ' Ramayana Trail' ( the Hindu, 2008). current research efforts however do not reflect the extent of the quest for spiritual satisfaction through visiting sacred sites as a motivating force in tourism in South-East Asia -although there are reports (e.g. Quinn,2004) which attest to the sharp increase in recent years in certain forms of local pilgrimage. The links between travel and pilgriamges have been recognised for decades, with the evolution of modern tourism roots in medical pilgrimages noted int eh earliest textbooks on tourism, while academic papers exploring the commodification and management of religious sites and the identification of pilgrims as tourist go back at least to the early 1980's. since it is only fairly recently that domestic tourism within Asia has started to receive serious academic attention, however, it is not surprising that some niche sectors remain less well understood. The part will contribute to knowledge of domestic religious tourism by reviewing information on pilgrimages within Indonesia. It will be shown that the deep-rooted custom of pilgrimage in both Islam and Hinduism is a strong contributory factor, given the influence of both religions on the societies of western Indonesia. It will be argued that prayer and supplication at shrines represent the fulfillment of religious obligations and an affirmation of cultural identity in the face of complex modernising influences, but also that for some people, visits to sacred sites merely express a desire for exploration and new experiences. More examples of pilgrimage tourism in Java than other places will be referred to because there are more studies from here than form most of the other islands, because its mix of religious traditions offers a good illustration of the place of pilgrimage in spiritual life, and because with over half of Indonesia's population, travel for religious purposes in inevitable more conspicuous that elsewhere. Visits overseas for religious purposes will not be discussed. other than to note that with the world's biggest Muslim population at over 200 million adherents, Indonesia produces a larger cohort of hajj pilgrims than any other country ( capped at 207,000 in 2008 and 2009). To set the context, some of the main reasons for religious pilgrimages will be summerised and some examples of pilgrimage tourism across Asia will be noted. 'Pilgrimage' is here taken to mean a journey undertaken fro religious motives, with the aim of fulfilling some kind of spiritual goal or vow and usually with the goal of visiting a particular sacred site. In former times most pilgrimages would have lasted for a minimum of several days, but with modern transport systems travelers may not even spend a night away from home. Having said this, longer journeys which involve some kind of hardship are still considered to endow the pilgrim with special merit. the motivating factors for pilgrimages in Indonesia will be discussed, illustrated by examples of where people go, how they travel, and their activities once there. the response of local services providers to the devotees will also be outlined, as in some cases a substantial industry has grown up around to the needs of the pilgrims.

10.1 Pilgrimage and Tourism The significance of moving between places to fulfill religious vows has been explored by a number of authors, for instance Shackley ( 2001), timothy and Olsen (2006) and Raj and Morpeth (2007). The basic premise is that spiritual enrichment, blessings or wealth can be gained by visiting sites rendered sacred by the actions or presence of holy men( or occasionally women, especially in Christianity). These actions may have taken place during the lifetime of the holy person or after death, often in the form of miracles. the spiritual capital attained through visiting and praying at such places may be expressed for the individual concerned in the earthly life or in the hereafter, perhaps through reincarnation in the case of Hindus. In some cases an aspect of hardship or penances is an integral part of the pilgrimage, as with the case of the pada yatra to Kathargama, in south-eastern Sri Langa, when devotees including holy men, musicians and 'ecstatic' traditionally took two months to walk to their destination. some of the pilgrims pierce their flesh with metal hooks and spikes, exemplify the ascetic customs of South Asian religions ( Harrigan, 2008). In similar vein are the ratha yatra pilgrimages carried out by Hindus in the Himalayas, when very heavy wooden 'carriages' are carried or pushed for miles ( Singh,2004) and the tough prayer ritual of Tibetan Buddhists as they prostrate themselves repeatedly on the way to and around Jokhang Monastery in Lhasa. In other cases, and facilitated by modern transport, the mere act of visiting the sites is considered sufficient: thus, the visits of Hindu believers to sites visited by the god Vishnu during his human incarnation as Krishna around Vrindavan in northern India in the braj yatra pilgrimage is carried out by minibus,with transport, accommodation and interpretation arranged by tour operators (Shinde,2008), while Singh (2004) also describes how many pilgrims in the Himalaya no longer accomplish their journey on foot, but by motorised transport or on horse-back. While these pilgrimages allow the fulfillment of religious obligations, others allow people to revitalize their spirituality by removing themselves form the constraints of everyday working life and social exchanges. In many cases there is a spectrum of motivations for people visiting the site, ranging from deep spirituality to curiosity. As with other forms of travel, the internal motivations, or ' push' factors, have to be complemented by external or facilitating ' pull' factors. these now briefly be explored in the context of Indonesia. 10.2 'Push' and Facilitating Factors for Religious Travel in Indonesia There is a long tradition of travel for religious purposes within Islam, with the ziarah (travel to sites of sacred or historical importance) and rihla ( a journey undertaken in search of divine knowledge) particularly influential for domestic travel. In his study of a Muslim sacred site in West Java, christomy (2006) found that domestic pilgrimages were increasingly undertaken as a precursor to the Hajj, and followed some of the same rituals. In Hinduism there is an equally improtant tradition of traveling to sacred sites, this time to places where improtant deities are thought to have spent their time while in this world. Another Hindu Tradition of travel is formalised in the third stage people left home after the birth of the first grandson to renounce earthly pleasures and seek divine knowledge (Santoso 2006). these traditions form part of the internal motivation, or ' push' factors, for people to travel for sacred purposes within Indonesia.In addition, the percentage of the population with the means and time to travel-disposable income, more leisure time and increased longevity- is increasing as incomes rise and social conditions improve. A further 'push' factor is that the Indonesian government encourages people to travel within their own country to spread wealth form metropolitan areas to peripheral ones. This shocks Indonesian tourism has undergone in recent years (inducing terrorism, place crashes and earthquakes) have constrained international arrivals, and domestic tourism has come to play an improtant part in bolstering a struggling private secotr. The government is also aware that travel to different provinces is likely to reinforce a sense of nationhood, considered particularly improtant in this huge, archipelagic nation of myriad ethnicities . Traveling for religious purposes is one of the themes which can unite the different peoples. The desire to travel is met by the improvement in infrastructures. Since the late 1990's the

expansion of low cost airlines has facilitate travel around the archipelago, and tour operators offer reasonably-priced packages to take care of all travel arrangements.Domestic tourism has been little researched in Indonesia, but as an indication for the size and expansion of the market Erb (2009) cites government figures which gave domestic travelers at 110 million in 2003 compared to just 4.5 million international visitors, while Cochrane (2006) noted that domestic tourism hotel nights increased by 66% over the period 1999-2003 to over 36 million. Indonesia is not alone in this: in their edited volume on the growth of Asian tourism, Winter, Teo and Chang ( 2009:9) pointed out how " new markets for both domestic and itra-regional travel are being created all the time", and several studies attest to how travelers are adding to their social capital by traveling within and outside their own country ( e.e Huang, r, 2008; Arlt, 2008; Lim, 2009; Yeh, 2009). The motivation for travel often does not rest on a single stimulant: people travel fro a range of reasons and may undertake different types of activity during a single trip.So, Balinese migrants who have establisehd homes and farms elsewhere in Indonesia may return to their ancestral vuillage and as part of their visit pay homage at the village temple;weekenders from metropolitan areas with the shrine of Pamijahan in West Java for the fresh air as well as for spiritual refreshment ( Christomy, 2006); and Christians from towns in western Flores charter trucks for visits to shrines of the Virgin Mary near the tourist town of Labuan Bajo before heading for the beaches to picnic and relax ( Erb,2009). Although the Flores example and other information illustrate that there is some christian pilgrimage to local shrines, retreats or 'prayer hills'. the principle forms of pilgrimage within Indonesia are carried out by Muslims, Hindus and adherents of the Hindu-derived Javanist belief system to which many Javanese still belong. the religious diversity of Indonesia will be outlined in the next section. 10.3 the Religions Geography of Indonesia The religious history of Indonesia is almost as diverse as the ethnicity of its 240 million strong population. the archipelago lies at the south-eastern fringe of the Indic, Hindu-Buddhist geographical sphere of influence and on an even more ancient human migration route towards Melanesia and Australia. Even before the common Era, Java was linked to global trade routes through Chinese and Indian merchants ( Brown, 2003) and by the 14th century, Arabs, south Asians, and Europeans were directly involved in trading resources form the Indonesian Islands. Contact with the outside world brought new technology, ideas and religions, principally Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam and Christianity. The resulting mosaic of Indonesian religious adherence is so complex that it is almost impossible to be categorical, but broadly speaking the eastern parts of Indonesia ( Papua, the Moloccas, northern and central sulawesi and the eastern Nusatenggara Islands, along with inland parts of Kalimantan) are predominantly christian, Bali is Hindu, and other places ( Sumatra,Java, Sulawesi, coastal areas of Kalimantan and the western Nusatenggara islands) are principally Islamic. The detailed picture is vastly more complicated than this, affected by patterns of evangelisation, migration and isolation: for instance the Batak people of northern Sumatra are mainly christian, there are significant Hindu enclaves and recent conversions to Hinduism in Java, and Muslim communities c0-exist with Christians in central Sulawesi and the Moluccas. the substantial population of people of Chinese descent, who are spread throughout the islands but mainly in urban areas, are mainly Buddhist or Christian. Numerically, Islam is by fare the dominant religion, with 86% of the population officially identified as Muslim ( World Factbook,2009). AS will be seen below, however, even people who have 'Islam' printed on their identity card may only be nominal members of the faith ( until very recently, it was compulsory to show membership of religious faith on the ID card) and in many areas, the beliefs and ceremonies of older religions are practiced alongside the rituals of more modern faiths. Acceptance of the full religious complexity of Indonesia has been muted because both before and after independence in 1945 it has been in the interests of the ruling powers to foster the appearance of unity amongst the population. for decades, people of different faiths co-existed comfortably, respecting each others religious practices and sharing in each other's celebrations.

However, the situation has changed in recent years, particularly since the repressive Suharto 'New Order' regime ended in 1998. Increased freedom of expression has both contributed to and given publicity to the pluralism and polarisation of Indonesian society. One aspeect of this is that the dominance of Islamic politicians, along with the channelling of finances from orthodox Islamic movements in the Middle East to build large new mosques, support faith schools and train Islamic preachers, has meant marked changes in the visual and aural aesthetics of Indonesian towns and villages. this is particularly noticeable in woman's clothing: while in the mid-1990s it was more rare than otehrwise to see women wearing the Islamic headscarf, a decade later the situation had completely reversed. By then, women who had previously gone outside bare-headed now wore a headscarf and long-sleeved robes in public- and even non-muslim women were coming under preasure to wear the veil. Some observers ( e.g Beatty, 1000; Reuter, 2008) note that local traditions are being eroded as a result of the rise ofIslamic fundamentalism. In 2008 the increasing conservatism of policy-makers was thrown intpo relief b strident controversy over the so-called ' anti-pornography' bill as the Hindu Balinese, supported by other non-Islamic groups and liberal Muslims, protested against legislation which, although apparently designed to protect the population form the excesses of Western pornographic magazines and other media, could have outlawed some traditional artforms and classified some ancient monuments as obscene ( Bali Discovery tours, 2008). The Balinese-led opposition to the bill is itself an expression of counter travailing movement to the increased strength of Islam which is again made possible by the liberalisation of politics and speech and the enhanced autonomy of Indonesian provinces since 2000.Picard (2008) and Reuter ( 2008) describe the ajeg Bali or 'standing tall' movement in Bali, which reuter descibes as ' an excellent example of the revitalsaiton of local traditions' and as a movement of 'cultural selfempowerment' ( Reuter, 2008: 5) but which Picard shows to be more complex and subject to debate by Balinese intellectuals- is it in fact a retrograde move which seek to fossilise an idealised and xenophobic form of Balinese culture.Either way, it is a self-conscious attempt to establish a separate identity from the newly orthodox Muslim sectors of Indonesian society. Other examples of this are that even before the Suharto regime ended, the Ngaju Dayak of southern Kalimantan declared themselves en masse to be Hindus in 1995 ( Reuter, 2001), while Beatty ( 1999) noted the revival of a more strident adherence to the traditional Javanist belief system in the early 1990's in East Java and mass conversion to Hinduism. Eastern Java is particularly prone to experiencing a Hindu-Javanist revival because pockets of overt Hinduism persisted here long after the rest of Java was Islamicised; the last Hindu kingdom was only destroyed by the Dutch colonial power in the late 8th century( Beatty, 1999), while the Tenggerese of the Bromo-Semeru massif still adhere to an ancient form of Hinduism ( Hefner,1984). Cochrane (2009) and Reuter (2001) have documented moves by pro-Javanist intellectuals in East Java to revive the practices and beliefs of the Majapahit empire ( a glorious period of East Java's history stretching from the 11th to the 15th centuries), building on ancient texts such as the Panji legends and surviving fol rituals such as the blessing of springs and rites related to ensuring good harvests. the significance of this region for pilgrimages will be noted below. Only a very broad picture can be given here of the diversity of Indonesian religious life,m but it is clear that pep;e are constantly encountering and balancing a range of religious influences in their daily lives. So, in many village, the majority of residents observe the Muslim fast during Ramadhan whil other do not-although they will eat discreetly. A family will carry out timehonoured rituals of offering flowers, rice and other foods for the death but also cal in Islamic holy men to chant verses from the Qu'ran. the anthropologist Andrew Beatty describes the area on the far east of Java where he carried out his field-work thus: " its contemporary cultural make-up reflects his hybrid, contested history: a language containing Old Javanese archaisms and Balinese loan words, a dance-drama spoken Javanese and accompanied by a Balinese orchestra, and a polyphonic religious life with its roots in the Indic period but permeated at every level by Islam" ( Beatty, 1999:9). 10.4 Non-mainstream Religions Whatever people's professed religion in most parts of Indonesia there are strong underlying

beliefs on older forms of spirituality. Everywhere, there are mountain peaks, caves, springs,pools, threes and other natural features with sacred significance. They may be frequented by the spirits of legendary ancestors, some of whom are named. In Bali and Java the beings may be part of the Hindu pantheon of gods, or they may belong to a localised cohort of spirits. two of the best-known are Nyai Roro Kidul, Queen of the South sea, who holds sway over the ocean off the south coast of Central Java, and Djoko Seger who, according to legend,w as torn from his parents' arms while they fled form a volcanic eruption and now lives in the volcanic crater of Mount Bromo, Sometimes the spirits are believed to have been mortal until an act of heroism or a misdemeanur resulted in transition to another state ( Santoso, 2006). The spirits may appear to people or they may not, they may be benevolent or they may take offense and be vengeful, and they may take human or animal form. Beatty (1999) describes a mystical cult in a Javanese village centered on a spirit who generally presents as a were-tiger, and the Ontobogo shrine on the slopes of Mount Arjuna ( East Java) has grown up around a cave and a large boulder where a spirit manifests itself in the form of a naga ( a dragon symbolising the underworld) to people in a receptive state of mind ( 'ontobogo' in fact means 'underworld serpent'). As another parts of the world, these beliefs are as over the millennia of human settlement, people rationalised natural events and landforms. the volcanoes and dance forests with their wild animals were interpreted through stories, personification of natural forces and rituals designed to appease dangerous spirits and encourage benevolent once. some of thee rituals have been incorporated into the practices of more modern religions, especially Hinduism and Islam, as described by Geertz (1960), Henfer (1985), Beatty (1999) and christomy (2008). Other rituals stand aside from mainstream religions,such as the kendurisko ceremonies of the Kerinci people of western Sumatra and the seren taun of the Sundanese of western Java, which celebrate good harvests, and the pasola of sumba, when hundreds of horsemen gather in a ritualised battle designed to ensure a good harvest-in former times, blood had to be spilled to ensure the fertility of the soil. Such ceremonies are classified by the Indonesian government as 'culture' rather than 'religion'. This is significant because by coming under the jurisdiction of the Department of Religion, the practices are not perceived as a threat by proponents of more orthodox faiths and people can comfortably continue to participate in them while simultaneously professing a mainstream religion. the apparent paradox here, of people appeasing or praying to different spirits or gods than those prescribed by Islam,Christianity or even Hinduism with its multiple deities, is unchallenged by the majority of Indonesians, for whom ambiguity and acceptance of parallel states of being pervade their daily lives. Indeed, the moral and spiritual framework of many Indonesians is founded on a worldview which is substantially different from the mechanistic rationalism which has prevailed in the West since the scientific and philosophical advances of the Enlightenment in the 18th and 19th centuries. there is often no clear distinction between intangible beings and those that been seen or scientifically proven to exist, and the inability to touch or see them makes them no less real since they are known to bring bad fortune and therefore have to be propitiated in order to keep the household safe. As indicated above, the more significant of the incorporeal beings are gods, while lesser one are hantu, referring to a broad unearthly spectrum including poltergeists, spirits of the dead, and the guardian spirits of natural features. these beliefs are still common in spite of great political, social and economic changes in Indonesia over the last few decades and people will often take precautions agianst harm by the hantu, or invoke them to support some form of earthly endeavor. In some places the necessary rituals to ensure safety from unpredictable forces are carried out on an individual level, but when more serious or larger-scale intervention is needed a mediator and sometimes a major ceremony will be involved. the intermediaries are shamans who through study world. Thus, the sikeri of Siberut, an island off the west coast of Sumatra, the bissu of South Suilawesi, and the balian ( male) or basir (male ) of Kalimantan will lead rituals to purify a household or community or ensure its continued well-being. sometimes, these ceremonies are designed to restore harmony between the upper-world and the lower world, both populated by different sets of spirits: if something happens to upset the denizens of either of these two worlds so that they get out of balance, it is obvious that matters in the human sphere-sandwiched between the two-will be thrown out of kilter, resulting in illness or bad luck. sometimes failure to

carry out a placatory ritual or hubristic encroachment on the territory of gods or spirits can cause angry retaliation, meaning that propitiatory actions have to be taken. 10.5 Principle Forms of Pilgrimage within Indonesia Some of the ceremonies designed for propitiation or supplication are the focal point of pilgrimages, for example rituals carried to at sacred caves, lakes or craters. Natural features such as these are one of the three man categories of pilgrimage site : the others are the graves of improtant spiritual or political leaders, and shrines and temples- although as with most aspects of Indonesian culture, the categories overlap. Examples of pilgrimages to each types of site will be given below. The nexus of pilgrimage and tourism is particularly well developed at the iconic tourist attraction of Mount Bromo. during the annual Kasodo ceremony here Hindus from the region and elsewhere are witnessed by thousands of sight-seers as they throw offerings into the volcanic crater to quieten the uneasy spirits within. Other popular sites are the crater lake of Mount Kelud, near the border between eastern and central Java, where offerings are cast into the lake in thanks for good harvests, the crater lake of Segara Anak on Mount Rinjani in Lombok, to which hundreds of pilgrims trek during the full moon to make offerings which appease the goddess of the mountain, and a cave in the side of Mount Widodaren, near Mount Bromo, which people visit to pray, meditate and collect holy water. Mountain-tops are particularly significant because in Hindu and Javanist mythology the most powerful gods are thought to reside on the summits. This belief probably arose from attempts to interpret the unpredictable activity of Indonesia's many volcanoes, and accounts for the orientation of Balinese temples towards the high peaks which dominate the island. for the same reason,shrines and caves are considered more holy the further up the mountain slopes they are located. On days in the Javanese calendar when the spirits are thought to be especially receotuve to human entreaty people will make pilgriagmes to such sites, to present offerings such as flowers,cigarettes, rice and small amounts of money and pray for divine help. a very popular day is the evening of jumat legi, which occurs every 35 days when Friday (jumat) coincides with legi of the five-day Javanese calendar. Some people just visit the shrine for an hour or two, but others will stay and meditate overnight. In some cases people stay much longer of days or even weeks. There are numerous examples of this kind of pilgrimage site throughout Java and Bali and, to a lesser extend, on other islands. In most cases people will travel in small groups or with a friend and the shrines are crowned on the most auspicious days, but some individuals will choose to make the journey alone as a test of mental strength and to increase the power of communication with the world. With their strongly collectivist society, it is in fact extremely unusual for Indonesians to make journeys alone into natural areas for any other reason. Beatty (1999) describes a journey he made to the remote, forested peninsula of Alas Purwo, in the remotest part of south-eastern Java. He joined a group of Javanists from the village where he was living as they toured sacred sites within the forest, interpreting its geography according to the presence of possible spirits and carrying out prayer rituals at the most significant spots. He concluded that the experiences he had his companieons had were enlightening not through encounters with the spirits, but with themselves: " To penetrate the sacred places of Alas Purwo was to know one's oprigins. there was no need to look for supernatural realities, no need to 'go outside'. the forest may be haunted by spirits but it was above all, a place where one could leave the world behind an enter the subtle realm of the life within." the second main category of pilgrimage site is the graves of important leaders. The grates of the nine Muslim saints ( the walisongo) who brought Islam to Indonesia are especially popular. Located roughly along the northern coast of Java, they illustrate the spread of Islam through the island from west to east. In each place, the graves are marked by a covered shrine with an ancient mosque nearby, with pilgrims to be found at all hours of the day or night. Simple accommodation hostels and stalls selling souvenirs and food have generally sprung up near the grave-sites to cater to the terrestrial needs of the supplicants and sometimes form an important local source of income. christomy (2006) describes how Pamajihan, where the grave of the Muslim saint Shayky Abdul Muhyi is located, " has become the third most popular pilgrimage

destination in West Java after cirebon and Banten. Pilgrims form Java and Simatra come to this sacred village bringing with them a variety of motivations and devotional intentions. According to the villagers, Shaykh Abdul Muhyi's blessings have transformed Pamijahan from a poor area to the most prosperous rural community district" ( Christomy 2006). The graves of outstanding secular leaders are also popular, for instance the tombs of Javanese nobility and more recent political leaders at Imogiri, in Central Java, and the grave of the first president of independent Indonesia, Sukarno, in his home town of Biltar. sukarbno was-and isrevered by his followers and credited with divine powers, and his grave-site is grand and wellmaintained. visitors tour a room full of photos and artefacts of the great man and visit the gravesite itself, covered in marble and protected by a roof. devotions are made at the grave as at a religious site, with people meditating in prayer and making offerings of flowers. Leaving the site is a much more secular experience, as visitors are channeled through a labyrinth of market stalls selling souvenirs and other artefacts. As at Pamajihan, local people are profiting from their dead ancestor. There are many other cases where the deceased person was much more humble or important locally rather than nationally, as with the grave-sites of village founders or of men who achieved singularity in their lifetime. such places are usually well cared-for and provided with offerings and incense. The third category of pilgrimage site-shrines and temples- overlap with the other two in some aspects. The best-known ones ate from the Hindu-Buddhist era o Indonesian history- although as explained below, there are also modern ones. Some older ones may have been built on the grave-sites of ancient leaders who died so long ago that their life-stories have become mythologized, while others are located so as to facilitate propitiation of violent natural forces. So. for example, the nine major pura luhur 'directional' temples in Bali are sited to guard the island from malevolent spirits. Small shrines are dotted all over the mountains of eastern and central Java, most of them documented: but casual visitors will notice that many of them are well tended, with clipped ornamental bushes around the entrance, incense sticks and other offerings in front of or within the shrine and, in cases here there is a lingam in the form of an upright stone, it may be wrapped in a clean white shroud. More important shrines are often tended by a local man living a simple, hermit-like existence nearby: though their daily devotions, such man often acquire holiness a mystical reputation in their own right. A few of the temples are ancient and globally significant, as with the World Heritage Sites of Borobudur ( Buddhist) and Prambanan (Hidu) in Central Java. while managed by the Department of culture and Tourism rather than the Ministry of Religion, both places attract genuine pilgrims as well as many thousands of more causal tourist; Borobudur in particular sees thousands of visitors for the annual Buddhist celebration of Vesak. Not all the temples are old: in recent decades Hindu temples have been constructed or substantially renovated at the foot of Mount Bromo, on the lower slopes of Mount Semeru ( Java's highest mountain) and in other parts of East Java. These are part-funded by and attract pilgrims form Bali who believe that the form of Hinduism in east Java is an ancient and purer form of their own religion. It is likely that the people visiting the pilgiramge sites across Indonesia do so for reasons as diverse as those noted by researchers into religious tourism in othr poarts of the world. Some go because of guidance in the Qu'ran which encourags visits to the graves of important people to show devotion and gian spiritual strength. Others seek financial or spiritual enrichment or a solution to their problems; for instance christomy (1999) describes visits to holy men and sacred sites with his grandmother in the 1970s to resolve a financial problem. supplicants may request a specific earthly blessing such as a wife or success in business, to see into the future, to pray for the dead, or to increase their moral and spiritual strength and ability to do good-or in some cases, evil ( Geertz,1960; Harsoo, 2008; suntoro, 2009). The first and second presidents of independent Indonesia ( Sukarno and Suharto) used to meditate in mountain caves and in so doing gained the respect of their people by enhancing their inner strength and charisma. Javanist and Muslims alike may make a pilgrimage because of a vow; for Javanist in particular, an expressed intention to do something- especially if the intention of spoke in the surrounds of a holy site- is a promise which absolutely must be fulfilled . The motivation of people observed and interviewed for this research ranged from the profoundly

spiritual to the light-hearted. One informant described a visit to the shrine of Indrokilo, in East Java, on a public holiday: " i think it was the worst time we could choose for the climb. dozens of motorbikes passed us on their way up the mountain, producing noise and air pollution. Groups of people came rushing down and were in an atmosphere of picnicking. We saw only two groups of people who obviously were pilgrims. All the others were on the mountain just for fun. I discussed it with Mas Lambang who was with us, and also asked young people coming down from the mountain. they do so because of the tradition, and to meet with friends, to have fun, nothing more. they stay overnight. there are also pilgrims staying overnight, most of them coming from Surabaya. They feel quite disturbed by the young people, but what to do about it?" (Kieven,2009). Another informant expressed his own 'touristic' motivation for visiting a christian prayer retreat: " i went to a 'prayer hill' at Ungaran, near Semarang with my friend in college, who asked me to accompany him. I wanted to go too, just for relaxing, while he really seriously wanted to spend days praying" (Suntoro,2009). At the other extreme, a young ascetic was observed at the shrine of Bethoro Guru, on the slopes of Mount Arjuna: he had traveled hundreds of miles to sit cross-legged guru, on the slopes of Mount Arjuna: he had traveled hundreds of miles to sit cross-legged in a trance-like meditative state before the small shrine for days on end. Somewhere between these extremes, perhaps, is the motorised pilgrimage carried out by the father of another informant, who in retirement toured northern Java by road to visit the graves of the Walisongo in fulfillment of a religious vow ( Legora,2007). this journey is perhaps the most typical of all. As with the motorised braj yatra in India mentioned above, most people now visit the holy sites by some form of rad transport, or at least get as close as possible to them before completing the journey on foot. At the same time, there are still sometimes people to be seen tramping the roads and mountain paths on foot, carrying only a wooden staff and small pack, as they perform their ziarah in the traditional way. Part of the social compact of visiting holy sites is to contribute to their upkeep. In some cases there is a formal entry fee, perhaps including a 'package' of suitable offerings. In others donations are left to the discretion- and relative wealth- of the visitor. At Mount Kawi, in East Java, a shrine which is particularly popular with ethnic Chinese from Indonesia and overseas and is well- known as a place to ask for instant wealth has accumulated a large number of ling-case ( grandfather) clocks. 10.6 Conclusions As yet, there are no statistics available on the number of people who travel for religious purposes in Indonesia. What is certain is that many Indonesians-Muslims, Hindus,Buddhist pr Javanistsundertake several pilgrimages during their lifetime, making journeys locally or to different provinces. the further the distance traveled from home, the more effective the journey is considered because of the greater effort involved in getting there. As levels of wealth and longevity rise, it can be expected that the number of such journeys will increase. the logical significance and economic impact of pilgrimage tourism should not be overlooked. As shown above, most people make the major part of their journey by motorised transport, and given the huge numbers of visitors involved, the facilities needed are significant. In popular places, especially at weekends and on public holidays, religious tourism is a strong driver of the local economy. The visitors create a market for food ( as offerings as well as for consumption by visitors), for souvenirs, for transport and accommodation. The Tangerine Kasodo is one of a number of religious events which are deliberately promoted to general tourists; up to 20,000 spectators may attend, most of whom are sightseers rather than worshipers. The event generates a bonanza for local householders who rent rooms out to visitors. Another major event is the annual sekaten of Yogyakarta, now held to celebrate the birthday of the Prophet Mohamed but based on the much older Hindu ritual of sraddha, when a rice-mountain symbolising prosperity was offered to the souls of the ancestors. This event is now managed by a professional events organising company. The level of events means that government policy-makers and local tourism service providers must develop a better awarness of teh singificance of religious tourism. Research should be carried out at sacred sites to determine visitor profiles such as distance traveled and length of stay, and their contribution to the local economy. Based on these findings, the needs of domestic

religious tourists should be built into strategic management plans so that this important market segment can be properly catered for. 11 Iran-Shia Pilgrimage and Tourism This part is concerned with Iran which is an Islamic state with a population who are nearly all members of the shia Muslim sect. Its case merits examination as an interesting illustration of the interactions between tourism and religion because travel to locations which are significant within the context of Shia Islam, especially the shrines of former leaders and their ancestors, is well established custom. Most travelers are domestic, but there is some international movement and attempts are underway to develop the inbound pilgrimage market. A broad definition of pilgrimage tourism employed by the authors is that of journeys undertaken to holy places in which the primary motivation is religion. A number of religious sites and experiences may form part of the trip and the concept encompasses day visits where overnight accommodation is not required.Non-Muslim arrivals from overseas who have only a casual engagement with the subject of Shia Islam cannot therefore be described as pilgrimage tourists, although they may be worthy of attention by Iran's tourism industry because of their commercial potential. The opening sections of the chapter deal with conditions in Iran, Its tourism industry and the religious background in order to set the scene. the nation's pilgrimage resources, pilgrims and issues of the management and marketing of pilgrimage tourism are then discussed. reference is mande to ho Shia pilgrimage tourism are then discussed.Reference is made to how Shia pilgrimage attractions and the religion as a whole can exercise a broader appeal before a final conclusion. The focus is on pilgrimage tourism within the country and outbound religious travelers are omitted from the study which is based on the analysis of information in the public domain. 11.1 Introduction to Iran Iran is the second largest country in the middle East with a history dating back over 7,000 years ( Axworthy, 2008) and was known as Persia until 1935. It is positioned at a crossroads between the East and West, having coastlines on both the Caspian Sea and Persian gulf. The total population is estimated to be over 73 million, almost eight million of whom live in the capital of Tehran. the economy is heavily dependent on oil and gas which accounts for about 84% of export revenues and there have been attempts at diversification. Other main industries are mining and manufacturing while agriculture and fisheries are of some importance (EIU,2009). In terms of the UNDP human development index, Iran is ranked 84th out of all 179 countries and 51 st among the 135 developing nations (UNDP,2009). The Iranian revolution in 1979 was a critical event in its modern history (Mackey and Harrop, 1998) and led to the ousting of the monarchy and declaration of an Islamic Republic by Ayatollah Khomenei who introduced a theocracy founded on a version of political Islam. A complex political power structure consists of the supreme religious leader and an elected president, and latter possessing executive powers. the legislature is the National Assembly and latter possessing executive powers. the legislature is the National Assembly and candidates must be approved by the 12 members of the Guardian council, half of whom are appointed by the supreme leader which is charged with ensuring the adherence of the president and parliament to Islamic principles. sub-nationally, there are 30 'Ostans', or provinces which are ruled over by Ostanders ( Governor-Generals). Religion and the state are indivisible in Iran and the judicial system is based on Shariah law. this is derived from the holy book of the Quran and the customs ( Sunna)of Prophet Muhammad, considered the last Prophet of Allah or God or Khouda ( in Persian), as expressed in his sayings and those of his companions ( hadiths). Analogy (qiyas), consensus ( ijma) and individual reasoning ( itjihad) are other instruments in the interpretation of Islamic laws. Elucidation is the task of religious teachers and leaders, the most erudite of which are known as ayatollahs ( Armanios, 2004). religion also pervades society and everyday public life in a manner which is manifested in behavior, dress and personal and social relations. while the citizenry is almost

exclusively Muslim, there is freedom of worship and the ancient Zoroastrian religion has its origins in Iran where there is still a small minority alongside Christianity and Judaism. 11.2 Tourism in Iran Iran is acknowledged to have a diversity of tourist assets related to natural and cultural heritage (ITTO, 2009; O'Gormanet al., 2007) and the country's historical attractions are especially rich ( Alavi and Yasin, 200). Ten cultural sties are on the UNESCO World Heritage list, although one is deemed to be at risk, and a further 59 are tentatively listed ( UNESCO,2009). Besides heritage and cultural appreciation, activities to be enjoyed in Iran are skiing,jungle trekking, water sports,climbing, hiking and desert trekking. climatic conditions can also exercise an appeal and the country is noted for occasionally seeming to experience all four seasons in a single day. The tourism infrastructure compares favorable with other countries in the region ( Zamani- Farahani, 2002) and there were 679 hotels, 297 hotel-apartment and 1,507 inns and budget accommodation properties in 2006 as well as many home stay facilities ( ICHHTO,2006). Despite these tourism resources, the country recorded only 1.4 million overseas visitors in 2008 and receipts of almost IRR8, billion (US$ 899 million), relatively low figures. Progress in international tourism has been hampered by revolution and war between 1980 and 1988 and their aftermaths, Potential barriers include a 'strict social code, shortage of adequate accommodation, bottlenecks in internal transportation and poor marketing' ( EIU,2008) the final point meaning that there is little knowledge worldwide of the country as a tourist destination. the attention it receives form the media in the West is often negative and is likely to have a tarnished destination image, compounding the difficulties of promotion. Its geographical situation in the Middle East, perceived as inherently unstable by many outsiders, is a further deterrent as are restrictive visa arrangements and controls on independent travel. Most tourists originate in Central and south Asia and the Middle East. Saudi Arabia is a major market, making up almost 12% of the total in 2008, and more travelers have recently been arriving from china and Japan. There are comparatively few visitors from the West, but Germany and Spain are principle European countries of origin with 98,000 and 74,000 arrivals respectively in 2008, and their main reasons for travel are business( EIU,2008; Euro monitor,2009). There are substantial numbers of Iranians living overseas who return for pilgrimage and to see friends and relatives. Holidays tourism from outside the region is low in volume and vacationers who do visit are attracted by Iran's history, traditions and scenery and sometimes engage in study tours. The government is supportive of certain types of tourism and recognizes the value of the industry as an economic diversification tool which could reduce reliance on finite oil and gas reserves. Iran's cultural Heritage,Handicraft and Tourism Organization (ICHHTO) has formal responsibility for tourism matters, reporting to the President. Its goals are dissemination of information about the nation, encouragement of tourism and protection of heritage. Advertising materials are produced in more than 15 languages and campaigns focus on priority markets of Middle East Muslim neighbors, yet marketing is being extended to North and South Asia. A 20 year Outlook tourism Plan, devised in cooperation with the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and launched in 2005, combines a 10-year and two five-year plans designed to address barriers to development and help in reaching targets of 20 million tourists by 2025. It is anticipated that the government will invest US$ 5 billion and the private sector will supply US$27 billion to implement the program (Faghri 2007).A fourth , more comprehensive development plan, ran from 2004 until 2009 and its aims included raising awareness of Islamic Iran's Culture, promoting positive images, generating foreign exchange and boosting indigenous businesses. There have been endeavors to stimulate greater private sector activity and public-private ventures as well as investment from abroad, but the last has been met with a cautious response.Data is not readily available about tourists and the tourism industry or the implementation of plans, but it seems that tourism's overall economic contribution remains limited. Nevertheless, domestic tourism is growing and over six million trips were taken in 2008 ( Euro monitor, 2009). the World Travel and Tourism Council claims that the industry will be worth 3% of the GDP in 2009 and the figure for the wider travel and tourism economy at large that year will be about 8% (WTTC,2009).

11.3 The Shia Religion and Iran Most of the world's estimated one and a half billion Muslims are Sunnis, but 10% to 15% belong to the Shia sect which is also called Shiite. the largest communities are found in the following countries and the numbers in brackets denote the Shia share of the total populations: Azerbajian (67%), Iraq (60%-65%), Lebanon (38%), Bahrain(30%), Yermen (30%), Kuwait (25%), Pakistan (20%), United Arabs Emirates (15%), Afghanistan(15%) and Saudi Arabia (10-11%) (Armanios,2004). These states are actual and potential pilgrimage tourism markets for Iran, a subject which is returned to later. the distinction between Sunni and Shia Muslims derives from differences in beliefs about who should have succeeded Prophet Muhammad on his death in 633.Shias are supporters of Imam Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, and the 11 Imams who descended from him. Imam is a word which can describe a guide , but indicates leadership abilities and kinship to Prophet Muhammad in this case. The last Imam is said to have disappeared in 939, but is expected to reappear as the Mahdi who will fully restore Islam; hence the naming of the Twelver Shiism sbsect which is the most prevalent today. In contrast, Sunnis champion the claims of Abu Bakr, a close companion of Prophet Muhammad who was elected by community heads at the time, and the subsequent two caliphs ( successors). Shias and Sunnis share certain doctrines and traditions, but there are also some religious divergences( Armanios, 2004; US Library of congress,2009). Islam has been followed in Iran since the seventh century AD and there was a Shia dynasty in the tenth and eleventh centuries, although most residents remained Sunnis. Shiism was recognized as the state religion in the Safavids period, spanning over two centuries until the 1730's, partly to unite the population against the external threat posed by Ottomans and Uzbeks ( Kunt,2008). the religion then became central to official notions of Persian and later Iranian national identity ( Grigoriadis and Ansari 2008) and Article 12 of the current constitution proclaims Islam to be the official religion. Shias constitute 89% of the Muslims who represent over 99% of Iran's population, the rest belonging to other Muslim sub-groups. Pilgrimage is an accepted element of Islam with a long history, but Mecca in Saudi Arabia is the only pilgrimage destination formally acknowledged by all Muslims. Individuals have an obligations to make the hajj there at least once in a lifetime, unless prevented by extenuating circumstances such as ill health, and some choose to complete the journey several times. However, there are a number of other sites deemed holy and the Shia faithful which are found in Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Syria as well as Iran. Non-hajj pilgriamges to these locations are known as Ziyarat and are shaped by the culture and traditions of the country where there are made in a manner demonstrated by the circumstances in Iran. 11.4 The Meaning and Conduct of Pilgrimage in Iran The tombs of the Imams and their immediate descendants and close associates (known as Imamzadihs, a name also given to their shrines) evolved into places of Shia pilgrimage as Islam spread across Iran. The activity is now a deeply entrenched custom and extends to selected mosques with high levels of participation. There are two Quranic verses which are cited by Shia as evidence of Prophet Muhammad's intentions that the shrines of his relatives should be revered, tended and visited. these are 42:23, 'that is of which Allah gives the good news to his servants, (to) those who believe and do good deeds. Say: I do not ask of you any reward for it but love for my near relatives; and whoever earns good, we give him more good therein; surely Allah is forgiving, grateful' and 24:36, ' in houses which Allah has permitted to be exalted and that His name may be remembered in them; there glorify Him therein in the mornings and the evenings'. A visit to Iran's holy sites might be less expensive than the hajj to Mecca, yet Ziyarat in Iran is valued as a distinct experience rooted in the country's cultural and religious heritage. such traveling is strongly encouraged by the religious hierarchy and plays a very important role in Shia religious life in Iran and neighboring Iraq. Unlike the hajj, these journeys are not a once in a lifetime affair, but can be repeated regularly and fairly easily. Pilgrims are inspired by the quest for spiritual blessings and a belief that Imams and the others enshrined can intercede with God on

their behalf. There may be a hope that divine intervention will bring more tangible gains ( Bhardwaj, 1998) and Imamzadihs are thought capable of miracles. Other motivations are the pursuit of education, better health and the relief of stress, recreation, social contact and exchange and the eating of offering of nazru( charity meals). It has been argued that overall, however, pilgrims want to feel near to God and to find the calm and solace ensuring from this proximity ( Betteridge, 1992). Pilgrims must conform to rules and enter the shrines only after washing and dressed in clean and tidy clothes, leaving their shoes outside. guards are in attendance and there are sometimes separate entrances for males and females.Women should be free of make up and wear the chador, covering the body and head, and men too are expected to be modestly attired. the spaces around the zarih ( decorative drapery) of the shrine and prayer sections are often crowed and men and women are segregated for reasons of gender and comfort. Devotees may try to touch and kiss the zarih, but this is not condoned. Appropriate extracts from the Quran should be recited and the recommended supplications and prayers made in order to acquire the merit att3endant on the completion of a good act or form of worship. the pilgrim should abide by the instructions of the attendants and photography inside the holy place and certain behavior is strictly forbidden. 1.5 Pilgrimage Shrines and Mosques Iran is estimated to have about 9,000 holy places and a large number of these are shrines, 1,200 of which are documented in the official register of National cultural and Natural Heritage (Kheimehnews,2007). There are about 150 notable Imamzadeh (ITTO 2009b) and the most celebrated are those of the Imams and their descendants, but each Imamzadeh is unique and endowed with a special meaning and status by the local community. In some instances,lavish structures have been erected at the burial grounds and decorated internally and externally in a rich and distinctive style which reflects Iranian history, culture and artistic and architectural traditions (Loveday et al., 2005). Common features are a golden dome and minarets, silver and gilt gates, opulent Persian carpets and tapestries and candelabras which collectively impress aesthetically as well as religiously. there are also many mausoleums of lesser known Muslim saints, martyrs, scholars and other holy personages which constitute pilgrimage destinations.A modern addition near to Tehran is the golden-domed tomb of Imam Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic, which has become a national pilgrimage venue with political connotations. The pre-eminent sacred site in Iran is the burial ground of Hazrat Imam Reza, the Eighth Imam, in Mashhad City. He died in 816 and is the only Imam interred in Iran. An earthquake in 1673 damaged the dome which had to be rebuilt, but most of the mausoleum is the original and was constructed in the early fourteenth century. In a sign of its stature, it was once customary among members of the lower classes who made a pilgrimage to Mashhad to prefix their names with a title Mashhadi; this practice is less common in the modern era. The Shrine of Fatima alMashhadi, the sister of Imam Reza, is the second foremost in the country and located in Qom. It dates from the early sixteenth century and was extended at the beginning of the nineteenth century.Other notable mausoleums are : Seyyed Mir Ahmad (Shiraz,Fars Province) Shah abd ol-Azim (Ray near Tehran,Tehran Province) Hazrat Seyed Ala'eddin Hosseini (Shiraz,Fars Province) Imamzadeh Saleh (Tehran,Tehran Province) Sayid Nimatollah Vali ( Kerman,Kerman Province) Imamzadeh Sultan Ali Lbn Mohammad Bagher ( Kashan Mashhad-e-Ardehal, Isfahan Procince) Sheikh Bahaei and Aheikh Ameli ( Mashhad,Razavi Khorsan Procince)

Imamzadeh Davud ( Tehran Procince) Sheikh Tabarsi ( Babol, Mazandaran Procince) Seyad Hamzaeh ( Tabriz,East Azerbaijan Procince) Pir-e Alamdar ( Damqan, Semnan Province) Imamzadeh Mohammad (Tafresh, Markazi Province) Imamzadeh Hossein ( Qazvin,Qazvin Province) Most of the larger shrines have a range of amenities for pilgrims, depending on their scale and location, and the nearby bazaars are an additional attraction. Bustling markets of shops, restaurants and street stalls comprise a lively and colorful scene by day and night. Venders do a flourishing trade in religious and non-religious objects such as candles, prayer-beads, prayerrugs, tablets of compressed earth used in Muslim prayers , food and sweets, handicrafts and items of clothing. Mosques are centres of prayer and religious observances and have traditionally been an essential part of city life in Iran where are around 70,000 ( Jahan News, 2008). Many towns have mosques of historic and architectural renown and the most frequented by pilgrims are probably those in Isfahan, Qom, Mashhad, Shiraz and Tehran. Amongst the most famous mosques are the one in Jamkaran on the outskirts of Qom, believed to have belonged to the Twelfth Imam, and that raised by Sheikh Afif Saleh Hassan ibn Mosleh Jamkarani in 1006, reputedly the result of mystical instructions by the son of the eleventh Imam and the prophet Khizr. the Grand Mosque of Gowharshad was built between 1405 and 1418 by the daughter-in-law of Tamburlaine the Great, one of the most remarkable women in Iran's history, immediately to the south of the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad. Other temples of interest are the eleventh century Jameh mosque and the seventeenth century Imam ( Shah) and Sheikh Lotfollah mosques in Isfahan. Some mosques occupy fairly extensive complexes and offer miscellaneous cultural-educational services for pilgrims. In recent years, the government and religious officials have tird to entice more young people to the mosques which are engaging in more diverse activities as a consequence. For example, a New Year Bazaar, cultural and religion exhibitions and an international book fair have been held in Tehran's Grand Mosque. 11.6 Other religious Sites and Events of Interest There are numerous other religious sites which may be visited by pilgrims, although they are not prime pilgrimage destinations. ceremonies in memory of Imam Hussain, especially during the month of Moharram, are set in Hosseiniehs which also serve to accommodate assorted gatherings and pilgrims. Khanaqahs are dervish houses of worship linked to Sufiism, a kind of Islamic mysticism applicable to several orders ( Armanios, 2004), and venues for various religious occasions. Madrasehs are Islamic schools, many initiated by faithful Islamic teachers or mullahs, providing education in theology and religious law. they have flourished since the Islamic revolution and some have distinctive architectural designs. Cemeteries have historically been located adjacent to shrines and political hand religious leaders are buried there,marked by ornate sepulchers with tile walls and features indicative of the position and gender of the deceased. Old trees in holy places and traces of footprints linked to saintly persons and a Museum of the Quran is housd in the Astan Qods Museum in Mashhad. Regular and special exhibitions with a religious theme are mounted, illustrated by the annual Quran exhibition in Tehran. Events draw pilgrims as participants and observers, not least those in the key months on the Shia calendar of Muharram and Ramadan. Muharram is the first month of the year in the Islamic calendar, the martyrdom of Imam Hussain recalled on the ninth and tenth days, when most Iranian Shias wear black. the sufferings of the Imam and his followers are remembered in 10 days of prayers and Lamentations which include a public procession, accompanied by drums and

cymbals, where men flagellate themselves with a long chain. shias from outside Iran carry out the ritual and different cultural backgrounds are revealed in their costumes, songs and music. A drama ( Taziyeh) in the evening re-enacts the martyrdom in traditional theater style in towns and villages across the country with local variations. the commemorations in the village of Abiyaneh near Isfahan are famous ( chelkowski, 1979) and many join organized trips in order to attend. Ramadan is venerated as the month when Prophet Muhammad received the messages that were to become the Quran and when the First Imam was martyred.Muslims are required to abstain from eating, drinking, smoking and sexual relations from first to last light unless exempted by particular circumstances. Restaurants and food outlets are closed accordingly, except in hotels dealing with travelers. Offering charitable food and drink for breaking the daily fast (Eftar) is common and mosques and other holy places distribute such meals. Eftar ceremonies are also conducted by organizations for employees. Ghadar Nights, evoking the sending of the Quran to Prophet Muhammad, is celebrated widely at shrines, mosques, hosseniehs and private houses. the last day of Ramadan, Eid Fiter, is a special occasion and public holiday as are other days connected to the lives and deaths of Prophet Muhammad and the Imams. 11.7 Shia Pilgrims in Iran Shia pilgrimage tourism in Iran is concentrated on Mashhad in Razavi Khorasan Province which is the country's second largest town and accessible form Tehran by road, railway and air. It is one of Islam's major pilgrim centres after Mecca and this explains the province's extensive stock of hotels, inns and the apartemnt hotel establishments favoured by Arab Muslims traveling in large parties. the city is laid out in a circle around the tomb and a series of nearby courtyards house libraries, museums and mosques. A number of reversed Iranian and foreign scholars and scientist have also been buried in the precincts of the tomb and elsewhere in the town. Mashhad hosts about 20 million pilgrims a year ( Iran Tourism, 2009), the majority of whom are domestic ( Iran Daily, 2005) and often on package tours arranged by travel agencies and religion associations. Arrivals peak at certain times and thee were over three million visitors, many of them pilgrims, during the four day Iranian New Year (NowRuz) holiday in 2008 ( Mehr News, 2008). The other main pilgrimage destination is Qom, capital of Qom Province, lying 97 miles SouthWest of Tehran. A hub of Shia learning and theology since early Islamic times, it is home to the largest seminary in Iran where women must wear the chardor in public as well as holy places, a stipulation which predates the Islamic revolution. Although it has fewer attractions that Mashhad, Qom benefits form its proximity to Tehran and many of the capital's mosques organize half and full day tours there. Five million tourist visit Qom every day at the busiest season, about one and a half million of whom stay overnight. secondary pilgrimage destinations are Shiraz, renowned for its shrine and once a focus of Sufiism, and Isfahan which is the former capital of ancient Persia and famed for its beautiful mosques ( Babaie,2008). Pilgrims are primarily Shia Muslim Iranian citizens, although Iranian Christians and Zoroastrians also go to the shrines for the spiritual experience or out of curiosity. Muslims from abroad generally have the same access as Iranians and travel individually or with pilgrimage tours, but there is an Office for Non-Iranian Pilgrim Affairs which deals with special arrangements and works with the holy places of Mashhad and Qom. most foreign pilgrims originate in the Middle East and Iranians living and working abroad are also participants. leading countries of origin include Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq,India, Kuwait,Lebanon, Syria, the United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Saudi Arabia is another source, yet most of its visitors are Sunni who seek recreation in the north of the country which has a moderate climate and verdant landscapes. Iraq is also of importance and travel to Iran by its nationals increased after the fall of Saddam Hussein's Sunni regime in 2003 and its eventual replacement by a Shia-led government (Zamani-Farahani,2003). first time Iraqi pilgrims tend to prefer the better known attractions and them become more adventurous on subsequent visits when they also stay longer. Pilgrims form Iran and overseas are not necessarily wealthy and some of the less affluent have been observed restoring to begging ( Zamani-Farahani and Henderson, 2009). Mendicants have been criticized as a public nuisance and may require monitoring and policing. Nevertheless, pilgrimage tourism and charity are intertwined in Iran and organizations affiliated with shrines in

Mashhad and Qom run schemes to fund all or part of the costs of low income pilgrims. 11.8 Management and Marketing Both government and industry are involved in the management and marketing of Iran's domestic and inbound pilgrimage tourism. within the public sector, there are seven organizations and 14 ministries with a part to play. One of the most active bodies is the Hajj and Pilgrimage Organization (HPO), under the Ministry of culture and Islamic Guidance, which is headed by a member of the clergy.Its duties encompass planning, coordination with other institutions at home and abroad and the approval of pilgrimage agents. Private enterprise participation in pilgrimage tourism is regulated by the HPO with the overall objective of safeguarding pilgrim welfare, but it is concerned mainly with outbound travel of Saudi-Arabia. Another official stakeholder is the Iran Chamber of Commerce, Industries and Mines due to its rile in cooperating with fellow members of the Oic (Organization of Islamic Conference) which has put the growth of Islamic tourism on its agenda. The Endowment and Charitable Foundation (Oghaf), reporting to the Ministry of culture and Islamic guidance, contributes to the running of several Imamazdeh and mosques and individual shrines and mosques also have their own system of governance. Senior clerics are in charge and their priorities tend to be the dissemination of Islamic culture and sciences, expansion of worship and services space and enhancement of pilgrim facilities. Finally, ICHHTO's Tourism Deputy oversees a Religion Tourism Committee which has still to formulate a long term strategy or plan. In the private sector, general travel agencies and those which specialise in pilgrimages sell tours of Shia sites ( Euromonitor,2009). Official permissions have to be sought as explained above and most of Iran's over 2,100 travel agencies, 890 of which are in Tehran (ICHHTO,2009b), have such authorization. Itineraries for foreign pilgrims usually last between one to two weeks and include shrines, mausoleums, mosques and theological schools in Isfahan, Mashhad, Qom, Shiraz, Tehran and Yazad as well as ancient mosques in Kashan and Abiyaneh. With regard to marketing, it was noted earlier that Iranians are officially encouraged to participate in pilgriamges and demonstrate an eagerness to do so and this perhaps undermines the necessity for aggressive domestic advertising campaigns. By comparison, the inbound pilgrim market is undeveloped and its prospects have been recognised to be good by the authorities. Iran's Tourism Development Master Plan (ICHHTO,2002) calls for the promotion of pilgrimage tourism to Shia communities in Persian Gulf and other Middle East countries, assuming political conditions are suitable. Those living in Middle East countries, assuming political conditions are suitable. Those living in Middle and South Asia, the Caucasus, remaining OIC countries and Iranians overseas are also identified as target markets. The plan states that the focus should be on pilgrimages to Mashhad and Qom, but advises exploiting opportunities created by the flows of pilgrims traveling overland through Iran to Mecca in Saudi Arabia, Kabala in Iraq and Shia holy spots in Syria. Reference is made to expanding the range of religious products to incorporate retreat resorts, learning centres, conferences, conventions, exhibitions and events. The need for the preservation and restoration of religious heritage is also highlighted in a bid to ensure the sustainability of the resources on which pilgrimage tourism depends. 11.9 Visits by non-Muslim Foreigners It is usually possible for foreigners who are not Muslims to visit most mosques, although Friday prayers are best avoided. They may also have access to parts of the main shrines of the Imams; for example, the museums with religious and historical and cultural themes adjacent to the Imam Reza Shrine. Entry to the inner sanctuaries and tombs themselves are denied, however,expect on rare occasion ratified by religious officers after applications to the Tourist Office. The restriction applies to all the holy sites in Qom and many in Mashhad and those elsewhere in Iran may be closed to non-Muslims wishing to visit during religious festivals or special occasions. All visitors must follow the strict dress code and other rules. The most popular sites cater to such tourists by providing audio-visual guides, publications, brouchers,CDs and other materials in foreign languages. Modern technology also allows live viewing of the courtyards of the two main shrines on their websites and people can make a virtual pilgrimage to Mashhad and Qom using

video streaming software. The interest p non-Muslim from abroad in pilgrimage and other Shia places and practices are one component of a broader itinerary should not be ignored.The market is prospectively lucrative, especially when compared to certain Islamic countries of origin where very low average incomes limit participation in tourism and spending.However, it is appreciated that official backing for religious tourism as a whole is not directed solely by commercial objectives and there is apprehension about the admission of too many visitors from beyond the Islamic world. Emphasis is on cultural and religious aims as much as revenue generation and tourists who are adherents of Islam are likely to continue to be favored. Nevertheless, official agencies do advertise attractions related to religion online for a wider audience and 342 mausoleums, 150 shines, 150 mosques, 38 historical and 17 minarets are currently showcased ( ITTO, 2009a). 11.10 Conclusions While Iran faces formidable obstacles to development as an international tourist centre in general attributable to conditions within and outside the country, the information presented in this part suggests that it possesses several strengths as a Shia pilgrimage destination for nationals and foreigners. It has a diverse assortment of holy sites and other religious attractions as well as an appropriate supporting infrastructure and network of specialist travel agents and tor operators. Domestic demand is high and the substantial shia population worldwide represents untapped opportunities for the expansion advantages are relative safety and security and the warmth and hospitality of it citizens. However, there are serious limitations of an acute shortage of accommodation of all grades for pilgrim tourists and intense pressures on transport services during the peak season. Effective conversation of sacred spaces and built heritage is a growing concern in light of urbanization, industrialization and processes of modernistic occurring in cities such as Isfahan ( Lawler,2009). Shortcomings exist with regard to the planning and management of religious tourism as a whole and with specific reference to pilgrimages. Administration is fragmented with responsibility spread across multiple agencies which may not always concur. Such problems will need to be addressed if the full potential of pilgrimage tourism in Iran is to be realized and more research of both an academic and practitioner orientation is essential. The results would improve knowledge and understanding of this distinctive type of tourism as a human and business activity and generate date which could be used to inform and enhance policy making by public and private sectors. Progress towards meeting the objectives set out in the existing plans is difficult to measure, but there would seem to be scope for greater promotion to heighten awareness within the Muslim world about the unique Islamic attractions found in Iran. Innovative products which combine pilgrimage and other religious experiences with some of the republic's varied cultural and natural heritage resources could be considered as a means of raising the level of pilgrimage tourism. There may also be possibilities for cross-border initiatives in the packaging and marketing of tours of shia sites, although political frictions could frustrate the forging of such partnerships. 12 Profile of Religious Tourism in Japan Religious tourism may be considered as both an old and new phenomena in Japan. It is very old because one of the important motivations behind people's movement since ancient times was based on religion. As discussed in the fourth part of this paper,pilgrimages formed the history of tourism in Japan. Tourism was opened to the general public as pilgriamges expanded. In addition, as Japanese history overlapped. Many historical and cultural monuments have been established predominantly in the context of religion. Religious tourism is new in Japan in the sense that traditional religions started providing the general public with opportunities for temporary and easy religious experiences and they are now perceived as tourism interests. As we will see in the third section, the religious sentiment of Japanese has weakened and many people are more secular minded today.While so-called new

religions have emerged since the 19th -mid 20th century and maintain certain adherents, the influence of traditional religion has declined.Nearly half of Japanese people declare that they follow no religion. In this situation, as shown in the fifth seciton, traditional religions offer opportunities to experience their religious practices, for instance Zen meditations classes on temple premises, to promote their teaching and attract the interest of the general public.The attempt by traditional religion is a good resource of religious tourism in Japan now. As Japan is a secular country with a rich religious tradition, there must be much potential to promote religious tourism. This paper outlines the tourism trends in Japan in the next section. The third section is about the history and development of religious tourism in Japan. The fifth section describes the major attractions of religious tourism in Japan. 12.1 tourism Trends in Japan How to spend leisure time has become very improtant for Japanese people's lives. According to an attitude survey conducted by a governmental organization every year most respondents wanted to place future priority on leisure and a recreational lifestyle, rather than food, housing, durable consume goods, etc. this answer has not changed since 1983. Leisure includes various activities. A survey conducted by the Japan Productivity Centre shows that the top five activities Japanese people did in 2007 were eating out, domestic tourism, motoring, Karaoke, and watching videos. Though domestic tourism occupies second position. If we look at the potential demand ( unrealized expectation minus participation), overseas tourism and domestic tourism occupy the first and the second position respectively [Japan Productivity Centre 2008]. It means that tourism is the most important concern when it comes to leisure activity for Japanese people. In fact, as tables have showed, tourism, outbound tourism in particular, has grown very rapidly in Japan. there were 17.3 million Japanese outbound tourists in 2007 (2008 saw a certain decrease to 16.0 million), whereas there were only 3.9 million in 1980 and 11 million in 1990. Japanese outbound tourists currently make up the 13th largest group in the world (as of 2006; Japanese Tourism Agency 2009). china is the most visited destination with 3.45 million Japanese tourist, followed by the United States of America, Republic of Korea, Hong Kong,China; Thailand, and Taiwan [Japan National Tourism Organizaiton2009]. The number of inbound tourists has been growing too. The number of foreign nationals visiting Japan was 8.347 million in 2007 and 8351 million in 2008. the Republic of Korea occupies the tip position, sending 2.38 million visitors in 2008, followed by Taiwan, china, the United States of America, Thailand, Canada, and Singapore in that order [Japan Tourism Agency 2009]. The major purpose of inbound tourists' visits was tourism (72.4%), followed by business (17.4%) and other (10.1% )in 2008. Among the visitors coming for the purpose of tourism, shopping was the most striking motivation for their visit to Japan, followed by Japanese food, tourists form the United States of America were much more motivated by historical architecture, Japanese food, and Japanese traditional culture and crafts [Japan National Tourism Organization 2009]. The Japanese government now identifies tourism as an improtant cornerstone of Japan's national policy and is very active in promoting tourism. The government launched the Visit Japan Campaign in 2003, which has contributed to the recent increase of foreign visitors to Japan. the government replaces the old tourism related act and newly enforced the Tourism Nation Promotion Act in 2007.Based on the Act , the Tourism Nation Promotion Plan was drawn up by the Cabinet in the same year. The plan aims to increase the number of foreign travelers to Japan to 10 million, the number of Japanese tourists traveling overseas to 20 million, and the value of tourism consumption to 30 trillion yen. In 2008 the Japan Tourism Agency was establisehd under the Ministry of Land, infrastructure, Transport and Tourism to clarify the organization that has responsibility for tourism administration and to implement functional and effective measures [Japan Tourism Agency 2008]. Though the Japanese government does not necessarily mention religious tourism in the context of tourism promotion, religious tourism is certainly incorporated in cultural tourism, including visiting temples and shrines, and historical architectural and world heritage sites, as religion is deeply rooted in the history and culture of Japan, though it is not easy to distinguish religious tourism from other tourism. The major tourism trend in Japan is now shifting from mass tourism to individual tourism and the motivation of tourists has been shifting from general interest to

special interest, from sight-seeing to participation and exchange. the potential of religious tourism in Japan has to be reviewed in this context. 12.2 Religion and Religious Sentiment In Japan It is difficult to show the religious composition of the Japanese population, because the Census does not include the religious attributes of respondents. It may partly be because of the historical lesson that many religions had been severely suppressed by the State power at the time of World War II and that Article 20 of the present Japanese constitution defines the freedom of religion and strictly restricts the involvement of the Sate in the Religion. The Japanese people and the Japanese government are very conscious of the rule of the separation of religion and politics/government. The only date related to religion may be the number of religious bodies and the number of designated religious juridical persons in accordance with the Religious Juridical Persons Law. According to the Agency for Cultural Affairs, there were 223,428 religious bodies in 2007, of which 182,310 were designated bodies. the designated bodies are categorized into the Shinto group (85,313), the Buddhism group (77,544), the christian group (4,347), and others (15,106). What is astonishing is that the total number of followers of all religious bodies stands at over 206 million, which, incredibly,outnumbers the total population of 127.98 million in Japan in 2007 [see Ministry of Education, culture, sports, Science and Technology website: http://www.mext.go,jp.b_menu/toUnitedKingdomei/001/index39.htm.htm]. this is because the number is a mere collection of reports from each body, and the local bodies may count all surrounding local residents or they may intentionally exaggerate the number to express their scale to influence. When we talk about religion in Japan, we have to be cautious of the fat that for many Japanese people religion means the new religions ( shinko shukyo) that have emerged since the 19th-mid 20th century and were often schematized later, which resulted in many new sects. Some of them are still very influential today. That is why beside the adherents who have faith in such new religions, many Japanese feel that they follow no religion. An attitude survey conducted by NHK ( Japan Broadcasting Corporation) in 2008 shows that 49% of respondents answered that they do not follow any religion, in contrast to 39% of them who answered that they do http://www.nhk.or.jp/bunken/index.html]. The result contrast with the fact that the Japanese have been living in the religious tradition, particularly of Buddhism and Shintoism. In fact, the same survey revealed that over half of the respondents frequently visit their ancestral graveyard ( mostly Buddhism based) and conduct a first visit of the year to a ( Shinto) shrine even today. For many Japanese people, religion seems to be conceived as a part of customary and lifecycle rituals. Such situation indicates a clear characteristic in Japanese religious belief, that is, that Buddhism and Shintoism coexist within a single person or family at the same time. A person can visit Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines without feeling and contradiction and it is not rare for a singe house to contain both a Buddhist altar ( butsudan) and a Shinto altar ( kamidana). This situation is understandable, if we look at the historical process of religion in Japan. The indigenous religion in Japan originate from animistic belief and gradually developed in Shintoism. Shintoism has also been associated with the ancient State which centered on the Emperor, and became the national religion. The Grand Shrine of Ise Jinge is the most important shrine in this sense. Buddhism was officially introduced into the imperial court in the mid-6th century AD, and since then, Shinto and Buddhism have interacted with and influenced each other. In the ancient period, the idea of syncretization of Shinto with Buddhism became dominant and spread rapidly. In the 8th century, Buddhism was adopted as the national religion. Since then, throughout the remaining ancient and middle periods, many influential Buddhism in Japan while their assets and temple architecture form the major attraction of cultural and historical tourism in Japan, as do those of Shintoism. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), Shinto was again affiliated with the Emperor and restructured as a state-supported religion while Buddhism suffered suppression by the state.The suppression ended after World War II. The plural religious attitude of Japanese people toward Buddhism and Shintoism must have been produced through the above mentioned process. the polytheistic character of Shintoism allows such situation,too.

Christianity was introduced into Japan first by a Jesuit missionary, Francis Xavier, in 1549 and then by Franciscan missionaries. However, after the Tokugawa shogunate began in 1603, Christians were persecuted, and later Christianity was totally banned. Some parts of inaccessible islands and the peninsula of the Kyushu area remained as villages hiding Christians until the ban was lifted by the Meiji government. As mentioned already, so-called new religions began emerging in the 19th-mid 20th century.Some of them are very influential, having millions of adherents, and many of them are designated as religious periodical persons. there are cases in which such groups run political parties, like Soka Gakkai. while the presence of traditional religion has decreased, new religions or the currently so-called new-new religions have been expanding. However,quite a few of the general public have been skeptical about new-new religions since a sect called Aum Shinrikyo committed a terrorist attack with sarin gas in Tokyo in 1995. At any rate, Shinto, Buddhism, and Christianity exist together as the major religions of Japan. Most Japanese people, except Christians, feel that is normal for lifecycle rituals associated with the birth of a child to be conducted by Shinto priests and funeral ceremonies by Buddhist monks. Japanese children usually do not receive formal religious initiation. 12.3 The History and Development of Religious Tourism in Japan Considering the history of tourism in Japan, it is clear that religious tourism is an indispensable element. It is no exaggeration to say that religion; pilgriamges in particular, have formed the history of tourism in Japan.Looking back over history, however, one finds that when the ancient state was establisehd, people only traveled when performing official duties and services. While ekisei ( the station system) was introduced to produce horses and provide food for aristocrats and government officials, common people only came to the capital to pay taxes or build the city, which entailed making difficult trips. When the capital relocated to Kyoto in the Heian eara(794-1195), more projects were promoted to open new roads, build bridges, and establish new stations. Around the 11th century, aristocrats in the capital began making pilgrimages to Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, as well as to distant spiritual mountains. They went on pilgrimages not only to areas around Kyoto but also to Nanto Shcichidaiji ( the seven great tempels of Nara), along with Shitennoju Temple and Sumiyoshi Taisha Shrine in Osaka, or to the spiritual mountains of Mt. Kimpu and Mt. Koya in far away Nara and Wakayama, respectively. At the end of the Heian era, Joko (a retired emperor) and Ho-oh ( a retired emperor with a Buddhist name) made devoted pilgrimages to Kumano in Wakayama. The Heian era shows one of the important characteristics of Japan's religious tradition. This was an era of much activity regarding the synchronization of Shinto with Buddhism or the idea of synchronizing Buddha with the gods, that is, the concept of attempting to fuse and harmonize faith in Buddhism ( a religion introduces from abroad) with faith in Japan's heavenly and earthly deities. Kumano faith is a good example of that trend, and the god enshrined at Kumano Hongu Taisha Shrine was considered an incarnation of Amitabha Buddha, who leads the people to Seiho Gokuraku Jodo ( the Western pure Land of Bliss).Later during the Kamakusa era (11851333), as samurai assumed power over aristocrats,samurai warriors began leading pilgrimages. In particular,pilgrimages to Kumano were popular among the samurai of eastern Japan. It is also notable that from the Nara era (710-784) to the Heian and Kamakura eras, many Buddhist monks made pilgrimages to different regions for missionary purposes. these monks played a significant role in educating the common people. During the Muromachi era (1336-1573), farmers and common people finally began making pilgriamges. As agricultural productivity increased, some farmers began making pilgrimages. As agricultural productivity increased, some farmers began forming autonomous villages against the rule of feudal lords and samurai. Under such circumstances, the common people gradually began showing some signs of autonomous travel. Another characteristic of this era is that, instead of making pilgrimages to Kumano as in the past, more people began making pilgrimages to Ise Jingu Shrine ( the shrine for the Imperial family). tsunezo Shinjo [1971], a scholar of the history of transportation in Japan, says that common

people began to travel in the Middle Ages ( during the Kamakura and Muromachi eras) due to the following specific reasons: 1) the development of inns, 2) the distribution of currency, and 3) the establishment of resources for reception at temples and shrines, including what were called oshi/onshi, sendatsu, and shukubo. In other words, lodging facilities were established in various parts of the country to accommodate growing traffic on the main roads, while the distribution of currency made it possible for travelers to travel without having to carry food or other supplies on their backs. Moreover, oshi and sendatsu served as local guides in leading the way, praying, arranging accommodations, and performing other tasks collectively, thereby ensuring more convenient travel, Shukubo refers to the lodging facilities establisehd at temples. By the end of the Middle Ages, the way was gradually paved for common people to consequently go on pilgrimages. However, it was not until the Edo era(1603-1867) that pilgrimage travel became more common and very popular among the common people. In the Edo era, as the Tokugawa Shogunata institutionalized its sankinkotai (which obligated feudal lords and other important persons from various regions to live in Edo, home of the shogun, at certain intervals), and as important persons began to constantly travel back and forth, gokaido ( the five main roads) other roads and the posting station system were soon developed, thereby further promoting the movement of people. Moreover, commerce and distribution spurred the development of cities, resulting in a greater number of ordinary townspeople and merchants, and the blooming of popular culture. Be that as it may, common people in those were not able to leave home freely and travel was subject to a strict permission system. The only kind of travel widely permitted, although on an exceptional basis, was visiting hot springs for therapeutic purposes and making pilgriamges. Today in Japan, hot springs are popular not only for their healing effects, but also for recreation, and represent an indispensable element of tourism. Similarly, pilgrimages can be called a source of Japanese group tours, and one can find a number of aspects of such travel that have led to the contemporary form of tourism. One such aspect is the Ko organization that enabled common people to travel.Ko is a mutualhelp organization that allowed its members to make a pilgrimage to a particular shrine or temple. Each Ko member contributed a share of the travel funds and the members went on a pilgrimage by rotation, thereby enabling all members to make a pilgrimage without bearing the full expense. One can see here the source pf group travel by workplace, school or other units that until recently had accounted for the main form of tourism in Japan. In organizing a pilgrimage, such tour operators as the oshi and sendatsu mentioned above are also important. Another notable development was the active publication of dochuki ( equivalent to today's travel guides or books containing detailed information about travel itineraries) and meisho-zue ( which presented scenic spots of various regions along with illustrations). By that time, pilgrimage travel had assumed a form similar to today's tourism and one can safely say that, in Japan, tourism had been developing as religious tourism. Another important consideration is that pilgrimages are not actually limited to religious purposes, but rather also include round-trip tourism using pilgrimage as an excuse. Regarding pilgriamges tio Ise Jingu, which became most popular during the Edo dra, a large part of the itineraries actually involved even more remote ares, so much so that someone once wrote a comic form of haiku ( senryu) that read: "On a pilgrimage to Isa Jingu, we dropped in at Daijingu ( the Grand Shrine)." Today, domestic tourism in Japan is generally organized with an itinerary that includes temples, shrines and other places to visit. considering the various aspects of Japanese culture, many origins can be traced back to the Edo era. Thus, the form of domestic tourism in Japan also originated in pilgrimages made in the Edo era. AS Japan progressed beyond feudalism and entered the Meiji era(1868-1912), embarking on an aggressive move toward modernization, the environment surrounding religion underwent drastic changes. As early as the Edo era, kokugak ( an academic discipline designed to elucidate the culture and spirit that was peculiar to Japan before the introduction of Confucianism and Buddhism, based on philological studies of Japanese classics) prospered, along with the trend toward removing Buddhist elements from Shintoism and advocating the advantages of Shintoism.Moreover, an ordinance that decreed the separation of the native gods form Buddha in the first year of Meiji (1868) fueled a radical movement to abolish Buddha and thereby reject Buddhism in favour of Shintoism. Shintoism was restructured as the national religion, which

imposed restrictions on onshi who had been active in the grey area between the lay world and religion. In Kumano, religious practices conducted by sendatsu in a manner that synchronized Shintoism with Buddhism were prohibited. Many onshi and sendatsu then abandoned their status as religious persons and began specializing in the management of inns and other tourism businesses.The pre-modern framework of pilgrimages consequently deteriorated significantly conversely, from the Meiji era onwards, travel, which had been previously restricted, was now liberalized. With the opening and spread of railroads, people found it easier to make pilgrimages to temples and shrines, and travel to hot springs, while beach resorts, summer resorts and other resorts began to develop. At such locations, foreigners who had come to Japan during the Meiji era when Western culture was being introduced, and who discovered new health resorts and scenic sites, began exerting greater influence. For example, the mountainous region in central Japan (considered the object of faith in mountains that was labeled the " Japan Alps" by British missionary Weston) became a new object of natural beauty. such a view of modern times was adopted in those days by Japanese people, many of whom began writing books about natural scenery and travel. thus, along with the progress of modernization, tourism in Japan was to develop in the context of modern tourism, different from religious pilgrimages. Put all together, Japan is characterized by the fact that pilgrimages to temples and shrines, and other forms of religious tourism, have accounted for the history of tourism itself, and along with that process, those participating in tourism have expanded from the limited range of people with power to the common people. Later after the modernization of the Meiji era, the Pre-Meiji framework was largely abandoned in favour of the development of modern tourism. However, religious tourism in Japan did not disappear. even today, religious tourism remains an important aspect of tourism in Japan. Kyoto and Nara are still among the most popular sightseeing destinations in Japan. Naturally, the view of contemporary Japanese people, who have largely been influenced by modern tourism, toward religious tourism may be different from that in the past. Though subjected to the movement toward abolishing Buddha during the Meiji era, Buddhism was later restored, while the famous shrines of Shintoism in various regions are still crowded even today. This means that Japanese still honour the traditions of both Buddhism and Shintoism. Despite all that, many Japanese today openly declare that they follow no religion. Under the circumstances, the more famous a temple, shrine or statue of Buddha, the more it tends to be regarded as a cultural asset rather than an object of faith. Be that as it may, religious tourism in Japan will probably not decline in the future.Kumano- once oppressed as a site where the syncretism of Shintoism and Buddhism was carried out- was registered in 2004 as a World Heritage cultural site for its cultural landscape, and has now been newly recognized in Japan for its religious traditions.The major festivals, festivities and rituals of more well-known temples and shrines, which have become the objects of tourism, still attract large numbers of worshipers while minor local festivals are losing popularity.In terms of religion itself, many traditional religions continue to decline in favour of newly emerging religions. In the context of religious tourism, however, traditional religion has not necessarily lost its brilliance. Particularly in religious tourism does traditional religion shine and exhibit its presence. 12.4 Major Attractions of Religious Tourism in Japan AS already mentioned, it is not easy to distinguish religious tourism from other types of tourism in Japan, because Japanese history and culture have been formed and matured along with the development of religion. Notable historical monuments and architecture in Japan were largely based on religion and while they still maintain improtant religious meaning, it is a fat tht they are generally perceived as cultural assets by most Japanese people. However, it is also a fact that religiously minded toyrism, for instance pilgiramges if we include it in religious tourism, is very popular in Japan. Religious tourism is, as Rinschede [1992] defines, that type of tourism whose participants are motivated either in part or exclusively for religious reasons. therefore it is necessary to look at religious tourism as it encompasses both religiously less minded and well minded tourist. Irrespective of the extent of the religious mind of Japanese people, religion is a significant tourism resource in Japan. For foreign tourists, religion in Japan is naturally the most attractive tourism resource.

There are tangible and intangible religious tourism attractions in Japan. Buddhist Temples Since Buddhism was introduced in the 6th century, Japanese Buddhism split into many fractions in the process of development. temples and monasteries were established in each development period. the temples of the early period are concentrated in the Nara area. Asukomadera,Horyuji and Today are good examples of them. Kyoto also maintains a large number of Buddhist temples of various fractions like Toji, the centre of shingon ( Tantirc Buddhism), Higashi Honganji and Nishi Hongajni of Pure land Buddhism, Tenryuji,Daitokuji, and Manpukuji of Zen Buddhism, and so on. Some of the temples particularly Zen temples, accept lay people, including foreigners, who wish to experience practices like meditation, the way of life and philosophy of Buddhism. As the way of life in a temple is unique and very simple, a temple stay is a good attraction for foreign religious tourists. Shinto Shrines As noted above, Ise Jingu in Mie prefecture is the most influential Shinto Shrine. When Shinto was detached form the State following the end of World War II, shrines all over Japan were reorganized into an association called Jinja-Honcho ( The Association of Shinto Shrines) in 1946. This association is a designated religious juiridical person with 80,000 shrines as members, and Ise Jingu plays the role of headquarters. The architecture of Ise Jingu shows the old Japanese style, which predates the introduction of Buddhism. Next in importance to Ise Jingu is Izumo Taisha Grand Shrine in Shimane prefecture. Izumo is famous for its myth that the God Okuninushi of Izumo, the old founder of the Japanese land, transferred his power to Amaterasu, God of Ise Jingu, and so Amaterasu, the ancestral deity of the Imperial Family, became the sole ruler of Japan. There are numerous shrines all over Japan and some of them have been registered as World Heritage sites, of which one of the unique shrines might be Nikko toshogu which enshrines a historical figure, leyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa shogunate of the Edo period. Kasugataisya shriene, one of the oldest Shinto Shrines, situated in Nara, accepts temporary Miko ( shrine maiden) ascetics from the general public. Mountain Worship and syugendo ( Mountaineering Asceticism) Syugendo is an indigenous religious practice in Japan. It is a unique combination of animistic mountain worship with Confucianism, Taoism and Tantric Buddhism. It first took shape in the Heian period. Ascetics try to acquire supernatural power through ascetic training in the dence forests. They engage in magical practices using their acquired power. Kumano and Kimpu have been the main centres of Syugendo, where these mountainous areas were registered as World Heritage sites, along with Koyasan in Wakayama prefecture, as 'Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range' in 2004. In the Edo period the interest of common people in mountain worship grew partly due to the influence of Syugendo and they started to climb mountains like Mt.Fuji in shizuoka/Yamanashi prefecture,Mt Hakusan in Ishikawa prefecture, and Mt. Tateyama in Toyama prefecture for worship.We can see these practices of Syugendo and mountain worship even today in Japan though these mountains are at the same time the object of leisure tourism and sport mountaineering. Apart from ascetic Syugendo,Kimpu Syugendo currently organizes Syugendo tours guided by sendatsu for the general public from May to October every year, though females are prohibited from entering some areas due to religious reasons. Pilgrimage Pilgrimage have a long tradition in Japan, as already stated. For both Buddhism and Shintoism, Pilgrimages have been the significant method to express people's faith and satisfy their religious sentiments. Pilgrimages have been attended with much difficulty, and for people who follow the

traditional way of pilgrimages, even today it is very difficult. In shikoku Island, the pilgrimage known as Shikoku Junrei or Shikoku Henro has been inherited to date. Eighty-eight Buddhist temples are listed and numbered from number 1 to number 88. All of them are said to be related to the great saint Kukai ( Koubou-Daishi), who was born in Shikoku later became the founder of Shingon Tantric Buddhism in the Heian period, and has been regarded as the object of worship himself. If pilgrims go round all eighty-eight temples on foot, it takes forty to fifty days to complete their pilgrimage. It is a deed for religious faith as well as for self-realizaiton. Pilgrims visit temples and chant sutras and the holy name of Kukai. Even today quite a few people try to complete the pilgrimage on foot and a number of memoirs are published and appear on websites. However, the number of pilgrims traveling on foot is very small. Others go round by private car, groups bus tour, or taxi, which represents religious mass tourism. there is a similar pilgrimage circuit called Saigoku Sanjusansyo ( thirty-three places of the western region), which consist of thirty-three temples enshrining Kannon ( Avalokitesvara). Festivals Religious festivals in Japan are predominantly associated with Shinto. Buddhist festivals also exist, but they are usually confined within temples. People go to temples to see such festivals. In the case of Shinto, while festivals at grand shrines like Ise Jingu are confined within themselves, many Shinto festivals are based on local shrines whose patrons are local communities. festivals of such shrines are performed as local festivals and present great festivities. Naturally, they are good object of tourism. three big festivals in Kyoto ( Gion,Jidai, and Aoi) and three big festivals in the North-eastern region ( Nebuta in Aomori prefecture, Tanabata in Miyagi prefecture, and Kantou in Akita prefecture) and quite popular. Churches and christian Sites in Nagasaki As noted, Christianity was introduced to Japan in the 16th century. It was banned by the Tokugawa shogunate, but the ban was lifted in the Mejiji period. Nagasaki has remarkable importance if we think about this difficult period of Christianity in Japan. Nagasaki was a key base for the missionary work. However, during the prohibition and suppression of Christianity, adherents moved to remote islets and islands, where they passed their faith down from generation to generation. Nagasaki Prefecture and the surrounding area is home to many churches built after the long period of suppression. These churches are testimonies to the suppressed adherents' re-acquisition of religious freedom and its long process. these Christian churches are also considered as excellent examples of quality structural design resulting from the fusion of the Western architectural techniques brought by the foreign priests and Japan's traditional architectural techniques. The churches and christian Site in Nagasaki were listed on the Tentative List of UNESCO World Heritage [website of UNESCO.Some parts of the descriptions above were quoted from http//:whc.unesco.org/tentativelists/]. 12.5 Concluding Remarks The main religions of Japan are Buddhism and Shintoism. Many Japanese have honored both traditions at the same time. Although Japanese Buddhism is closely linked to Chinese and Korean Buddhism, it has unique characteristics due to having undergone peculiar developments. Moreover, just like anywhere else in the world, religion is one of the main factors contributing to both history and culture. Understanding the religious tradition of Japan could therefore be considered one and the same as understanding the history and culture of Japan. If so, religious tourism that allows people to experience Japanese religions should be the core of tourism in Japan for people wishing to understand japan. Religious tourism is considered to offer great potential as a tourist resource in terms of newly emerging trends from overseas as well. 12.6 Case Study:Changing Attitudes in Religious Tourism in Japan: Taizo-in Temple

" Religious tourism" in Japan traditionally meant visiting a Buddhist temple or Shinto shrine to pray and appreciate its garden and / or cultural heritage. In recent years, however, a new trend in religious tourism has emerged: an apparent shift from merely seeing the sights to actually experiencing the culture. In specific terms, visitors are now participating in tea ceremonies, engaging in zen meditation, and/or other pursuits where they experience and sense firsthand , a particular culture or tradition. this trend can be attributed to changes in social structure and people's lifestyles. In other words, it reflects changing interests and tastes as more people enjoy tourism at a wider variety of destinations, and as the form of tourism shifts from group to individual tours. AT our temple of taizo-in as well, most visitors came to pray, as had been the case since ancient times, until about 20 years ago. that was when we made arrangements for lighting up the premises at night and serving Zen temple cuisine to visitors, thereby offering a different approach to the traditional form of merely visiting the temple. more and more visitors, particularly students on field trips, have become interested in experiencing Zen meditation. the number of such visitors has increased over the last ten years, from about 1,000 a year to as many as 15,000. the past three years have also seen a dramatic increase in foreign visitors, with many more of them wishing to experience Zen meditation, calligraphy, Zen temple cuisine and other forms of unique culture that we have fostered over time. Among the various aspects related to religious tourism, this case study discusses how we receive foreign visitors. The " Zen Experience tour" arranged by Taizo-in temple features a program in which visitors can experience Zen meditation, calligraphy and a tea ceremony, view the landscaped garden, and taste Zen temple cuisine. The entire program lasts about four hours and is conducted by a priest who explains each activity in English. The language barrier and lack of a facility enabling foreigners to have such experiences previously made it very difficult for foreigners to actually experience Zen culture. Now, participants are especially appreciative of being able to communicate directly with a priest without an interpreter. the participants include individuals who have made online reservations for the program through the temple's website, many groups of collage students form Europe and Unites States of America, students on field trips, corporate staff in training programs, people traveling while attending international conferences in Japan, and others. these visitors over wide-ranging age groups, but about half of them are in their 20's or 30's, and there are slightly more females then males. Interests among those foreign participants vary depending on nationality and age. For instance, many tourists form France are interested in what they apparently consider mysterious, oriental Zen riddles, while American visitors are very keen to learn calligraphy. In contrast, many people of Chinese heritage in Singapore and other countries are interested in the historical relationship between Zen and their native countries. Despite these diverse interests, participants do seem to find at least some of the five different activities offered by the Zen Experience tour very interesting, and generally enjoy the program before leaving the temple. Moreover, as mentioned earlier, all participants seem to enjoy the opportunity to speak directly with a priest. Regarding a future perspective for having Kyoto, or even Japan in general, become widely recognized as a destination for religious tourism, an approach such as ours must be taken at several places within a given area, and not at a just singe location.This means that a highly attractive tourist destination must have a number of reception facilities that offer tourists certain options. To that end, we need to resolve various issues-the most urgent being: (1) the language barrier; (2) improving facilities in terms of hardware; (3) structuring a system for handling reservations and enquirers; and (4) securing human resources. It is also important to determine the extent to which the elements of tourism are to be incorporated into the program, since Buddhist temples and shrines are basically places of worship. Another type of tourism for which demand is expected to increase in the near future is "tourism for being" or spiritual tourism. In other words, a shift is expected from " tourism for doing", which focuses on experiencing culture, to their true identity. This specifically entails experienceoriented tourism coupled with certain spiritual aspects, such as participating in Zen meditation to re-examining oneself, engaging in yoga exercises to build a healthier body, practicing calligraphy to calm oneself, and having a Zen temple meal to cleanse the body internally. In addition, greater interest is expected regarding ecology and haling, which can alleviate the modern-day fatigue felt

by many people. In such sense, religion will have an even greater potential to contribute to tourism in the future. In order to further promote religious tourism, the supportive structure needs to be improved in both concrete and abstract terms. 13 Religious Tourism in Republic of Korea The Global population continues to grow every year, of which 5,57 billion are estimated to be " religious", representing 83.7% of the total world population in 2005. The Korean religious population, in particular, has been rapidly expanding to reach 25 million in 2005 from 17 million in 1985, an increase of a massive 45%, out of a total Korean population of 47 million. Koreans have remained fairly religious through the 5,000 years of its history as the country was under constant threat of invasions and aggressions from neighboring foreign powers due to geo-political reasons. A government census figure in 2008 indicates that 53% of Koreans held a religious affiliation which is more than half of the South Korean population. In the Republic of Korea,Buddhist,Protestant,Catholic, Won Buddhism, Confucianism and Shamanism coexist shoulder to shoulder peacefully with close influence and interaction of one with the other. There is no national religion. The Republic of Korea is a multi-religious country where a great variety of spiritual beliefs coexist in a modern society. Religious tourism is considered as a form of cultural and heritage tourism in which faith-based travel is generally motivated by religion and spirituality. focused attention is paid to religious tourism considering the high potential it offers of transforming a religious population into religious tourist. World religious tourist are estimated to reach up to 300 million which is 33.4% of a total of 898 million world tourists. the value of the world religious tourism industry is estimated to be around US$ 180 million. Korean religious tourist account for 9.3% of a total of 703 million domestic tourists in terms of travel items in total. Monitoring the prospects of religious tourism as the fastest growth sector in travel industry, the Korean government and five regional governments, mainly Chollabukdo, chungchongnamdo, Jejudo, Daegu Metropolitan City and Kyongsangbukdo are focusing more and more on religionbased tourism projects in their destination marketing and strategic planning. The Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism plans to undertake a project called " Luxury Korea cultural Contents" as a channel to enhance religious tourism as one of the future core tourism sectors. for example, 2011 Tipitaka koreana 1,000 years Expo project is selected as one of the national tasks, identified as a vital tool for publicizing Korean Buddhism culture to the world stage. The Republic of |Korea being a market of a variety if religious, philosophical and spiritual beliefs has seen the volume of pilgrimages and missionary travel grow rapidly for both overseas and domestic journeys. The number of Koreans pilgrimage tourists embarking on religious trips to the world's great sacred destinations including Israel,the Vatican city and Jerusalem and following the renowned pilgrimage routes is growing rapidly. Purpose of Study Religious pilgrimage is one of the earliest motivations for travel in human history and eventually became mass tourism after the Industrial Revolution as people sought inner peace and relief from severe fatigue caused by heavy work. In recent times the demand of religious tourism has been on the rise due to desires by tourists anticipating quality and spiritual relaxation. Identifying such trends, the Korean central government and local governments are establishing differentiated and redistributive policies focusing on capturing the potential of religious tourism to develop as a unique tourism product. Each religious group belonging to Buddhism,Christianity, Shamanism and even smaller religious communities are actively involved in developing religious tourism products and marketing them as new niche tourism products in the Republic of Korea. World Religious Population The religious population of the world is steadily growing every year and 6.67 billion are estimated to have some religious affiliation that constitutes 83.7% of the total world population in 2005.

Christians constitute 2.1 billion forming the largest portion of 31.4% followed by Islam (1.3 billion,19.5%) and Buddhism (376 million, 5.6%). 13.1 Religious Population in the Republic of Korea According to a government census, out of a population of 47,041, 434 the Republic of Korea's religious population was estimated at 24,970,766 in 2008, which is 53% of the total. This means that more than one out of two Koreans hold a religious affiliation and orientation.According to census figures, Koreans who consider themselves as religious increased rapidly 45% reaching up to 25% from 17 million in 1985. In general Koreans have been very religious and spiritually oriented through the 5,000 years of their history. Today, Christianity has become the major religion in the Republic of Korea consisting of around 30 percent of the population, while Buddhism is the second largest religion (22%): it is noteworthy however that 46 percent of Korean adults do not identify themselves with any religious affiliation. The breakdown of religious affiliations in 2005 was as follows: Buddhists: 10 million, Protestants: 8.6 million, Catholics: 5.1 million and Confucianism's : 100,000 respectively. Every secotr of the Korean religious strata has been growing except Confucianism for the last tow decades. Noticeable increases have been growing except Confucianism for the last two decades. Noticeable increases have been registered amongst the Christians in the republic of Korea showing a growth of 176% over twenty years from 1985 to2005. Integrity, adaptability of the Religion of Korea's traditional society resistance against military dictatorship, human rights advocates, organizational and administrative capabilities of Christian institutions contribute in its sharp expansion in the Republic of Korea. As a nation guarantees freedom of religion and upholds the principles of separating church and state, the republic of Korea has had few serious religious conflicts in the past and present. Freedom of religion is guaranteed in the Korean Constitution establisehd in 1948. and religious freedom has allowed diverse religious activity and peaceful coexistence interwoven into the modern Korean society. 13.2 Korean Religious Culture The primary religions or philosophies which have affected the Korean people and society most significantly are Shamanism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, donghak and ancestor worship. Christianity was first introduced to the Republic of Korea in the 18th century by missionaries and only started to grow from the mid-20thcentury. Historically Shamanism has been in Republic of Korea's indigenous religion dating back to 1,000 B.C which originated from Siberia.Shamanism played an important role not only as a traditional belief but it was also the politically ruling ideology of ancient society in Korean history until Confucianism, Buddhism and Zen were introduced to the Korean peninsular. Shamanism flourished during the Goryeo dynasty ( 918-1392) in line with Buddhism. However, it dwindled when Confucianism was introduced to the country at the end of Goryeo and the beginning of the Yi Dynasty ( 1392-1910). the Yi Dynasty did not tolerate any other religion except Confucianism and Shamanism was degraded to the lowest social status. Although oppressive measures over Buddhism and Shamanism were prevalent during the Yi Dynasty, both religions maintained salient features of Korean culture which still has an impact on all aspects of Korean society to this day. Buddhism entered the Republic of Korea during the " Three Kingdom's Period" in the 4th century and became the national religion of the Goryeno dynasty. Buddhism became the cultural base of the Korean masses even though the Anti-Buddhism policy was executed for five hundred years during the Yi Dynasty. Confucianism was most powerful in the Yi Dynasty in keeping with other East Asian countries which were all influenced by Chinese Confucianism. The Political system, moral standards and social values of Confucianism played a pivotal role, controlling the whole Korean society. However and other folk religions such as Shamanism played a key role in maintaining religious values in the Republic of Korea society.

By the end of late Yi Dynasty, practical science and Western learning irrelevant to Confucianism entered to Korean peninsular along with Catholicism in the 19th century. Coinciding with a burgeoning atmosphere of people's anticipation of a new world, Catholicism spread as fast as the newly born local religions such as Jeunsangyo and Daejongyo. As the diversity of new religions came at the end of Yi Dynasty, the substantial influence of Confucianism diminished. Catholicism has a history of about 200 years in Korea and was considered as one of the most dependable religions which supported n resisting military dictatorship from 1960's to 1980's and became a spiritual reference in Korean elite society. Although Protestantism was introduced to the Republic of Korea only 120 years ago and considering such a short history compared to other religions, it soon became the second largest religion in the Republic of Korea. the two main pillars of korean traditional culture had been fashioned by Buddhism and Confucianism since these two religions contributed to a great extent in laying the foundation for cultural assets and resources. the tendency of Koreans towards religion is very open aggressive and passionate. despite a long history of political and cultural influence from its strong neighboring countries, the Republic of Korea has maintained its individuality and identity as a homogeneous race with one language and culture but with a great variety of religious and spiritual beliefs. 13.3 Korean Religious Relics For over 1,600 years, Buddhism strongly influenced Korean culture and history, serving as the state religion for centuries. Today's Korean cultural resources are mostly products of Buddhism with influences from Confucianism, Shamanism, Taoism and Christianity. More than 70% of the tangible cultural relics existing to date in the Republic of Korea originated form Buddhism and these serve as significant tourist attractions dispersed throughout the country.Korean Buddhist temples are nestled in the deep mountain sites because of the secularism of Buddhism. Religion is an integral part of the national heritage and cultural assets attract a considerable number of local visitors in the Republic of Korea. There are about 100 Seowon, Confucius lecture halls, and 235 Hanggyo, memorial halls for Confucian services, to honor distinguished scholars and statesmen in the Republic of Korea who influenced moral values for Koreans society. Some Catholic martyrdom saved grounds have been formed since 1950 and many Korean Catholic church goers arrange pilgrimage tours to these locations. Currently, there are around 90,000 religious facilities in the Republic of Korea and approximately 20% of these facilities possess space in which cultural activities are performed, and approximately 30% of them operate cultural programs. 13.4 Present Status of Religious Tourism in the Republic of Korea The market for both domestic and overseas religious tourism is augmented by enhanced interest of tour operators, airlines, governments, religious communities and general tourists. current Korean pilgrimage travelers seek for a more authentic experience through spiritual and cultural traditions associated with their specific religions. In connection with contemporary busy lifestyles and long working hours in Korean societies, more people are seeking to visit natural settings to regenerate themselves from stress associated with the contemporary urban environments. Even people with no religious connection seek religious sites for individual educational purpose, new travel experiences and personal meditation. Korean outbound tour operators are featuring new products including religion-based cruise tours and itineraries for overseas pilgrimages mainly featuring sacred destinations associated with the mainstream of faiths like Christianity and Buddhism.There are three different components in the religious tourism mix: pilgrimage,visiting religious attractions and religious festivals ( Lee and Nolan 1992). The exact number of religious tourists can't be estimated easily but tourists who visit religious attractions including its neighboring sites can be classified as religious tourists in Korea. According to the statistics released by the Korea Tourism Information System in 2008, a total of 65,220,606 tourists visited 162 major religious sites in four metropolitan cities and eight provinces. This means that 9.3% of the total number of inbound visitors of 703,419,000 made religious trips in Korea.

intrabound The purpose of travel for religion and pilgrimage ranks fourth in Korean domestic travel which accounts for 1.2% to 3.2% of total domestic travel during the three years. Domestic accounts for 1.2% to 3.2% of total domestic travel during the three years. Domestic religious travel is handled by a small number of tour operators specialized in featuring itineraries of major religious sites in Korea. the market for domestic religious tourism is very robust and rapidly growing which comprises the journeys of believers to destinations of their faith, mainly to Buddhist and Catholic sacred sites. A noticeable feature has been in the increase by non-religious people or other religious members visiting the pilgrimage sites motivated by seeking personal spiritual growth, in anticipation of the experience of historic religious sites. One of the largest pilgrimage tours in the ' 108 Temples Buddhism Pilgrimage' program which was initiated by a Hyeja monk from Jogye Order in 2006. Small groups to large groups of more than 4,000 Buddhists gather in one temple for 108 bows to pray and to mingle with co-religionists. the purpose of the trip is to visit 108 temples rotating every month to different temples across the nation to pray 108 times for blessings while releasing 108 agonies at the same time. Inbound Foreign travelers' visits to Korea for religious and pilgrimage purposes accounted for 0.6% in 2008, decreased by 0.3% from 0.9% in 2005. Many foreign visitors to Korea include in their travel experiences, visits to religious sacred sites in their itinerary as one way to better understand Korean history, religious traditions and its culture. Outbound The purpose of travel for religion and pilgrimage accounts for 1.7% of total outbound travel in 2008, an increase of 0.3% compared to the year 2006. The overseas pilgrimage tours are generally organized by religious organizations, affiliations, independent commercial tourism companies and adherents to strengthen their faith based on their religious commitment. For overseas pilgrimage,meaningful and religious journeys for Christians and Catholics include Israel, Jerusalem, Nazareth, Galilee, Mt.Sinai and Rome. Buddhists' travel to renowned sites associated with their faith includes mainly India, Nepal, Thailand, Myanmar and China. 13.5 successful Case of Korean Religious Tourism Temple Stay-Buddhism Experience in Korea temple Stay is a unique cultural experience program designed to provide visitors a memorable opportunity to discover Korea's rich Buddhist heritage and offer insight into the life of Buddhist monks. Korea's Temple Stay program has grown over the years.providing both foreign and domestic visitors with repose and relaxation amidst beautiful scenery and a chance to learn about the Korean culture. It serves as an opportunity to rediscover one's identity in natural surroundings while staying in a Buddhist temple, paying respect to temple ritual practices and meditative disciplines. The objective of the program is to offer accommodation to foreign visitors and enlighten them on Korean traditional rituals that that can only learn by staying in the temples that are mostly located in mountains surrounded by beautiful natural environments. The 2002 World Cup Games generated a number of diverse changes in Korean society. One of them was the launch of the Temple Stay program which was initially developed as a solution to meet the shortage of lodging facilities during the events. Both the Korean government and head monks of key temples across the nation agreed to support the positive idea of Temple Stay that provided an opportunity for foreign visitors to experience Korean Buddhism and its unique traditional culture. The program started with 33 temples around ten cities where World Cup Games were held and a total 991 foreign visitors participated in them at that time. At present, 100 Buddhist temples

provide Temple Stay programs. A total of 112,800 visitors, 20,100 of them foreigners, participated in Temple Stays in 2008, up 38% over the year 2007. Motivations to participate in Temple Stay programs, according to a survey, were to experience Koran traditional culture (55.8%) and interest in Buddhism (21.1%). However, several barriers like lack of time (40%), lack of information (29.2%) and inconvenient transportation ( 9.1%) are to be considered and improved. The major benefit the participants gained was the experience and understanding of the Korean culture (64.4%). The one day experience is differentiated by calling it the Temple Life program offering a condensed overview of the program for those who have limited time. The program also serves as a family oriented tourism product with educational purpose. Throughout different activities, monks provide information on Buddhist philosophy and guidance to visitors. Main program in Temple Stay The Temple Stay program is operated based on the general itinerary provided by the cultural Corps of Korean Buddhism by Jogye Order which can be adjusted by each temple's location and environment. Temple Stay offers various kinds of practicing methods including Yebul ( ceremonial service involving chanting), chamseon ( Zen medication), Participants can discover their " trueself" amongst the harmony of nature in a most tranquil environment while staying at a temple. visitors are expected to strictly follow the temple's daily routine and rules of monastic life including early wakeup to discovering the inner self and the realization that the world is a harmonious place where one must live together with others. The Temple Stay program is generally composed of a one night and two day itinerary managed within the temple and surroundings. Participants will be allowed time to explore the mountain side as most temples are located in national or provincial parks featuring picturesque natural environments.Additional activities are available such as lotus lantern making with ink and paper, outdoor meditation and folk games. Considering high internet usage by global and domestic online travel planners, several temples have set up websites for online reservations and provide detailed information in both English and local languages. Basic Temple Stay program Yebul-Devotional Chanting Yebul is a Buddhist temple ritual that involves praise and giving respect to Buddha.This solemn ceremonial service is performed three times a day, in the morning, midday and evening,helping to clear one's mind and soul. Balwoo-gongyang-Communal Buddhist Meal Service Balwoo-gongyang is a unique and special way of eating monastic meals in Korean temples. during this communal meal practice, the meal is eaten in total silence and not a single grain of rice should remain in the bowls. Everyone has to sit in a lotus position and should not speak or make any sound, except for the special prayer. the balwoo signifies a precise amount of food that is needed for bodily sustenance. Chamseon-Zen Meditation Zen is known as Seon in Korean. Seon is taken from the Sanskrit word dhyana, meaning contemplation and religious meditation. Its practice in Korean Buddhism is a key aspect of studying toward seeking the truth. Chamseon is a form of meditation that involves concentration with the aim of discovering one's true self through meditation as a way to look inward and not outward when seeking to reach enlightenment or being awakened. Two forms of meditation are conducted in Chamseon; Jwaseon, a sitting-style meditation and Haeseon, a walking-style

meditation. Dado-Tea Ceremony Making and enjoying good tea is one of the practices of the Buddhist religion. the ceremony is undertaken in traditional Korean ways to appreciate good tea. It is not just about drinking tea but the act of brewing and drinking the tea involves practicing Buddha's teaching of proper mindfulness and concentration. Follow up discussions with monks are provided to participants to gain further insights in Buddha's teachings and commentaries. Development Direction for Temple Stay Visitors The Temple Stay program is a government level operation which requires further cooperation and joint efforts with Buddhist organizations for overseas public relations activities. Learning form the experience of low participation rate in 2002 compared to the expenditure, supplementary tactical solutions are being laid out to overcome shortcomings in promotions. Reconciling global marketing to appeal to cultural uniqueness of Temple Stay is a key of achieving further success of the program. Currently, increased coverage is generated by both international and local media introducing Temple Stay as a new trend of leisure and cultural travel. When a temple applies for the Temple Stay, the cultural Corps of Korean Buddhism inspects the temple and evaluates if it is compatible with criteria including location, facilities and programs. Although a sufficient number of temples operate the programme and related human resources offered by monks and volunteers, screening qualified temples is necessary to provide a satisfactory program. there still exist some conflicts and discussions by the Buddhist groups, as the Temple Stay was initiated and approached by the government. Major concerns are possible distortion and damage to Buddhist cultural in addition to conservation and sustaining of properties. However, there is consensus that there is added positive effect such as improving the image of Buddhism to general public and propagation of the religion. 13.6 Major Religious Events and Festivals in the Republic of Korea Contemporary Korean travelers are seeking a variety of new experiences in both overseas and domestic regions to fulfill their growing interest to broaden their travel adventures. General consumer needs and travel trends and surveyed by the Korean governments and executing plans to enhance religious tourism by taking full advantage of the existing rich heritage, culture and art resources which are regarded as hidden jewels to sparkle. Carefully selected religious events and festivals rooted in Korean history are supported by government funding as a step towards initiating successful promotions and maximizing the cultural authenticity of Korea's living cultural heritage. '2001 Tripitaka Koreana 1,000 Years Expo' Project Located deep in the mountains of Hapcheon county in South-East Korea Haeinsa Temple is one of Korea's three largest Buddhist monasteries. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the compound is home to the Tripitaka Koreana or Palmandaejanggyeong in Korean, a 13th century collection of woodblock carvings of the Buddhist scriptures and the oldest and most complete edition of the Buddhist canon in Chinese characters. For centuries, the monastery has been the scholastic centre of Korean Buddhism, preserving the tradition of spiritual studies through the generations. The Tripitaka koreana is a complete set of the most valuable Buddhist scriptures which are printed on 81,137 woodblocks, the best organized Buddhist cannon in the world. It was compiled over a period of 15 years from 1236 to 1251 under the commission by King Gojong in Goryeon Dynasty as a kind of prayer to halt the foreign invasions and asking Buddha's protection for the country. The Tripitaka koreana is composed of as many as about 50 million Chinese characters .To celebrate its 1000 years of history, a large scale cultural festival will be held in

2011. Korea Religion Culture Festival The Korean Religion Culture Festival was held for the thirteenth year in 2009 organized by the Korea Religion Leaders Association and sponsored by the Korea Ministry of culture, Sports and Tourism. It was held under the theme of " Sharing Love and Hope" to celebrate the cooperation and coexistence of different religions and to enjoy the event together in exchange of open communications. The music concert under the name of " Sharing" as an opening program was a successful cultural celebration as well as paved the road for cohabitation among religions. The Korea Religion Culture Festival contributes greatly to the unification of society and further development of religious arts. It is a fact that there are a number of religious wars in the world but Korea faced no such religious conflict due to diverse religions existing in the country. This Religion culture festival will be upgraded and the motivation will be refined to become a representative religion consortium festival through expanded participation by all religions in Korea. Another goal is to establish positive image of religion itself through general public participation in the festival. Parlkwonhoe Palkwonhoe, a national festival of the Goryeo Dynasty, was born of many spiritual cults, adapting to the people's belief system around the country. The ceremony consists of many pats: the worshiping cult, entertainment, exchange and communication. Plakwanhoe played a key role as a government instrument to establish social integration, achieve legitimacy and determine its complications in the cultural tourism policy, which relates to the ceremonial life-world and the development of traditional Korean festivals inherited from the cultural cross-section of Korean people. Lotus Lantern Festival One of the biggest annal Buddhist events known for beautifully lit lotus lanterns symbolizing spiritual renewal is held in May. the festival is not limited to Buddhists in Korea but designed for non-Buddhists, regardless of nationality. the major programs in festivals include exhibitions of traditional Korean lanterns, Buddhist performances and a massive lantern parade near Jogye temple in downtown. Around 300,000 people appear in the streets in Seoul and some 1,000 volunteers help arrange the events. More than 100,000 handcrafted lanterns of diverse design and colours are displayed to highlight the festival.the event serves as a testimony to the timehonored traditions of Korean Buddhism culture. 13.7 Policy Direction of Korean Religious Tourism Religious tourism is one of the fast growing sectors of the international tourism industry and the interest is noticeable by tourists, governments, religious communities and tour operators. In order to improve the global competitiveness and further develop the tourism industry, the Korean government announced a long-overdue plan to develop Korea's unique cultural, historic and ecological resources into tourism attractions in December 2008 which included the religious culture and heritage resources to be developed as core tourism content. The Korea Tourism Organization selected five strategic tourism products including religious tourism, medical tourism, sports tourism, movie film tourism and Korean Wave tourism as future oriented and focused development areas. In addition to successful development to the Temple Stay program, governments and private sectors will cooperate to nurture a number of high potential products including tasting traditional temple menus, lotus lantern festivals, sutre relics, Tropikata Koreana, royal shines' ancestor memorial services and Confucian school stay

programs. Perceiving the potentiality to attract pilgrimage and religious tourist, four provincial governments are associating their rich but unrevealed heritage sites and religious cultural resources into tourism contents as an important dimension of their tourism marketing. regional efforts are important to enhance the awareness of local attractions and to gain products differentiation. In summary, considering the significant role of tourism in the national economy, both central and local governments are collaborating to implement joint platform and strategic plans to increase the capacity of Korean religious tourism to become globally competitive. Eventually all will benefit from the increased market share by attracting more international and domestic tourists. Tactical plans are aimed at improving the image of Korea and country brand at the international level and diversifying the tourism mode on the sustainable basis of the country's heritage sites. the Korean government is implementing partnership plans and programs with leading tour operators to further enhance religious tourism as a new type of tourism in the country. -14 Republic of Korea-Baekdu-daegan Trail Religious and pilgrimage tourism is the fastest-growing type of tourism around the world in this decade, as travelers increasingly seek to visit not only the holy places of their own religion but also the most famous sacred sites of other religions and spiritual traditions, in personal quests for mutual understanding, personal spiritual growth or religious-path advancement and more vivid, deeper and more interesting experiences ( World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 2007). Although it is difficult to present precise numbers because governments do not often differentiate this secotr in their statistics. It has been estimated that global tourists involved in pilgrimages of some kind amounted for 250 million per year at the end of the last century ( Jackowski 2000); by 2007 that rate could be expected to have become significantly higher ( although now temporarily depressed due to the 2008-2009 global economic crisis). this [phenomenon offers a high level of added-value of existing national tourism programs, as the religious aspects are integrated with more conventional tourism offerings ( Vukonic 2002). Gonzalez and Medina provide a good example of the theoretical and practical value of this with their detailed description of how the revival of the old medieval pilgrimage route to Santiago de Composetela has engendered a dramatic reassessment of the notion of tourist potential that has turned sectors and aspects of previously-neglected heritage into valuable assets, and altered the way the architectural heritage of Spanish cities is perceived and preserved; a change in outlook that has affected bot the local population and the political and economic authorities, becoming an important source of economic authorities, becoming an improtant source of economic growth in North-Western Spain and symbol of renovated local identity (2003). The republic of Korea, however, has paid very little attention to this burgeoning sector (except for development of its privately operated Buddhist Temple-Stay program), allocating very little research, development and publicity efforts. It has therefore been missing-out on the opportunity for increasing tourism visits and revenues potentially available from greater sustainable exploitation of the nation's many rich and ancient religious-heritage assets. As scholars have attempted to elucidate the concepts of and characteristics of modern travel motivated mainly by religious experiences intentions, cultural geographers have argued that religious tourism has become closely connected with and integrated withing leisure-holiday, adventure and other type of cultural tourism ( Rinnschede 1992). All different kinds of tourists are now interested in including religious, spiritual and pilgrimage factors into their domestic and international journeys, and religious tourism is clearly a major and growing sector despite the resulting increasing difficulty in differentiating spiritual pilgrims form other more common types of leisure and adventure tourists(Fleischer 2000 and Sizer 1999). Current tourists are tending and increasing rates to desire and choose non-standard, unfamiliar and "different", and even uniquely-personal religious and spiritual experiences as part of their otherwise-conventional or physically adventurous vacation trips, and this draws them towards internationally-known sacred sites ( Fernandes and Rebelo 2008). therefore, the United Nations World tourism Organization (UNWTO) has categorized (IBID) the resulting recent wave of tourism with at lest partial religious or spiritual motivations into three main forms:

* Pilgrimages at or nearby mainly touristic destinations; * Religious and spiritual festivals, ceremonies and gatherings; * Travel itineraries that lead along historic pilgrimage routes that are experiencing revival or include visiting significant sacred sites with buildings or monuments. As there is this resurgent boom of religious pilgrimage and spiritual-motivated travel around the world of these three types, whether of traditional or modern-secular sorts, "increasing indications suggest that there is contest for access and use of sacred sites" involving a variety of stakeholders, some of whom hold these sites sacred and others with government-managerial or purely commercial concerns, who can be drawn either into cooperation or conflict ( Digance 2003). These differing interests can be harmonized, and the conflicts reconciled, while pursuing the development of traditional religious holy sites ad both new tourism destinations and places of modern spiritual experiences only if the management strategy is correctly pursued at the highest levels ( Blain and Wallis 2007). In particular, the development of tourism destinations in mountainous areas, normally chiefly concerned with ecological sustainability issues, becomes especially complex when the mountains are of high cultural significance, with very strong and possibly differing religious interpretations of their scenic and cultural assets ( Carr 2004). the process of maintaining sufficient standards of environmental sustainability necessarily involves the willing and active participation of a wide variety of stakeholders, whose interests often overlap and even contradict each other ( Cater 1995). It is common for all countries to attempt to create and develop new tourism attractions based on previously existing geographical features and cultural traditions, transformed as necessary to appeal to their domestic and targeted interaction tourist markets.Mountains regarded as sacred by national religious traditions are frequently used for tourism development in this way, around the globe ) Cooper 1997 and Bernbaum 1990). for nations such as Republic of Korea that are still in the middle stages of tourism industry development, it is not often that an entirely new major tourism attractions is identified and developed. the larger the destination's geographical area and the wider its social/cultural/religious scope, the number of institutional and public stakeholders involved and/or concerned and the complexity of their interacting interests must exponentially increase ( sanwal 1989). The present study focuses on an unusual case where a long-known but undeveloped large-scale geographical feature of Republic of Korea, richly decorated with ancient religious sites, has quite recently and almost spontaneously emerged as an entirely new multi-featured tourism destination which has strong potential for attracting large numbers of domestic tourists and a fair number of international visitors, in particular those seeking religious, spiritual and pilgrimage experiences, whether as the main purpose of their visit of Republic of Korea or as an adjunct factor to their journey. As introductory material this paper includes a brief overview of the history, geographical characteristics and cultural assets of this attraction, which is still unknown in the international tourism market. this project is resulting in the first known academic studies, in any language, of this geographical and cultural phenomenon's emergence as a potential religious tourism attraction for Republic of Korea. It concludes with a preliminary identification of the major relevant stakeholders whose differing interests in development of this attraction will need to be analyzed in further research. 14.1 Identity of the Baekdu-daegan Trail The Korean term Baekdu-daegan designates the long mountain range that runs most of the length of the Korean Peninsula. Within the past twenty years a long-distance hiking trail along the crest of its southern half has been explored, developed and designated by a combination of local governments, National Forest authorities and civilian mountain-hiking associations. this route is now linked together,apparently for the first time in Korean history, as a long-distance hiking trail that takes between five and then weeks for trekkers to transverse. It is becoming comparable to internationally-known long-distance trekking routes such as the Appalachian Trail, California coastal Trail and Sierra Crest Trail of the United States of America, Inca Trail of Peru, the Great Wall trail of China, the Milford Track of New Zealand's South Island and So-on.

However, there is something unique about a Naekdu-daegan compared to those others. Besides spectacular views and beautiful natural scenery in long stretches of unspoiled forests and crags, it features many religious, cultural and historic sites which add dimensions of cultural-tourism potential to its fundamental base of adventure tourism value. these sites along the way signify historic elements of or are sacred sites of Korean Buddhism,Shamanism, Spiritual-Nationalism, Daoism and Neo-Confucianism. It can be seen as a kind of a pilgrimage trail, like other traditional ones that have been popularly revived for modern religious tourism in Europe, the Middle East, India Korea's Baekdu-daegan offer such a variety of sites holy to such multiple and diverse religions, coexisting in harmony as part of the nation's cultural history. The idea of hiking along the crest of the Baekdu-daegan ( only the half in south Korea, for now) or at least major sections of it, is gaining in popularity; several books and websites are now devoted to this, and more people attempt it each year. This trail is increasingly known to the Korean public, for which mountain-hiking is an extremely common hobby, although it remains unknown to the international tourism industry and barely known even to the international residents of Republic of Korea. The stakeholders in the emerging Baekdu-daegan hiking and pilgrimage trial represent a wide variety of Republic of Korea national and local governments and agencies, and non-governmental associations, businesses and residential localities, with interests that are already seen to coincide and conflict in complex ways. Written materials for reference towards this study were gathered from every available academic and commercial source, but they have proven to be few, as this topic is a new one that has so far had very little published about it, even in Korean. some useful historical information about the concept, geographical reality and geomantic interpretation and reputation of the Baejdy-daegan was gathered from traditional Korean sources, previously collected ( and sometimes translated into English) for other academic research. most of the data and information used in this study was gathered form many years of fieldwork travel throughout Korea, and a careful examination of topographical and tourism maps published in Korea. Fore example, the author and his associates have actually hiked n the complete Baekdu-daegan Trail as it now exists in Republic of Korea; one 10-week trekking expedition was conducted in the autumn of 2007, and other sites along the way were visited from 1990 through 2009. These years of fieldwork yielded a great deal of very useful information about every aspect of the current condition of the Trail, and many signs and monuments erected by local ad national governments and private associations were photographed and translated into English in order to gain further insight. throughout this process, the various stakeholders were noticed and identified, and their deferring interests were noted. 14.2 Geographical Characteristics and contemporary Cultural Features of the Baekdu-daegan Range The Baekdu-daegan serves as the dominant divider of the Korean Peninsula into its distinct regions. It is an unbroken watershed-origin line, meaning that its crest never crosses any natural body of water ( lake, pond, river or stream). this also means that the Baekdu-daegan contains the origins of all of Korea's major rivers; some 14 branches of it channel of them to the seas on the peninsula's three seacoasts. The Chinese-character based name Baekdu-daegan literally means " White-head great-ridge" , with Baekdu referring to Mt. Baekdu-san the perpetually-snowcapped extinct volcano on the border between Korean and china, highest mountain on the peninsula and considered to be the Cheonwang-bong [heavenly-king peak] of Jiri-san [Exquisite-Wisdom Mountain], which at 1915m in altitude is the highest summit on mainland South Korea, and only about 40 km from the southern coastline. The Baekdu-daegan is around 1400-1500 km long its crest. About 735km of crest-tail is within what is now Republic of Korea, from the DMZ down to Jiri-san, and most of that is accessible for hiking ( with alternate rots for the sections within national pars that are not). It follows what is called the Taebaek-sanmaek [Grand white Mountain-Range] by conventional geography along the est coast of the |Korean Peninsula to Mt. Taebaek-san, and then it turns west and then south to follow what is otherwise conventionally called the Sobaek-sanmaek [Lesser White Mountain-Rage] down through the centre of the

peninsula's southern quarter, diving from each other the major historic regions that Koreans call the Honam Region to its west ( the Jeolla nad chungcheong Provinces, once the major part of the Baekje kingdom). The Baekdu-daegan thus includes most ( but not all) of Korea's highest peaks, and roughly half of its most sacred mountains. the fact that the sources of all Republic of Korea's major river are found along the Baekdu-daegan adds to its Daoist/shamanic significance, and is a major factor in this having been considered a sacred landform for over 1000 years. The origin-point (Baekdu-san) and ending-point (Jiri-san) are designated with green triangles, and the numbers 0 and 11, respectively ( Baekdu-san is "0" because the Baekdu-daegan area on its North Korean side is not currently accessible to visitors). The other most-sacred or otherwisefamous mountains are designated with the numbers 1 through 10. This research has found more than 100 religious sites along the southern half of the Baekdudaegan Range within republic of Korea, within 5 km of the hiking trial along its crest on either side. there include ten of the most famous and religiously-important Buddhist temples in the nation, and dozens of smaller temples or hermitages. Some of these monasteries offer travelers republic of Korea's increasingly-popular Temple Stay tourism program, in which hikers of the Baekdu-daegan can stay over at the temple for up to 24 hours for a low fee, experiencing monastic life and viewing the local treasures ( Jogye Order 2008). they are spaced apart so that in several sectors it is possible to stay overnight at one major temple and then hike tow or five days on to the next one. Also included along the range are dozens of significant shamanic shrines, some with buildings and some consisting only of stone altars, most of which are dedicated to Daoist-flavored veneration of the Sanshin spirits of the mountains they are on ( Mason 1999). There are also several major Daoist-Nationalist shrine, a few Christian churches, and many other nationallysignificant historical sites. For spiritually-oriented tourists it may be considered a pilgrimage trail, connecting so many temples,shrines and monuments of the four great Asian religious traditions: Buddhism, Confucianism, Daoism and Shamanism. In respect of this wide variety of different religious traditions available to view and experience along the way, and the density of the total religious sites, it can be said to be unique among the " Pilgrimage trails" of the world. There are now dozens of monuments ( usually stone monoliths inscribed with Chinese characters and Korean text) along the way, mostly erected by local governments within the past decade, proclaiming the identity and significance of these sites and the most significant natural features such as peaks and passes. Many of these monuments are valuable sources of historical and cultural informatiuon, as well as being amplifications of the naturla scenery for the benefit of travelers. These have been supplemented by a series of trail-signs identifying the main Baekdudaegan trail routes, put up by both the Korea First Service and the various local governments, to guide hikers along the correct pathways ( the author has photographs of all these monuments and signs, as of 2007). Most trekkers of the Baekdu-daegan choose to travel it " in reverse", hiking form South to North rather than in the direction that the Ji-ki geomantic-energies are traditionally believed to flow through it; the reason for this mainly seems to be the desire to have the Sun mostly behind the hikers rather than in front of them ( shining in their face), for a more pleasant experience and better views of the scenery. the following table describes the actual progress of the 10-week "2007 Baekdu-dagan Expedition" accomplished by this author's two partners from New Zealand ( shepherd and Douch 2007), as a demonstration of what is involved in hiking the entire trial while taking the time to stop at its major cultural and religious attractions. the table emphasizes the political jurisdictions ( provinces, cities, counties and districts) that the trial passes through and the names of the major temples or shrines, etc, that can be experienced along the way. 14.3 the Baekdu-daegan concept n Korea's cultural History The concept of the Baekdu-daegan as a continuous line that unite the nation and spreads a mystical kind of energy throughout it is a key concept of Pungsu-jiri-seol [Wind-water Wistomtheory, the Korean system of Geomancy or Feng-shie]. the initial development of these systems of concepts of the Baekdu-daegan as the mountainous-spine-of-Korea is credited to Buddhist

monk Doseaon-guksa [Tao-abundance National-Master, his posthumous monastic title] (826-898 CE, personal name Kim Yeon-gi). this concept is known to have been prominent in Korean thinking about the geography and spiritual character of their nation for the next thousand years, by everyone from Neo-Confucian scholars and royalty through Buddhist monks to shamanist peasants ( Yoon 2006, Kim Chun -il 1996 and Kim Yeong-gi 1999). The limitation on lenght of this paper does not permit us to vie futher detals of the continuance of this theme throughout Korean history into modern times; this topic will be thoroughly explired in a fiothcoming book. Right on through the 20th Centyury and into the 21st Century, Korean traditionalist of all sorts ( spiritual-nationalist,Buddhists, confucnains, Shamanists, Daoist and even many christians and those not beloging to a religion) have believed in the idea that hte Baekdu-daegan is the soruce of their dynamic and essential life-energy, and a sysmbol of natuonal identity with cultural unity.Its unimpeded clear flow is considred necessary for the borth and raising of heroic and virtuous citizens, and thus for the health, strength and prosperity of the Korean nation as a whole. Those who conduct spiritual practices at these special sites along the Baekdu-daegan are believed to have an advantage in attaining enlightenment and blessings, due to the strong " energy" infusing them. 14.4 The Modern Emergence of the Baekdu-daegan Hiking-Trail These concepts of the Baekdu-daegan in the previous section belong to the Oriental version of the ancient and varied philosophical doctrines known as " Vitalism" and cannot be considered in any modern way " scientific". However, they are deeply ingrained in traditional Korean culture. this makes them relevant and valuable for the development of cultural tourism along these mountains; many Koreans believe in them, and many international visitors probably find them charming or even personally meaningful, especially those who come to Korea for the purpose of roots-identity, religious or spiritual tourism. these ancient concepts can also now be observed among the intelligentsia leading public opinion in Korea to be transforming from ancient pseaudoscientific beliefs to modern conceptions of the theoretical unity of the peninsula and nation, and the ecology of the wildest remaining areas of them. Many Koreans now can be seen to regard the Baekdu-daegan as a symbol of national unity, and hiking along it to be personal gesture of basic patriotism and wishing for reunification. the first claim of hiking the entire Baekdu-daegan within South Korea was made by a college student mountain-hiking association less than 20 years ago. In the past decade there has been a dramatic rise in Korean individual and groups attempting to do this and accomplishing it ( Bang 2006). Very few international residents or visitors have been involved yet at all, but many who are informed about it have expressed interests in participating. the past decade has also seen a flurry of activity and pronouncements concerning the Baekdu-daegan buy various Korean government organs and civilian NGO's, all of which are deeply concerned with the issues involved in this trial's development. 14.5 Conclusions A truly gigantic new religious pilgrimage tourism attraction for south Korea awaits leadership in forming an integrated National Strategy to manage its development with stakeholder's interests balanced in harmony. This research project has identified the Baekdu-daegan Trail as a new religious-pilgrimage tourism destination-site for South Korea, in addition to the adventure tourism opportunities that the Baekdu-daegan range already offers , particularly within designated national and provincial parks. It has presented the existing geographical and cultural characteristic of the range and the trial, finding them noticeable dense in religious assets which tourists can visit and enjoy spiritual experiences at. Due to the nation-spanning size of the Baekdu-daegan region, and the deep historical and cultural significance it holds for many citizens, and the strong potential it represents for boosting the national tourism reputation, and the number of tourist residents of, authorities of and visitors to the peninsula are remarkably large in scale.The variously parallel and conflicting interests of

these stakeholds have been thoroughly described and discussed in a previous research paper ( Moon and Yoon 2008). This indicates that, particularly considering Korea's long history of strong centralized governmental control, only the national government operating from its highest levels of power will be able to set policies and ensure their long-term implementation in such a way that all these stakeholder's interests and concerns are recognized and managed towards satisfaction in proper harmony with each other. this sort of leadership from the top level will be necessary to establish policy coordination between all the many different ministries and agencies that will in some way be involved, forcing them to the extend necessary to cooperate harmoniously with each other. Special committees or commissions including representatives of each of the civilian groups of stakeholders described in this paper may be appropriate to be formed under executive political leadership. Local control over sustainable development of sectors along the route, especially the sacred sites operated by religious groups, should be maintained within the context of national strategy. It is becoming urgent that the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and the Korea Tourism Organization should take note of the emergence of the Baekdu-daegan as a religious-pilgrimage tourism attraction with high potential to boost both Korea's domestic and international tourism industries, as well as general national reputation as a beautiful and fascinating place to visit, and begin actively participating in the promotion of it and the strategic planning for its proper development. They should conduct proper research and take the leadership in developing a harmonious national strategy to accomplish this. The interests of many of these groups of stakeholders, such as the strong concern for ecological, social and cultural sustainability by several of the Korean government agencies, the local residents and service-providers, the associations of mountain hikers, and the national environmental NGO's should be satisfied, along with the parallel imperative of promoting the reputation of the Baekdu-daegan and developing its Trail into a popular domestic and famous international tourism destination. Extensive research by independent scholars in conjunction with government specialists must be carried out, and then the exercise of strong central-executive national authority to create, coordinate and harmonize proper policy-solutions will clearly be needed in order to prevent any unnecessary conflicts and damage to the overall national project of developing and promoting this emerging destination into a major factor of Korean tourism, and a vital new contribitive participant in the burgeoning global religious-pilgrimage tourism sector.

14.6 Case Study: Korean Efforts to Promote the Buddhist Pilgrimage Market Korean Buddhism has a long history dating back to 1700 years. Throughout this period Buddhism flourished with official state patronage , except for a short interval during the Yi Dynasty when Confucianism gained official favour. Buddhist influence from china and Japan and reciprocal Korean interaction with these countries left a tradition of Buddhism that is uniquely Korean. this tradition is visible in the many temples, meditation centres, pilgrimages, festivals and other religious events related to |Buddhism that is professed by 11 million Koreans. Korean Buddhism has been influenced by other faiths including Shamanism and Confucianism. It is, therefore, in this context that Korean Buddhist philosophy resorts to and pays special attention to numerals. The number 33 associated with " 28 worlds and 33 heavens", the concept of the universe dear to followers of Buddhism in Korea, Japan and china, plays a central role in daily to followers of Buddhism in Korea, Japan and china, plays a central role in daily religious life and beliefs of its adherents. The 33rd heaven is called Doeucheon, a form of Nirvana where people live in bliss coupled with long life and good health. In this sense, it is believed that people would have their wishes come true if they make a pilgriamge to 33 Kanem Seongji, buddhist temples, enshrining 33 incarnations of kwanseumbosal, the Bodhisattva of benevolence. The 33 Korean representative Kwaneum Seongji sacred sites were therefore chosen on their standing,accessibility, and capacity to be

part of a promotional project. The purpose of the project was to arrest the slowdown in the Japanese inboud market that showed a decline from 2005 to 2007 by developing Korea's new unuque tourism products aimed at Japan's middle-aged Dankai ( baby boomer) or silver generation which had been leading Japan's outbound tourism market of Korea. It was also hoped by these measures to reinvigorate rural tourism away from a city-oriented tourism pattern. The immediate objectives of the project were to induce the flow of Japan's demand for Buddhist pilgrimage into Korea based on the fact that many Japanese are well disposed towards Korean Buddhism owing to the historical context in which the religious philosophies evolved in the repetitive countries. A new business model was created to improve the vale of Korea's Buddhist temples and to provide a differentiated service within the marketplace ( Ushering Buddhist temples, experiencing Dado, tea ceremony etc.). The target was to encourage the development of a service program that satisfied visitors' needs and promoted re-visitation, whilst fostering the product into becoming Korea's flagship Buddhist pilgrimage product. The initial product development phase consisted of planning sessions heavily targeting travel agents in Japan across four different regions. The product itinerary included a service program entailing guided tours of Buddhist temples, dado experiences, tea ceremonies and Temple stays. 33 unique Korean products were identified. Promotional materials such as guide books, product manuals, brochures and stamps were produced and distributed through travel agents in Japan. The product was also promoted at the JATA World Travel Fair in September of 2008. Following two familiarization tours of journalist and tour operators/travel agents the product was launched on August 6th 2008. the first monitoring group visited Kwaneum Seongji, from the 6th to 8th August whereby a two day-tour of Kyeongsang province was undertaken. This was followd by a commemorative event at Bulguk temple, Kyeongju. Following the pilot group, 28 products were launcehd into the Japanese market resutling in a successful initial year with 3,300 high yielding Japanese market,a domestic campaign was launged in the form of a pilgrimage program.Again the campaign proved to be a versatile success as it resulted in 300 customers visiting Beopj United of America, and 1,500 visiting Boriam. The project did encounter problems, and several measures were put in place to improve the program since the launch in 2008. Customer surveys and on-site recommendations were analyzed, resulting in overcoming the initial teething problems. Similarly, high level industry familiarization tours were conducted with participants being interviewed and surveyed. IT was also found that for continual improvements, the venture required an official agency in Korea. Other findings suggested that due to the regional limitations, tourism marketing programs in the form of promotional videos and leaflets, exchange programs, celebrity marketing and local government campaigns must be introduced to attract new customers. Partnership programs between Korea's Buddhist temples and Japan's Buddhist temples also had to be formulated and developed. This project is complementary to the popular Temple-stay programme and the "2011 Tripitaka Koreana 1000 Years Expo" that has been identified as a vital tool in publicizing Korea's Buddhist cultre to the world stage. The pilot project resutled in the diuscovery of a unique new tourism prodcut in Korea and showed the vale of Korean Buddhist asets. Re-visitation ahs also been successful since the launch in 2008 and rural areas have benefitted greatly. It is expected that customer service will be improved by establishing solid foundations in the form of new pilgiramge programs and by encouraging Kwaneum Seongji's participation. Similarly, it is hoped that the project will improve the balance between metropolitan and rural tourism and revive intra-bound tourism. 1.5 Religious tourism in Pakistan Pakistan, located in the Indian sub-continet of Sout Asia, is a fairly large country spread over 796,095 km.It is a federation of four provinces, namely; Balochistan, Sindh, Punjab, NWFP,Federally Administrated Tribal Areas (FATA) and Northern Areas. Pakistan has a magnificent past, and is a land full of historic treasures covering several successive civilizations. Being situated on the cross-roads of the East and West it presents a fascinating combination of the old and modern ways of life. Half a dozen civilization and four major religions i.e.

Buddhism,Sikhism, Hinduism and Islam have flourished here. The main tourist assets of Pakistan are ; its scenic beauty, flora and fauna, art and culture, adventure oriented products, sacred religious sites and, above all, the hospitality of its people. This varied background has produced friendly and tolerant people who show respect to each other and greet visitors from different religious background with hospitality. No other place in the world offers more opportunities to find out the roots of modern day religions than Pakistan. It is a land that not only claims to have the oldest civilization of the world but also remains unrivaled in abundance of sites and relics with the world but also remains unrivaled in abundance of sites and relics with the world's major religions having left their mark on the land that is now Pakistan. 15.1 Religious tourism Religious tourism, also commonly referred to as faith tourism, is a form of tourism whereby people travel individually or in groups for pilgrimage, rituals, festivals and/or combing with leisure purposes. The International conference on Religious Tourism estimates the worldwide faith tourism industry at $18 billion. Since times immemorial, pilgrimage in quest of spiritual satisfaction ,is the accepted norm of human behavior. Travel to satisfy this innate urge is dimensionless, universal and true irrespective of age, race and system of religious beliefs. the potential for religious tourism in Pakistan is, therefore extremely high. Places of religious importance inspire and draw people from far and wide from all the four corners of the country and from abroad.Devotees whether Muslims or non-Muslims flock in their thousands to the shrines of saints and sacred sites of worship seeking their blessings. People visit sacred places, shrines, temples, stupas and mosques in expectation of fulfillment of both their worldly as well as their spiritual aspirations. A country rich in religious sites and shrines, such as Pakistan has both an obligation to open up these sites to pilgrims, and the opportunity to develop specific pilgrimage tours that provide options for tourists to combine a religious experience with their holiday trips. In many cases, Sikh and Hindu pilgrims particularly from India, United Kingdom, United States of America and Canada come to Pakistan to participate in religious festivals,while tourists form other countries, such as Japan, Korea, china and Thailand, combine a holiday tour with visits to Buddhist shrines. In Pakistan, Buddhist, Sikh and Muslim shrines all provide immense opportunity for developing a wide range of religion-based tourism. 15.2 Sikh Religion Tourist Attractions Pakistan is home to some of the most sacred shrines of the Sikh religion. a pilgrimage by the sikh community to Pakistan has great spiritual significance. there are in total 135 historically declared Gurdwaras related to Gurus in Pakistan; of these, 24 listed below attract a large number of followers of the Sikh religion. Gurdwaras hold a central place in the Sikh religion and is central to the Sikh principles of austerity, brotherhood, anti-sexism and mutual respect. Gurdwara means door to Guru in Punjabi language,it not only serves as a place of worship but it also serves as a community centre,a teaching hall and a meeting place. Guardwara Nankana Sahib is the oldest and most revered of all Sikh Guardwaras. Well maintained Sikh Gurdwaras reflect the care taken by the Pakistan Government to preserve and maintain them. However, considering the growing number of Yatrees (devotees) from all over the world, who go to Pakistan to pay homage to their holy places, there is considerable room for the improvement and addition of visitor orientated facilities. According to one estimate the three major Gurdwaras viz. Janam Asthan Nankana Sahib, Panja Sahib and Darbar Sahib attract around 15000 foreign Yatress , while daily visitors numbers were around 100. Gurdwaras provide board and lodging free of cost to visitors and pilgrims. all Sikhs give a proportion of their income to the Guardwara so that the Langar ( free food) can be offered to all who need to be fed. 15.3 The Major Sikh Festivals in Pakistan

All the Sikh festivals are observed according to the Nanakshahi calendar. In the past the calendar was based on the lunar cycles but starting from 1999 the calendar was converted to the Gregorian calendar and now all the festivals fall on the same date each year. Festivals are associated with the lives of the gurus. Sikh pilgrims, from all over the world, visit Pakistan to follow seen different festivals: Festival Date

1. Baisakhi/Vaisakhu 14th April 2. Shaheedi Dir guru Arjan Dev Jee 16th June 3. Death Anniversary Maharaja Ranjeet Singh 29th June 4. Death Anniversary Guru Ramadas Jee 16th September 5. Death Aniversary of guru Nanak 22nd September 6. Birthday Guru Ramdas 9th October 7. Birthday Baba Guru Nanak 15th November A brief description of the leading sacred Gurdawras is presented below: Gurdwara Janam Ashtan,Nankana Sahib Gurdwara Patti Sahib, Nankana Sahib Gurdwara Panja Sahib, Hassan Abdal Gurdwara Darbhar Sahib, Kartarpur, Narowal Gudwara Dera Sahib, Lahore Gurdwara Sacha Sahib, Lahore Gurdwara Rori Sahib,Eimenabad Gurdwara Chaki Sahib, Eimenabad Gurdwara Janam Ash tan- Nank ana Sahib: this is the place where Baba Guru Nanak was born in 1469, the name of the place at that time was Rai Bhoi di Talwandi it was renamed Nankana Sahib after the Guru. The Gurdwara was first built by Baba Dharam chand, the grandson of Baba Guru Nanak. the [present building was built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh ad is a magnificent example of Sikh architecture. It is the holiest and most important Sikh holy shrine. It is located about 98km West/South-West of Lahore, one of Pakistan's busiest cities and can be accessed easily by air, rail or road. this shine represents the home of Baba Kalu and Malta Tripta, the parents of Baba Guru Nanak. Gurdwara Patti Sahib: Nankana Sahib is a magnificent shrine, about 2 km from Gurdwara Janam Asthan. It is also called Gurdwara Maulvi Pati and lies midway between Gurdwara Janam Asthan and Gurdwara Bal Lila, situated along the road leading from Janam Asthan to the railway station. Patti means a wooden table on the road leading from Janam Astahn to the railway station. Patti means a wooden table on which young scholars practice writing. This Gurdwara represents the village school attended by Baba Guru Nanak Learned Persian from Maulvi Hutub ud Din. The Sikh residents of the Nankana Sahib have been organizing a regular recitation of the life and work of the Guru Granth Sahib at this place for the last few years. Gurdwara Panja Sahib:Hassan Abdal: according to historians, Baba guru Nanak arrived in Hassan Abdal at the end of his tour of West Asia. This is where a rick rolled down towards him and while sitting unruffled, he merely extended his right arm. Guru Nanak stopped the rock, and his open palm made an imprint on it as if it was made of molten wax. A Gurdwara was later constructed to mark this holy place. Hassan Abdal is only an hour's journey form the capital city of Islamabad. The Gurdwara is associated with a legend according to which Guru Nanak prevented a rock rolling over him by stopping it with his right arm leaving an imprint of his palm as if it were made of molten wax.Hassan Abdal is only an hour's journey from the capital city of Islamabad.

Gurdwara Darbar Sahib: Kartarpur Norowal: Kartapur is a small town and according to legend, after Baba Guru Nanak returned from his wanderings in quest of truth he settled here until his death. Guardwara Darbar Sahib at Kartarpur is one of the most significant shrines as Baba Guru Nanak passed away here. This Gurdwara is situated on the western bank of River Ravi, near Josser ,in Narowal. Inyear 1911-12 the late Shyam as built the present Gurdwara and residential quarters. ths Gurdwara remained closed for many years, but it was recently renovated by the present government and is now open to pilgrims. The Gurdwara,although situated on the Indian border and in a sensitive area, is still visited by pilgrims who undertake a day trip and return either to Lahore or move on to the Gurdwara Panja Sahib in Hassan Abadal. Gurdwara Dera: Sahib-Lahore:Opposite the lahore Fort is the Samadhi of guru Arjun Dev, who lost his life while fighting here in the waters of River Ravi. At that time the river Ravi flowed along the wall of the fort. the shrine is said to ahve been establisehd by the sixth Guru,Guru Hargobnd. A memorial rostrum was built here to commemorate the martyrdom of guru Arjun Dev. The present building was constructed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. A congregational hall and residential block was added on later to the main building of the Gurdwara. Every year on the occasion of the martyrdom day, Sikh pilgrims visit the Guyrdwara to pay their homage to Guru Arjun Dev. Gurdwara Sacha: Sauda-Farooqabad: Baba Kalu, father of Baba Guru Nanak wanted his son to undertake a business career. He once gave him money and sent him to the market of Chuharkhana along with Bhai Bala toi purchase stocks to set up a shop. He advised him to make a good profitabke bargain. A little short of their destination, Baba Guru Nanak came across a group of Sadhus naked and hungy. Baba Guru Nanak at once decided to feed them and despite Bhai Bala's advice not to do so, he bought provisions from the market and fed them. Baba Guru Nanak came back empty handed and told his father, " you told me to make a good profitable bargain and i made the bst possible bargain with the money i had". During the Sikh rule, a Gurdwara was built on the spot where the Sadhus were fed by Baba Guru Nanak and is called Gurdwara Sacha Sauda. Gurdwara Rori: Sahib-Eimenbad: Guru Nanak during his stay at Eimenabad is said to have made his bed on a platform of pebbles. this platform has become a place of veneration and alter on when Skikhs came to power a Gurdwara was built over it. Some of the pebbles are preserved in the Gurdwara and are on display for the faithful on different occasions. this Gurdwara exemplifies beautiful Sikh architecture. gurdwara Chaki: Sahib-Eimenabad: During his campaign against the Loader Dynasty of India, the Moghal King Babar destroyed Eimenabad. There was a general massacre of Pathan and the Hindu inhabitants. Baba Guru Nanak became a prisoner of war and was condemned to grind corn on a land mill. According to legend the mill miraculously revolved on its own and Baba Guru Nanak became a prisoner of war and was condemned to grind corn on a land mill. According to legend the mill miraculously revolved on its own and Baba Guru Nanak had only to put the corn in it. The miracle was reported to King Babar who set free all the prisoners along with Baba Guru Nanak, Later, at the place of the cell where Baba Guru Nanak was imprisoned, a Gurdwara was constructed and named Gurdwara Chaki Sahib.

15.4 Buddhist Religion Ashoka (273BC-232 BC) the grandson of Chandragupta was pone of the greatest rulers the world has ever known. Like his grandfather,Ashoka started his career from Taxila as a governor. the ashes of the Buddha, after his cremation, were collected and distributed by King Ashoka among the major cities of his empire where he constructed grand stupas to enshrine them. these include the Dyamarajika stupa in Taxila and the Butkara Stupa to enshrine them .These include the

Dharmarajika stupa in Taxila and the Butkara Stupa in Swat. Mauryan control over the northern areas situated in what is Pakistand today is attested by the rock edicts left by Ashoka, such as at Shahbazgarhi, Mardan which is about an hour's journey form the city of Peshawar. Buddhism was adopted as the state religion which flourished and prevailed here for over 1000 years. During this time Taxila, Peshawar,Sawat and Charsadda became improtant centre for culture, trade time Taxila, Peshawar,Swat and Charsadda became improtant centres for culture, trade and learning. Taxila is 30km west of Islamabad and is easily accessible by road.Swat can be reached by air and Charsadda in just 17km from Peshawar, which has an international airport. the Peshawar Museum houses many relics and artifacts, perfectly preserved, from that era. Hundreds of monasteries and stupas were built in this area such as Dharmarakika, Jaulian, Mohra Moradu, Jinnawali and Dheri. Of these Takht-e-Bhai, located about 80km from Peshawar has the ruins of an ancient Buddhist monastery and is a place of religious importance. local buses run from Peshawar to Takht-e-Bhai regularly. It was from these centres that a unique art of sculpture originated, which is known as Gandhara Art. Although Taxila boast of the greatest visible assemblage of Buddhist remains in the subcontinet,Pakistan has more to offer of this remarkable phase of religous thought and artistic expression. Probably the most impressive relic of Buddhism is the excavated monastery of Takhti-Bhai, on a rugged and picturesque hill-top, ten miles north-east of Mardan, in the North-West frontier Province. It comprises a remarkable assemblage of stupas, cells and other buildings terraced precariously upon the crag with a romantic and picturesque vista of the bordermountains. It dates approximately from the second to fifth centuries AD. far less impressive, but at one time far more famous, are the mounds which represent Kaniskka's mighty pagoda, in the outskirts of Peshawar. the bronze casketm, berung the name of Kanishka, which was found in it by archaeologists many years ago, is one of the treasures of the Peshawar Museum. In the t Museum,too, and in the Museum at Lahore, are tow of the world's finest collections of local Buddhist sculpture, which combine elements of western art with others of eastern origin int eh expression of an eastern ideology. A brief description of the following most prominent sites of Buddhism is presented here: Gandhara Belt in Pakistan Taxila and its Museum Butkara Stupa, near Swat Sirkap, near Swat Sirkap, near Taxila Mankiala Stupa, near Taxila Takht-e-Bhai, near Mardan The Gandh ara Belt: In the whole Ghadhara belt for Taxila to Peshawar lays the richest remnants of Buddhist history carved in rocks. Swat Museum accessed by road or via weekly flights form Islamabad ( now suspended) contains an excellent collection of Gandhara sculptures taken form some of the Buddhist sites in Swat, rearranged and labeled to illustrate the Buddha's life story. terracotta figurines and utensils, beads, precious stones, coins, weapons and various meta objects illustrate daily life in Gandhara. The ethnographic section displays the finest examples of local embroidery, carved wood and tribal jewelery. Peshawar was the land of Buddhist pilgrimage for Chinese, Tibitians, Koreans and Indians when Buddhism was at its peak in the days of the Kushan Emperor, Kanishk, who ruled in 78AD. the international airports in Islamabad and Peshawar make these cities the ideal base form which to start journeys through Buddhist Sites.

Taxila and its Museum: Taxila was the Eastern capital of the Archaemenid Empire in 516BC. Originally named Taksashila,it was changed by Greek historians to Taxila. On particularly in Sindh and even in India thereby attracting pilgrims from across the border. 15.6 Muslim Religion Sites After AD 711, Arab invaders from the Persian gulf conquered and colonized sindh and ultimately establisehd twin capitals at Mansurah ( the former Brahmanabad) in Sindh and Multan in the Punjab. Archaeologists have not yet researched adequately for materiel vestiges of this Islamic phase. A little excavation has been carried out at Mansurah and fragments of small mosques, which may belong to this period, have been detected. But, here again, almost everything remains to be done. It is not until after the final conquest of the Punjab by ahmud Ghazna and his successors in the eleventh century AD that visible remains of importance began to appear. Most of these sites are at Multan, where five famous tombs sill represent the prowess of the Muslim builders of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries AD. The most magnificent tomb is that of the saong Rukn-iAlam, which rises to a height of 115 feet above the margin of the old fort. It has been described as " one of the most splendid memorials ever created in honour of the dead" and was built by ghiyas-ud-din tughluq, the ruler of Delhi, as his own intended resting-place. Few relics of the Middle Ages have, however, survived in Pakistan. It was only after the establishment of the Mughal dynasty by Babyr, in 1526, that construction of edifices and buildings began there on a consistently large scale. But, form the time of Akbar (AD 1556-1605) onwards the difficulty becomes on of choice, not of material. Lahore became, with Delhi and Agra, one of the three capitals of the Mughal Empire and, in spite of considerable damage during the past two centuries; it remains one of the great centres of Islamic architecture. The reign of the six great Mughal emperors was form 1526 to 1707. The Mughals produced unique architecture never seen before, such as the Badshahi Mosque, the Shalimar Gardens, the Lahore Fort, Wazir Khan Mosque and Hiran Minar to name it a few. Lahore is a central city, accessible form any international airport. The Mughal architecture was replete with stone carvings, glazed tile decorations and beautiful decorative designs in precious stones set in amrbel. Makli tombs in Thatta, are considered to be the world's largest necropolis, housing the remains of Sindh's people buried between the 14th and 18th centuries, with many tombs belonging to kings, queens and saints. that is 98km form Karachi's international airport. Some of the places of religious importance are described below Durbar Lal Shanhbaz Qalandar, Sehwan Sharif, Data Durbar, Lahore The Sunehri Mosque or golden Mosque, Lahore The Badshahi Mosque or the Emperor's Mosque,Lahore Shah Jehan Mosque,Thatta,Sindh Durbar Lal Shahbaz Qalendar, Sehwan Sh arif: the shrine of the Sufi saint, Lal Shahbaz Qlander, is located at Sehwan,sindh, some eighty miles North-West of Hyberabad, on the right bank of the Indus. Hyderabd is a two hour hour drive form Karach. His annual Urs ( death anniversary celebration) is held on the 18 Shaaban-the eighth month of the Muslim calendar. He wore red all his life, and it is believed that he turned into a falcon to pick up his friend Shaikh Farid Shakar Ganj from the gallows. Data Durbar, Lahore: This is the tomb of Ali bin Usman Hajveri, the famous Sufi saint of South Asia, where hundreds of thousands of people come each year to pay their respects and to say their prayers. It is located in the centre of Lahore, Punjab. the more recently built large complex also includes Jamia Hajveria, or Hajveri Mosque. the shrine attracts devotees from all over the country and from across the neighboring India border.

The Sunehri Mosque or Golden Mosque,Lahhore: is located in the centre of Lahore, Punjab. It has a beautiful gateway, which measures 21.3m in length and a courtyard that measures 161.5 X 160.6m. the marble domes cover seven prayer chambers. four lofty minarets stand at the four corners of the mosque, each with an outer circumference of 20m, soaring up to 54m. The Badshahi Mosque or the 'Emperor's Mo sque, Lahore: was built in 1673 by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore. It is one of the city's best known landmarks, and a major tourist attraciton epitomzing the beatuy and grandeur of the Mughal era.Capable of accommodatin over 55,000 worshipers, it is the second largest mosque in Pakistan. There is also a small museum in the mosque complex. It contains relics of Prophet Muhammad (PHUH), his cousin, and his daughter, BIbi Fatima Zahra. Shah Jehan Mosqiue Thatta: The Shah Jehan Mosque in Thatta, Sindh was built towards the middle of the 17th century. this mosque set a glorious example of Muslim architecture and heritage. Its 93 domes and 33 arches with varying sizes add to their architectural beauty. The domes have been exquisitely laid in a mosaic of radiating blue and white tiles. this mosque is designed in such a way that the Imam's voice can reach every corner of this building workout the help of any loudspeaker. 15.7 Market Potential of Religious Tourist Product A beautiful tomb, a historic temple or a historical relic though very important is not a tourist product. Though these attractions are vital, they cannot be marketed accessible, offer a variety of suitable accommodation, reasonable restaurants and, more importantly, be safe and secure. Economic theory defines product as something which possesses utility and has a scarcity value. There is a connection between the demand for a product and the subjective benefit which religious tourists obtain from their experience. Tourist product is a composite product, an amalgam of attractions, transports accommodation and of entertainment. In terms of a quality tourist product, assessment is made on its site or even attractions, its facilities and its accessibility and it encompasses total experience. Pakistan possesses several religious attractions of immense potential. Historically, it is an ancient land and has been a cradle of many civilizations. it ha inherited a rich religious cultural heritage. the antiquities unearthed from such renowned sites of Mehrgarg, Moen-jo-Daro, Taxila and Northern Areas provide tangible evidence of the evolution of human civilization and the origins of religious beliefs in the region. though most places of religious importance are accessible and are frequented by devotees, they suffer form the following shortcomings: Most of the religious tourist attractions in Pakistan are not developed from a tourism perspective. There is an enormous shortfall in standard tourist accommodation. There is lack of ancillary facilities and last but not least, they are not properly presented. Pakistan offers a wide range of Stupas,Temples, Gurdwaras, shrines, mosques and churches of great historical importance and sanctity. These attractions, however, need to be professionally developed, packaged and presented in the best possible manner to appeal to and satisfy demand in professionally identified markets. Unfortunately in semi-developed form as a complete tourist product. These sites need to be developed into specific tourist products, for submission to segmented and targeted markets. 15.8 Religious tourism Product as an Experince The evolutions of human civilizations and religions have left their indelible mark on the country. The splendour pof Moghul Bahshai Mosque and architecture at Lahore, Moghal Shah jehan Mosque at Thatta, the treasures of religious antiquities at archaeological sites of Taxila and sacred shrines of Sikh religion are great tourist attractions with immense potential to turn Pakistan

into an improtant religious tourist destination. Nonetheless, a Religious tourism product encompasses many other elements: access to and form and transport to the religions sites; accommodation availability at/or near religious sites; intrinsic merit e.g sacred value emotional appeal, beauty of a building, antiquity of site; other factors e.g. socio-cultural relations, availability of infra-structure, utilities, health, business,shopping and; safety and security. 15.9 Inventory of Muslim and Non-Muslim Religious Places Pakistan is blessed with splendid religious tourist attractions and a historical heritage of great appeal to followers of Sikhism, Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam. However, these attractions are scattered all over the country and not all are developed to marketable standards. these religious attractions can be categorized on a provincial basis as follows: Federal Territory, Islamabad A- Muslim Shrines: 1. Hazrat Syed Meher Ali Shah, Golra Shareef, Islamabad 2. Hazart Shah Abdulk Latif Kazmi, (Barri Imam), Islmabad 3. Faisal Mosque B- Non Muslim shrines: 1. Temples in Saidpur Village,Islamabad The Province of Punjab A-Muslim shrines: 1. Hazrat Mohakamud Din Sarai,Bahawalpur 2. Hazrat Jalal-u-din Bukhari ( AL Maroof Mehboob Subhanni). Bahawalpur 3. Hazrat sheikh Abdul Hassib (Msa Pak Shaheed), Multan 4. Hazrat Makhdoom Rashid Haqqani, Multan 5. Hazrat Shams-ud-din Sabzwari, (Shah Tabrez), Multan 6.Hazrat Baha Pak Daman, Multan 7.Hazrat Rukn-ud-Din Fatah ( Shah Rukn-i-Alam), Multan 8. Hazrat rukn-ud-Din Zakaria,Multan 9. Hazrat Sheikh Farid-ud-Din, Musad Shakar Gunj (BabFarid shakar Gunj,Pak.Pattan) 10. Hazrat Khawaja ghulam farid, Rajanpur 11. Hazrat Syed Ahemd sultan(Ski Sarwar), D.G. Khan 12. Hazrat Khawaja Ghulam Farid ( sultan Habu), Jhang 13. Hazrat B aba Bulley Shah, Kasur 14. Hazrat Mian Sher Mohammad, Ferozewala, sheikhupara 15. Pir Waris Shah, Jandiala Sher Khan, sheikhupura 16. Hazrat Madho Lal Hussain Shah, Lahore 17. Hazrat Mir Mohammad ( Mian Mir), Lahore 18. Hazrat Sheikh Ali Bin Usman Al-Ohajveri ( Data Gunj Bukhash), Lahore 19. Hazrat Aziz-ud-Din, (Pir Makki), Lahore

20. Hazrat shah Mohammad Ghous,Lahore 21. Hazrat Shah daula, Gujrat 22. Hazrat Kanwali Sarkar, Gujrat 23. Hazrat syed Hussain shah (Nangeh Shah),Gujrat 24. Hazrat shah Muhammad Sharq Puri, Sargodha 25. Hazrat Sakhi Saiden shah Shirazi, choa saidan Shah, chakwal 26. Hazrat Pir Karam Shah (Pir Khara),Jhelum 27. Hazrat Jee Baba, Attock 28. Hazrat Syed LalHussain Shah Kazmi ( Baba Lal Shah), Murree 29. Darbar Alia Mohrah Sharif, Murree 30. Islami Tablighi Markaz raiwend (Lahore) 31. Lahore and MUghal Monuments B-Non Muslim Shrines: 1. Gurdwara Dera Sahb, Lahore 2. Gurdwara Punja sahib, hassanabadal, Attock 3. Gurdwara Janamsthan, Nankana Sahib, sheikhupura 4. Katas raj, chakwal 5. Buddhist Sites, Taxila 6. Gurdwara Darbar Saib, Kartarpur ( Narowal) 7. Dharmarajika stupa, taxila 8. Mankiala Stupa, 32km south-East from Rawalpindi the Province of NWFP A-Muslim Shrines: 1. Shah shahbaz Baba Jee Sahib ( Hazrat Mian Sahib(, Preshawar 2. Syed Subaz Pir Shah Bukhari, Peshawar 3. Pir sahib Manki Sharif,Peshawar 4. Hazrat shah Junaid Baba, Peshawar 5.Abdur Rehman Baba, Pseshawar 6. Syed Abdul Sattar Badshah, Peshawar 7. Hazrat Nisan Bin Muslim Bin Muhabiq Hizh ( Ashab Baba), Peshawar 8. Akun Darwaoz Baba, Peshawar 9. Wali Muhammad Baba, Peshawar 10. Syed Rahim shah L:ewaney Baba, Peshawar 11. Khaushal Khan Khattak, Peshawar 12.Mizra Gul Baba Peshawar 13.Abdul Noor Qutub Phando Baba, Peshawar 14. Shah Mian Muhammad Omar, Peshawar 15. Khawaja Hassan shah Bukhari, Peshawar 16. Khawaja Syed Abdul Wahab, Peshawar ( Akhum Panjoo Baba) 17. Kaka Sahib, Nowshra 18. Hazrat Qamar Ali (Pir Baba), Swat 19. Hazrat Abdul ghafoor Baba,swat 20. Jan Khan Baba ( Diwaney Baba), Dagar, Swat 21. Syed Qutab Shaheed, Mansehra 22. Syed Ahmad Shaheed, Brailvi, Balakot, Mansehra 23. Hazrat Moulvi shah Muhammad Ismael shaheed,Balakot 24. Hazrat Mian gul Muhammad,Mardan 25. Haji Bahadur Baba, Kohat 26. Syed Kabool aulia Baba, Peshawar 27. Hazrat diwanai Baba, Bunair, Swat.

B-Non-Muslim shrines: 1. Dargah Pir Rattan Nath, peshawar 2. Gurdwara Bhaj Joga singh, Peshawar 3. Baba Kuram Singh, mardan 4. gurdwara Babu Mohallah, Mardan 5. Buddhsit Sites, Takht-i-Bhai, Mardan 6. Buddhist Pilgrimae ( Peshawar) 7. Butkara Stipa ( Swat) The Province of Sindh A- Muslim shinres: 1. Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Sehwan, dadu 2. Dargah Asadullah Shah Ashabi, thatta 3. dargah Abdullah Shah ghazi, karaci 4. Khawaja Hussain Sakhi sultan, Karachi 5. Sachal Surmast Khairpur 6. shah Abdul Latif Bhatai, Hyderabad 7. Makli has largest grave year with several sacred shirnes 8. Manghopir karachi 9. Bhitshah, Hala B- Non-Muslim shirens: 1. Sado Bella, Sattian-ka-Aasta,Sukkur 2. Hindu temples in karachi, Kemari etc. 3. Haath shakti Durga Devi Temple (Sukkur) The Province of Balochistan A-Muslim shirines: 1. Hazrat Moulvi Qadir Buksh, Nasirabad. 2. Hazrat Pir Syed Muhammad Ghazi Ahmed, Yousaf Shah, Quetta 3. syed Rakheel Shah 4. Syed Khawaja Wali Baba, quetta 5. Hazrat Sher Agha Khan, Chagi B- Non Muslim shrines: 1. Temples of Hinglaj ( Right Bank of Hingol River) 15.10 Management and control of Religious Tourism The governance and management structure of religious tourism in Pakistan, besides being bureaucratic, is highly controlled. There is a plethora of government agencies departments and private sector involved in regulating, controlling and providing services like transportation, accommodation, food and security for promoting religious tourism. The following are the main stakeholders involved in religious tourism. The Ministry of Minorities responsible for Administrative control of Evacuee trust Property Board

(ETPB) takes care to safeguard the interests of the minorities in Pakistan. The Evacuee Trust Property Board comes under the purview of the Ministry of Religious Affairs, responsible for the custody of the trust property, maintenance of shrines and religious places that are declared as trust, that conduct the visits of Sikh and Hindu Pilgrims from all over the world. Arrangement of the arrival of the Sikh and Hindu Pilgrims, planing and scheduling the tour of the pilgrims in Pakistan and arranging the transportation and taking care of the pilgrims is also its responsibility. The Ministry of Tourism is responsible for national policy, promotion and development of tourism in Pakistan and coordination of federal and provincial tourism plans and activities, publicity and establishment of tourism centres in Pakistan and abroad. Promotion of domestic tourism, development of tourist facilities in areas with tourist potential where the private sector is shy to invest, facilitation of travel in Pakistan for tourist, training and research in tourism and control of regulation of tourist industries and allied, services also falls under the mandate of the Ministry of Tourism and Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation ( PTDC). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is responsible for negotiations of OUs and protocols with its counterparts in other government son related matters. Whereas Pakistani Missions abroad are responsible for granting of visas to foreign pilgrims other than Indians. the Ministry of Interior is responsible for issuance of visas to Indian pilgrims. It is also responsible for maintaining security in the country. The Pakistan Sikh Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee ( PSGPC) is responsible for Sikh tourism such as arrangement of langer at festivals,maintaining holy shrines, Gurdwaras and the properties of shrines declared as trusts, finalization of lists of pilgrims coming form abroad. It supervises all the construction and development work going on in Gurdwaras and the arrangement of board and lodging of Sikh pilgrims. A variety of Sikh, Hindu, Muslim and Buddhist religious organizations in the United States of America, Canada, Japan, china, Korea and Europe etc are responsible for organization and communication with Pakistan authorities and the tour Operators and travel Agents in the tourist generating countries. Hotel owners and transporter and formal and informal sector is responsible for board, lodging and transportation facilities to pilgrims particularly during festivals. 15.11 Market Segments for Religious Tourism Domestic Market Tourism is a global industry and as such the market forces apply to it as strictly as it does to any other industry. Places of religious importance admittedly have remained neglected from the tourism perspective and require targeted efforts to promote religious tourism. Given the general negative perception that has emerged in recent times about Pakistan as a myopic, intolerant, inhospitable and extremist society to the outer world, the religious tourism segment must be viewed as an inte4grated whole with an impact not just on the economy alone but also on society so as to convey the opposite sentiments of tolerance and peacefulness. Domestic Religious tourism Domestic tourism throughout the world is recognized as a base for the growth and expansion of tourism on account of its magnitude and relatively lesser reliance on exogenous factors. religious, domestic tourism culturally helps to better appreciate the country's heritage. Politically, it is an important instrument in promoting unity f, national integration and social harmony. Economically, it helps in redistribution of income from affluent to poorer areas. Pakistan cannot at this time expect to develop sustainable tourism based solely on foreign tourists. Pakistan needs to build and nurture the domestic tourism potential that can be even more critical for the long term success of the tourism industry in Pakistan. domestic tourism being free from negative travel advisories, which cultural and language affinity and being relatively less expensive, helps in addressing seasonality and external uncertainty thereby paving the way to a viable growth of international tourism. The perceived security apprehension in the country has led to issuance of negative travel

advisories by major tourist generating countries. As the focus of travel advisories is external, it may be very difficult for Pakistan to convince these countries to remove negative warnings. It s therefore necessary for Pakistan to focus on domestic tourism. In fact domestic tourism has already become a centre of significant attention by PTDC, Provincial tourism Organizations and the private sector. The emergence of a sizable middle class population with reasonable affluence and disposable income allied to a strong desire for travel within the country coupled with improved transport and other infrastructure facilities, have contributed to a rapid growth in domestic tourism. The economic, social, religious and cultural advantages of domestic tourism cannot be neglected nor down played. It is the single unifying force which helps to achieve understanding between various linguistic, religious and cultural groups living in different parts of the country. It thus contributes towards strengthening the fabric of national unity and building the platform for promoting international tourism. Potential of Domestic Religious Tourism in Pakistan Pakistanis have a substantive propensity to travel nationally and internationally. Every year on average, 1.4 million Pakistanis, take foreign trips most of which are for religious purposes such as pilgrimage visits of Saudi Arabia, Iran, Syria, Iraq and visiting shrines in India. domestically 45.5 million people traveled in 2008 of which 0.32 million traveled for religious purposes. Domestic religious tourism in Pakistan is a male dominated activity as can be seen from various surveys carried out on domestic tourism in Pakistan. In comparison between the domestic tourism surveys of 2008 and 2000 and 1979-80, a clear distinction of results can be observed. In the domestic survey of 2008, the age group of 16-30 years shows an increased proportion of 52.5% that was slightly lower in previous domestic surveys. the result of the age group 0-15 years in the 2008 survey is 0.8% which is considerably low in comparison to the other two domestic surveys. Domestic tourists who traveled for religious purposes declined in the 2008 survey with a ration of 0.7%, this figure was 5.1% and 4.6% in the Survey Reports of 2000 and 1979-80 respectively using the co-efficient worked out in the 2008 survey i.e. 0.7% is estimated at nearly 0.32 million domestic tourists traveling for religious gratification. Potential of Foreign Religious Tourism in Pakistan Normally, when referring to Pakistan the only faith that comes to mind is Islam. However, due recognition is given to other religions as manifested by the white portion of the Pakistani flag in recognition of these faiths that are equally rich and varied. In fact, the entire width and breath of Pakistan is studded with gurudwaras, stupas, temples, mosques and churches that offer immense potential for religious tourism. Pakistan is the birth place and the final resting place of Baba guru Nanak, founder of the Sikh religion, a land where Buddhism flourished, home to Shiva and Kali of Hinduism and a mesmerizing gallery of Islamic sties that make the country an ideal destination for foreign spiritual and religious tourism. Pakistan was establisehd as a theocratic state at its inception and boasts of a large number of Muslim shrines, Mosques and Muslim historical sites of which included in the UNESCO World Heritage list. Christians are the largest minority in Pakistan. During the British Rule a large number of churches in Gothic architecture were built in Karachi, Lahore, Murre, Nathia Gali, Quetta, Peshawar, gilgit, Soalkot and Faisalabad rtc. Likewise there are many historic Christian or " Gora" gave yards in Karachi, Lahore, gilgit and Peshawar etc which can also be promoted as tourist attractions amongst Christian tourists. Pakistan also has a small but affluent community of the Parsi faith. Pakistan has several historical Parsi temples and graveyards which can also be promoted to attract Parsi tourists from India, Iran, United States of America and Canada etc. With a view of capitalize on the religious places of various faiths a targeted marketing campaigning was launched during the 'visit Pakistan Year 2007' in which the following foreign market segments were identified:

Principle Foreign Target Markets for Various Faiths Sikhs: India,United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Asian Dragon Countries, North America, East Africa. Muslims: India, United Arab Emirates, Turkey Egypt, Iran and Syria etc and expatriate Pakistani Muslim in United States of America and United Kingdom. Hindus: India, united Kindom, Unted Arab emirates, Asean Dragon Countires, East Africa, sri Lanka. Buddhist: Japan, Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, China; Sri Lanka Singapore. In order to implement the marketing strategy, celebrating a week devoted to the Gandhara Civilizaiton was approved as a regular annual event in the calendar of tourism activities. A substantive amount of the budget was set-aside for inviting Buddhist Monks from the Republic of Korea, Japan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Hong Kong,China; and Singapore. the marketing strategy also prescribed arranging familiarization trips for leading tour operators from china, Japan and Republic of Korea. Gandhara Week however, owing to security concerns, had been celebrated after 2007. It is understood that the Monks invited worked as endorsers to visit Pakistan which had a positive impact for promoting Buddhist tourism. the real impact however, could not e assessed due to uncertainty created by unfavorable law and order situation during 2008 and the Gandhara Week was not celebrated as a result of it. The variety of Sikh shrines is of great spiritual value to the Sikh community. the total Sikh population worldwide is approximately 23 million. India hosts the largest Sikh population of approximately 20 million i.e 87% of the total population, followed by United Kingdom where the number of Sikhs is 550,000 i.e 2% Pakistani population of Sikhs is approximately 80,000 spread across the country. the majority of Sikhs in Pakistan are ethnically Punjabis while quite a few of them are Pathans and Sindhis. 15.12 Development along places of religious Importance Pakistan is studded with a large number of Hindu temples, a few of which were described in the previous section. The complex of sacred Hindu Shrines particularly Satgara Temple of Katas, was developed at a cost of Rs.9.99 million. Pakistan tourism Development corporation has a motel at choa Saiden Shah which is currently leased that caters to tourist needs. kates n linked via motorway and is situated a 90 minute drive from Islamabad. the Salt mines at Khewra and rohtas fort are the other main attractions near Katas.Likewise a project is also under consideration for development of tourist facilitation at hinglaj, Balochistan. A regular bus service between Lahore-Dehliu and another between Nanka-Sahib- Amiristar was lanuched to facilitate movement of Indian tourists. The government also approved a scheme for the construction of bus terminals and a motel at Nankana Sahib at a total cost of Rs. 37.79 million. the project is being enlarged to add another 16 more rooms. This is seen as a solution to the accommodation problem of affluent sikh tourist from Europe and America. For the protection, restoration and preservation of tourist oriented development of archaeological sites from Taxila to Swat, the government approved two projects in the year 2002-2003 at a cost of Rs. 300 million to becomplete4d in the year 2011-2012. The projects cover archaeological sites of Buddhism including sites in Taxila such as Sirkap, Rawat fort, Hakeem Tomb, Attack tomb, behram Ki Baradari, Mankayala Stupa, Bhirmound, sirsukh, Pipplan, Moihra Moradu. in Peshawar it will cover sites for example, " Gorkhattre Takhit-i-Bai, jamal Garhi". In district Mardan it will cover "Butkara-l,Butkara-iii, Saidu Stupa, Panr and Shingardar Stupa" District Swat. The above cited projects besides restoration, preservation and rehabilitaiton will provide approach roads; pathways and parking areas; water supply facilites; toilets blocks; visitorr shed benches; telephone and electricity; souvenir and fast food outlets; the provision of informatory and; descriptive boards in different languages such as English, urdu and japanese. the projects also provide for the installation of publicity boards at appropriate places such as on main highways; publication of leaflets and brouchures about the sies; development of wehists; landscraping wth lanws, trees and plants; the provision of a main entrace gage and; an exhibition

of hall-come-auditorium furnished with audiovisual aids etc. these development projects act as a step in the right direction for helping promote religious tourism. 15.13 Analysis of Religious tourist Product in Pakistan Religious travel also commonly referred to as faith tourism, is a form of tourism whereby people of faith travel individually or in groups for pilgrimage, festivals or leisure purposes. A first ever Religious tourism survey was carried out in 1986-87 in Pakistan with the Objective:to assess the availability of existing facilities for religious tourist at important shrines in the country and to ascertain the extend of domestic and foreign tourists visiting these places. The survey revealed that out of an average annual 22 million domestic tourists who traveled during the period 1980-1985, nearly 5% or 1.1 million tourists undertook travel for religious purposes. A large percentage of them visited shrines of saints and holy people. most of these traveled by road , followed by rail and air. this information was collected on a country basis and was meant mainly for macro analysis and planning. It, however, revealed that religious tourism played an improvement role in the overall domestic tourism market which needed detailed investigation and analysis. For any tourism development to be sustainable it has to be supported by adequate infrastructure, based on a combination of foreign and domestic tourism to protect it form externalities and it has to be compatible with socio cultural norms of the country. The areas of tourist merit must not be over developed resulting in ecological imbalance, criticized by the media and pressure groups. the government of Pakistan have invested more the Rs.500 million in establishing tourism infrastructure in the country by constructing 30 motels/road side facilities in remote ares including Northern Areas,Swat and chitral, vallies which has attracted roughly Rs.2.0 billion in investment from the private sector thereby facilitating religious, business and pleasure tourism. The 2nd nationwide religious tourism Survey was conducted during 2006-2008. A total of 67 Muslim and non-Muslim shrines were identified as significant in terms of number of zaireens ( visitors). the shrines represented a good cross-section of the various faiths. Distance of shrines form City/Town The distance of shrines from the city centre plays an important role in the influx of visitors to any shrine. This also affects the type of transport facilites available to the visitors, which subsequently contributes to the number of visitors to any particular shrine.The proximity of the shrines in terms of their distance from the cinty centres showed that 38.8% shrines are within the premises of the respective city i.e less than 6km, whereas 10.5% shrines are in the range of 6 to 10km, 11.9% are in the range of 11- 20km 4.5% are in the range of 21 to 30km and 34.3% shrines are in a range of 31km and above. Space and Covered Area of Sites of shrines The site areas of the shrines vary a great deal The covered area in combination with the open space can give clues in terms of the existing capacity, opportunities for future infrastructural development and provision of additional facilities. Interestingly, a considerable number of shrines either fall in the category of shrines that are less than 500m ( 29.9%) or those that are in the category of 9000m and above (25.4%). Accommodation at Shrines Availability of accommodation and other allies facilities is the primary concern of the ' Zaireens' and therefore constitute an important feature in terms of visit and also repeat visits to any shrine.This feature contributes significantly towards the promotion of religious tourism. Medical and Other Facilities at Shrines

Medical facilities, libraries, and leisure complexes are important as they contribute towards the essential good experience for the tourist; and also cater to the needs of local management and residents alike. Out of the 67 shrines surveyed about 19 shrines were found with the availability of medical facilities, at eight shrines first aid facility was available, 12 shrines offered dispensaries, seven shrines had hospital facilities, six shrines had medical practitioners and one shrine also housed a chemist shop. out of these 67 surveyed shrines the maximum number of facilities was available in Punjab. However, none of the shrines surveyed in Baluchistan had any medical facilities of any kind. First aid facility at shrines was available only in Punjab and Islamabad capital territory. The major medical facility in the form of a dispensary was available at 12 shrines. However, out of these 12 dispensaries seven were located in Punjab. It is also interesting to note that only Islamabad Capital Territory, Punjab and Sindh have indicated the availability of hospitals. This feature is applicable to shrines that are situated within cities or in close vicinities form Them. Restaurants Facilities at Shrines for the visitors during their short stay.A total of 122 restaurants are available in the close vicinity of shrines. Shops serving tea and or cold drinks are frequented by a large number of visitors. A total number of 315 shops serving cold drinks and tea exist in close vicinity of shrines. during 'Urs' people flock to the shrines and consequently more food and tea/cold drink shops are temporarily opened. Marketing Strategy for Religious Tourism the Marketing strategy approved during Visit Pakistan Year 2007 was based on tourism product and target market relationship which, 'short and long term strategic religious tourism focus', was placed in terms of importance at number three after Adventure Tourism and History and Heritage Tourism. the unique selling preposition of religious tourism in the market strategy and visa policy for Indian and non-Indian tourists are given here: Religious tourism Unique Selling Proposition (USPs) Sacred religious sites of significance to Muslims,Sikhs, Hindus and Buddhists. Niche Markets ( Sikh and Hindu community in India, united Kingdom,United States of America, Canada, UAE and followers, Buddhist in Asean Dragon Country, Far East China and Japan). Principal target Markets: Sikhs: India, UK, United Arab Emirates, Asean Dragon countries, North America, East Africa. Muslims: India, Unites Arab Emirates, Turkey Egypt, Iran and Syria etc and expatriate Pakistani Muslims in United States of America and United Kingdom. Hindus: India, UK, United Arab emirates,Asean Dragon Countries, East Africa, Sri Lanka Buddhists: Japan, Korea, China, Thailand, Hong Kong, china; Sri Lanka, Singapore. Target Market, Products and Activity: Product: Religious tourism, short Breaks, conferences and Conventions on spiritual themes. Principal Activities: FAM tours of leading operators of china, Japan and Korea. Participate on Indian and United Arab Emirates Trade Fairs Arrange receptions for travel trade organizations and road shows

participate in Travel Trade Exhibitions like JATA, BITE and PATA Arrange presentations and receptions for travel trade and other leading organizations. FAM tours for prominent travel writers of leading publications invite notable academics of leading universities of art and history cultivate Brand Ambassadors. Visa policy for India In order to attract religious tourists and Sikh pilgrims from India based on the principle of reciprocity the following visa policy was approved during 2007: Indian tourist groups will now be allowed 30 days visa instead of 14 days through designated tour operators. Pilgrimage Visa to Indian nationals ( not less than 10 in number) would now by given for 15 days instead of 5 to visit specified Holy Shrines. Visa Policy to group tourists: In order to promote group tourism from 24 countries outside the condition of reciprocity are allowed visa on arrival. the countries ion bold carry appeal for religious tourism.Austria, Belgium, Canada, china, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Italy,Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, Spain, Sweden ,Thailand, united kingdom, United States of America. Strengths, weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats ( SWOT) Analysis Pakistan, though rich in place of religious tourist merit, with several product strengths, suffers from a variety of product and marketing related weaknesses and thus has not been able to avert threats of insensibility of the opportunity that the market offers for promoting religious tourism. following is the brief SWOT analysis.

Strengths: sites carry great value for the followers. Most religious tourist sites are located close to main cities and towns and are accessible. There is awareness among devotees. Foreigners not restricted to visit places of different faiths. Many religious sites provide free of cost Hujras ( rooms) and open space for overnight stay . Lower cost of tourism in Pakistan. Incentives for investment in tourism sector. Sharing of common language and culture. Accessible location of Shrines. Weaknesses: sites are not developed from tourism point of view.

Average size of religious sites is small. They are mostly located in congested areas inhibiting further development of tourist infrastructure. The condition of restaurnats and catering services in most cases is sub standard and unhygenic. The Hujaras and rooms are not properly maintained. The sites lack neat and clean tourist accommodation. The places are usually croweded during Urs festivals creating safety and security concerns. Lack of a long term tourism vision and strategy. Restricted visa policy. Inadequate investment in infrastructure. Distributive inefficiency of formal sector. Lack of regional tourism. Barries for informal sector. Lack of trained workforce. Absence of focused marketing and media campaign. Absence of marketing of festivals. Opportunities: The increasing affluence in Pakistan and in the region has created immense untapped potential. There is great respect for the followers of different faiths. Revised Visa Policy. Revival of Indo Pakistan relationships. Growing trend in the world tourism market to see new places. Prospects of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in tourism industry. Threats: Safety and security Concern. Negative Travel Advisories. Volatile geo-political situation of the region. Ethnic and sectoral unrest.

World Financial Crises. 15.14 Recommendations The following recommendations will not only influence religious tourism constructively but will also have a positive impact on the tourism industry as a whole. The Domestic Tourism Survey carried out during 1979-80 by the Ministry of tourism raveled that out of a total of 22 million domestic tourists, about five percent of 1.1 million were those who undertook travel for purely religious purposes. the domestic tourism market estimated at 48 million, is highly seasonal and concentrated in selected few areas. fairly large numbers of domestic tourists can be attracted for religious tourism if properly marketed. With the improving security situation and economic revival the domestic tourism market is witnessing a visible revival. The disposable income in the region has also risen and it is time to capitalize on the gains. By introducing the co-European and American tourists can be lowered. Presently the Sikh religious tourism market primarily depends on the Sikh pilgrims coming from abroad. diversification of the market, like creation of a domestic niche market for these shrines and holy places will reduce the dependency on this particular segment and the industry can be safeguarded from the negative external factors. The shrines and holy places should be declared as national heritage sites as these do possess great historical, cultural, architectural and archaeological value. Opening up the shrines and holy places can reap benefits not only for pilgrims but also for the cultural and archaeological tourists. This can be developed into a niche market with immense potential. Signboards need to be installed at all significant tourist spots. Books, pamphlets, maps showing routes to the shrines and related facilitates should be made available on normal rates at the sites and in book stalls, too. The Ministry of Tourism and Ministry of culture should undertake training courses for producing knowledgeable professional guides.The freelance professional guides may be allowed a right to charge a fee on approved terms form the tourists. The existing environment of high control of religious places should be gradually replaced with a more flexible system.This shift is necessary in order to create a healthy competitive market and provide a positive environment to the private investors. the regulatory agency shall then let the market forces play its role in bringing further investment and development of the market. Currently various agencies and government departments are involved in the religious tourism industry with overlapping roles and functions due to absence of clear demarcations. ETPB whose primary role is to manage and take care of evacuee property has assumed the role of a tour operator. Currently the ETPB is not only managing the Sikh pilgrims at the Wagha border and seeing them off again after the end of festivities. ETPB may be freed from these activities allowing it devote its time to its core functions. Like any other industry, tourism with its interdependence on other sectors cannot be developed in isolation. The development needs a multi pronged approach as numerous factors directly or indirectly affect the tourism industry and all the factors need to be addressed in a professional and planned manner. One of the factor that affects religious tourism is the social and economic condition of the people of the area where the religious shrines are located. An underdeveloped and polluted area is likely to be less attractive both for the tourists and for the investors. The pilgrims arriving from India are note taken at par with tourists from other countries. Indian visitors are required to get themselves registered with the police. for the development of the Hindu and Sikh market we have to give more tourist oriented facilities to Indian pilgrims. The data related to pilgrims visiting Pakistan indicates that a vast majority is form India, while pilgrims visiting from other countries such as United Kingdom, United States of America, United Arab Emirates, EU and Canada, in the case of Sikh tourists are on the lower side. Secondly, most of them travel for the major festivals only and almost 40% of these are for the Baisakhi Festival and Birth of Baba Guru Nanak. these figures could be enhanced to a certain degree through an aggressive marketing campaign i.e through holding seminars to highlight the religious shrines and the facilities being provided by the government to the pilgrims and distribution of newsletters

in these countries to promote the religious events. Development of a website, which should highlight the shrines and also provide information on accommodation, the travel trade-tour operators and travel agents who arrange tours specifically to the religious shrines, traveling options and other details to facilitate the pilgrims. A close coordination between the national airline, PIA, other airlines and religious organizations abroad, encouraging tour operators to open tour companies' specialization on religious tourism. FAM trips for tour operators and travel writers from identified markets to promote Sikh, Buddhist and Hindu religious shrines in Pakistan with the coordination of PIA, Ministry of Tourism and Ministry of Religious Affairs. The national carrier,PIA, can play a very significant role ion marketing Pakistan for Religious Tourism by arranging special transit packages of three to four nights stay in Pakistan, for the Canadian, American, European and Middle Eastern markets, ( Japan, China, Thailand, and Korea) etc wherein Yatries may take PIA route from America/Canada/Europe to Lahore in Pakistan and then continue their journey to Delhi and vice versa. Collaboration by PIA, with Air India, Srilankan Airlines, Nepal Air, Bimen etc on code share. 15.15 Conclusions Pakistan with its rich cultural heritage and strong traditions of Sufism and mysticism has the potential to become a hub of religious and spiritual tourism. It needs concerted efforts on the part of the Ministry of Tourism,PTDC, Provincial government,Evacuee Trust, Auqaf Department, Ministry of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Minorities, as well as different entities whose rile it is to promote tourism in general and religious tourism in particular in Pakistan. One way of achieving this target is by developing several areas and clusters including basic infrastructure, accommodation facilities, food stalls, entertainment and shopping for the pilgrims. the areas proposed to be developed include i) for Sikhs, Nankana Sahib and Panja Sahib ( Hassanabadal), ii) for Hindus, Katas Temples (Jehlum). iii) for Buddhist, Tazila, Takhtbhai and Swat (Stupas); and iv) for Muslims, Thatta Necropolis, Lahore, Multan and Sehwan Sharif besides many others that are popular amongst domestic tourists but lack amenities that are required to attract the potential tourists. There is also the need to explore the possibilities of mutual collaboration with private entities that are involved in theatrical art and Sufi folk music to develop specific programmes at the selected shrines preceded by aggressive marketing campaigns both at the national and international level. A modest beginning can be made by developing select high profile religious tourists sites as pilot projects, that can than be extended to other shrines over a period of time. Keeping in mind the maxim of 'safety first', a strong network of fast communication to meet any emergency call or rescue operation at the sites of religious tourism would make tourists at ease and as such would be needed at all religious tourists spots. Secondly, trained volunteers or specific tourist price would be required to respond top the calls- providing support and a sense of security with on the spot relief. Reliable and affordable transport facilities with trained courteous drivers of good conduct registered with the tourism authority would also be needed. Clean, healthy accommodation with hygienic food at reasonable rates for all categories of religious visitors must also be available. Existing facilities at religious sites have a lot of room for improvement. This feature in itself needs pirate sector stakeholders to be on board to ensure the hygienic conditions at the restaurants near shines. Lastly, the Ministry will need to explore the possibility of public-private partnerships not only in terms of outsourcing some of the religious tourism related services but also in exploring the possibility of mutually beneficial joint ventures in developing sites and shrines. 16 Religious Tourism in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka is located withing the South Asian region with a land area of 65,610 km and a total population of 20.217 million (recorded at the end December 2008). There are three major ethnic groups in Sri Lanka viz: Sinhalese, Tamils, and Muslims practicing Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. The majority of the population is Sinhalese (70%) who are predominantly

Buddhists, while the Tamils, the next important ethnic group (18%) are mainly Hindus. the Muslims, including the Moors and a small community of Malays, constitute 7% of the population and profess Islam.It should be noted that as a result of four and half centuries of Western colonization, by Portuguese, the Dutch ad the British, Christianity both Catholicism and Protestantism took a foothold in the island amongst the Sinhalese, Tamils, and those of mixed parentage identified as Burghers, constituting thereby 18% of the inter-religious faiths. Buddhism was first brought to Sri Lanka by Arahat Mahinda Thero, the son of Emperor Asoka, in 247 BC. The majority of the Sri Lankans are Buddhists belonging to the Thereavada school of thought. while Buddhism lost its importance in India after its heyday, it was Sri Lanka that maintained its continuity and Sri Lankans proudly claim this heritage as the flag bearer of Buddhism. buddhism and hinduism did exist in the island prior to the introduction of the former , as asserted by the eminent archeologist, sir Paul Peiris: "long before the arrival of Vijaya there were five temples of Lord Siva namely Thiruketheeswaram and Thanderswaram near Mannar, Thiukkoneswaram near Trincomalle, Nakuleswaram near Kankesanturai and Muneswaram near chilaw." However, the major thrust of Hinduism came after the establishment of Buddhism in the country South Indian invasions during the chola and Pandyan periods. One feature of Sri Lanka is the Peaceful co-existence of the major religions as seen by the presence of religious edifices n close proximity to one another in the form of temples ( both Buddhist and Hindu), churches, and mosques in urban conglomerations in the country. Negombo, a town just north of Colombo, and a popular tourist beach resort is referred to as the ' little Rome' due to the many Catholic churches in the city and its suburbs, There are nine provinces in Sri Lanka. Seven of them have majority of them in the Northern Province, and the Eastern Province has an equal proportion of Buddhists, Hindus, and Muslims of Islamic faith. In the early stages of tourism development international tourism was concentrated on beach resorts since the country has a coastal belt that stretches for 1500 kms with excellent sea frontage. Europe was the prime generator of tourists to Sri Lanka with two distinct seasonal patterns: October to March for the West coast and April to September for the East coast. Domestic tourism was oriented towards visiting friends and relatives (VFR) and visiting religious and cultural sites mainly during the school vacations in the months of April,August, and December. At present, there has been a focus on Sri Lankan culture, nature , and adventure to attract international tourists while pure beach holidays though important, play a less significant role that in the past. There are eight World Heritage Sites declared by UNESCO in Sri Lanka and as culture and religion are closely linked, these offer good potential for the development of religious tourism as a niche market in the future. An ideal package to Sri Lanka comprises a beach stay of four to five nights and then a " round tour" of the country that encompasses most of the archeological sites of the " cultural triangle" such as Anuradhapura, Miintale, Aukana, Dambulla, Sigirya, Polonnaruwa and Kandy which are essentially Buddhist heritage sites. in some cases such as in Polommaruwa, there are some vestiges with a Hindu influence. The average duration of stay of a tourist in Sri Lanka in 2008 was 9.5 nights. In terms of domestic tourism, there has been a drastic change in the pattern of holidays during the last five years. According to the Central Bank annual report for 2008 the GNP per capital in US$ increased from 1,051 in 2004 to 1,969 in 2008. In 2008, local guest nights accounted for 27% of the total guest nights in tourist hotels. A large number of Sri Lankans visit the religous sites such as the Tempe of the Tooth Relic in Kandy, and the Sri Maha Bodi in Anuradhaura throughout the year, while Kataragama, Mihintale, and the Sri Maha Bodi in Anuradhapura throughout the year, while Kataragama, Mihintale, and Adam's Peak attract many pilgrims seasonally. Religious tourism continues to account for a major portion of the total domestic market, while there is an increase also to beach areas and to the cultural sites. 16.1 Religious Characteristics Sri Lankas are deeply attached to their religion and visit religious places on a regular basis. It is a

practice among the people to invite religious leaders and obtain their blessings, either at home or at their work place, when they embark on any personal or professional activity of importance. It is also a custom to commence important activities at auspicious times as indicated in the religious calendars of the respective religions. Sri Lanka observes the lunar calendar hence the full moon( Poya) days, considered to be holy, are public holidays aimed to enabling the populace to observe religious activities. In the Sinhalese language a full moon is called " Poya". The term "Poya" in Sinhala is derived form Pali and Sankrit meaning " fasting day." Sri Lanka is the only country to declare all full moon days as public holidays because of its significance to Buddhism. On full moon days there are special religious activities in the Buddhist temples. It is the practice for Buddhist to dress in white, make flower offerings, and observe religious activities throughout the day in Buddhist temples.Tow of the twelve full moon days, viz Wesak and Poson are of special importance and attract visitors to religious sites and to participate in activities. The Wesak full moon day is of great significance for Buddhists around the world because it marks the birth, enlightenment, and passing away of the Buddha. Buddhist homes are decorated with bright " Wesak lanterns". the " alms halls" offer free meals to the devotees. Buddhist go to temples or Shrines for religious observances. Poson is the full-moon day in June and commemorates the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka by Arahat Mahinda Thero.Thousands of devotees make their annual pilgrimage to Mihinatale to celebrate this event. Anuradhapura and Mihintale, where Arahat Mahinda Thero met the converted Sinhalese king Devanampiyatissa to Buddhism, are the main sites for the celebration. On this day thousands of white-clad pilgrims climb the stairs to the summit of Mihintale temple. As Hindus observe the lunar calendar, the ful moon days are of speciual significance to them also where special poojas (offerings) are conducted for the goddes Shakthi in Hindu temples. On full moon days slaughtering of animals is prohibited. The sale of alcohol is also prohibited and all liquor sales outlets are closed. This is applicable even to tourist establishments. One of the Excise Regulations is such that no liquor licenses are issued for establishment ( including tourist hotels and restaurants) within a 500mradius of a religious place or a school. All major festival days of Hindus,Muslims and Christians are also declared as public holidays in Sri Lanka. Public holidays for Hindus are Thai Pongal in January, Mahasivarathri in February, and Deepavali in October. Muslims observe Milaad-Un-Nabi ( Holy Prophet's Birthday) in March, Id-ulfitr (Ramazan) in September, and Id-ul-Alha (Hadji) in November while Chrisitan public holidays include Good Friday in April, and Christmas in December. It is to be noted that in conformity with the Lunar calendar the dates of the public holidays vary each year. it is worthwhile noting that in addition to the number of public holidays for religious observances Sri Lanka has three prolonged Holiday periods of approximately one week each in April for the Sinhala and Tamil New Year, in May in celebration of Wesak and in December for Christmas which gives the population the opportunity to take short breaks that greatly boost local domestic tourism. The importance attached to religion in Sri Lanka is seen by the fact the " Ministry of religious Affairs and Moral Upliftment" comes under the direct mandate of the President of the country, His Excellency Mahinda Rajapaksa. There are five departments under this ministry namely, department of Buddhist Affairs and Cultural Affairs, Department of Christian Religious and cultural Affairs, Development of Hindu Religious and Cultural Affairs, Department of Muslim Religious and cultural Affairs, and Department of Public Trustee. 16.2 Sri Lankan tourism During the period January to May 2009, tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka were 157,495, a drop of 19.81% as agianst the corresponding period of the previous year, mainly due to the security situation in the country. during the period June to October 2009 the tourist arrivals reached 189,222, an increase of 21.11 percent as agianst the corresponding period of last year. It is estimated that tourist arrivals in 2009 will be 446,717, an increase of approximately two percent compared to 2008. In terms of religious tourism, the festival of the Temple of Tooth Relic, popularly known as the Kandy Perahera, that takes place annually in July/August is a major attraction to international

tourists. Organized Buddhist related tours are mainly from East Asia and Far Eastern countries like Thailand, Japan and China. in 2002, Sri Lanka relaxed Visa rulers to South Asian countries with the issuance of visas on arrival for 30 days without even a visa fee ( this facility was already available to the tourist generating countries from Europe). As a result there was an appreciable increase in tourists arrivals from India to Sri Lanka and accounted for 20 percent of the total tourists arrivals. Religious tourism is an improtant market segment that also attract Hindus from India to Sri Lanka and accounted for 20 percent of the total tourists arrivals. religious tourism is an improtant market segment that also attracts Hindus form India to Sri Lank. In 2007, Sri Lanka Tourism launched a new product to the Indian market called " Following the Ramayana Trail in Sri Lanka". this was a great success with a large number of tourists who now visit Sri Lanka to see the sites related to the Ramayana in Sri Lanka. Tourist arrivals from Europe as a percentage of the total arrivals decreased form 66.85% in 2000 to 44.84% in 2008. Asia has the highest potential to attract tourists particularly for religious tourism to Sri Lanka. There have been special religious events or occasions that have led to an influx of foreign visitors. For example His Holiness Dr. syedna Mohammad Burhanuddin Saheb, leader of the International Dawoodi Bohra community visited Sri Lanka in January 1999, and January 200 to participate in a ten day long ceremony 'Ashara Mubaraka.' together with the His Holiness nearly 10,000 devotees visited Sri Lanka mainly from India and Pakistan.Sri Lanka receives nearly half a million tourists per annum and details are available on the website www.srilanka.travel. Domestic tourism represents an integral part of Sri Lanka tourism. It is estimated that there are over 6 million movements annually. tour patterns indicate that the frequency is high during the school vacation periods of April,August and December. During the long weekends and on public holidays the domestic tourism flows are very high. most of the tourist sites that are of interest of foreign visitors also attract domestic travelers thereby straining the carrying capacity of some of the areas. 16.3 Famous Religious Sites in Sri Lanka for international Tourists Sri Lanka is a country with many religious places and the degree to which it attracts domestic and international tourists vary based on its historical and religious significance. There ware a few religious places that attract tourists throughout the year, for example the Temple of tooth Relic in Kandy,Kataragama temple in the Southern [art of Sri Lanka, and the areas of the cultural Triangle. Accommodation facilities are available in close proximity to these key religious sites and it varies from dormitory type budget accommodation to star class hotels. There is a second category of temples that attracts a large number of tourists on special religious days and annual festival days. There is a third category of religious places that attract basically the local community. Most o the religious places belong to the third category and are scattered all over the island. Wherever you travel within Sri Lanka it is easy to find religious site, monument or place or worship belonging to Buddhist, Hindu, Christian or the Islam faith. A research survey was carried out among 50 Sri Lankans involved in tourism related businesses or tour guiding to identify the key tourism sites in Sri Lanka for Buddhists, Hinduism, Christians, Muslims, and also the sites visited by all four religious groups of Sri Lanka. the survey was carried out during the month of November 2009 and the findings are as follows: Key Sites for Buddhists All the respondents selected the temple of the Tooth Relic in Kandy as one of the key Buddhist sites.Kandy is the capital city of the Central Province, and is located 116km from Colombo an at 490m above sea level. Kandy is a very popular destination visited by many tourists to Sri Lanka. It is a world heritage site and day excursions from Colombo are common. traveling time from Colombo to kandy by road is around three hours. The ' Dalada Maligawa' or the Temple of the Tooth Relic (one of the most improtant religious places for Buddhists) is located in Kandy. the annual festival commonly known as the 'Esala Perahera' of this temple takes large numbers of international and domestic visitors. The

procession in which the tooth relic is paraded on the back of a heavily decorated tusker elephant, accompanied by over a further hundred decorated elephants, though the streets of Kandy, is one of Asia's most colorful pageants. Complex situated around the temple fo the Tooth Relic which adjoins the kandy Lake, comprising the king's Palace, Queen's Palace, audience Hall, and royal Summer House, represents the zenith of Kandyan architecture, Other attractions in the kandy area include craft villages such as Embekke and Kalapura and temples at Lankathilake, Gadaldeniya, Embakke, Degaldoruwa and Galmaduwa. All respondents selected the Sri Maha Bodi as one of the key site for Buddhists. It is located 200km north of Colombo. Anuradhapura is the capital of North Central Province. Sri Maha Bodhiya in Anuradhapura is an improtant place visited by Buddhists. one of the main attractions here is the Bo-tree. the 'Bo' (Bodhi) tree or pipal ( Ficus religiosa) was planted as a sapling brought from India by emperor Ashoka's daughter, the Princess Sangamitta, at some pint after 236 BC. In April , a large number of pilgrims arrive to make offering during the Snana Pooja, and to bathe the Bo tree with milk.Every 12th year the ceremony is particularly auspicious. the Sri Maha Bodhi Tree is the oldest historically authenticated tree in the world ( 2,200 years). It is the right branch of the very tree beneath which, at Buddha Gaya in North India, Lord Buddha gained enlightenment. Out of 50 respondents, 36 selected the cave temple in Dambulla as one of the important Buddhist sites for tourism. Dambulla is located 148km from Colombo in the North-East direction. this cave monastery contains five sanctuaries and is the largest and best preserved cave-temple complex in the in the country. In this complex there are Buddhist mural paintings and hundreds of statues. The monastery was established in the 3 rd century BC and has remained until today as one of Sri Lanka's major religious and historical sites. They contain frescoes showing some of Buddha's epic struggles agianst evil. Other Important Sites Buddhist temples at Kelaniya and Mihintale: the Kelaninya Buddhist temple is known as one of the places which Lord Buddha visited and there is also a shrine in it for King Ravana's brother Vibishana.Minintale is known as the cradle of Buddhism. this is the place where Arahat Mahinda met King Devanampiyatissa on the full moon day of the month of June (Poson). A large number of Buddhist pilgrims visit the Buddhist temple at Mihintale for the Poson fesitval. key Sites of the 50 respondents, 40 identified Muneswaram temple in Chilaw as the key site. muneswaram temple is about 1.2km from Chilaw town, on the Chilaw- Kurunegala road. in Tamil Mun- means long time ago and Eeswaram-means Siva temple. two annual festivals take place in this temple in February and in August. This temple was destroyed by the Portuguese. It was reconstructed in 1753 and renovated by Kumaraswami Kurukkal in 1875. The construction of the " Kopuram" ( entrance gateway) was completed in 1963, Seetha Amman Temple in Nuwara Eliya Out of the 50 respondents, 30 identified the Seetha Amman temple as the key site.Seetha Amman temple is located 185km from Colombo in the Hill country. there is a stream by the side of the temple. It is believed that Sotadevi bathed in this stream. It is interesting to note that foot prints aklin to Lord Hanuman's are found on the rock along this river: some are of a small size and some are large, indicating the immense power of Lord Hanuman whoi could transform himself to any size, there is a shrine here for Lord Rama, Sitadevi, Laxshamana, Hanuman and Jatta Yu. Out of the 50 respondents, 26 identified the Nallur Temple in Jaffna as the key site. Jaffna is located in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka and it is around 400 km from Colombo. Nallyr Murugan temple is considered to be one of the important religious temples among the Hindus. The twenty five day annual festival of this temple takes place during the month of July/August. In 2009, Sri Lanka tourism carried out a special promotion in the United Kingdom to attract Hindus for the annual festival of this temple. There were organized tours promoted by five travel agents for this event and the three domestic airlines operated special flights form Colombo of Jaffna .In

total 400,000 devotees attended this annual festival which also included nearly 500 Sri Lanklans living abroad. Thiru koneshwaram was built by sage Agasthyan on the instructions of Lord Shiva who was impressed by the devotion of King Ravana. This place is unique in the sense that the Lord hard dedicated a temple to his devotee. Sir Ponnambalam Ramanadan Temple is nearly 300 years old and is located in the city of Colombo. Key Sites for Christians Madhu church All responded Madhu church as the most popular site for Christians. Madhu church is located in the north-western Mannar district, about 300 kilometers from the capital, colom,bo. due to the security situation in the country it was not accessible for tourists for nearly 27 years. In 2009, the jungle church was once again filed with devotees camping out for days to take part in the feast of the Virgin Mary of Madhu. Madhu church holds three feasts in July, august, and October. Other important Sites St. Anne church at Talawila Basilica at Thewatta, Ragama and Wolvenaal church in Colombo. Key Sites for Muslims According to the survey findings there are no specific key sites attracting tourists but there are many important places of pilgrimage and shrines visited by the local population. Key Sites for all Religious Faiths Kataragma is located in the Southern part of Sri Lanka at a distance of 300km from Colombo. kataragama temple in Sri Lanka and kmount Kailasa in India are located at the same longitude. In all major Hindu religious scripts, the name and importance of Kataragama temple is mentioned. therefore this is a site well known to Hindus. Kataragama is a place for all major religions of Sri Lanka. it is heavily patronized by the local people during weekends and school holiday periods because of its religious significance. Within the sacred city of Kataragama there are temples for Buddhists, Hindus, Christians, and Muslims. Prior to the annual festival of the Kataragama temple is the " Pada Yatra" ( journey on foot). the journey starts in May from Jaffna and continues south along the East coast passing through Kumana and Yala National Parks and arrives in July/August at Kataragama in time for the pilgrims source their own food from the people of the area, receiving donations or cooking for themselves and sleeping under the trees. 'Pada Yara' is one of the ancient pilgrim traditions proper to Sri Lanka and is associated especially with the Eastern Province. Its origins are not known, but there are records that, it has been practiced in the early 20th century and was revived in the 1950's. In 2008, nearly 40,000 pilgrims participated in the Pada Yatra. The main feature of this tradition is to "walk" and worship Murukan/Lord Kataragama. more recent well-known pilgrims who participated in the journey include Palkuti Bawa and Yogaswam Sage who lived in Jaffna, Sri Lanka. the Sage passed away in 1963. Sri Lanka tourism is currently preparing to launch a major campaign to create awareness of the Kataragama temple and the Pada Yatra to the Hindus in south India. Adam's Peak This is a mountain, 7,360 feet above sea level ( third highest mountain in Sri Lanka) in the hill country. On the summit of the mountain there is a foot print. All four major religions of Sri Lanka

claim some association with it. Known as ' Sri Pada' ( Sacred Footprint) to the Buddhists, they believe that Lord Buddha during his third visit to Sri Lanka placed his footprint on the summit of this sacred mountain, while the Hindus believe it to be the foot print of Lord Siva and call the mountain " Sivanolipathmalai". Christians and Muslims believe it is the foot of Adam. Annually, during December to April, devotees climb the mountain to pay obeisance. The pilgrimage starts on the Unduwap full moon day ( that normally falls in December) and ends in April. It attracts devotees from all over the country and is a great event in terms of domestic tourism. Historically, Adam's Peak has been known outside Sri Lanka and even Lbn Batuta made a pilgrimage to its summit in the fourteenth century. 16.4 Following the trail of Ramayana in Sri Lanka According to the Hindu epic Ramayana, Ravana was the king of Sri Lanka while lord Rama hailed from Ayodya in India. during the pre-historic times Sri Lanka was called Lankapura.According to the Ramayana epic,Seetha Devi ( the wife of lord Rama) was kept captive in Lankapura by King Ravana. Seetha Devi was brouight to Lankapura by King Ravana using " Puspakavimana" ( mythical aircraft) Later, Lord Rama with the assistance of Lord Hanumanji fought with King Ravan and took Seetha Devi back to Ayodya in India. this is the Segment which is relevant to Sri Lanka, in the epic Ramayana. The Sri Lanka tourism Development Authority in 2006 conducted research to identify all the sites related to this particular segment of the Ramayana found in Sri Lanka. A special working committee found nearly 50 sites related to the legend and the current status of each site. To create awareness of these sites a 40 minute DVD and a brochure were prepared. Shri Morari Bapu, a well known saintly figure from India visited Sri Lanka in 1999 and 2007 to conduct discourses on " Ram Katha" ( discourses on Ram). During his visit to Sri Lanka in October 2007, together with him, there were nearly 12,000 of this devotees. India was identified as potentially the best market to attract tourists to see these sites because of its proximity and due to its association with the Ramayana. India is also Sri Lanka's leading tourist generating market. The launch of " Following the trial of Ramayana" took place in New Delhi, India in January 2007. Hindu religious leaders addressed the participants at the launch, which received wide publicity in the Inidan media. training programs were conducted to tour guides to conduct Ramayana tours.Details of the trained guides were made available to the local travel agents. further, technical tours were conducted to create awareness to these sties among hoteliers, tour guides, government officials, etc. In 2008, Sri Lanka tourism participated at the SATTE fair in New Delhi and the main theme was Ramayana. A new brochure was launcehd at this trade fair. Ten travel agents form Sir Lanka participated at this fair and sold special packages on Ramayana tours. A book titled " Ramayana in Lanka" was published in 2008 by the Chinmaya Mission of Sri Lanka. Several TV teams and media personnel from India were hosted on familiarization tours and in return Sri Lanka received wide publicity. In 2008, nearly 3,000 visitors came exclusively for the Ramayana Tours and it is estimated that arrivals would reach 4,500 in 2009. 16.5 Sri Lankan Outbound Tourism Sri Lankan departures include Sri Lankans travelling abroad for employment in 2008 was nearly 300,000. A survey was carried out to interview twenty travel agents involved in outbound tourism in Sri Lanka. There are travel agents selling organized tour packages for Sri Lankans to travel abroad and the popular five countries in the Asia region are Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, India, and Nepal. out of these five countries the main purpose of visit Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia was for shopping, whereas to India and Nepal it was for religious purposes .The key tourist sites for religious tourism are Budha Gaya in North India is an important Buddhist pilgrimage site, a significant archaeological site, and also a vital Buddhist cultural centre. It is the site where lord Buddha attained enlightenment. Sathiya Sai Bava Santhi Nilyam in Andra Pradesh and Thirupathi

in South India attract Hindus and Buddhists from Sri Lanka. There are organized package tours to these sites from Sri Lanka. During the Hajj festival period Sri Lankan Muslims make their pilgrimages to Mecca. there are organized tours to Mecca during this period. Sri Lankans still not known as an outbound destination to any country, although the number of Sri Lankans traveling overseas, particularly given the high number seeking employment, exceeds the number of tourist arrivals to Sri Lanka. 16.6 conclusions Sri Lanka tourism was affected by the security situation in the country and the tourist arrivals fluctuated between 400,000 and 500,000 during the last twenty five years. Now that there is peace in the country there us a great potential for both domestic and international tourism. Tourist arrivals during the period June to October 2009 was 189,222, an increase of 21.1 % as agianst the corresponding period of last year. Tourism is one of the important sectors of the Sri Lankan economy. H.E. the President has set a target of 2.5 million tourist arrivals by 2016. The Ministry of Tourism together with the four institutions under its purview will work towards achieving this target with the collaboration of private sector of tourism and its stakeholders. Beach tourism sector will continue to be the major tourist attraction. religious tourism will be an important segment to attract tourists from the Asian countries because of the large number of religious locations available in Sri Lanka. Northern and Eastern Provinces consist of many historically important religious places which were not explored nor exploited due to security situation in the country for the last three decades. " Following the trail of Ramayana" is an important product for religious tourism from India. the target for Indian arrivals is placed at 100,000 tourists during the period 2010 to 2012, and it is hoped that the trail will become more popular with Sri Lanka's neighbors ( the targeted figure for the trail, as mentioned earlier, is 4,500 in 2009). Some of the immediate challenges in promoting religious tourism to Sri Lanka include training of tour guides offering professional guide services; assurance of safety and security prevention of harassment of tourists by touts and; provision of decent toilet facilities at religious sites. The government of Sri Lanka respects the values of all four major religions of Sri Lanka as seen by the different government departments of the ministry assigned to take care of the four major religions in the country coming under the purview of H.E. the President. Sri Lankans are religious minded honoring their own beliefs and at the same time respecting the faith of others in a climate of goodwill and peace. the age-old tradition of hospitality is extended to domestic as well as foreign visitors. 17 Religious tourism in Thailand Tourism is unarguably the major export service of Thailand ( Vogt and Wittayakorn 1998), accounting for around 6-7% of the country's national GDP (EIU ViewsWire 2003). Moreover, growth in Thailand's tourism industry in recent years had been the result of numerous strengths including a tradition of hospitality ( Koumelis 2004; National Identity Board 2000), rich cultural heritage and historical tourists destinations ( Rittichainwat, Qu and Brown 2001), strong natural attractions, and value for money ( Rogers 2003). Simply put, the multibillion-dollar tourism industry is a crucial component of the Thai economy ( Watson 2008). Due to its significant contribution to the country's economy, the tourism industry in Thailand has been promoted and developed for over 40 years, its rapid growth has been largely due to its contribution to the alleviation of critical economic problems in Thailand. the key value of the tourism industry lies in the increase of national income, employment rate, and distribution of income of locals and the community ( Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research 2008). Although tourist arrivals in Thailand have increased each year, it should be pointed out that there is a high competition among many newly growing countries and innovative products in the region.

hence, Thailand needs to intensify the marketing management together with an offer of highquality incentives to tourists. this will lead Thailand to a higher competitiveness in increasing market share, or in being the leading tourism country in Asia ( Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research 2008). the tourism authority of Thailand ( 2009b), or TAT , is consequently emphasizing the promotion and development of proactive marketing strategies for increasing new markets as well as niche markets, a move intended to attract more quality tourists to visit Thailand. At the same time, domestic travel for Thais should be vigorously encouraged. More importantly, the positioning of Thailand has to be clear. One of the fastest emerging tourism segments in Thailand is religious tourism, particularly known in Thailand as Buddhist tourism. this niche market not only draws international tourists into Thailand, but also boost domestic travel as well. details of this important segment are discussed in the following sections. 17.1 International Religious Tourists Although arguably interested for centuries, the West has become increasingly enamored with the ways of the East in recent years. Early interest in marital arts like karate has matures to embrace more peaceful practices such as tai chi, yoga, Ayurveda, Thai massage, and meditation. Highprofile figures like Dalai Lama, a Nobel Prize winner, have helped attract more interest in the Buddhist faith ( tourism Authority of Thailand 2009i). The West's interest in Buddhism has increased recently particularly because the rising world trend of religious tourism has reached South-East Asia with Thailand emerging as the nucleus for Buddhism ( Diethelm Travel 2007). In fact, Buddhism first came to mainland South-East Asia, around the eight century, and has thus been a part of the culture for well over a thousand years- evidence of how deeply Thais have come to embrace their religion ( tourism Authority of Thailand 2009i). Although Buddhism is the dominant religion in Sri Lankan, Bhutan, throughout the Mekong region, china and North-East Asia; Thailand has gained an influential position as a centre of learning and knowledge. Major institutions like the World Fellowship of Buddhists and the Mahachulalongkorn-rajavidyalaya Buddhist University are located in Bangkok. visits to prominent temples accompanied by laymen's explanations of the faith are standard features of tours taken by 10 million visitors who travel to Thailand each year ( tourism Authority of Thailand 2009i). Apart from standard temple tours, foreigners also take pleasure in meditation courses and retreats both in Bangkok- the home of the World Fellowship of Buddhist- and rural localities both in Bangkok- the home of the World Fellowship of Buddhist- and rural localities ( Diethelm Travel 2007). Possibly due to Thailand's reputation, the country has attracted thousands of foreigners from all over the world to learn more about the 2,547- years-old Buddhist faith and one of its most famous practices, the art of meditation ( tourism authority of Thailand 2009). Classes covering a range of techniques, and stays in sanctuaries can run from 10 day to a month. for example, close to 1,000 foreign visitors a year take courses at Wat Mahathat's International Buddhist Mediation Centre ( IBMC), Bangkok's primary centre for meditation studies, and the number continues to rise . Canad,Germany, the United Kingdom and the united States of America comprise more than half its international student body, which includes students from 45 different countries ( Diethelm Travel 2007). Students of Buddhism and meditation in Thailand range from local expatriate residents to passing visitors. whilst some seek to study the religion as a philosophy , others come to learn meditation techniques in order to become instructors thermsleves in the proliferating number of schools and institutions in the west. Some even seek to become monks, and incresingly, many students are studying Buddhsit principles for use in business management techniques and conflcit resolution. By far the vast majority, however, see Buddhist philosophy and meditiaton as a means of attaining good mental and physical health, personal fulfillment and satisfaction (Tourism Authority of Thailand 2009).Although religious travel is now one of the fastest-growing markets in travel and is worth US$ 18 million worldwide ( Faith-Based Travel 2009), and despite the increased awareness of Thailand as a religious tourism destination, international religious tourists in Thailand still only account for a small percentage when compared with other types of tourists, Out of 14.46 million international tourist arrivals in 2007, religious tourists accounted for approximately 6% ( 872,995 tourists) ( information Provider and Consultants 2007).

17.2 Domestic Religious Tourists Thailand is a Buddhist country, a nation that reveres and upholds the Dhamma, the collected teaching of Buddhism. these teachings are considered amongst Thais to be precious; much like gold, and like the metal, this set of beliefs is regarded as an eternal symbol of brightness and prosperity. consequently, Thais think of their country as a land illuminated by the Buddhist religion ( tourism authority of Thailand 2009). Whilst Thais have long incorporated Buddhist beliefs in their daily life, Buddhist tourism in Thailand has gained significant recognition over recent years particularly due to people's needs for inner peace. This is partially because Thailand has been challenged in recent years by a number of external negative factors ( Campiranon and Arcodia 2007; MICE Asia 2007; Tourism Authority of Thailand 2004), including the SARS epidemic ( year 2003); the bird or avian flu ( year 2004); and the tsunami which struck the region ( December 26, 2004). One of the latest negative factors to affect Thailand has been the global economic crisis, and this has exacerbated two existing problems. Firstly, since 2005 the US$ has depreciated by between 14% and 21% against six major Asia Pacific currencies, making some parts of Asia an increasingly expensive choice for US travelers. this in part is fueling a shot in destination choice even within the region. At the same time, inflationary pressures across the region have been pushing local costs skywards. for example, since 2006, average daily rates at 5-star hotels in six major Asia Pacific cities have jumped by between 10% and 39%, as measured in local currencies. in addition, as oil prices have hot record levels, fuel surcharges have increases substantially ( Pacific Asia Travel Association 2008). Secondly, steadily rising oil prices since 2001 continue to exert upward pressure on price levels worldwode. Despite tighter monetary policies in many countries of the region since 2005, there has been an increase in the Asian and Pacific region's average inflation rate, from 2.8% in 2005 to 3.5% in 2006. therefore, a large number of oil-importing economies such as Malaysia, Thailand, Nepal and Pakistan have been experiencing an increase in oil prics, consequently causing inflation rates to nearly double between 2004-2006 ( United Nations ESCAP 2008). this has meant a dramatic increase in living expenses, and translates as an additional burden for Thai people. due to the external negative factor of the economic crisis, the UWTO has warned that, primarily with economy the major concern, people will think twice before deciding to travel. The enforced trend in 2009 therefore points towards traveling to destinations closer to home, meaning more domestic travel in favour of long-haul travel. visiting friends and relatives, repeat visitors and special interest and independent travelers are expected to be more resilient during the economic crisis ( UNWTO 2009). Thai people are therefore spending more holidays within the country together, often coupled with a search for inner peace in order to overcome both their economic and political distress. In fact, seeking inner peace is becoming a powerful phenomenon in the face of seemingly uncontrollable external conflicts and social mayhem. the pursuit of material wealth and beautiful bodies is widely perceived as a short-sighted and short-term objective that does little to lift the human spirit. the breakdown of family values and the ruthless competition of political and economic systems only accelerate this search ( Tourism Authority of Thailand 2009). Due to such growing demand for inner peace, religious tourists account for approximately 39% ( 32, 368,428 tourists) compared with international religious tourists which are only 6% . In other words, there are 872,995 international religious tourists versus 32,368,428 domestic religious tourists, or a ratio of 1:37 ( Information Provider and Consultants 2007). 17.3 Religious tourism Defined Religious site visits and pilgrimages have long attracted devotees and believers, but this concept is currently growing in popularity and has become and emerging trend in specialized travel ( future Brand 2008). this is in line with the Tourism Authority of Thailand which classified religious tourism as a form of special interest tourism be examined, and this will be the focus of this section. The tourism industry is increasingly subsuming the identity of an ' experience industry' whereby

tourist are willing to pay tourism organizers to help find optimal experiences within the limited time available. Simply put, they wish to buy feeling, not products. Moreover, they want to personally experience the immaterial qualities, seeking ambiance, aesthetics and atmosphere ( Trauer 2006). this type of tourists, or special interest tourist, demonstrates a desire form authenticity and real experiences that offer active identification with host communities in a non-exploitative manner ( Dowling 2004). With this in mind. Special Interest Tourism (SIT) can be defined as the provision of customized leisure and recreational experiences driven by the specific expressed interests of individuals and groups ( Derrett 2001). As a special interest tourist chooses to engage with a product or service that satisfies particular interests and needs, SIT is therefore a tourism activity undertaken for a distinct and specific reason. High-yield SIT products and services are designed to meet specific needs and are no longer determined by large-scale operations dependent on volume of business ( Dowling 2004). this means SIT can be viewed as the opposite of ' mass' tourism with SIT having a focus on new forms of tourism that have the potential to meet the nature-based tourism, cultural and heritage tourism, and festival and events tourism ( Trauer 2006). Initially, SIT-focused organizations were perceived to have a focal point on a rather homogeneously considered group of tourists ( e.g. adventure tourism, eco-tourism, sport tourism, and cultural tourism), and for tourists seeking the 'hard and specialized' end of the market. Nevertheless, it is now noticeable that operators have diversified their products to attract the large market segment of the 'soft and novice' end of the spectrum( Trauer 2006). Participating in one category of SIT does not necessarily exclude tourists from participation in others, and in fact, many tourists engage in a number of SIT simultaneously (Douglas,and Derret 2001). In turn, religious tourism can be considered as part of SIT, as religious tourists are in essence seeking peace of mind and an authentic experience. As The World Religious Travel Association ( 2009) has pointed out, the concept of religious travel was originally centered on the notion of pilgrimage. Yet although this type of journey in many was still remains at the hart of religious travel, it is no longer the sole form or reference point.Today, religious travel and hospitality is rather defined in the following terms: travel to religious destination; travel to a religious gathering; travel with a missionary and/or humanitarian intent; and travel with fellowship intent. Interestingly, 'travel with a fellowship intent' is possibly the newest definition of religious travel. This is inf act the fastest growing segment of today's faith tourism marketplace. Travel with fellowship intent includes everything from religious events, conference sand retreats of cruising leisure vacations, adventure trips, special tours, local getaways, visits to attractions, and youth camps, amongst other things. 17.4 Religious Tourism in Thailand The Tourism Authority of Thailand together with the tourism with the tourism industry in Thailand have recognized the potential of religious tourism within the country and have consequently developed three key religious tourism products, the details of which are discussed bellow. these key products are: visiting temples, meditation, and religious tourism routes. Visiting Temples given the established history of Buddhism in he country, visitors coming to Thailand can expect to find Buddhist temples, known in Thai as 'WAT', throughout the country. Each temple will contain one or more Buddha images, predominantly in the form of statues, and those are revered as a depiction of the Lord Buddha. these images exist in many different styles and postures, and are made from a variety of materials. Some large images are made form concrete; others are cast in bronze or gold, or carved from sandstone or even wood ( Tourism Authority of Thailand 2009). Historically, the village temple was the focal point of a village community. Beyond religious instruction however, the temple also served as a centre of learning. Buddhist monks taught reading and writing, the ancient art of traditional herbal healing and Thai massage. They were also actively involved in the preservation of Thai art and culture through festivals, performances and mural paintings. visitors would also enjoy visits to the traditional temple fair ( ngan wat), an

indication of the ingenuity of abbots in designing festive events that could entice village folk, particularly the younger gen ration, to visit the temple. With a good time being had by all, villagers then looked forward to their next visit to the temple for religious instruction and much sanuk, or good-spirited festive fun thereafter. clearly, the temple was the place to meet new friends and renew old acquaintance ( Tourism Authority of Thailand 2009). In addition to the typical visits discussed above, the Tourism Authority of Thailand ( 2009) has reported a new trend which has become increasingly popular over the past few years. this recent trend, particularly prominent in Bangkok, is for people to try and visit nine sacred temples in order to bring themselves good luck for the New Year. there is no sequence for visiting each temple; however, one should try to pay respect at all ' nine' temples within one day.The reason for this specified number of temples relates to the Thai belief that nine is an auspicious number. this belief is derived from the sound of 'nine'; phonologically, the number is very similar to the Thai word for ' Progress'. Below is a suggested list of popular temples for such visits, together with the believed benefit of each. 1. Wat suthat-Good vision. 2. Wat Chanasongkram-Victory over difficult obstacles. 3. Wat Arum ( Temple of Dawn)- A prosperous life. 4.City Pillar Shrine- Discard bad luck and lengthen your life with good fortune. 5. Wat Kanlayanmit- A safe trip. 6. Wat Rakhang-To become more popular and likable. 7. Wat Phra Kaeo ( temple of Emerald Buddha_ wealth and rich rewards. 8. Wat Pho ( reclining Buddha)- A happier and more peaceful life. 9 chao Phor seua Shrine-Offers more power and stature. Clearly, such a culturally engrained belief can offer tremendous opportunities for tourism organizations in Thailand to service promotions or travel packages for those religious tourist, not only for Buddhist in Thailand but also for the many Buddhists from ASEAN and East Asian countries. Thai Airways, for instance, is introducing offers on cultural travel and pilgrimages to Buddhist landmarks in eight countries across Asia. The promotion features airfares to visit everything from sacred temples in Surathani province in Thailand, to Burma's Golden Rock, to the site of the Buddha's enlightenment in India's Bodhgaya. the airline also offers a prepaid THAI Value Plus card to make the spiritual trips to those temples more affordable ( The Nation 2009). Meditation According to an interview with a senior Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) executive, meditation is the fasted growing religious tourism segment in Thailand, with international visitors primarily from the United States of America, Canada, united kingdom, Germany, France, Poland, Portugal, Russian Federation, Spain, Australia, Korea, and Singapore. reasons underpinning the high growth of meditation in Thailand are discussed bellow. Meditation is part of Thai life, and it is not necessary to be Buddhist in order to benefit from it. It can be applied to daily life, aiding concentration and leading to a state of calm. Each year, Thailand attracts visitors from all over the world who wish to discover the secrets of the peaceful and meditative lifestyle. Meditation tuition may range from English day classes at centres and temples in Bangkok to intensive, month-long courses at tranquil forest retreats in rural provinces (tourism Authority of Thailand 2009e). Interestingly, meditaiton programs for tourists have emerged in a number of temples ( Wandering Dhamma 2009a). Occupying some 2,500 rai ( 1,000 acres) in Nakhon Pathom, just outside Bangkok, buddhamonthon ( Buddhist town) is one of thailand's most revered religous sites. It offers vipassana ( insight meditiaton) training the first weekend of each month. vispassana teaching to foreign followers is also conducted at Wat Suan Mokkh in Surat Thani, which houses the International Dhamma Hermitage. Founded by the late Buddhadasa Bikkhu, the temple offers 10-day silent retreats ( Diethelm Travel 2007). In Chiangmai province of Thailand, where there is a large force of young monks learning English at the MahaChulalonghornrajavidyalaya Buddhist University,the monk chat program, a popular meditation program, has been popular. A number of

other temples, such as Wat Srisuphan, offer a two hour meditation 'taster' instruction for beginners ( Wandering Dhamma 2009a). The TAT has consequently realized the potential of meditation as a tourism activity and has therefore promoted mediation as a part of Buddhist tourism. To make the most of this trend and the growing number of religious tourists it brings, the TATA recently produced a guidebook listing places of Buddhist learning throughout Thailand ( Wandering Dhamma 2009a). Websites, such as www.dhammathai.org, are another effective approach that the TAT has implemented in order to promote mediation places in Thailand. It is important to reiterate however that TAT promotes the practice of meditation as being beneficial to everyone, not only Buddhists. Hence the TAT has positioned meditation tourism as means of increasing concentration in daily life. If life in the world is seen as overwhelming then meditation in Thailand is arguably one solution to this problem ( Wandering Dhamma 2009b). Religious Tourism Route The TAT is currently promoting 50 new religious tourism in the hope of encouraging more Thais to travel throughout Thailand. Mr.Wansadet Thawornsuk, Deputy TAT governor for domestic marketing stated that the TAT had planned to launch new religious tourism routes nationwide called 'OM Buun Uun Jai' routes in celebration of the TAT's 50th anniversary in 2010. the plan was to stimulate religious tourism among people of all religions in the country, and TAT anticipated that people within Thailand would travel more domestically to different regions to attend multi-religious traditions. Such religious tourism routes, which would be held three times a year, would include a seven day meditation program ( National News Bureau of Thailand 2009). Another emerging religious tourism route has been created jointly by a number of ASEAN member countries who had agreed to develop the Buddhist Circuit/Pilgrimage Tourism for ASEAN and India. The TAT is positive that this will be another effective effort which will encourage all members to work together in close cooperation in tourism promotion and marketing within ASEAN. To ensure that the set objectives are achieved, TAT has been actively working on this project. The Union of Mynamar is one of the pilot countries with whom TAT is keen to join hands in promoting the ' Buddhist Circuit'. Both countries are optimistic and look forward to welcoming increased cooperation from other ASEAN members who might wish to join the ASEAN-India Buddhist Tourism Circuit and contribute to its future development ( Tourism Authority of Thailand 2009h). 17.5 Religious Festivals: A Case Study of Ubon Ratchathani Religious festival can be defined as a festival having religious significance (Princeton University 2009). In other words, a religious festival is a time of special importance marked by adherents to that religion. Generally, religious festivals are commonly celebrated were not very accurate, the exact date of the festival tended to change each year ( Absolute Astronomy 2009), and this remains the case today with many such religious festivals. Thailand is a country where a number of Buddhist festivals are celebrated ( Buddhist Tourism 2009). Festivals are sprinkled throughout the Thai year: religious and secular, national and local, high spirited and gravely reverent; this has been the case since the earliest days of the kingdom. Today, Thais seize almost any occasion for a chance to put on their best clothes and celebrate, whether it be one of the several milestones in the Buddhist calendar or merely some notable village event (Archipelago Press 2003).It is not an exaggeration to say that Thailand does not just hold festivals, it arguably turns everything into a festival. Sanuk ('fun' in Thai), the festivals balance two contradictory principles; a combination of sanuk (fun) and sa-ngob (serenity), that together bring about the outgoing personality of the Thai ( Cornwell-Smith 2006). Festivals in Thailand cover a wide spectrum, relating to Buddhist, royal, and national days ( Cornwell-Smith 2006). As most Thais are Buddhists, most religious ceremonies are performed on important days according to the Buddhist belief, such as the beginning of Buddhsit Lent, and end of the Lent, the Makhabuja Day, the Visakhabuja, and the Kathin Day ( Chulalongkorn University 1987). One of the most highly anticipated religious events is the Buddhist Lent or 'Khao Phansa' which takes place in July ( tourism Authority of Thailand 2009g).

The seasonal monsoon rains which descend over the kingdom mark the beginning of the Buddhist 'rain retreat' and the Buddhist Lent, or 'Phansa'. At this time, all Buddhist monks retreat to the temples and devote themselves to study and meditation. Buddhist monks remain within the temple grounds and do not venture it for a period of three months starting from the first day of the main moon of the eighth lunar month ( in July) to the fifteenth day of the waxing moon of the eleventh lunar month( in October). In former times, this was done to prevent monks from trampling upon rice paddies whilst venturing out to receive offerings from the villagers ( Tourism Authority of Thailand 2009g). As a consequence, villagers actively engage in merit-making during the Buddhist Lent, visiting temples to make offerings of food and items for daily use. The presentation of items that provide light, such as candles, lanterns and lamp oil, is deemed to be particularly important as these facilitate the study of Holy Scriptures and meditation by providing illumination to the monks-both physically and spiritually. It is indeed rather fascinating that religious festivals have evolved over time into full-scale festivals featured in the Buddhist calendar and the kingdom's official calendar of festivals and events ( tourism Authority of Thailand 2009g). One of the most spectacular religious festivals in Thailand, The Candle Festival of Ubon Ratchathani province features a procession of ornately-carved traditional beeswax candles of various shapes and sizes( Tourism Authority of Thailand 2009g). In order to examine how Thailand has turned a religious festival into an international event drawing a large number of domestic and international tourists, a case study of Uboin Ratchathani's Candle Festival is subsequently dis17.6 Candle Festival discussed. The Candle Feistival, Ubon Ratchathani's largest festival, is held annually in early July on Khao Phansa day to mark the beginning of the Buddhist Let. during these three months of the rainy seasons, monks do not leave their temple, except in the case of an emergency, and lay peaple vow to abstain from consuming alcohol, as well as refraububg frin abt geberakkt begatuve auction. Huge wax candles are displayed in Thung Si Muang Park, and these are carried around town in a procession the following morning. the celebration comprises carved candle contests and parades from different temples in the form of a procession. This procession starts at Wat Si Ubon Rattanaram to Thung Si Mueang, the venue for performances and a showcase of the delicately carved candles ( Wikitravel 2009). In conjunction with the Candle Festival, 'The 4th Thailand International Wax Sculpture' was held during 1 st-31st July 2009 at Ubon Ratchathani National Museum, Ubon Ratchathani Province ( Tourism Authority of Thailand 2009c). Although it cannot be disputed that the Candle Festival has been successful in providing a substantial; amount of economic contribution Festival has been successful in providing a substantial amount of economic contribution to the province of Ubon Ratchathani, the event has not been without criticism from tourism scholars who argue that this religious festival has significantly evolved into a tourist attraction with its original religious purpose at risk of being forgotten. with regards to this growing concern, a senior executive at the TAT has suggested that the organizer of the Candle Festival should ensure that a sufficient level of educational activities be integrated into the event, thus allowing tourists to not only enjoy the festivities but also understand the traditional rationale behind the Candle Festival, and the reasons why it is so meaningful to Buddhists in Thailand. 17.7 Conclusions this paper has examined religious tourism as one of the emerging tourist trends in Thailand. Profiles of both international and domestic religious tourist have been discussed, whilst a concept of religious tourism has been defined as a segment of special interest tourism. moreover, this paper has examined key religious activities in Thailand and how they can be packaged as a tourism product. Lastly, this paper has discussed a case study of a successful Candle Festival in Ubon Ratchathani province, and how the TAT has turned this religious festival into an international event which provides a substantial contribution to the local economy. this paper has emphasized that it is essential for religious festivals to balance tow contradictory principles; a combination of sanuk ( fun) and sa-ngob ( serenity). This means an educational component should form part of the event so that tourists can appreciate the festival's traditional origin and

how it forms part of a Buddhists' daily life. Nonetheless, studies on religious tourism in Thailand are very limited and it is believed that further studies are needed. this is in line with the Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (2008), commissioned by the TAT, that analyzed research on tourism marketing of Thailand from 199 to 2006 and suggested that there are still a lack of guidelines in planningparticularly in the issues of sales and distribution or stimulation measures for tourists to buy products or use service continuously. consequently, it is envisaged that further studies of religious tourism in Thailand will be necessary, particularly in the areas of marketing planning, marketing guidelines, and marketing promotion. 18 special Case Study India 18.1 Religious travel Industry in India: Prospects and Challenges Religious tourism is a " specific type of tourism whose participants are motivated either in part or exclusively for religious reasons" and is simultaneously related to holiday-making ( Rinschede, 1992:52). In simpler terms, religious tourism refers to contemporary patterns of visitation to places of religious importance or pilgrimage sites for fulfilling religious needs and recreational needs. Most studies in religious tourism have focused on theorizing it within the spectrum of pilgrimage ( religious journeys) and tourism ( Timothy and Olsen, 2006). Scholars have commented on the form and magnitude of religious tourism and its various subtypes. However, these enquiries have revolved around Christan pilgrimage sites in Europe and recently in America. The prevalent notion of religious tourism known through examples and discussions from the western countries, however, is different in its application in the Indian context.