R.

Vijay Anand ASM, Kerala 21 23 May 2007

Contents

FREE ELECTRONS Only the FREE ELECTRONS in the outermost shell (Valance Ring) are free to move from atom to atom. This movement is called ELECTRON FLOW. These FREE ELECTRONS are loosely held and can easily be moved to another atom or ion. Because of their distance from the nucleus, free electrons have a weak magnetic attraction. Since this attraction is not as strong to the nucleus as the bound electrons on the inner orbits, the electrons move easily from atom to atom.

INSULATORS An INSULATOR is any material that inhibits (stops) the flow of electrons (electricity). An insulator is any material with 5 to 8 free electrons in the outer ring.Because, atoms with 5 to 8 electrons in the outer ring are held (bound) tightly to the atom, they CANNOT be easily moved to another atom nor make room for more electrons. Insulator material includes glass, rubber, and plastic.

CONDUCTORS A CONDUCTOR is any material that easily allows electrons (electricity) to flow. A CONDUCTOR has 1 to 3 free electrons in the outer ring.Because atoms with 1 to 3 electrons in the outer ring are held (bound) loosely to the atom, they can easily move to another atom or make room for more electrons. Conductor material includes copper and gold.

SEMICONDUCTORS Any material with exactly 4 free electrons in the outer orbit are called SEMICONDUCTORS. A semiconductor is neither a conductor or insulator. semiconductor material includes carbon, silicon, and germanium.

These materials are be used in the manufacturer of diodes, transistors, and integrated circuit chips.

Two Current Flow theories exist. The first is:

ELECTRON THEORY The Electron Theory states that current flows from NEGATIVE to POSITIVE. Electrons move from atom to atom as they move through the conductor towards positive.

The second Current Flow theory is: CONVENTIONAL THEORY Conventional theory, also known as HOLE THEORY, states that current flows from POSITIVE to NEGATIVE. Protons or the lack of electrons (the holes) move towards the negative. (Current flow direction in Hole Theory is the opposite of that in Electron Theory.)

VOLTAGE Voltage is the electrical force that moves electrons through a conductor. Voltage is electrical pressure also known as EMF (Electro Motive Force) that pushes electrons.

The greater the difference in electrical potential push (difference between positive and negative), the greater the voltage force potential.

MEASUREMENT A VOLTMETER measures the voltage potential across or parallel to the circuit. The Voltmeter measures the amount of electrical pressure difference between two points being measured. Voltage can exist between two points without electron flow. VOLTAGE UNITS Voltage is measured in units called VOLTS. Voltage measurements can use different value prefixes such as millivolt, volt, Kilovolt, and Megavolt.
VOLTAGE LESS THAN BASE UNIT mV millivolt 0.001 BASIC UNIT LARGER THAN BASE UNIT kV Kilovolt 1,000

Symbol Pronounced Multiplier

V Volt 1

CURRENT (AMPERES) CURRENT is the quantity or flow rate of electrons moving past a point within one second. Current flow is also known as amperage, or amps for short. Higher voltage will produce higher current flow, and lower voltage will produce lower current flow.

MEASUREMENT An AMMETER measures the quantity of current flow. Ammeters are placed in series (inline) to count the electrons passing through it. Example: A water meter counts the gallons of water flowing through it. MEASUREMENT An AMMETER measures the quantity of current flow. Ammeters are placed in series (inline) to count the electrons passing through it. Example: A water meter counts the gallons of water flowing through it.
AMPERAGE LESS THAN BASE UNIT A Microamp LESS THAN BASE UNIT mA milliamp BASIC UNIT

Symbol Pronounced

A Amp

Multiplier

0.000001

0.001

EFFECTS OF CURRENT FLOW Two common effects of current flow are Heat Generation and Electromagnetism.

HEAT: When current flows, heat will be generated. The higher the current flow the greater the heat generated. An example would be a light bulb. If enough current flows across the filament, it will glow white hot and illuminate to produce light.
ELECTROMAGNETISM: When current flows, a small magnetic field is created. The higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic field. An example: Electromagnetism principles are used in alternators, ignition systems, and other electronic devices.

RESISTANCE Resistance is the force that reduces or stops the flow of electrons. It opposes voltage. Higher resistance will decrease the flow of electrons and lower resistance will allow more electrons to flow.

MEASUREMENT
An OHMMETER measures the resistance of an electrical circuit or component. No voltage can be applied while the ohmmeter is connected, or damage to the meter will occur.

Example: Water flows through a garden hose, and someone steps on the hose. The greater the pressure placed on the hose, the greater the hose restriction and the less water flows.
RESISTANCE UNITS Resistance is measured in units called OHMS. Resistance measurements can use different value prefixes, such as Kilo ohm and Megaohms.
AMPERAGE BASIC UNIT MORE THAN BASE UNIT K Kilo ohm 1,000 MORE THAN BASE UNIT M Megaohm 1,000,000

Symbol Pronounced Multiplier

Ohm 1

RESISTANCE FACTORS Various factors can affect the resistance. These include: LENGTH of the conductor. The longer the conductor, the higher the resistance. DIAMETER of the conductor. The narrower the conductor, the higher the resistance. TEMPERATURE of the material. Depending on the material, most will increase resistance as temperature increases. PHYSICAL CONDITION (DAMAGE) to the material. Any damage will increase resistance.

TYPE of MATERIAL used. Various materials have a wide range of resistances.

TYPES OF ELECTRICITY
Two basic types of Electricity classifications:
STATIC ELECTRICITY is electricity that is standing still. Voltage potential with NO electron flow. DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY is electricity that is in motion. Voltage potential WITH electron flow. Two types of Dynamic electricity exist: Direct Current (DC) Electron Flow is in only one direction. Alternating Current (AC) Electron flow alternates and flows in both directions (back and forth).

STATIC ELECTRICITY Voltage potential with NO electron flow. Example: By rubbing a silk cloth on a glass rod, you physically remove electrons from the glass rod and place them on the cloth. The cloth now has a surplus of electrons (negatively charged), and the rod now has a deficiency of electrons (positively charged). Another example: Rub your shoes on a rug and then touch a metal table or chair .... Zap!! The shock you felt was the static electricity dissipating through your body.

Direct Current (DC) Dynamic Electricity Alternating Current (AC)

DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY is electricity in motion, meaning you have electrons flowing, in other words voltage potential WITH electron flow. Two types of dynamic electricity exists: Direct Current (DC) Alternating Current (AC)

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) Electricity with electrons flowing in only one direction is called Direct Current or DC. DC electrical systems are used in cars.

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) Electricity with electrons flowing back and forth, negative - positive- negative, is called Alternating Current, or AC.

The electrical appliances in your home use AC power.

Battery Basics

THE AUTOMOTIVE BATTERY A lead-acid storage battery is an electrochemical device that produces voltage and delivers electrical current. The battery is the primary "source" of electrical energy used in vehicles today. It's important to remember that a battery does not store electricity, but rather it stores a series of chemicals, and through a chemical process electricity is produced. Basically, two different types of lead in an acid mixture react to produce an electrical pressure called voltage. This electrochemical reaction changes chemical energy to electrical energy and is the basis for all automotive batteries.

BATTERY CONSTRUCTION An automobile battery contains a diluted sulfuric acid electrolyte and positive and negative electrodes, in the form of several plates. Since the plates are made of lead or leadderived materials, this type of battery is often called a lead acid battery. A battery is separated into several cells (usually six in the case of automobile batteries), and in each cell there are several battery elements, all bathed in the electrolyte solution.

CELL OPERATION Two dissimilar metals placed in an acid bath produce electrical potential across the poles. The cell produces voltage by a chemical reaction between the plates and the electrolyte. The positive plate is made of reddishbrown material such as Lead Dioxide (PBO2) while the negative plate is made of grayish material called Sponge Lead (PB). The acid bath is a mixture of sulfuric acid and water cell electrolyte. Together a cell element is formed.

CYCLING The battery stores electricity in the form of chemical energy. Through a chemical reaction process the battery creates and releases electricity as needed by the electrical system or devices. Since the battery loses its chemical energy in this process, the battery must be recharged by the alternator. By reversing electrical current flow through the battery the chemical process is reversed, thus charging the battery. The cycle of discharging and charging is repeated continuously and is called "battery cycling".

CELL VOLTAGE Each cell element of the battery produces approximately 2.1 volts, regardless of the quantity or size of the plates. Automobile batteries have six cells that are connected in series, which produces a total voltage of 12.6 volts.

BATTERY CELL ELEMENT The key to battery operation is the cell element. Positive plates and negative plates are each connected together by separate plate straps. These groups of positive and negative plates are then placed alternately, separated by microporous separators. Assembled together, the plates and separators form a battery cell element. Grouping the plates in this way serves to enlarge the surface area between the active materials and the electrolyte, thus allowing a greater amount of electricity to be supplied. In other words, the battery capacity is increased because of the increase in surface area. More plate surface area means the battery can deliver more current.

ELECTROLYTE Battery electrolyte is a mixture of 64% distilled water (H20) and 36% sulfuric acid (SO4). Batteries today have an electrolyte with a specific gravity of 1.270 (at 20'C, 68'F) when fully charged. Specific Gravity is the weight of a given volume of liquid in comparison to the weight of the same volume of water. The higher the specific gravity of a liquid the denser (thicker) it is. Testing specific gravity will be discussed in the Battery Service Module.

VISUAL INSPECTION Battery service should begin with a thorough visual inspection. This inspection may reveal simple, easily corrected problems. 1 . Check for cracks in the battery case and broken terminals. Either may allow electrolyte leakage, which requires battery replacement. 2. Check for cracked or broken cables or connections. Replace, as needed.

3. Check for corrosion on terminals and dirt or acid on the case top. Clean the terminals and case top with a mixture of water and baking soda. A battery wire brush tool is needed for heavy corrosion on the terminals.
4. Check for a loose battery hold-down or loose cable connections. Clean and tighten, as needed.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY READINGS By measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, you can tell if the battery is fully charged, requires charging, or must be replaced. It can tell you if the battery is sufficiently charged for a capacity (heavy-load) test. The battery must be at least 75% charged to perform a heavy load test. (The heavy load test will be discussed later). In other words, each cell must have a specific gravity of 1.230 or higher to proceed.
CELL READINGS 1.270 1.230 1.190 1.145 PERCENT CHARGED 100 % 75% 50% 25%

1.100

0%

If the battery is less than 75% charged, it must be fully recharged before proceeding. If the battery is 75% or higher proceed to a heavy load test. A battery not sufficiently charged will fail because it is discharged.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY TEST PROCEDURE (HYDROMETER) 1. Wear suitable eye protection. 2. Remove vent caps or covers from the battery cells.

3. Squeeze the hydrometer bulb and insert the pickup tube into the cell closest to the battery's positive (+) terminal.
4. Slowly release the bulb to draw in only enough electrolyte to cause the float to rise. Do not remove the tube from the cell. 5. Read the specific gravity indicated on the float. Be sure the float is drifting free, not in contact with the sides of top of the barrel. Bend down to read the hydrometer at eye level. Disregard the slight curvature of liquid on the float. 6. Record your readings and repeat the procedure for the remaining cells.

The Charging System

The charging system has three major components. The Battery, Alternator, and the Regulator. This alternator works together with the battery to supply power when the vehicle is running. The output of an alternator is direct current, however AC voltage is actually created and then converted to DC as voltage leaves the alternator on its way to the battery and the electrical loads.

The Charging System Circuit

Four wires connect the alternator to the rest of the charging system. 'B' is the alternator output wire that supplies current to the battery. 'IG' is the ignition input that turns on the alternator/regulator assembly. 'S' is used by the regulator to monitor charging voltage at the battery. 'L' is the wire the regulator uses to ground the charge warning lamp.

Alternator Terminal ID's

'S' terminal Senses battery voltage

'IG' terminal Ignition switch signal turns regulator ON

'L' terminal Grounds warning lamp 'B' terminal Alternator output terminal 'F' terminal Regulator Full-Field bypass

The Alternator Assembly

The alternator contains:

A rotating field winding called the rotor. A stationary induction winding called the stator. A diode assembly called the rectifier bridge.

A control device called the voltage regulator.

Two internal fans to promote air circulation.

Drive Pulley
Alternator drive pulleys either bolt on or are pressed on the rotor shaft. Both 'V' and Multi-grove types are used. Note this alternator does not have an external fan as part of the pulley assembly. While many manufacturers do use a external fan for cooling. This alternator has two internal fans to draw air in for cooling.

Rotor Assembly
A basic rotor consists of a iron core, coil winding, two slip rings, and two claw-shaped finger pole pieces. Some models include support bearings and one or two internal cooling fans. The rotor is driven or rotated inside the alternator by an engine (alternator) drive belt.

Rotor Assembly

The rotor contains the field winding wound over an iron core which is part of the shaft. Surrounding the field coil are two claw-type finger poles.

Each end of the rotor field winding is attached to a slip ring. Stationary brushes connect the alternator to the rotor.
The rotor assembly is supported by bearings. One on the shaft the other in the drive frame.

Alternating Magnetic Field

The rotor field winding creates the magnetic field that induces voltage into the stator. The magnetic field saturates the iron finger poles. One finger pole becomes a north pole and the other a south pole. The rotor spins creating an alternating magnetic field, North, South, North, South, etc.

Stator Winding

The stator is made with three sets of windings. Each winding is placed is a different position compared with the others. A laminated iron frame concentrates the magnetic field. Stator lead ends output current to the diode rectifier bridge. Neutral Junction in the Wye design can be identified by the 6 strands of wire.

Rotor / Stator Relationship

As the rotor assembly rotates within the stator winding: The alternating magnetic field from the spinning rotor induces an alternating voltage into the stator winding. The strength of the magnetic field and the speed of the rotor affect the amount of voltage induced into the stator

Working Alternator
The regulator monitors battery voltage.

The regulator controls current flow to the rotor assembly.

The rotor produces a magnetic field. Voltage is induced into the stator. The rectifier bridge converts AC stator voltage to DC output for use by the vehicle.

STARTER MOTOR

Electrical Circuits

AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
The circuit shown below has a power source, fuse, switch, two lamps and wires connecting each into a loop or circle. When the connection is complete, current flows from the positive terminal of the battery through the wire, the fuse, the switch, another wire, the lamps, a wire and to the negative terminal of the battery. The route along which the electricity flows is called an electrical circuit.

ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS

A complete Electrical Circuit is required in order to make electricity practical. Electrons must flow from and return to the power source. There are three different circuit types, all require the same basic components: 1. Power Source is needed to supply the flow of electrons (electricity). 2. Protection Device prevents damage to the circuit in the event of a short. 3. Load Device converts the electricity into work. 4. Control Device allows the user control to turn the circuit on or off 5. Conductors provide an electrical path to and from the power source.

BASIC CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION

1. Power Source (Battery, Alternator, Generator, etc.) 2. Protection Device (Fuse, Fusible Link, or Circuit Breaker) 3. Load Device (Lamp, Motor, Winding, Resistor, etc. 4. Control (Switch, Relay, or Transistor) 5. Conductors (A Return Path, Wiring to Ground)

LOADS
The illustration below has a horn in place of the lamp. Any device such as a lamp, horn, wiper motor, or rear window defogger, that consumes electricity is called a load. In an electrical circuit, all loads are regarded as resistance. Loads use up voltage and control the amount of current flowing in a circuit. Loads with high resistance cause less current to flow while those with lower resistance allow high current rates to flow.

AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

In an automotive electrical circuit, one end of the wire from each load returning to the battery is connected to the vehicle body or frame. Therefore, the vehicle body or frame itself functions as a conductor, allowing current to flow though the body or frame and back to the battery. The body or frame is then referred to as the body ground (or earth) of the circuit (meaning that part of the circuit that returns the current to the battery).

WHAT IS OHM'S LAW?

A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance in electrical circuits. Understanding this relationship is important for fast, accurate electrical problem diagnosis and repair.
OHM'S LAW Ohm's Law says: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the amount of resistance. This means that if the voltage goes up, the current flow will go up, and vice versa. Also, as the resistance goes up, the current goes down, and vice versa. Ohm's Law can be put to good use in electrical troubleshooting. But calculating precise values for voltage, current, and resistance is not always practical ... nor, really needed. A more practical, less time-consuming use of Ohm's Law would be to simply apply the concepts involved: SOURCE VOLTAGE is not affected by either current or resistance. It is either too low, normal, or too high. If it is too low, current will be low. If it is normal, current will be high if resistance is low, or current will be low if resistance is high. If voltage is too high, current will be high. CURRENT is affected by either voltage or resistance. If the voltage is high or the resistance is low, current will be high. If the voltage is low or the resistance is high, current will be low. RESISTANCE is not affected by either voltage or current. It is either too low, okay, or too high. If resistance is too low, current will be high at any voltage. If resistance is too high, current will be low if voltage is okay. NOTE: When the voltage stays the same, such as in an Automotive Circuit... current goes up as resistance goes down, and current goes down as resistance goes up. Bypassed devices reduce resistance, causing high current. Loose connections increase resistance, causing low current.

OHM'S LAW FORMULA When voltage is applied to an electrical circuit, current flows in the circuit. The following special relationship exists among the voltage, current and resistance within the circuit: the size of the current that flows in a circuit varies in proportion to the voltage which is applied to the circuit, and in inverse proportion to the resistance through which it must pass. This relationship is called Ohm's law, and can be expressed as follows: E=IR Voltage = Current x Resistance

E Voltage applied to the circuit, in volts (V) I Current flowing in the circuit, in amperes (A)
R Resistance in the circuit, in ohms

In practical terms "V = I x R" which means "Voltage = Current x Resistance".

1 volt will push one amp through 1 ohm of resistance. NOTE: E = IR, V=AR, or V=IR are all variations of the same formula. How you learned Ohm's law will determine which one you will use. Personal preference is the only difference; anyone will get you the correct answer.

OHM'S LAW SYMBOL SHORTCUT Mathematical formulas can be difficult for many who don't use them regularly. Most people can remember a picture easier than a mathematical formula. By using the Ohms law symbol below, anyone can remember the correct formula to use. By knowing any two values you can figure out the third. Simply put your finger over the portion of the symbol you are trying to figure out and you have your formula.

APPLICATIONS OF OHM'S LAW As an application of Ohm's law, any voltage V, current I or resistance R in an electrical circuit can be determined without actually measuring it if the two others values are known. This law can be used to determine the amount of current I flowing in the circuit when voltage V is applied to resistance R. As stated previously, Ohm's law is: Current = Voltage / Resistance. In the following circuit, assume that resistance R is 2 and voltage V that is applied to it is 12 V. Then, current I flowing in the circuit can be determined as follows:

This law can also be used to determine the voltage V that is needed to permit current I to pass through resistance R: V = I x R (Voltage= Current x Resistance). In the following circuit, assume that resistance R is 4 ohms. The voltage V that is necessary to permit a current I of 3 A to pass through the resistance can be determined as follows:

Still another application of the law can be used to determine the resistance R when the voltage V which is applied to the circuit and current I flowing in the circuit are already known:

In the following circuit, assume that a voltage V of 12 V is applied to the circuit and current I of 4 A flows in it. Then, the resistance value R of the resistance or load can be determined as follows:

TYPES OF CIRCUITS Individual electrical circuits normally combine one or more resistance or load devices. The design of the automotive electrical circuit will determine which type of circuit is used. There are three basic types of circuits: Series Circuit Parallel Circuit Series-Parallel Circuit

SERIES CIRCUITS A series circuit is the simplest circuit. The conductors, control and protection devices, loads, and power source are connected with only one path to ground for current flow. The resistance of each device can be different. The same amount of current will flow through each. The voltage across each will be different. If the path is broken, no current flows and no part of the circuit works. Christmas tree lights are a good example; when one light goes out the entire string stops working.

SERIES CIRCUITS A Series Circuit has only one path to ground, so electrons must go through each component to get back to ground. All loads are placed in series.
Therefore:

1. An open in the circuit will disable the entire circuit.

2. The voltage divides (shared) between the loads. 3. The current flow is the same throughout the circuit. 4. The resistance of each load can be different.

SERIES CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS If, for example, two or more lamps (resistances R1 and R2, etc.) are connected in a circuit as follows, there is only one route that the current can take. This type of connection is called a series connection. The value of current I is always the same at any point in a series circuit.
The combined resistance RO in this circuit is equal to the sum of individual resistance R1 and R2. In other words: The total resistance(RO) is equal to the sum of all resistances (R1 + R2 + R3 + .......)

Therefore, the strength of current (I) flowing in the circuit can be found as follows:

Resistance R0 (a combination of resistances R1 and R2, which are connected in series in the circuit as illustrated) and current I flowing in this circuit can be determined as follows:

PARALLEL CIRCUIT A parallel circuit has more than one path for current flow. The same voltage is applied across each branch. If the load resistance in each branch is the same, the current in each branch will be the same. If the load resistance in each branch is different, the current in each branch will be different. If one branch is broken, current will continue flowing to the other branches. A Parallel Circuit has multiple paths or branches to ground. Therefore: 1. In the event of an open in the circuit in one of the branches, current will continue to flow through the remaining. 2. Each branch receives source voltage. 3. Current flow through each branch can be different.

4. The resistance of each branch can be different.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT In parallel connection, two or more resistances (R1, R2, etc.) are connected in a circuit as follows, with one end of each resistance connected to the high (positive) side of the circuit, and one end connected to the low (negative) side. Full battery voltage is applied to all resistances within a circuit having a parallel connection.

Resistance R0 (a combination of resistances R1 and R2 ) in a parallel connection can be determined as follows:

From the above, the total current I flowing in this circuit can be determined from Ohm's law as follows:

The total current I is also equal to the sum of currents I1 and I2 flowing through individual resistances R1 and R2

Since battery voltage V is applied equally to all resistances, the strength of currents I1 and I2 can be determined from Ohm's law as follows:

Resistance RO (a combination of resistances R1 and R2, which are connected in parallel in the circuit as shown below), the total current I flowing in the circuit, and currents I1 and I2 flowing through resistances R1 and R2, can be determined respectively as follows:

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT A resistance and lamps may be connected in a circuit as illustrated below. This type of connecting method is called series-parallel connection, and is a combination of series and parallel connections. The interior dash board lights are a good example. By adjusting the rheostat, you can increase or decrease the brilliance of the lights.

CONTROL DEVICES SWITCHES

Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Momentary Contact Multiple Pole Multiple Throw (MPMT or Gang Switch) Temperature (Bimetal) Time Delay Flasher RELAYS
SOLENOIDS

RELAYS A relay is simply a remote-control switch, which uses a small amount of current to control a large amount of current. A typical relay has both a control circuit and a power circuit. Relay construction contains an iron core, electromagnetic coil, and an armature (moveable contact set). There are two types of relays: normally open (shown below) and normally closed (NOT shown). A Normally open (N.O.) relay has contacts that are "open" until the relay is energized while a normally closed (N.C.) relay has contacts that are "closed" until the relay is energized.

RELAY OPERATION Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core. The iron core intensifies the magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the upper contact arm and pulls it down, closing the contacts and allowing power from the power source to go to the load. When the coil is not energized, the contacts are open, and no power goes to the load. When the control circuit switch is closed, however, current flows to the relay and energizes the coil. The resulting magnetic field pulls the armature down, closing the contacts and allowing power to the load. Many relays are used for controlling high current in one circuit with low current in another circuit. An example would be a computer, which controls a relay, and the relay controls a higher current circuit.

SOLENOIDS - PULLING TYPE A solenoid is an electromagnetic switch that converts current flow into mechanical movement. As current flows through the winding a magnetic field is created. The magnetic field will pull the moveable iron core into the center of the winding. This type of solenoid is called a "pulling" type solenoid, as the magnetic field pulls the moveable iron core into the coil. A common use for pulling solenoids are in the starting system. The starter solenoid engages the starter with the flywheel. As current flows through the winding a magnetic field is created. These magnetic lines of force want to be as small as possible. If an iron core is placed near the coil that has current flowing through it, the magnetic field will stretch out like a rubber band, reaching out and pulling the iron bar into the center of the coil.

SOLENOIDS - PUSH/PULL TYPE

In a "push-pull" type solenoid, a permanent magnet is used for the core. Since "like" magnetic charges repel and "unlike" magnetic charges attract, by changing the direction of current flow through the coil, the core is either "pulled in" or "pushed out."

Circuit Protection

CIRCUIT PROTECTION Circuit protection devices are used to protect wires and connectors from being damaged by excess current flow caused by either an over current or short-circuit. Excess current causes excess heat, which causes circuit protection to "open circuit".

CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES Fuses, fuse elements, fusible links, and circuit breakers are used as circuit protection devices. Circuit protection devices are available in a variety of types, shapes, and specific current ratings.

FUSES A fuse is the most common protection device. A fuse is placed in an electrical circuit, so that when current flow exceeds the rating of the fuse it "blows" or "blows out". The element in the fuse melts, opening the circuit and preventing other components of the circuit from being damaged by the overcurrent. The size of the metal fuse element determines its rating. Remember, excessive current causes excess heat, and it's the heat and not the current that causes the circuit protector to open. Once a fuse "blows" it must be replaced with a new one.

FUSE TYPES Fuses are classified into basic categories: blade type fuses or cartridge type fuses. Several variations of each are used.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS Circuit breakers are used in place of fuses for the protection of complicated power circuits such as the power windows, sunroofs and heater circuits. Three types of circuit breakers exists: The manual reset type - mechanical, the automatic resetting type - mechanical, and the automatically reset solid state type - PTC. Circuit breakers are usually located in relay/fuse boxes; however, some components like power window motors have circuit breakers built in.

CIRCUIT BREAKER CONSTRUCTION (MANUAL TYPE) A circuit breaker basically consists of a bimetal strip connected to two terminals and to a contact in between. Manual circuit breaker when tripped (current flow beyond its rating) will open and must be reset manually.

RELAYS Relays are used throughout the automobile. Relays which come in assorted sizes, ratings, and applications, are used as remote control switches.

RELAY LOCATIONS Relays are located throughout the entire vehicle. Relay blocks, both large and small, are located in the engine compartment; behind the left or right kick panels, or under the dash are common locations. Relays are often grouped together or with other components like fuses or placed by themselves.

RELAY POSITION IDENTIFICATION Relay / Fuse block covers usually label the location and position of each fuse, relay, or fuse element contained within.

RELAY APPLICATIONS Relays are remote control electrical switches that are controlled by another switch, such as a horn switch or a computer as in a power train control module. Relays allow a small current flow circuit to control a higher current circuit. Several designs of relays are in use today, 3-pin, 4-pin, 5-pin, and 6-pin, single switch or dual switches.

RELAY OPERATION All relays operate using the same basic principle. Our example will use a commonly used 4 - pin relay. Relays have two circuits: A control circuit (shown in GREEN) and a load circuit (shown in RED). The control circuit has a small control coil while the load circuit has a switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch.

RELAY ENERGIZED (ON) Current flowing through the control circuit coil (pins 1 and 3) creates a small magnetic field which causes the switch to close, pins 2 and 4. The switch, which is part of the load circuit, is used to control an electrical circuit that may connect to it. Current now flows through pins 2 and 4 shown in RED, when the relay is energized.

RELAY DE-ENERGIZED (OFF) When current stops flowing through the control circuit, pins 1 and 3, the relay becomes de-energized. Without the magnetic field, the switch opens and current is prevented from flowing through pins 2 and 4. The relay is now OFF.

NORMALLY DESIGN ID Relays are either Normally Open or Normally Closed. Notice the position of the switches in the two relays shown below. Normally open relays have a switch that remains open until energized (ON) while normally closed relays are closed until energized. Relays are always shown in the de-energized position (no current flowing through the control circuit - OFF). Normally open relays are the most common in vehicles; however either can be use in automotive applications.

Normally Open (NO)

Normally Close (NC)

ACTUAL RELAY DESIGN Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core. The iron core intensifies the magnetic field. The magnetic field attracts the upper contact arm and pulls it down, closing the contacts and allowing power from the power source to go to the load.

RELAY VARIATIONS Other relay variations include three and five pin relays. A 3-PIN relay instead of two B+ input sources, this relay has one B+ input at pin 1. Current splits inside the relay, supplying power to both the control and load circuits. A 5-PIN relay has a single control circuit, but two separate current paths for the switch: One when the relay is de-energized (OFF - no current through the control coil) and the other the energized (ON - current is flowing through the control coil). When the 5-PIN relay is de-energized (OFF), pins 4 and 5 have continuity. When the relay is energized (ON), pins 3 and 5 have continuity.

3 - PIN

4 - PIN

5 - PIN

ISO STANDARDIZED RELAYS ISO relays were designed to try and standardize relay connections, making it easier to test and design systems. ISO relays are currently used by almost all automotive manufacturers today. Both 4 and 5 pin designs are used in both standard mini and micro sizes. FYI: ISO is short for International Standard Organization.

STANDARD MINI ISO RELAYS TYPES Below are two popular standard MINI ISO relay configurations. The size of a ISO Standard MINI relay is a 1" square cube. Both 4 and 5 pins designs are used.