MOTIVATION AND ITS IMPACT ON JOB PERFORMANCE.

3 4 SHER KAMAL1, BAKHTIAR KHAN, MUHAMMAD BASHIR KHAN & ALI BAT KHAN 1,2 3 4 Department Of Business Administration, Department of Public Administration, Department Of Economics, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan (NWFP) Pakistan ABSTRACT:
1 2

In the study of human behavior, motivation is a basic psychological process, like perception and learning. On the other hand, it must be remembered that motivation should not be thought as the only explanation of behavior. Many people equate the causes of perception and learning, it is presented here as being a very important process in understanding behavior. It interacts with and acts in conjunction with other psychological process and personality. Motivation cannot be seen. All that can be seen is behavior. Many believe that the key to improve performance and productivity in any area/endeavor is motivation rather than ability. The challenge for today management is to administer motivational programs and variables, which will encourage employees to improve their work performance.

INTRODUCTION:

The study of motivation can be traced back to the writing of the ancient Greek Philosophers. More than twentythree centuries ago, they presented hedonism as an explanation of human motivation. Hedonism as that a person seeks out comfort and pleasure and avoids discomfort and pain. Early psychological thought was also influenced by hedonism- psychologists in the 1800s and even in the early 1900s, assumed that humans consciously and rationally strive for hedonistic pleasure and avoidance of pains. William James, in his classic Principles of Psychology, he gave recognitions to two additional important historical concepts in the study of motivation: instincts and unconscious motivation. In his social psychology book of (1908), he defined an Instinct as an innate disposition which determines the organism to perceive or to pay attention to any object.. and to act or have an ampulse to action which finds expression in a specific mode of behavior. Implicit in Jamess emphasis on instincts is the whole question of unconscious motivation. However, it was Sigmund Freud, not James, who openly recognized the importance of unconscious and made it a part of the study of human motivation. The existence of unconscious motivation implies that human are not consciously aware of all their desires. The presence of an unconscious explains why people cannot always verbalize their motivation to attain certain goals or even tell what their goals are. Freud uncovered this phenomenon while analyzing his clinical patients. He found that in many ways a person is like an iceberg: only a small part is conscious and visible, while the rest is beneath the surface. This below-the-surface concept is the unconscious motivation. In contrast to their rejection of instincts, many contemporary psychologists accept the existence and importance of the unconscious. On the other hand, for the most part they do not agree with Freuds explanation of the unconscious. Like James, Freud attempted to equate unconscious motives with instincts. He felt that the unconscious motives are primarily sexual and aggressive in nature and, even though unconscious. They greatly influence everyday behavior. He pointed out that these motives are revealed in dreams, slips of speech (the socalled Freudian slip), and lapses of memory. The Early Drive Theories of motivation evolved from the dissatisfaction with the instinctual view of motivation. Clark Hull, (1884-1952) was finally able to synthesize the preceding thinking into a scientifically based theory of motivation. Hull proposed that motivation was a product of drive times habit (Effort = Drives X Habits X Incentives). Hulls theory generated a tremendous amount of research in the 1940s and 1950s. Unfortunately, most of this research was conducted on rats in the laboratory and few generalizations to human motivation are

possible. Hulls students did extend the original concepts, but it is now generally recognized that most of Hulls concepts were wrong. Nevertheless, the scientific research tradition initiated by Hull and his followers, plus his emphasis on both the cognitive (drive and incentive) and learning (habit) aspects associated with motivation, are extremely important contributions to the modern study of motivation. Drives theory serves as a theoretical basis for the motivational cycle of Needs Drives Goals Many early management scholars and practitioners felt that people worked only to feed and clothe themselves. Thus, the way to get more work out of employees was either to provide additional money or to threaten to withhold money for poor performance. From the late (1930), through most of the 1950s, this feeling slowly changed to one suggesting that people worked out of loyalty to the organization. Since loyal workers were supposed to be more productive, attempts to increase employee loyalty were numerous. Recreational programs were organized, and annual company picnics were common, company newspapers and magazines were published in an effort to improve communication with employees, while giving them recognition for their accomplishments. Physical working conditions were given more attention, and fringe packages were expanded. While still formed in many organizations, these efforts alone have not increased employee loyalty as originally thought. Most behavioral theories now suggest that people are purposeful in their behavior. They do not act in a particular way unless there is some reason behind the action. Determining the real reason for a certain action is not easy, however, casual observation of behavior does not always indicate the true motivation of person with whom we are dealing. When their behavior is examined in more departments, we often find one or more basic, yet unapparent, reasons for certain actions. This brings us to that portion of current management thought that suggests behavior is directed toward specific goals in response to individual needs ( Trewatha, et al, 1982). Definition of Motivation: The motivation has as many definitions as the word management. The following are several definitions that begin to help us in understanding this elusive concept. Motivation is a predisposition to act in a specific goal directed manner. (Hellriegel and Slocum) Motivation may be defined as the state of an individuals perspective, which represents the strength of his or her propensity to exert effort toward some particular behavior. ( Gibson) The term motivation refers to goal directed behavior. Goal directed behavior, are characterized by the process of selecting and directing certain actions among voluntary activities to achieves goals. (Chung) Motives are expressions of a persons needs: hence, they are personal and internal. (Davis) Motivation refers to expenditure of efforts toward a goal. (Dubrin) From these definitions we derive several common characteristics to help us in the discussion of motivation phenomenon: 1. An internal need energizes and activates human behavior. 2. Drive is the inner force that propels behavior in a specific direction, and 3. Goals are the incentives or payoffs that reinforce private satisfaction, that in turn reinforce the perpetuation of needs. For example, a student may possess a strong need or want to perform well in a course, which will drive that student to study diligently to receive the goal of an A grade. With those concepts in mind, we define motivation as follow: Motivation is the need or drive within an individual that drives him or her toward goal-oriented action. The extent of drive depends on the perceived level of satisfaction that can be achieved by the goal. Figure 13.1 provides a simplified model of the motivation process. Figure 13.1 : Simplified Motivation Process:

Personal need Or Initiates Drive Direct behavior Goals Desire behavior toward specific Provides Satisfaction Reinforces perpetuation of certain needs and desires Generally speaking, when employees enjoy their jobs, find the work challenging, and like the work environment, they will usually put forth their best efforts and perform their tasks enthusiastically. In other words, if employees cannot wait for the end of the workday, are alienated from the results of their efforts, and feel their work is terribly boring, they will not to do their best. They will do the minimum required to keep their jobs. That is to say, they are not very motivated to perform well. Later, we will explore the delicate and challenging relationship between employee motivation and its impact on job performance. Diagnosing Job Performance: A good diagnostician needs a model to guide the inquiry process. Maier (1973) and Lawler (1973) have summarized the determinants of task performance as follows: Performance= Ability X Motivation (Effort) Ability = Aptitude X Training X Resources Motivation = Desire X Commitment According to these formulas, Performance is the product of ability multiplied by motivation, and Ability is the product of aptitude multiplied by training and resources. The multiplicative function in these formulas suggests that all elements are essential. For example, workers who have 100% of the motivation and 75% of the ability required to perform a task can be performed at an above-average rate. However, if these individuals have only 10% of the ability required, on amount of motivation will enable them to perform satisfactorily. Aptitude refers to the native skills and ability a person brings to the job. These /obviously involve physical and mental capabilities, but for many people-oriented jobs, they also include personality characteristics of selfawareness. Most of our inherent abilities can be enhanced by education and training. Indeed, much of what we call native ability in adults can be traced to previous skill-enhancement experiences, such as modeling the social skills of Parents or other older siblings. Nevertheless, it is useful to consider training as a separate component of ability, since it represents an important mechanism for improving employee performance. An assessment of ability should be made during the job-matching process by screening applicants against the skill requirements of the job. If an applicant has minor deficiencies in skill aptitude but many other desirable characteristics, an intensive training program can increase the applicants qualifications to perform the job (Wanous, 1980). The definition of ability highlighted here is broader than the others. We are focusing on the ability to perform, rather than the ability of the performer. Therefore, this definition includes a third, situational component; that is an adequate resources. Frequently, highly capable and well-trained individuals are placed in a situation that inhabits job performance. Specifically, they are not given the resources (technical, personnel, political) to effectively perform the assigned tasks.

Motivation represents an employees desire and commitment, which is manifested as effort. Some people want to complete a task but are easily distracted or discouraged. They have high desire but low commitment. Other plod along with impressive persistence, but their work is uninspired. These people have high commitment but low desire. The first diagnostic question that must be asked by the supervisor of a poor performer is whether the problem stems from lack of ability or lack of motivation. There are four pieces of information that a managers need in order to answer these questions ( Michener, Fleishman, and Vaske, 1976): 1. The difficulty of the tasks assigned to the individual. 2. The known-how ability of the subordinate. 3. The extent to which the subordinate seems to be trying to perform well. 4. The degree to which the subordinates performance improves. Low ability is generally associated with very difficult tasks, overall low individual ability, evidence of strong effort, and lack of improvement over time. The answer to the Is this an ability or motivation problem? question has far-reaching ramifications for manager-subordinate relations. Research has shown that managers tend to select stronger means of influence if they conclude that a persons noncompliance with the stated expectations is deliberate, rather than the result of external, uncontrollable forces. Managers justify their choice of a forceful influence strategy on the grounds that the subordinate has a poor attitude, is hostile to authority, or lacks dedication (Kipnis, 1976). Unfortunately, if the managers assessment is incorrect and poor performance is related to ability rather than motivation, the response of increased presser will make the problem worse. If poor performers feel that management is insensitive to their problems that they lack resources, adequate training, or realistic time schedules- they may respond in counterProductive manner to any tactics aimed at increasing their effort. Quite likely they will actually develop a motivational problem, their desire and commitment will decrease, in response to management will feel that their original diagnosis is confirmed, and they will proceed to use even stronger forms of influence to force compliance. The resulting vicious cycle is extremely difficult to break and underscores the high stakes involved in accurately diagnosing poor performance problems. Now we will examine the two components of performance in detail. We will discuss manifestations of low ability and poor motivation, their causes, and some proposed remedies. Overall, we will devote more time to motivation, since it is more central to day-to-day manager-subordinate interactions. While ability tends to remain stable over long periods of time, motivation fluctuates; therefore, it requires closer monitoring and frequent recharging. Developing a Motivated Work Environment: The second component of employee performance is motivation. While it is important to see to the training and support needs of subordinates and to be actively involved in the hiring and job-matching processes to ensure adequate aptitude, the influence of a managers actions on the day-to-day motivation of subordinates is equally vital. Effective managers devote considerable time to gauging and strengthening their subordinates motivation, as reflected in their effort and concern. The tragedy of the Higgins case is the inability of the company president to diagnose the real reasons for the poor performance of the directors of engineering. He ignored the structural problems and attributed the repeated failures to inadequacies in those occupying the position. No matter how well qualified and highly motivated Steve Spencers replacement, it is likely that he or she will also be judged incompetent. In one of the seminal contributions to management thought, Douglas McGregor (1960) labeled this focus on the incompetence of workers Theory X. The basic assumption of this theory is that people really do not want to work hard or assume responsibility. Therefore, in order to get the job done, managers must coerce, intimidate, manipulate, and closely supervise their employees. In contrast, McGregor espoused a Theory Y view of worker. He argued that workers basically want to do a good job and assume more responsibility. Therefore, he argued, managements role is to

assist workers to reach their potential by productively channeling their motivation to succeed. Unfortunately, McGregor believed, most managers subscribe to Theory X assumptions about workers motives. The alleged prevalence of the Theory X view brings up an interesting series of questions about motivation. What is the purpose of teaching motivation skills to managers? Or are we teaching these skills to managers so they can more effectively manipulate their employees behavior. These questions naturally lead to a broader set of issues regarding employee-management relations. Assuming a manager feels responsible for maintaining a given level of productivity, is it also possible to be concerned about the needs and desires of employees? In other words, are concerns about employee morale and company productivity compatible, or are they mutually exclusive. Contemporary research as well as the experience of highly acclaimed organizational motivation programs, (Greene, 1972; Levering, Moskovitz and Katz, 1984), supports the position that concerns about morale and performance can coexist. Effective motivational programs not only can, but must focus on increasing both satisfaction and productivity. The following table reveals that, a high emphasis on satisfaction with a low emphasis on performance represents an irresponsible view of the role of management. Like Steve Spencer of the Higgins Company. Relationship between Satisfaction and Performance: Emphasis on Performance Low High Emphasis High Indulging Integrating On Satisfaction Low Ignoring Imposing
Source: Developing Management Skills, (David A. Whetten & Kim S. Cameron, p.344).

1. Indulging: Manager who emphasis satisfaction to the exclusion of performance will be seen as nice people, but their indulging management style undermines the respect of their subordinates. It is easy to imagine an organizational climate that is so satisfaction-oriented that management becomes over-responsive to the needs of employees and the resulting country-club-like atmosphere hinders good performance. 2. Imposing: A strong emphasis on performance to the exclusion of satisfaction is equally ineffective. This time, instead of indulging, the manager is imposing. In this situation there is little concern for how employees feel about their jobs. The boss gives the orders, and the employees must follow them. As Higgins found out, exploited employees are unhappy employees, and unhappy employees may seek employment with the competition. Thus, while exploitation may increase productivity in the short run, its long-term effects generally decrease productivity through increased absenteeism, employee turnover, and in some cases, even sabotage and violence. 3. Ignoring: When managers emphasize neither satisfaction nor performance, they are ignoring their responsibilities and the facts at hand. The resulting neglect reflects a lack of management. There is no real leadership, in the sense that employees are given neither priorities nor direction. Paralyzed between what they consider to be mutually exclusive options of emphasizing performance or satisfaction, managers choose neither. The resulting neglect, if allowed to continue, may ultimately lead to the failure of the work unit. 4. Integrating: The integrating motivation strategy emphasizes performance and satisfaction equally. Effective managers are able to combine what appear to be competing forces into integrative, synergistic programs. Instead of accepting the conventional wisdom that says competing forces cancel each other out, they capitalize on the tension between the combined elements to creatively forge new approaches. However, this does not mean that both objectives can be fully satisfied in every specific case. Some trade-offs occur naturally in ongoing work situation. However, in the long run, both should be given equal consideration. The integrative view of motivation proposes that while the importance of employees feeling good about what they are doing and how they are being treated cannot be downplayed, this concern should not overshadow managements responsibility to hold people accountable for results. Managers should avoid the twin traps of

working to engender high employee morale for its own sake or pushing for short-term results at the expense of long-term commitment. The best managers have productive people who are also satisfied with their work environment. (Nadler and Lawler, 1977; Jordan, 1986). This view of management is reflected in David Bradford and Allan Cohens popular management guide, Managing for Excellence. Excellence requires budget and control systems, formalized ways to appraise, reward, and promote, long-range planning and forecasting systems, and division of labour and job descriptions. The dilemma for the manager, then, is not whether control needs to be exercised, but how to see that it is exercised without weakening the motivation of those with energy and enthusiasm(1984, p.21). Elements of an Integrative Motivation Program: (the impacts for enhancing job performance). The purpose of this discussion is to lay-out a step by step program for creating and development of an integrative, synergistic motivational program grounded in the belief that employees can simultaneously be high performers and personally satisfied worker of the organization. The blueprint for this type of motivation program is clear from the above relationship table. Following are the six elements of an integrative motivation program: 1. Establish moderately difficult goals that are understood and accepted. Employees start out motivated. Therefore, a lack of motivation is a learned response, often fostered by misunderstood or unrealistic expectations. 2. Remove personal and organizational obstacles to performance. The role of management is to create a supportive, problem-solving work environment in which the necessary resources to perform a task are provided. 3. Use rewards and discipline appropriately to distinguish unacceptable behavior and encourage exceptional performance. Rewards should encourage high personal performance that is consistent with management objectives. 4. Provide salient internal and external incentives programs. Motivation works best when it is based on selfgovernance. 5. Mostly distribute rewards equitably. All employees should be treated fairly. 6. Provide timely rewards and honest feedback on performance. All individuals deserve timely, honest feedback on work performance for future consistency. CONCLUSION: This discussion for enhancing work performance has focused on specific analytical and behavioral management skills. We first introduced the fundamental distinction between ability and motivation. Then from the discussion it is clear that performance directly relates to ability and motivation. But ability vary from individual to individual that can be enhanced by introducing technical assistance requirements of a job, which may have been radically upgraded, or a person who performed very well in one position may be promoted into a higher-level position that is too demanding. In addition, human and material resource support may have been drastically reduced due to organizational budget cutbacks. In this regard, managers should be alert for individuals who are showing signs of ability deterioration, then the managers will shift him to equip for the four danger signals: (a) Taking refuge in a specialty, (b) Focusing on past performance, (c) Exaggerating aspects of the leadership role, and (d) Ignorance of the basic tenets of collective living. For reducing the chances of occurrence of these dangers, the managers will try to concentrate on the possible motivation program that can counter balance the effects of these hazards. The following points can help in increasing the positive aspect of motivation in any organizational set-up: Effective managers overcome the egocentric bias through frequent, personal, and supportive discussion with their employees. Managers can improve the efficiency by discussing with subordinates the recent significant changes in the careers of common acquaintances (Employees responses to changing circumstances affecting their responsibilities, pay, personal time, travel requirements, and so forth, that often provide useful insights into their personal preferences). Managers should be alert to the dynamic quality of human needs having three levels (a) basic life-sustaining needs (at the most basic level, individual begin with existence), then, (b) relatedness (Social) needs, (c) finally 6

reaching the level of growth (self-actualizing) needs. The managers can decide as per prevailing environment in the market theology. Effective managers will make arrangements to counter balance the different social and personal events that having direct effects on the job performance of the employees, these may includes, a birth or death in the family, marriage or divorce, job transfer or job obsolescence, promotion or demotion. All these event can be accommodated by implementing flexible organizational reward systems. If the job designing are uninteresting and unfulfilling, performance will suffer directly. In such cases, the managers can introduce compensation for lack of control over external factors by fine-tuning the person on job fit directly. Job design having five managerial action guidelines that can help in increasing the desired personal and work outcomes, (a) to combine tasks, (b) to form identifiable work units, (c) establishing client relationships, (d) develop vertical load jobs, (e) final managerial suggestion is open feedback channels. Finally, managers can increase the performance results of an employee by increasing employees direct contact with employees or by giving them feedback on how their jobs fit in and contribute to the overall operation of the organization. REFERENCES/BIBILOGRAPHY: Atkinson, J. W., & R maynor, J. O. (1974) Motivation and achievement Washington, D. C: V. H. Winston, pp. 361-366. Bradford, D. L., and Cohen, A. R. (1984) Managing for excellence. New York: John Wiley, pp. 21. David A. Whetten, & Kim S. Camerson, (1991), Developing Management Skills, Motivating Others, harper Collins Publishers, pp. 335-370. Davis, T. W., & Luthans, Fred. (1985) A Social Learning Approach to Organizational Behavior. Academy of Management Review, 5, pp. 281-190. Green, C. N. (1972), The satisfaction-performance controversy. Business Horizons, pp.15, 31-41. George T. Milkovich and John W. Boudreau. (1988) Personnel/Human Resource Management (A diagnostic approach), Fifth Edition, EPI/INWIN Homewood, Illinois 00430, pp. 183-262. Jordan, Paul C. (1986), Effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation: A field experiment. Academy of Management journal, 27, pp. 405-12. Lawler, E. E. (1971), Pay and organizational effectiveness, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 113-147. Lawler, E. E., III. (1973), Motivation in work organizations. Belmont, Calif: Brooks/Cole, pp. 61-88. Loan C. Megginson, (1981), Personnel Management (Human resources Approach), Fourth Edition, Richard D. INWIN, Homewood Illinois 60430, pp.140-151. Mintzberg, Henry. (1975) The managers job: Floklore and fact. Haward Business Review, 53, pp.49-71. Porras, J. I., & Anderson, B. (1981) Improving managerial effectiveness through modeling-based training. Organizational Dynamics, pp. 9, 60-77. Singleton, W. T., Spurgeon, P., & Stammers, R. B. (1980) The analysis of social skill. New York: Plenum, pp.226-270. Staw, B. M., McKechnie, P., and Puffer, S. (1983), The justification of organizational performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 28, pp. 582-600. Thompson, D. W. (1978), Managing people: Influencing behavior, St. Louis: C.V. Mosby Co, pp. 165-190. Whetten, David A., & Cameron, Kim S. (1983) Management Skills Training; A needed addition to the management curriculum. Organizational Behavior teaching Journal, 8. pp. 10-15.

CHAPTER 5 MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE CHAPTER By the end of the chapter you will be able to: _ Describe content theories of motivation; _ Describe process theories of motivation; _ Understand the differences between content and process approaches; _ Describe the effect of knowledge of results and goal setting on motivation; _ Define the concept of job satisfaction; _ Describe ways of assessing an individuals affective response to work; _ Describe the job characteristics and variance models of job satisfaction; _ Detail the characteristics most commonly associated with job satisfaction; _ Understand what is known of the relationship between job satisfaction and other variables such as gender, personality, class and age; _ Describe the relationship, as far as it is understood between job and general life satisfaction; _ Describe the predictive value of job satisfaction and objective workplace variables such as absenteeism, turnover and productivity. BRIEF OUTLINE OF CHAPTER _ Introduction _ Content theories _ Process theories _ Knowledge of results and goal setting _ Job satisfaction and well being _ What is job satisfaction? _ Global and facet satisfaction _ Theories of job satisfaction _ Variance theory _ Job characteristics _ Correlates of job satisfaction _ Gender, Age, Personality, Social class _ Job and life satisfaction _ Behavioural correlates of job satisfaction _ Job satisfaction and productivity _ Conclusion CHAPTER SYNOPSIS Though relatively full employment is no longer a feature of the labour market, because of its practical implications interest in motivation and job satisfaction has persisted. This chapter aims to examine research that has sought to identify the conditions that create a motivated and satisfied workforce. ANNOTATED LECTURE OUTLINE INTRODUCTION, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF LECTURE Point 1 Introduction This sets the context for the lecture and begins with the two categories of motivation theories. Motivational theories can be divided into two categories, content and process theories. Content theories assume that all individuals possess the same set of needs and therefore prescribe the characteristics that ought to be present in jobs. Process theories stress the difference in peoples needs and focus on the cognitive processes that create these differences. Point 2 Content theories Maslow (1954) outlined the most influential of content theories. He suggested a hierarchy of needs up which progress. Once individuals have satisfied one need in the hierarchy, it ceases to motivate their behaviour and they are motivated by the need at the next level up the 8

hierarchy. 1. Physiological needs such as hunger and thirst are the first level on the hierarchy. 2. Security needs such as shelter and protection are the next level. 3. Social needs such as need for satisfactory and supportive relationships are the next level. 4. From these needs, the individual can move up the hierarchy to higher order needs. Self esteem needs for recognition and a belief in oneself is the next level. 5. Finally, the progression leads to the need to realize ones full potential, which is termed self actualization. Only a small proportion of the population achieves this level. This theory was not intended as an explanation of motivation in the workplace; however, many managerial theorists have enthusiastically adopted it. The theory suggests that employees will always tend to want more from their employers. When they have satisfied their subsistence needs, they strive to fulfil security needs. When jobs are secure they will seek ways of satisfying social needs and if successful will seek the means to the ultimate end of self actualization. Alderfer (1972) suggests that individual needs can be divided into three groups: 1. Existence needs, which include nutritional and material requirements (at work this would include pay and conditions.) 2. Relatedness needs, which are met through relationships with family and friends and at work with colleagues. 3. Growth needs, which reflect a desire for personal psychological developments. Alderfers theory differs from Maslow in a number of important respects. Alderfer argued that it was better to think in terms of a continuum rather than a hierarchy; from concrete existence needs to least concrete growth needs and argued that you could move along this in either direction. Maslow argued that when satisfied a need becomes less important to an individual, but Alderfer argues that relatedness or growth needs become more important when satisfied. This means that team - working arrangements can continue to motivate employees and are not necessarily superseded by growth needs. Mumford (1976) argues that workers have: 1. Knowledge needs, work that utilizes their knowledge and skills. 2. Psychological needs, such as recognition, responsibility, status and advancement. 3. Task needs, which include the need for meaningful work and some degree of autonomy. 4. Moral needs, to be treated in the way that employers would themselves wish to be treated. Mumfords assumption was that employees did not simply see their job as a means to an end by had needs which related to the nature of their work. Hertzberg (1959) presented a two factor theory, which looks at motivators and hygienes and proposed that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction appeared to be caused by two sets of different factors. The presence of motivators in the workplace caused enduring states of motivation in employees but their absence did not lead to dissatisfaction. Hygiene on the other hand produced an acceptable working environment but did not increase satisfaction their absence did however cause job dissatisfaction. Motivators Hygienes Responsibility Supervision Recognition Salary Promotion Work environment Achievement Company policies Intrinsic aspects of the job Relationship with colleagues This theory suggests how peoples jobs can be redesigned to incorporate more motivators. Point 3 Process theories What all process theories have in common is an emphasis on the cognitive processes in determining his or her level of motivation. Equity theory assumes that one important cognitive process involves people looking around and observing what effort other people are putting into their work and what rewards follow 9

them. This social comparison process is driven by our concern for fairness and equity. Research by Adams (1965) and others confirms equity theory as one of the most useful frameworks for understanding work motivation. Valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory had resulted from Vrooms (1964) work into motivation. His argument was that crucial to motivation at work was the perception of a link between effort and reward. Perceiving this link could be thought of as a process in which individuals calculated first whether there was a connection between effort and reward and then the probability (valences) would follow from high performance (instrumentality.) The motivational force of a job can therefore be calculated if the expectancy, instrumentality and valence values are known. The individuals abilities, traits, role perceptions and opportunities attenuate the motivational force. The main contribution of both types of process theory has been to highlight the effects of cognitive and perceptual processes on objective work conditions. It suggests that managers need to pay attention to four main aspects of their subordinates perceptions: 1. Focus on the crucial expectancy values (the link between effort and their performance.) 2. Managers should determine what outcome employee values. 3. They need to link the reward that subordinates value to their performance. 4. Managers need to ensure that wage rates are not perceived as inequitable. Point 4 Knowledge of results and goal setting Despite a wealth of research highlighting the positive motivational benefits of knowledge of results many organizations still provide employees with little or no information about their performance. Although feedback can have considerable impact on both motivation and learning, implementing feedback systems can have wider implications. Feedback can affect the relationship between employees and managers by disrupting existing authority structures. Guirdham (1995) suggests for feedback to be effective it needs to be: 1. Generally positive reward is more effective than punishment. 2. Well timed as soon as possible. 3. Control the feedback should be about behaviour the individual has control over. 4. Specific feedback and not general. 5. Publicly observed and not based on revelations or secrets. 6. Sensitive so that it does not trigger the individuals defence mechanisms. Locke (1968) offers the theory of goal setting as a means of motivation. Here goals direct effort and provide guidelines for deciding how much effort to put into each activity when there are multiple goals. Participation in goal setting increases the individual's sense of control and fairness in the process. Point 5 Job satisfaction and well being If people claim to be satisfied with their jobs what do they mean? It is more than a simple pleasure displeasure response (Warr, 1998) and seeing it as a more complex process enhances the sophistication and quality of research. Daniels et al (1997) identify five affective factors of job satisfaction; anxiety comfort, depression pleasure, positive affect, kindness and anger, which they claim can capture better the subtleties of emotional experience at work. Point 6 Theories of job satisfaction The chapter presents two theories of job satisfaction, variance theory and the model of job characteristics. Variance theory is based on a simple subjective idea: if you want x from your work then you are satisfied to the extent that it provides you with x. The major problem with this theory is defining what people want from their work. The job characteristic model suggests the causes of job satisfaction are objective characteristics. Hackman and Oldham (1975) suggested that jobs differ in the extent to which they involve five core dimensions: 1. Skill variety. 2. Task identity. 3. Task significance. 4. Autonomy. 5. Task feedback. 10

They suggest that if jobs are designed in a way that increases the presence of these core characteristics three critical psychological states can occur in employees: 1. Experienced meaningfulness of work. 2. Experienced responsibility for work outcomes. 3. Knowledge of results of work activities. According to Hackman and Oldham, when these critical psychological states are experienced, work motivation and job satisfaction will be high. Point 7 Correlates of job satisfaction As well as the theories above, there have also been attempts to establish whether specific variables such as gender, age, personality or occupational status are predictive of job satisfaction. Despite the findings presented in chapter 18 regarding gender and employment, women report similar levels of job satisfaction to men. However, there is evidence that job characteristics have a different impact on men and women. There is growing evidence that there is a relationship between age and job satisfaction but not linear one. Age itself rather than the variables associated with it have a direct impact on job satisfaction. Variables such as socio economic status may also cause different groups of workers to construct different meanings as to what constitutes a satisfactory job. Point 8 Behavioural correlates of job satisfaction The behavioural correlates of job satisfaction should be higher work performance, lower absenteeism and lower staff turnover. However, research has failed to establish a strong direct link between job satisfaction and workplace behaviour. Job satisfaction and performance are relatively independent of each other. This is explained firstly that in many jobs variations in satisfaction cannot lead to variations in productivity (machine work) and secondly where correlations do occur they may be spurious in that both may be associated with other factors. Conclusion The centrality of work in modern economies has made an understanding of the psychology of motivation and job satisfaction a key component of business and management education syllabuses. It now suffers to some extent from being taught as if it were true rather than as a set of sophisticated and problematic speculations about the nature of human motivations. However, there is a gap between the ideal of people who are motivated and the real nature of work - this gap is the substance for the latter half of the book. DISCUSSION POINTS 1. What motivates you? Which of the theories best suits you? Could you develop your own theory of motivation? 2. In relation to content theories, the current level of job insecurity in the UK indicates that individuals may have difficulty in fulfilling lower order deficiency needs. It can be argued that Maslows hierarchy of needs should be turned on its head and that organizations should be looking to fulfil higher order needs rather than deficiency needs. Discuss. 3. Think about any area of work you engage in, from academic work to employed work. Why is it that you feel motivated to complete some tasks and not others? How could you use this information to improve your performance in these tasks? 4. How realistic is it for managers / employers to apply theories of motivation and job satisfaction to the workplace? 5. What impact can management style and organizational policy have on the motivation levels of employees? Consider both content and process theories in your answer.

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R. L. Trewatha, & M. G. Newport, (1982) Management, (Management Functions and Behavior Interrelated with Environmental Dimensions Influence Organizational Performance and Results), Third Edition, Business Publications, Inc. Plano, Texas 75075, pp.350-380. Peter F. Drucker, (1999), The Practice of Management, (Classic Drucker),Butter Worth, Heinemann, pp. 196-305. http:www.bh.com S. P. Robbins, & Marry Coulter, (2002), Management, Seventh Edition, Prentice Hall of India,

How Managers can Motivate their Employees

Mr Olufemi Oyedele Glasgow Caledonian University Last updated on 18 May 2011 Abstract Employees' performance has been established to be directly related to employees' motivation. This assertion was corroborated by different management theories since the works of Frederick Taylor on 'The Principle of Scientific Management' in 1911 and Henry Gantt on 'Works, Wages and Profits' in 1913. Modern employees' motivation management methods have evolved over time which discredited Taylor's "differential rate piece-work" and Gantt's "task and bonus wage" systems. The modern employees' motivation management methods are employees' oriented and are more effective. There are schools of thought that believe that no employee can be 'adequately' motivated while there are others that believe they can. This research work was to ascertain from the employees the motivating factors that can 'adequately' motivate them to work tirelessly and to achieve results. It found out that employees can be 'adequately' motivated and are best positioned to determine what can collectively motivate them 'adequately'. Introduction Motivation is the catalyst that spurns employees' eagerness to work without pressure. To motivate is to provide employees with a motive to do some tasks. It is to cause or provoke somebody to act either positively or negatively. To say that nobody can motivate employees at work is like saying there are no influential leaders, that there are no effective managers, that there are no motivational speakers, that the psychologists in sports management teams are useless and that motivation is not achievable. Motivation has been used by effective managers to prompt ordinary people to achieve uncommon results in all fields of endeavours. If you doubt that there is motivation, read "I have a dream", the public speech by Martin Luther King, Jr., when he talked of his ambition for an America where blacks and whites, the poor and the rich, the educated and uneducated, the youths and the old and others would co-exist harmoniously and peacefully as equals on August 28, 1963 from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial (Lucas and Medhurst, 1999). Managers who have been able to motivate their employees successfully realised how easy it is to achieve tasks with motivated employees.
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The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2006) defined employee "as a person who works for another in return for financial or other compensation". Employees do not only work because they want to collect only pay but for other numerous factors. People work because they have goals to achieve which surpass financial gains from their employment. There are various factors that bother on employment. These factors include: employer, employee, working environment, working terms and conditions and type of products and services provided by employer. Maslow (1943) said that people work to survive and live through financial compensation, to make new friends, to have job security, for a sence of achievement and to feel important in the society, to have a sense of identity, and most especially to have job satisfaction. All employees that have job satisfaction are high performers in their respective workplaces. Taylor (1911) opined that the most important motivator of workers is salary and wages when he said that "non-incentive wage system encourages low productivity". He said that if employees receive the same wage irrespective of their individual contribution to the goal, they will work less and that employees think working at a higher rate means fewer employees may be needed which discourages employees to work more. All these analogies affect only the unskilled and "unmotivated" workers in Midvale Steel Company where Taylor worked as a manager. Taylor worked as an engineer in the production unit. His principle does not apply to administrative and managerial duties where it may be difficult to measure individual performance. Gantt (1913) suggested that compensating 'hardworkers' will be better done through basic pay for all and bonuses for extra performance. The two methods treat workers as 'labourers' who toiled only for money and has been discouraged by modern managers. Modern managers recognise employees as part of a team and who are collectively responsible for the team's performance. The inadequacy of one must be covered by others though there is room for recognition of good works of individual team members, rewards and awards. This research work's aim was to find out if it is possible to adequately compensate employees and how managers and team heads can motivate their employees with the scarce resources available to them. Review of Literature Some theorists and writers on motivation of employees concluded it is not possible to adequately motivate employees based on Maslow's "Heirachy of Needs" and Frederick Herzberg's "theory of hygiene needs" or "two-factor theory" because these theories averred that human needs are 'insatiable'. For example, Amabile and Kramer (2007) said "anyone in management knows that employees have their good days and their bad days and that, for the most part, the reasons for their ups and downs are unknown. Most managers shrug their shoulders at this fact of work life". Other writers on motivation and satisfying human needs include, Henry Mintzberg's "Ten Managerial Roles", Michael E. Porter's "Competitive Strategy", Chris Argyris's "Bureaucratic/Pyramidal Value System and Humanistic/Democratic Value System", Douglas McGregor's "Theory X and Theory
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Y", Rensis Likert's Management System and Styles", Elton Mayo's "Hawthorne Experiments", Fredrick Herzbergs' "Two Factor Motivation Hygiene Theory" and David McClelland's "Achievement Theory". Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper titled "A theory of Human Motivation", is an extension of human innate curiousity. Maslow devided human needs into five. Maslow said that human beings' first group of needs are physiological; the second needs are safety related; the third are love/belonging to the society; the fourth are esteem and the fifth are self-actualization. The physiological needs are breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostatis and excretion; safety needs include security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of the family, of health, of property; love/belonging to society, bieng in friendship (being in love and being loved), family, sexual intimacy; esteem needs are self-esteem, confidence, achievements, respect for others, respect by others; and self actualization include morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, and acceptance of facts (Maslow, 1943). The Hawthorne studies allegedly discovered the influence of human relations or social factors on workers motivation (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 2003). According to Porter (1997) and Mintzberg (1989) motivation is only a secondary link in the chain represented by management. According to them, both motivation and market evolution are evolving in a linked relationship. This analogy is called the Contingency Theory. The contingency theory is a behaviorial theory that says that there is no one best way to manage a company, to lead an organisation or to make decisions. But the critical path analysis, the employees suggestion programs, SMART analysis, analytic heirarchy process etc, are decision making ways that have been proved to work better than others in their categories. The only way to manage an underfunded organisation is to provide "adequate fund" through injecting more fund or downsizing. Herzberg (1959) said we have basic needs (hygiene needs) which, when not satisfied, cause us to be dissatisfied. Meeting these needs does not make us satisfied...it merely prevents us from becoming dissatisfied. 'Hygiene' is a medical word and an analogy of the necessity to do something that is essential, but which does contribute towards making a patient well (it only prevents infection). These needs are also called maintenance needs. Herzberg said there is a seperate set of needs which, when resolved, do make us satisfied. These are called motivators (Herzberg, 1959). A manager does not need to provide all employees' needs before being a motivator. All he needs to do is to make an employee happy through identifying their state of mind while in office and talking over moody employees' problems. Mintzberg (1989) said to be able to motivate employees different factors would have to be put in place as much as we have employees. If management could go to the extent of carrying out opinion survey on employees, they will be able to motivate all employees and it will affect production. Recently, a company in Glasgow carried out a survey on motivating employees in the period of economic crunch.

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The question is: should the company sack some workers and increase salaries of retained workers? The other question is, should the company leave employees population at status quo and reduce salaries of employees across board? The employees voted for lower salaries and remaining as a family. They all believed the economic conditions 'will change'. If the organisation has assumed that increased salaries and wages will motivate "retained workers" and sacked less-productive workers, they would have been wrong. Herzberg (1987) identified two main categories of motivational factors: contextual factors and descriptive factors. The first factors include salaries, working conditions, organisation strategy etc. The second factors include threats and opportunities, competences, achievements, sense of belonging etc. Herzberg (1959) discovered that the factors that lead to dissatisfaction are completely different from those that provide satisfaction. He discribed the positive factors "motivation factors". These met human needs in a unique way and include achievement, personal development, job satisfaction and recognition. Improving these factors can provide employees; job satisfaction. Herzberg (1959) concluded that organisations should ain to motivate employees through job satisfaction, rather than reward or pressure. Herzberg (1987) believes workers are not motivated by salaries and wages. But his study of 200 Pittsburgh Engineers and Accountants are based on middle-, and high-, cadre workers and cannot be generalised for low-cadre employees. Low-cadre employees see salary and wages as mtivating factors more than anything. Levinson (1989) said "every manager must motivate and encourage employees somehow reconciling the individual needs with the goals of the organisation. All employees have aspirations and objectives which they want to achieve through their organisations. Responsible managers ought to help them to achieve their modest aspirations. Lewis-McClear and Taylor (1998) said that employee contract breach may act as demotivator and is related with employee's intention to quit an organisation. Having clearly set-out objectives can motivate employees. Small business owners in UK have been informed that their staff do not know what their objectives are for next year and are not feeling motivated, according to a report by the Department for Business Innovation and Skills (BIS, 2009).The BIS report revealed that only 25% of staff have had objectives for 2010 clearly communicated to them and a further third do not even know if a vision for their business' future exists. The report suggested this is having a negative effect on employee motivation levels, as only 27% feel positive about the year ahead. "If leaders don't explain where the business is going and what it's seeking to achieve, how can people be motivated or know what they're meant to contribute? Clear goals are a key ingredient for achieving performance and productivity" (MacLeod, 2009). Motivation factors that are affective and effective in one employee or in a group of employees may not be affective or effective in others. This is an area where study, query and feedback will have to be carried out. For example, the issue of bonus as motivation factor in employees may spurn employees to be 'distrustful', 'self-centred', 'selfish' and 'individualistic' instead of working for the collective success of a team. The Parliament in UK is considering a Financial Services Bill that Gordon Brown says will wipe out the old bonus system where bank bosses collect bonus based on percentage of profit (BBC News, 2009).
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Bonus can instigate good performance, but experience over the years show that some bank bosses only cover up, produced 'cosmeticized' Annual Report and push the bad days forward. In trying to get more bonus, they go into shaddy deals, They do not write off "Bad Debts" as place them under "Debtors" so that they can have bogus and inflated "Turnover" and "Profit after Tax". The liability is always inherited by their successors. If employees collect bonuses for exceeding expectation, they should also be fined for receding expectation. For employees to be fully motivated, managers must be aware that human beings are different in the way they think, see, view, feel, do things and reason. Myer-Briggs model (1956) talked about human differences. This model is about personality types. Myer-Briggs identified four ways people differ from each other. These are: the way they think; the way they view; the way they feel/perceive and the way they see things (Myers, 1980). To satisfy an individual you must know what he needs either by observation or through interviewing. Psychologist Eduard Spranger said there are six values in human beings which we all have in varying degrees. They are: theoretical (passion for knowledge), utilitarian (passion for money and what is useful), aesthetic (passion for beauty, balance, and harmony), social (passion for service to others), individualistic (passion for power and control), traditional (passion for finding the highest meaning in life). He said your top two values are what drive you and must be fulfilled for you to achieve happiness in life (Spranger, 1955). Motivating employees begins with recognizing that to do their best work, people must be in an environment that meets their basic emotional drives to acquire, bond, comprehend, and defend (Nohria et al, 2008). According to Amabile (1998), "in today's knowledge economy, creativity is more important than ever. But many companies unwittingly employ managerial practices that kill it. How? By crushing their employees' intrinsic motivation, the strong internal desire to do something based on interests and passions. Managers don't kill creativity on purpose. Yet in the pursuit of productivity, efficiency, and control - all worthy business imperatives - they undermine creativity". Mishra and McKendall (1993) suggested that employees suggestion programs (ESPs) should be used to involve employees in decision making and motivate them. "An ESP represents an opportunity to tap the intelligence and resourcefulness of an organization's employees, and by doing so, reap significant cost savings. Those companies and managers that have an ESP program uniformly list economic advantages first when describing the benefits of their employee suggestion programs" (Mishra and McKendall, 1993). Employees motives and psyche have changed appreciably in production. All employees want is the opportunity from the management to prove their worth. Employees no more want to be "driven", but to be "moved", not to be "ordered", but to be "shown the way" and not to be "paid" but to be "compensated". Methodology Researches in social sciences, especially one involving employees will be best approach using both qualitaitive and quantitave approaches. This research method known as triangulation has
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been greatly exploited by other writers. Triangulation or mixed methods of research has advantage in that the data collected from a method complemented the ones collected using the other method. By doing this, comprehensive opinions of people can be extrapolated and analysed by the researcher. Survey research and employees' interview were carried out by the researcher on a manufacturing company in East Kilbride, Glasow, Scotland, United Kingdom. 30 Questionnaires containing basic factors about motivation were asked while 10 employees were interviewed based on structured interview method. The results were interesting after participants have been assured of their annonimity and freedom of retirement from the research at their own peril. The data collected were analysed using descriptive statistics and content analysis. According to Patton (2002) "validity in quantitative research depends on careful instrument construction to ensure that the instrument measures what it is suppose to measure. The questionnaires were shared in equal number of ten to higher, middle and lowewr levels so as to have an unbiased opinions. The integrity of any research, especially one involving employees, not only depends on its analytical rigour, but also on ethical adequacy. The ethics of research bodering on voluntary participation, purpose of research, anonimity of respondents, data protection, and opportunity to read research report were assured the participants. Data Analysis Analysis of the survey data showed 90% (27 respondents out of 30) opined that "empathy from the managers" will motivate them. 86.67% or 26 respondents said that "welfare packages like accommodation, organisation transport system, medical facilities, scholarship for students and pension scheme" will motivate them. 83.33% (25 respondents) said that "fairness to all employees by the managers" and "freedom to use own initiative" will motivate them. 76.67% (23 respondents) said that conducive and neat working environment will motivate them more than any motivating factor, while 73.33% said "managers leading by example" will motivate them. 20 respondents (66.67%) said that "opportunity to train and develop your potentials" will motivate them and 17 respondents (56.67) said their motivation can only come from "regular increment in wages and salaries". "Sense of belonging in the organisation" will motivate 16 respondents (53.33%), while "effective communication of latest development" was supported as a motivating factor by 16 respondents (53.33%). The employees that will be motivated by conflict" management system were 50% (15) and those that will be motivated by reward and award were 43,33% (13). 15 out of 20 respondents (75%) in the lower and middle levels of employment supported "regular increment in salary" as against 2 out of 10 respondents in the higher cadre. All employees in the lower and middle leves (100%) and 7 from the higher level chosed "empathy from the manager as the highest motivating factor. 9 respondents from the lower and middle levels each and 8 from the higher level said "welfare packages like accommodation, organisation transport system, medical facilities, scholarship for students and pension scheme" will motivate them.
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Research Findings Managers can successfully motivate their employees through empathy, leading by example, management by objectives (MBO), fairness to all, rewards, awards and recognition for longservice and good work, opportunity for employees' training and development, periodical promotion and increase in take-home pay, welfare package like employees' children scholarship, free medical services for employees and their families, recognition of birthdays of employees, the creation of a sense of belonging among all employees, regular feedback from employees, effective communication in the project environment and assurance of employees future within and without the organisation, providing a conducive and attractive working environment for the employees, and instituting conflict resolution management. Nothing motivates better than working in a cohesive team and being seen as part of a success story. Workers are motivated when they are getting results, otherwise, they feel depressed and weak. Other motivating factors are secondary. Managers should be aware that their job is to plan, organise, control, supervise and direct a motivated employees to achieve objectives. Conclusion/Recommendations A manager can adeqautely motivate his or her employees. He or she should, through methods like psychometric test and physical observation of the employees, inquire about an employee's needs to know the type of motivators that can spurn the employees to get the best from him or her. Motivation to some people means a 'fat salary', to others, motivation means working in a neat and hygienic environment, while to some employees motivation is having sense of belonging and having opportunity to train and develop a career. Salaries and wages are not the only motivators that can improve productivity. In a multi-national company in Nigeria, the human resources department found out that by introducing a 'cold water tap' and a 'colour television' in the junior staff waiting room, production increased by more than fifteen percent within a year. The workers derived a sense of belonging in the organisation and worked harder. The two motivators could not have affected every employee as their motivators are different in the company. Some employees would have preferred to monetised the benefits. But the results cut across all employees as their total production increased. Award and recognition and not salary, overtime and wages have helped organisations to motivate some employees. Managers should practice leadership by being close to all emplyees to know what will motivate them. An employee with large family size and huge bills to settle every month will probably prefer money as motivation than an employee with small family size. In some cases, the promise of accommodation, paid holidays, company car and company health facilities have been used to inspire employees. Managers should identify individual employee's common motivators and prioritise the motivators, by needs of the employees, before they can successfully motivate their employees at work. Employees that are familiar with the objectives of their organisation are more motivated than employees who have promise of higher pay. Organisations should have corporate culture", build teams and not encourage any scheme that recognises individual team members as the champion
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of a team. Review of wokers should be done before they start work at all where the minimum performance required of them will be exposed in a clear and writen form. Performance measurement of employees should not be shrouded in mystery. If a bonus has to be paid to motivate an employee to exceed performance, it has to be for performing a measurable and obvious task. Organisations should recognise that there are external factors beyond the control of employees like politics of the area they operate, economic issues like interest rate, inflation, deflation, currency exchange rate etc, social issues like immigration, language barrier, culture etc, techology change, laws and legal issues, demography, climatology, societal risks etc and health and safety issues, whic can affect the performance of employees. In a case where bonuses are paid for officers who receive salary and wages to perform a given job, the bonuses should be motivatinonal, an instigator of innovation and good work and not as a tradition. Employee receiving the bonus should be able to show that the exceptional performance was as a result of his action and nothing else. Workers should not be seen as 'greedy' by employers when drafting contract agreement. They should not be treated as miserable and as if it is only money they work for. Workers should be made to feel proud about a business as a "going-concern" and not to milk it dry. The exposition of the obvious - that a company which was in debt will go extinct if something was not done has motivated a company's workers to perform brilliantly without additional remuneration, turned around the fortune of the company and thereby saved their company and their jobs.

Further reading

Amabile, T. M. (1998) How to kill creativity. Harvard Business Review SeptemberOctober 1998. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Publishing. Amabile, T. M. and Kramer, S. J. (2007) Inner work life: understanding the subtext of business performance. Harvard Business Review May 2007. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Publishing. BBC News (2009) Brown to "ban old bonus system". Available at http: //news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8277135.stm. Accessed on Decenber 8, 2009. BIS (2009) Bosses not motivating staff. Available at http://www.newbusiness. co.uk/news/bosses-not-motivating-staff. Accessed on December 8, 2009. Gantt, H. L. (1911) Work, wages, and profits. New York: Engineering Magazine Company. Herzberg, F. (1987) One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Busness Review, No. 5, 1987. Herzberg, F. (1959) The Motivation to Work. New York: Wiley & Sons. Levinson, H. (ed) (1989) Designing and Managing your Career. A collection of 30 Harvard Business Review articles. Harvard Business Publishing. Lewis-McClear, K. and Taylor, M. S. (1998) Psychological contract breach and the employment exchange: perceptions from employees and employers. Papers presented to the Academy of Management, San Diego, August 1998.

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Lucas, S. and Medhurst, M. (1999). "I Have a Dream" Speech Leads Top 100 Speeches of the Century. Available at http://www.news.wisc .edu/releases/3504.html, and The " University of Wisconsin-Madison http://www.news.wisc.edu/releases/ 3504.html. Accessed on March 29, 2009. Macleod, D. (2009) Bosses not motivating staff. Available at http: www.newbusiness.co.uk/news/bosses-not-motivating-staff. Accessed on December 8, 2009. Maslow, A. H. (1943) Coflict, frustration and the theory of threat. J. abnorm. (soc.) Psychol., 1943, 38, 81-86. Mintzberg, H. (1989) Mintzberg on management: Inside our Strange World of Organisations. New York: Free Press. Mishra, and McKendall, (1993) Employees suggestion programs: the reward of involvement. Healthcare Supervison, September, 1993. Myers, I. B. (1980). Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type. Davies-Black Publishing; Reprint edition (May 1, 1995). ISBN 0-89106- 074-X. Nohria, N., Groysberg, B. and Lee, L. E. (2008) Motivating Employees: A powerful New Model. Harvard Business Review July-August 2008. Boston, MA: Harvard Business Publishing. Patton, M. Q. (2002) Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods, 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage. Porter, M. E. (1997) Competitive Strategy. Measuring Business Excellence. Volume 1, Issue 2, pp.12-17. Roethlisberger, F. J. and Dickson, J. D. (2003) Management and the Worker. New York: Routledge. Spranger, E. (1955) Psychologies des Jugendalters. Germany: Quelle and Meyer. Team Technology (2006) The Basics of Team Building. Available at http: //www.teamtechnology.co.uk/tt/t-articl/tb-basic.htm. Accessed on March 28, 2009. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2006), 4th edition . USA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

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