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Please today. [Hide] vote. [Help us with translations!] History of From Wikipedia, the free India Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia History search of South Asia Stone before 3300 Age Mehrgarh BCE 70003300 Culture ndus Valley BCE 33001700 Civilization Late Harappan BCE 17001300 Culture Vedic BCE 2000600 Civilization ron BCE 12001 Age Maha BCE 700300 Janapadas Magadha BCE 684424 Empire Nanda BCE 424-321 Empire Maurya BCE 321184 Empire Sunga BCE 185-73 Empire Kanva BCE 75-26 Empire Kharavela BCE 209170 Empire Kuninda BCE 200s KingdomBCE300s CEIndo-Scythian 200 BC400 Kingdom CEChera 300 BCE1200 Kingdom CEChola 300 EmpireBCE1279 CEPandyan 250 BCE1345 Kingdom CESatavahana 230 EmpireBCE220 CEIndo-Greek 180 BCE10 Kingdom Middle CE 1CE1279 Kingdoms CEIndo-Parthian 21130s Kingdom CEWestern Satrap 35405 Empire CEKushan 60240 Empire CE

 Indo-Sassanid 230360 Kingdom CEVakataka 250500 Empire CEKalabhras 250600 Kingdom Gupta CE 280550 Empire CEPallava 275800 Kingdom CEKadamba 345525 Empire CEWestern Ganga 3501000 Kingdom CEVishnukundina 420-624 Empire CEHuna 475-576 Kingdom CEChalukya 543753 Empire CEHarsha 590-647 Empire CEShahi 565-670 Kingdom CEEastern Chalukya 624-1075 Kingdom CEPratihara 6501036 Empire CEPala 7501174 Empire CERashtrakuta 753982 Empire CEParamara 8001327 Kingdom CEYadava 8501334 Empire CESolanki 9421244 Kingdom CEWestern Chalukya 9731189 Empire CEHoysala 10401346 Empire CESena 10701230 Empire CEEastern Ganga 10781434 Empire CEKakatiya 10831323 Kingdom CEKalachuri 11301184 Empire s CElamic 12061596 Sultanates CEDelhi 12061526 Sultanate CEDeccan 14901596 Sultanates Ahom CE 12281826 Kingdom CE

Vijayanagara 13361646 Empire Mysore CE 13991947 Kingdom Mughal CE 15261858 Empire Madurai Nayak CE 1559 1736 Kingdom Thanjavur Nayak CE 15721918 Kingdom Maratha CE 16741818 Empire SikhCE 17161799 Confederacy SikhCE 17991849 Empire Company rule in CE 17571858 India British CE 18581947 India Partition of CE 1947 India Nation CE Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan histories Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri India Lanka Regional Assam Bihar Balochistan histories Himachal Pradesh Orissa Pakistani Bengal Punjab Regions South India Tibet Specialised Coinage histories Dynasties Economy Language Literature ndology Military Science and Technology Maritime Timeline This box: view talk edit This article is about the history of the Indian Subcontinent prior to Partition of India in 1947. For the history of the modern Republic of India, the History of the Republic of India. For the histories of Pakistan and Bangladesh see History of Pakistan and History of Bangladesh. Also for South India see History see South India. of The known history of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, from c. spread to 1300 BCE. Its Mature Harappan period lasted from 2600-1900 BCE. This Bronze 3300 civilization collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BCE and Age followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which extended over much of the was Gangetic plains and which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as IndoMahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms Magadha, Mahavira and Gautama Buddha the born were in the 6th century BCE, who propagated their Shramanic philosophies among masses the L .ater, successive empires and kingdoms ruled the region and enriched its from the culture -Achaemenid Persian empire[1] around 543 BCE, to Alexander the Great[2] 326 in BCE. The Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded by Demetrius of Bactria, Gandhara included and Punjab from 184 BCE; it reached its greatest extent under establishing the Greco-Buddhist period with advances in trade and Menander, The subcontinent was united under the Maurya Empire during the 4th and culture. 3rd

centuries BCE. It subsequently became fragmented, with various parts ruled numerous Middle kingdoms for the next ten centuries. Its northern regions by united once again in the 4th century CE, and remained so for two were thereafter, under the Gupta Empire. This period, of Hindu religious centuries intellectual resurgence, is known among its admirers as the "Golden Age of and During India."the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, Southern India, the rule of the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, experienced its under golden age, during which Indian civilization, administration, culture, own religion (Hinduism and Buddhism) spread to much of and Kerala Asia. had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around AD 77. rule in Muslim the subcontinent began in 712 CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab,[3] setting the stage for Qasim successive invasions between the 10th and 15th centuries CE from Central several leading to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as Asia, Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. Mughal rule came to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent. Mughal rulers introduced middle-eastern the and art architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals, several independent states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire, the Ahom Kingdom Hindu various Rajput kingdoms, flourished contemporaneously, in Western, Southern and North-Eastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline and the in early eighteenth century, which provided opportunities for the Balochis Afghans, and Sikhs to exercise control over large areas in the northwest of subcontinent until the British East India Company[4] gained ascendancy over the Asia South B .eginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was annexed by gradually the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule to ledthe First War of Indian Independence, after which India was administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid directly of infrastructure and economic development During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for decline. was launched independence by the Indian National Congress, and later joined by the League. Muslim The subcontinent gained independence from Great Britain in 1947, being after partitioned into the dominions of India and Content Pakistan. [ shide ] 1 Pre-Historic Era o 1.1 Stone Age o 1.2 Bronze Age o 1.3 Vedic period o 1.4 Maha Janapadas o 1.5 Persian and Greek 2 Maurya invasionsPeriod 3 Early Middle Kingdoms The Golden 4 Northwestern hybrid Age o 4.1 Roman cultures trade with India o 4.2 Gupta Dynasty 5 Late Middle Kingdoms The Classical 6 The Islamic Sultanates Age o 6.1 Delhi Sultanate o 6.2 The Mughal era 7 Post-Mughal Regional 8 Colonial era Kingdoms o 8.1 The British Raj 9 The Indian Independence 10 Independence and movement 11 See also Partition 12 References 13 Further reading

14 External links

Pre-Historic Stone Era Main Age article: South Asian Stone Further information: Mehrgarh, Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and Edakkal Age Caves Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India. Stone age writings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, solated remains of Homo erectus in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley in India. ndia indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Central Pleistocene era, somewhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years ago.[5][6] Most Middle of the traces out of Africa migration along the shores of the Indian Ocean seem to been have lost. Due to flooding in the post-Ice Age period, recent finds in Tamil (at Naduc. 75,000 years ago, before and after the explosion of the Toba indicate volcano) the presence of the first anatomically modern humans in the The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent covered a timespan of area. 25,000 around years, starting around 30,000 years ago. More extensive settlement of subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age, or approximately the years 12,000ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago the in Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in modern Madhya Pradesh, Early India.Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Mehrgarh (7000 BCE findings onwards) in present day Balochistan, Pakistan. Traces of a culture have been found submerged in the Gulf of Khambat in India, Neolithic dated to 7500 BCE.[7] The Edakkal Caves has one of the earliest exmples of radiocarbon age writing. Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region stone 6000 and between 2000 BCE and in southern India between 2800 and 1200 The BCE.north-western part of the Subcontinent has been inhabited continuously for least two million years.[8][9] The ancient history of the region includes some at South Asia's oldest settlements[10] and some of its major civilizations.[11] of The [12]earliest archaeological site in the Subcontinent is the palaeolithic site in hominid the Soan River valley.[13] Village life began with the Neolithic site Mehrgarh,[14] while the first urban civilization of the region began with of ndus Valley Civilization.[15] the Bronze [16] Main Age article: Indus Valley See also: Economic history of India and Timeline of the economy of Civilization India Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India. "Priest King" of Indus Valley The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the Civilization of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and beginning tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley,[11] the its Yamuna Ganges-Doab,[17] Gujarat,[18] and northern Afghanistan. The [19]civilization is primarily located in modern day India (Gujarat, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces) and today's Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, Haryana, Balochistan provinces). Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of and world's earliest urban civilizations along with Mesopotamia and Ancient the nhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed Egypt. techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and new The tin.civilization flourished from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE marked the of the urban civilization on the subcontinent. The ancient civilization beginning included

urban centers such as Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Lothal in day India and Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in modern day Pakistan. modern civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system The multi-storied and Vedic houses. Main article: Vedic period See also: Vedas and Indoperiod Aryans Map of North India in the late Vedic Theperiod.period is characterized by Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedic of Vedas, sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in Vedic Sanskrit. texts Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts, next to those of Egypt and The The Vedic period lasted from about 1500 BCE to 500 BCE, laid the foundations Mesopotamia. Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. The Aryas of Vedic civilization all over North India, and increasingly so in the established Plain. This period succeeded the prehistoric Late Harappan during Gangetic immigrations of Indo-Aryan speaking tribes overlaid the existing civilizations which local people whom they called of Early Vedic society consisted of largely pastoral groups, with late Dasyus. urbanization having been abandoned.[20] After the Rigveda, Aryan society Harappan increasingly agricultural, and was socially organized around the four Varnas. became addition to the principal texts of Hinduism the Vedas, the core themes of In Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are said to have their ultimate the during originsthis period.[21] Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in to the part, presence of Ochre Coloured Pottery in archaeological findings. [22] Vaishali was the capital of "Licchavi," world's second republic only Arwad. after The [23]kingdom of the Kurus[24] corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in Northwestern India, Painted 1000 BCE with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to around iron, as mention IyIma ayas, literally "black metal." The Painted Grey Ware spanning culture much of Northern India was prevalent from about 1100 to 600 BCE.[22] Vedic Period also established republics (such as Vaishali) which existed as The as the early sixth century BC and persisted in some areas until the fourth century The AD. later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away the fromprevalent tribal system towards establishment of kingdoms, called Janapadas Maha M .aha Janapadas Gautama Buddha undertaking extreme ascetic practices before his enlightenment the on bank of river Falgu in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India. Detail of a leaf with, The Birth of Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara), from Kalpa Sutra, c.1375the 1400. Adi Shankara, an Indian philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Vedanta Advaita by using the Upanishads for reference. The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen most powerful kingdoms and republics of era, the located mainly across the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains, however there number were a of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of Ancient India.

Nalanda University is considered "one of the first great universities in history." recorded It was the center of Buddhist learning and research in the world 4501193 from Main CE. articles: Mahajanapadas and Magadha Main articles: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, and History of Empire See also: Adi Shankara, Siddhartha Gautama, and Jainism Further Mahavirainformation: Upanishads, Indian Religions, Indian philosophy, and universities of Ancient n the India later Vedic Age, a number of small kingdoms or city states had covered subcontinent, many mentioned during Vedic, early Buddhist and Jaina literature the far as back as 1000 BCE. By 500 BCE, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as Mahajanapadas Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajji (or Vriji), Malla, Chedi, the (or Vamsa), Kuru, Panchala, Machcha (or Matsya), Surasena, Assaka, Vatsa Gandhara, Kamboja stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modernAvanti, Afghanistan to Bengal and Maharastra. This period was that of the second day urbanisation in India after the Indus Valley major Many smaller Civilization.clans mentioned within early literature seem to have been across presentthe rest of the subcontinent. Some of these kings were hereditary; states other elected their rulers. The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, the dialects of the general population of northern India are referred to while Prakrits. Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced to four major ones by as BCE, by 500/400 the time of Siddhartha Gautama. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala Magadha. and Hindu [25] rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly t is class.thought that the Upanishads, late Vedic texts dealing mainly with philosophy, were composed in the later Vedic Age and early in this period of incipient Mahajanapadas (from about 600 - 400 BCE). Upanishads had a substantial effect the on ndian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of Buddhism Jainism, indicating a golden age of thought in this and period. t is believed that in 537 BCE, that Siddhartha Gautama attained the state "enlightenment", and became known as the 'Buddha' - the elightened one. Around of same the time, Mahavira (the 24th Jain Tirthankara according to Jains) similar theology, that was to later become Jainism.[26] However, Jain propagated a believes orthodoxyit predates all known time. The Vedas are believed to have few Jain Tirthankars, and an ascetic order similar to the sramana movement. documented a The [27]Buddha's teachings and Jainism had doctrines inclined toward asceticism, were and preached in Prakrit, which helped them gain acceptance amongst the They have profoundly influenced practices that Hinduism and Indian masses. orders are spiritual associated with namely, vegetarianism, prohibition of animal and ahimsa slaughter (non-violence). While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited ndia, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to Central Asia, East Asia, Tibet, Sri Lanka and South East to Persian and Greek Asia. See also: invasions Achaemenid Empire, Greco-Buddhism, Alexander the Great, Nanda and Empire, Gangaridai Asia in 323BC, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Empire and Alexander's Much of the neighbors. northwestern Indian Subcontinent (present day Eastern Afghanistan Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire in c. 520 and during the reign of Darius the Great, and remained so for two BCE thereafter.[28] In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and centuries Achaemenid Empire, reaching the north-west frontiers of the Indian the There, he defeated King Puru in the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modernsubcontinent. Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab.[29] Alexander's march East day put

him in confrontation with the Nanda Empire of Magadha and Gangaridai Empire Bengal. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger of armies Indian at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) and refused march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, to convinced that it was better to was The Persian and Greek invasions had important repercussions on return. civilization. The political systems of the Persians was to influence future Indian of governance on the subcontinent, including the administration of the forms dynasty. Mauryan In addition, the region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Afghanistan and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, Greco-Buddhism, which Asian until lastedthe 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of Buddhism Mahayana _ ._____________________________________ Maurya __ Main article: Maurya Period Further Empire information: Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka the Great Maurya Empire under Ashoka the The Maurya Empire (322185 B.C), ruled by the Mauryan dynasty, was Great extensive, powerful, and a political military empire in ancient India. The geographically Maurya great empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya and this empire flourished by Ashoka the Great. At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched was the to north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern east annexing Pakistan,Balochistan and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the Herat modernand Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a and portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga which was won big Ashoka the by ______________________________________ Great. Early Middle Kingdoms The Golden __ Age Ancient India during the rise of Sunga Empire and Satavahana Empire. Kushan Empire of Ancient India. Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola c. 1030 C.E. Badami Chalukya Main article: Middle Kingdoms of Empire See also: Satavahanas, Sunga Empire, Kuninda Kingdom, Pallava, Kushan India Kharavela, Western Satraps, Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Empire, Chera dynasty, Empire, Dynasty, Kadamba Western Ganga Dynasty, Gurjara Kingdom, Vishnukundina, and Empir Chalukya T ehe middle period was a time of notable cultural development. The also known as Satavahanas, the Andhras, was a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central starting from around 230 BCE. Satakarni, the sixth ruler of the Satvahana India defeated dynasty, the Sunga dynasty of North India. Gautamiputra Satakarni was notable another ruler of the dynasty. Kuninda Kingdom was a small Himalayan state survived from around the 2nd century BCE to roughly the 3rd century CE. that Kushanas invaded north-western India about the middle of the 1st century CE, The Central Asia, and founded an empire that eventually stretched from Peshawar to from the

middle Ganges and, perhaps, as far as the Bay of Bengal. It also included Bactria ancient (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern Tajikistan. The Satraps Western (35-405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of They were the successors of the Indo-Scythians (see below) and India. with the Kushans contemporaneous who ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and Satavahana (Andhra) who ruled in Central the Different empires such as the Pandyan Kingdom, Chola Dynasty, Chera India. Kadamba Dynasty,Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, Pallavas and Chalukya Dynasty the southern part of the Indian peninsula, at different periods of time. dominated southern Several kingdoms formed overseas empires that stretched across South East The kingdoms warred with each other and Deccan states, for domination of Asia. south. Kalabhras, a Buddhist kingdom, briefly interrupted the usual domination the the of Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the Northwestern hybrid South. cultures The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Demetrius I "the Invincible" (205171 See also: Indo-Greek kingdom, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and BCE). Sassanid IndoT she north-western hybrid cultures of the subcontinent included the Indothe Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians, and the Indo-Sassinids. The first Greeks, these, the Indo-Greek Kingdom, founded when the Greco-Bactrian king of invaded the region in 180 BCE, extended over various parts of presentDemetrius Afghanistan and Pakistan. Lasting for almost two centuries, it was ruled day succession of more than 30 Greek kings, who were often in conflict with by a other. The Indo-Scythians was a branch of the Indo-European Sakas (Scythians), each migrated from southern Siberia first into Bactria, subsequently into who Kashmir, Sogdiana,Arachosia, Gandhara and finally into India; their kingdom lasted from middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. Yet another kingdom, the the ndo-Parthians (also known as Pahlavas) came to control most of presentAfghanistan and northern Pakistan, after fighting many local rulers such as day Kushan ruler Kujula Kadphises, in the Gandhara region. The Sassanid empire the Persia, who were contemporaries of the Guptas, expanded into the region of present-day Pakistan, where the mingling of Indian and Persian cultures gave of to the birth Indo-Sassanid Roman trade with culture. Main Indiaarticle: Roman trade with India Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South Roman India.trade with India started around 1 CE following the reign of Augustus and conquest of Egypt, theretofore India's biggest trade partner in the his The trade started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE kept increasing, and West. to Strabo according (II.5.12.[30]), by the time of Augustus up to 120 ships were sail every year from Myos Hormos to India. So much gold was used for this setting and apparently recycled by the Kushans for their own coinage, that Pliny trade, VI.101) complained about the drain of specie to (NH "India, India: China and the Arabian peninsula take one hundred million sesterces our fromempire per annum at a conservative estimate: that is what our luxuries women cost us. For what percentage of these imports is intended for sacrifices and the to gods or the spirits of the Pliny, dead?" Historia Naturae 12.41.84. These [31] trade routes and harbour are described in detail in the 1st century Periplus of the Erythraean CE Gupta Sea. Main article: Gupta Dynasty See also: Chandra Gupta I, Samudragupta, Chandra Gupta II, Kumaragupta I, Empire Skandagupt and a

Further information: Kalidasa, Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, Vatsyayan and F kuntala, KumIrasambhava, aurther information: MeghadIta, Aryabhatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama AbhijIna Panchatantra, Sutra The Gupta Empire Kalidasa's Sanskrit play kuntala is one of the Legacy of the Empire AbhijIna Gupta .n the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Dynasty unified northern India. this period, known as India's Golden Age of Hindu renaissance, Hindu During science culture,and political administration reached new heights. Chandragupta Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the I, dynasty. The earliest available Puranas are also thought to have been Gupta around writtenthis period. The empire came to an end with the attack of the Huns central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India from again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta was continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These clan were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king Harsha, who established an empire Guptas the in first half of the seventh The White century. Huns, who seem to have been part of the Hephthalite group, themselves establishedin Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with capital at Bamiyan. They were responsible for the downfall of the Gupta their and thus dynasty, brought an end to what historians consider a golden age in ndia. Nevertheless, much of the Deccan and southern India were largely northern by this state of flux in the unaffected Late Middle Kingdoms The Classical north. Main Age article: Middle Kingdoms of See also: Harsha, Western Chalukya Empire, Pratihara, Ahom Kingdom, Pala India Eastern Empire, Ganga dynasty, Rashtrakuta Empire, Sena dynasty, Hoysala Kalachuri, Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiya dynasty, Madurai Nayak Empire, Shahi, and Vijayanagara Dynasty, Empire Pala Empire under Pala Dharmapala Empire under Devapala The classical age in India began with the Guptas and the resurgence of the during north Harsha's conquests around the 7th century, and ended with the fall of Vijayanagar Empire in the South, due to pressure from the invaders to the north the the in 13th century. This period produced some of India's finest art, considered epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual the philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and and King Harsha of Kannauj succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign Jainism. the in 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His kingdom after his collapsed death. The Kanauj Triangle was the focal point of empires - the Rashtrakutas of the Pratiharas of Malwa, and the Palas of Deccan, From the Bengal. 7th to the 9th century, three dynasties contested for control of ndia: the Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas northern Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire, and of Pratiharas fragmented into various states. These were the first of the the series of Rajputs, akingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium

until Indian independence from the British. The first recorded Rajput emerged kingdomsin Rajasthan in the 6th century, and small Rajput dynasties later much ruledof northern India. One Rajput of the Chauhan clan, Prithvi Raj Chauhan, known for bloody conflicts against the encroaching Islamic Sultanates. The was dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir Shahi the frommid-seventh century to the early eleventh century. Whilst the northern of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the concept instead shifted to the ideal The Chalukya Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 south. Badami, Karnataka and again from 970 to 1190 from Kalyani, Karnataka. The from of Kanchi Pallavas were their contemporaries further to the south. With the decline of Chalukya empire, their feudatories, Hoysalas of Halebidu, Kakatiya of the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri and a southern branch of the Kalachuri divided the Warangal, Chalukya empire amongst themselves around the middle of 12th century. Later vast the middle period, the Chola kingdom emerged in northern Tamil Nadu, and the during kingdom in Kerala. By 1343, all these kingdoms had ceased to exist giving rise Chera the to Vijayanagar empire. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded influence as far as Indonesia, controlling vast overseas empires in their Asia. The Southeast ports of South India were involved in the Indian Ocean trade, involving spices, with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to chiefly east.[32][33] Literature in local vernaculars and spectacular the flourished till about the beginning of the 14th century when southern architecture of the sultan of Delhi took their toll on these kingdoms. The Hindu expeditions dynasty came Vijayanagar into conflict with Islamic rule (the Bahmani Kingdom) and clashing of the two systems, caused a mingling of the indigenous and the culture foreign that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The Vijaynagar eventually declined due to pressure from the first Delhi Sultanates who Empire managed to establish themselves in the north, centered around the city of Delhi had that by The Islamic time. Sultanates Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world the Byzantine Hagia after Main article: Islamic Empires in Sophia. See also: Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan India After the SultanatesArab invasion of India's ancient western neighbour Persia, forces in expanding that area were keen to invade India, which was the richest civilization, with a flourishing international trade and the only known classical mines in diamond the world. After resistance for a few centuries by various north kingdoms, short lived Islamic empires (Sultanates) were established and Indian across spread the northern subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. But, prior Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities had flourished throughout to South India, particularly in Kerala, where they arrived in small numbers, coastal from the Arabian peninsula, through trade links via the Indian Ocean. mainly this had However, marked the introduction of an Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion Southern India's pre-existing dharmic Hindu culture, often in puritanical in Later, form. the Bahmani Sultanate and Deccan Sultanates flourished in the Delhi south. Sultanate Qutub Minar is the world's tallest brick minaret, commenced by Qutb-ud-din of the Aybak Slave Main article: Delhi dynasty. n the 12th and 13th centuries, Turkics and Pashtuns invaded parts of Sultanate ndia and northern established the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of the 13th century, the former Rajput holdings.[34] The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed in conquer large areas of northern India, approximate to the ancient extent of to the

Guptas, while the Khilji Empire was also able to conquer most of central but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting most of India, subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural the The resulting renaissance. "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that in language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic the was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the inter-mingling dialects) the of local speakers of Sanskritic prakrits with the Persian, Turkic and speaking immigrants under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Arabic Indoslamic empire to stake a claim to enthroning one of the few female rulers ndia, Razia Sultan (1236in A1240). Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur began a trek starting in 1398 to invade reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian the of Delhi.[35] The Sultan's army was defeated on December 17, 1398. Timur city Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in entered The Mughal ruins. era Approximate extent of the Mughal Empire in the 17th century. Taj Mahal, built by the Main articles: Mughal era and Mughal Mughals See also: Babur, Humayun, Akbar the Great, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Empire n 1526, AurangzebBabur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, swept across Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which lasted for over the years.[36] The Mughal Dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; 200 went into a slow decline after 1707 and was finally defeated during the 1857 it of WarIndependence also called the Indian Rebellion of 1857. This period marked social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by vast Mughal emperors, most of them showed religious tolerance, liberally the Hindu culture. The famous emperor Akbar, who was the grandson of Babar, tried patronising establish a good relationship with the Hindus. However, later emperors such to Aurangazeb tried to establish complete Muslim dominance and as a result as historical temples were destroyed during this period and taxes imposed on several Muslims. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, which at its peak occupied nonarea similar to the ancient Maurya Empire, several smaller empires rose to an the fillpower vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline. Mughals were perhaps the richest single dynasty to have ever existed. In The Nader 1739, Shah defeated the Mughal army at the huge Battle of Karnal. After victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, this the Peacock Throne. including During the Mughal era, the dominant political forces consisted of the [37] Empire Mughal and its tributaries and, later on, the rising successor states the Maratha confederacy - who fought an increasingly weak and disfavoured including dynasty. The Mughals, while often employing brutal tactics to subjugate Mughal empire, had a policy of integration with Indian culture, which is what made their successful where the short-lived Sultanates of Delhi had failed. Akbar the them was particularly famed for this. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of Great in the animalsholy days of Jainism. He rolled back the Jazia Tax for non-Muslims. Mughal Emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local Maharajas, The attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, and unique Indo-Saracenic architecture. It was the erosion of this tradition creating with increased brutality and centralization that played a large part in coupled downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively their pluralistic policies on the general population, that often inflamed the nonHindu majority Post-Mughal population. Regional Kingdoms

Main articles: Maratha Empire, Kingdom of Mysore, Hyderabad State, Sikh Rajputs, Empire, and Durrani See also: History of Empire Further Sikhism information: Shivaji, Tippu Sultan, Nizam, Ranjit Singh, and Ahmad Abdal Shah i The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hindu empire of India. Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple is culturally the most significant place worship for the of The post-Mughal era was dominated by the rise of the Maratha suzerianity as Sikhs. small other regional states (mostly post-Mughal tributary states) emerged, and also the by increasing activities of European powers (see colonial era below). The Kingdom Maratha was founded and consolidated by Shivaji. By the 18th century, it transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the Peshwas. By had the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. 1760, expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an Afghan This led armyby Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). The last Baji Rao Peshwa, II, was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 CE by War. Wodeyar dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by Hyder Ali and his the Tippu Sultan. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes son the combined forces of the British and Marathas, but mostly against the against with some aid or promise of aid from the French. Hyderabad was founded by the British Shahi Qutb dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Mughal Jah, a official, seized control of Hyderabad declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk Hyderabad in 1724. It was ruled by a hereditary Nizam from 1724 until 1948. of Mysore and Hyderabad became princely states in British Both The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the Sikh religion, was a political India. that governed the region of modern day Punjab. This was among the last areas entity the of subcontinent to be conquered by the British. The Anglo-Sikh wars marked downfall of the Sikh Empire. Around the 18th century modern Nepal was formed the Gorkha rulers, and the Shahs and the Ranas very strictly maintained their by identity national and Colonial integrity. Main era article: Colonial Vasco India da Gama's maritime success to discover for Europeans a new sea route to ndia in 1498 paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce.[38] The soon set up trading-posts in Goa, Daman, Diu and Bombay. The next to arrive Portuguese the wereDutch, the Britishwho set up a trading-post in the west-coast port Surat[39] in 1619and the French. The internal conflicts among Indian of gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish Kingdoms influence political and appropriate lands. Although these continental European powers to control various regions of southern and eastern India during the were century, ensuing they would eventually lose all their territories in India to the islanders, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondicherry British Chandernagore, the Dutch port of Travancore, and the Portuguese colonies of and Daman, and Goa, The Diu.British Main Raj article: British Raj The British East India Company had been given permission by the Mughal Jahangir emperor in 1617 to trade in India.[40] Gradually their increasing influence the led de-jure Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar to grant them dastaks or permits for free duty trade in Bengal in 1717.[41] The Nawab of Bengal Siraj Ud Daulah, the de

facto ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these This led permits. to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the 'army' of East Company, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab's forces. This was the India political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired first ndia. Clive was appointed by the Company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.[42] After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Company acquired the civil in of administration in Bengal from the Mughal Emperor Shah ; it marked the rights beginning of its formal rule, which was to engulf eventually most of India Alam extinguish the Moghul rule and dynasty itself in a century.[43] The East and Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation India called system the Permanent Settlement which introduced a feudal like structure Zamindar) in Bengal. By the 1850s, the East India Company controlled most of (See ndian sub-continent, which included present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh. the policy was sometimes summed up as Divide and Rule, taking advantage of the Their festering between various princely states and social and religious groups. enmity the British Raj, famines in India, often attributed to failed government During were some policies, of the worst ever recorded, including the Great Famine of 187678, which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died[44] and the Indian famine of in 1900, 1899 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died.[44] The Third Plague started Pandemicin China in the middle of the 19th century, spreading plague to inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[45] all persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, Despite stood which at about 125 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941. The [46]first major movement against the British Company's high handed rule in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the "Indian Mutiny" or resulted Mutiny" "Sepoy or the "First War of Independence". After a year of turmoil, reinforcement of the East India Company's troops with British soldiers, and British overcame the rebellion. The nominal leader of the uprising, the the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, was exiled to Burma, his children were last and the beheadedMoghul line abolished. In the aftermath all power was transferred from East the India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of as a Indiacolony; the Company's lands were controlled directly and the rest through rulers of what it called the Princely states. There were 565 princely states the the whenIndian subcontinent became independent from Britain in August 1947. The [47]Indian Independence Main article: Indian independence movement See also: movement Mahatma Further Gandhi information: Freedom fighters of India Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru in 1937. Rabindranath Tagore is Asia's first Nobel laureate and composer of national India's The first step toward Indian independence and western-style democracy was anthem. with takenthe appointment of Indian councilors to advise the British viceroy,[48] with and the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members the participation councillors' was subsequently widened in legislative councils.[49] From leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began mass movements to 1920 against campaignthe British Raj. Subash Chandara Bose was another freedom fighter formed army forces against British rule. Bhagat Singh was also an Indian who fighter, freedom considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the ndian independence movement. He is often referred to as Shaheed Bhagat Singh word shaheed means "martyr"). Veerapandiya Kattabomman was also another (the fighter freedom who started his freedom movement against British rule by refusing to tax pay to British Government. Revolutionary activities against the British rule took also place throughout the Indian sub-continent, and these movements succeeded in

bringing Independence to the Indian sub-continent in 1947. One year later, was assassinated. However, he did live long enough to free his Gandhi ndependence and homeland. Main articles: Partition of India and History of the Republic of Partition See also: Jawaharlal Nehru, Rabindranath Tagore, and Ramdhari Singh India Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims 'Dinkar' also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority, had the and prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of they were as independence;inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the Raj. 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi came onto the scene, calling for unity In the two between groups in an astonishing display of leadership that would eventually the leadcountry to independence. The profound impact Gandhi had on India and ability to gain independence through a totally non-violent mass movement made his one him of the most remarkable leaders the world has ever known. He led by wearing example,homespun clothes to weaken the British textile industry and a march to the orchestrating sea, where demonstrators proceeded to make their own salt protest against the British monopoly. Indians gave him the name Mahatma, or in Soul, Great first suggested by the Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. The promised British that they would leave India by British Indian territories gained independence in 1947, after being 1947. into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Following the division of partitioned partition Punjab and Bengal provinces, rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus preMuslims in several parts of India, including Punjab, Bengal and Delhi, and some 500,000 dead.[50] Also, this period saw one of the largest mass leaving ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs migrations Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan. and See [50] also History of South Asia History of the Republic of History of Pakistan India History of Bangladesh ndianized kingdom Contributions of Indian Economic history of India Civilization Religion in India ndian Religions History of Buddhism History of Hinduism History of Jainism History of Sikhism ndian philosophy Science and technology in ancient List Indiaof Indian inventions and discoveries ndian maritime history Military history of India Kingdoms of Ancient India Timeline of Indian history Timeline of the economy of Historic figures of ancient India India nationalism ndian Harappan mathematics Negationism in India - Concealing the Record of Muslim Islam conquest in the Indian subcontinentin Asia#The British in mperialism Reference India s ndia portal

1. ^ "Achaemenians". Jona Lendering, Livius.org. ac/achaemenians/achaemenians.html. Retrieved on 2008-01http://www.livius.org/aa2. ^ Plutarchus, Mestrius; Bernadotte Perrin (trans.) (1919). Plutarch's 09. London: William Heinemann. pp. Ch. LX. ISBN Lives. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plut.+Caes.+60.1. Retrieved 0674991109. 2008-01-09. on 3. ^ "History in Chronological Order". Government of http://www.infopak.gov.pk/History.aspx. Retrieved on 2008-01Pakistan. 4. ^ "Pakistan". Library of Congress. 09. Retrieved on 2008-01-09. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html. 5. ^ Mudur, G.S (March 21, 2005). "Still a mystery". KnowHow (The http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050321/asp/knowhow/story_4481256.asp. Retrieved Telegraph). 2007-05-07. on 6. ^ "The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India". Multi Geoscientific Studies. Geological Survey of India. 20 September Disciplinary http://www.gsi.gov.in/homonag.htm. Retrieved on 2007-052005. 7. ^ Gaur, A. S.; K. H. Vora (July 10, 1999). "Ancient shorelines of 07. ndia,Gujarat, the Indus civilization (Late Mid-Holocene): A study based during archaeological evidences". Current India Science 77 (1): 180185. ISSN 0011on http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul10/articles29.htm. Retrieved on 2007-053891. 8. ^ "Palaeolithic and Pleistocene of Pakistan". Department of 06. University of Sheffield. Archaeology, Retrieved on 2007-12-01. http://www.shef.ac.uk/archaeology/research/pakistan. 9. ^ Murray, Tim (1999). Time and archaeology. London; New York: Routledge. 84. ISBN 0415117623. pp. http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=k3z9iXo_Uq8C&oi=fnd&pg=PP3&dq= +and+Archaeology %22Time 10. %22&ots=vvWqvaJHik&sig=17HcKQWGCxkHycTaYqfJb_ZzGAo. ^ Coppa, A.; L. Bondioli, A. Cucina, D. W. Frayer, C. Jarrige, J. Jarrige, G. Quivron, M. Rossi, M. Vidale, R. Macchiarelli (6 April F. "Palaeontology: Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry" (PDF). Nature 440: 2006). 756. 755 doi:10.1038/440755a. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf. Retrieved 2007-11-22. on 11. ^ a b Possehl, G. L. (October 1990). "Revolution in the Urban The Emergence of Indus Urbanization". Annual Review of Anthropology 19: 261 Revolution: doi:10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401 282. http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/toc/anthro/19/1?cookieSet=1. Retrieved . 2007-05-06. on 12. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Kimberley Heuston (May 2005). The Ancient Asian South Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195174224. OCLC World. http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Ancient/Other/~~/dm 56413341. 11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE3NDIyOQ== lldz 13. ^ Rendell, H. R.; Dennell, R. W. and Halim, M. (1989). Pleistocene . Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan. and Archaeological Reports International Series. Cambridge University Press. pp. British 364. 0860546918. OCLC SBN 14. ^ Jarrige, C.; J.-F. Jarrige, R. H. Meadow and G. Quivron (1995). 29222688. Field Mehrgarh 1975 to 1985 - from the Neolithic to the Indus Civilization. Reports of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh, and the Ministry of Foreign Dept. France. Affairs, 15. ^ Feuerstein, Georg; Subhash Kak; David Frawley (1995). In search of cradlethe civilization: New light on ancient India. Wheaton, Illinois: of Books. Quest pp. 147. ISBN http://books.google.com/books? 0835607208. the+Cradle+of+Civilization&sig=ie6cTRBBjV2enHRPO6cBXNbd0q id=kbx7q0gxyTcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=In+Search+of+ 16. E. ^ Kenoyer, J. Mark (1998). The Ancient Cities of the Indus Civilization. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195779401. OCLC 231832104 Valley 17. 38469514. ^ Indian Archaeology, A Review. 1958-1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi:

Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 51 18. 52. ^ Leshnik, Lawrence S. (October 1968). "The Harappan "Port" at Another View". American Anthropologist, New Series, 70 (5): 911 Lothal: doi:10.1525/aa.1968.70.5.02a00070. http://links.jstor.org/sici? 922. 7294(196810)2%3A70%3A5%3C911%3ATH%22ALA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-2. Retrieved on 2007-05sici=000219. 06. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan (15 September 1998). Ancient Cities of the Indus Civilization. USA: Oxford University Press. pp. p96. ISBN Valley 20. 0195779401. ^ India: Reemergence of Urbanization. Retrieved on May 12, 21. ^ Valmiki (March 1990). Goldman, Robert P. ed. The Ramayana of Valmiki: 2007. Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda. Ramayana of Valmiki. Princeton, An Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 23. ISBN New 22. 069101485X. Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. ^ a b A11. ISBN 0070483698. pp. 23. ^ http://p2.www.britannica.com/eb/article-9074639/Vaisali Encyclopedia Britannica. Vaisali, 24. ^ M. WItzel, Early Sanskritization. Origins and development of the State.Kuru Klver (ed.), Recht, Staat und Verwaltung im klassischen Indien. B. state, the Law, and Administration in Classical India. Mnchen : R. The 1997, 27-52 Oldenbourg = Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, vol. 1,4, December 1995, 25. [1] ^ Krishna Reddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. A107. pp. 0070483698. ISBN 26. ^ Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1860641482 - Jainism's major teacher the the is Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 Page BCE. 114 27. ^ Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London ISBN 1860641482 - The extreme antiquity the Jainism as a non-vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. of Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition Ancient began which long before Mahavira. Page 28. ^ Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art (October 2004). "The 115 Persian Empire (550330 B.C.E)". Timeline of Art History. New York: Achaemenid Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Retrieved on 2007-05-19. http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm. 29. ^ Fuller, J.F.C. (February 3, 2004). "Alexander's Great Battles". Generalship of Alexander the Great (Reprint ed.). New York: Da Capo Press. The 188199. ISBN 0306813300. pp. 30. ^ "At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I and that as learned many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos ndia, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." to .5.12. Source Strabo 31. ^ "minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis ndia omnibus et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt: tanti nobis deliciae et Seres feminae constant. quota enim portio ex illis ad deos, quaeso, iam vel ad et pertinet?" Pliny, Historia Naturae inferos 32. 12.41.84. ^ Miller, J. Innes. (1969). The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. to 0-19-814264-1. ISBN 33. ^ Search for India's ancient city. BBC News. Retrieved on June 22, 34. ^ Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim 2007. 35. ^ Timur - conquest of India 36. ^ The India Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Empire) Mughal 37. ^ Iran in the Age of the 38. ^ "Vasco da Gama: Round Africa to India, 1497-1498 CE". Internet Raj History Sourcebook. Paul Halsall. June Modern 1998.

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1497degama.html. Retrieved on 2007-05-07. Oliver From: J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources (Milwaukee: Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. V: 9th to 16th Centuries, pp. 26University 39. 40. ^ "Indian History - Important events: History of India. An History of India. overview". http://www.indianchild.com/history_of_india.htm. Retrieved on 2007-05Indianchild.com. 40. ^ "The Great Moghul Jahangir: Letter to James I, King of England, 07. A.D.".1617 Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East Indies, 1617 nternet Indian History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall. June CE. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/1617englandindies.html. Retrieved on 1998. 07. From: 2007-05- James Harvey Robinson, ed., Readings in European History, 2 (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1904-1906), Vol. II: From the opening of the Vols. Revolt to Protestantthe Present Day, pp. 333 41. 335. ^ "KOLKATA (CALCUTTA) : HISTORY". http://www.calcuttaweb.com/history.shtml. Retrieved on 2007-05Calcuttaweb.com. 42. 07. ^ Rickard, J. (1 November 2000). "Robert Clive, Baron Clive, 'Clive ndia', 1725-1774". Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. of http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/people_cliveofindia.html. Retrieved on historyofwar.org. 05-07. 200743. ^ Prakash, Om. "The Transformation from a Pre-Colonial to a Colonial The Case of India" (PDF). Global Economic History Network. Economic Order: Department, London School of Economics. 3 History http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHN 40. from%20a%20Pre-Colonial%20-%20Om%20Prakash.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-05%20PDF/Transformation%20 44. ^ a b Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. 07. 1859847390 pg 7 ISBN 45. ^ Plague. World Health 46. ^ Reintegrating India with the World Economy. Peterson Institute Organization. nternational Economics. for 47. ^ Kashmir: The origins of the dispute, BBC News, January 16, 48. ^ Mohsin, K.M.. "Canning, (Lord)". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society 2002 Bangladesh. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/C_0035.htm. Retrieved on of 07. "Indian Council Act of 1861 by which non-official Indian members 2007-05nominated to the Viceroy's Legislative were 49. ^ "Minto-Morley Reforms". storyofpakistan.com. Jin Technologies. June Council." 2003. 1 http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A119. Retrieved 2007-05-07. on 50. ^ a b Symonds, Richard (1950). The Making of Pakistan. London: Faber Faber.and 74. ASIN B0000CHMB1. OCLC 1462689. "at the lowest estimate, pp. million half a people perished and twelve million became Further homeless" reading R.S. Sharma, Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient (Motilal Banarsidass, Fifth Revised Edition, Delhi, 2005), ISBN India, Translated 8120808983.into Hindi and Tamil.R.S. Sharma, Sudras in Ancient India: A Social History of the Lower Down to Circa A D 600(Motilal Banarsidass, Third Revised Edition, Delhi, Order Reprint, Delhi, 2002). Translated into Bengali, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Urdu 1990; Marathi (two volumes). and R.S. Sharma, Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early paperback edn., (Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 2003). Translated into India, Russian Hindi, and Bengali. Gujrati, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil and translations projected. Telugu R.S. Sharma, Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient (Macmillan Publishers, Delhi, 1985). Translated into Hindi, Russian and India, Gujrati, Bengali. Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu translations projected. Sharma, Urban Decay in India (c.300-1000), (Munshiram R.S. Delhi,Manoharlal, 1987). Translated into Hindi and Bengali. R.S. Sharma, Advent of the Aryans in India (Manohar Publishers, Delhi,

2003). R.S. Sharma, Early Medieval Indian Society: A Study in Feudalisation Longman Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, (Orient 2003).R.S. Sharma, Looking for the Aryans, (Orient Longman, Madras, 1995, 8125006311). ISBN R.S. Sharma, India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0195687859). 978 R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism (Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., 3rd Edition, Delhi, 2005). Revised R.S. Sharma, The State and Varna Formations in the Mid-Ganga Plains: Ethnoarchaeological Vew (New Delhi, Manohar, An 1996).R.S. Sharma, Origin of the State in India (Dept. of History, University Bombay, 1989) of R.S. Sharma, Land Revenue in India: Historical Studies, Motilal Delhi,Banarsidass, 1971. R.S. Sharma, Light on Early Indian Society and Economy, Manaktala, 1966. Bombay, R.S. Sharma, Survey of Research in Economic and Social History of project sponsored by Indian Council of Social Science Research, Ajanta India: a 1986. Publishers, R.S. Sharma, Communal History and Rama's Ayodhya, People's Publishing (PPH),House Revised Edition, September, 1999, Delhi. Translated into 2nd Hindi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Two versions in Bengali, Bengali. R.S. Sharma, Social Changes in Early Medieval India (Circa A.D.500People's Publishing House, 1200), Delhi.R.S. Sharma, In Defence of "Ancient India", People's Publishing Delhi.House, R.S. Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan and Social Change, Indian History 1993. Congress, R.S. Sharma, Indo-European languages and historical problems papers), Indian History Congress, (Symposia 1994. R.S. Sharma, Some economic aspects of the caste system in ancient Patna,India, 1952. R.S. Sharma, Ancient India, a Textbook for Class XI, National Council Educational Research and Training, 1980. Translated into Bengali, Hindi, of Korean, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Italian and German Japanese, projected. Revised and enlarged book as India's Ancient Past, (Oxford translations Press, 2005, ISBN 978University R.S. Sharma, Transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages in India (K. 0195687859). Jayaswal memorial lecture series), Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research P. Patna, 1992. Institute, R.S. Sharma, A Comprehensive History of India: Volume Four, Part I: Colas,the Calukyas and Rajputs (Ad 985-1206), sponsored by Indian History People's Congress,Publishing House, 1992, Delhi.R.S. Sharma, Rethinking India's Past, (Oxford University Press, 2009, 978-0195697872). ISBN Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, The Cambridge Shorter of India (1934) History Chandavarkar, Raj. The Origins of Industrial Capitalism in India: Strategies and the Working Class in Bombay 1900-1940 Business (1994)Cohen, Stephen P. India: Emerging Power Danilou, Alain. A Brief History of India (2002) Das, Gurcharan. India Unbound: The Social and Economic Revolution (2003) ndependence to the Global Information Age from (2002) Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told ts Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner by 18671877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. Company Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London The Trubner

Company 18671877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: nstitute; List and Title List) Author Keay, John. India: A History Kishore, Prem and Anuradha Kishore Ganpati. India: An Illustrated (2001) (2003)History Kulke, Hermann and Dietmar Rothermund. A History of India. 3rd ed. Mahajan, Sucheta. Independence and partition: the erosion of colonial (1998) in India, New Delhi [u.a.] : Sage 2000, ISBN 0-7619power 9367-3R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, and Kaukinkar Datta. An Advanced of India London: Macmillan. 1960. ISBN 0-333History 90298-X R.C. Majumdar, The History and Culture of the Indian People, New York: Macmillan Co., 1951. The Mcleod, John. The History of India Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial (2002) to 1991 (1993) Times Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India Spear, (1981) Percival. The History of India Vol. 2 Thapar, (1990) Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 von Tunzelmann, Alex. Indian Summer (2007). Henry Holt and Company, (2004) York. New 0-8050-8073-2 ISBN Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India 6th ed. External (1999) links History of India at the Open Directory [hide]Project v d H eistory of Asia Sovereig s ntate A sfghanistan Armenia1 Azerbaijan1 Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Burma2 Brunei Cambodia People's Republic of China Cyprus1 East Timor3 Georgia4 Egypt4 India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Kazakhstan4 Maldives Malaysia Mongolia Nepal Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Republic of Russia4 Thailand China5 Turkey4 Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Yeme Vietnam n Dependencies a ,utonomies o ,ther Aceh Adjara1 Abkhazia1 Akrotiri and Dhekelia Altai British Indian territories Territory Buryatia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Guangxi Ocean Kong Hong Inner Mongolia Iraqi Kurdistan Jakarta Khakassia Macau Karabakh Nagorno- Nakhchivan Ningxia Northern Cyprus Palestine (Gaza Strip Bank) West Papua Sakha South Ossetia1 Tibet Tuva West Papua Yogyakart Xinjiang a talics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1 included in Europe, depending on the border definitions. 2 Officially known Sometimes Myanmar. 3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and also known as Timor-Leste. as Transcontinental country. 5 Commonly known as 4 Taiwan.

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This page was last modified on 28 July 2009 at Text is 23:20. available under the Creative Commons Attribution/ShareLicense; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for Alike Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a details. profit organization. non Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers South Asian Stone From Age Wikipedia, the free Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia History search of South Asia Stone before 3300 Mehrgarh BCE Age 70003300 Culture BCE ndus Valley 33001700 Civilization Late Harappan BCE 17001300 Culture Vedic BCE 2000600 Civilization BCE ron 12001 Age Maha BCE 700300 Janapadas Magadha BCE 684424 Empire Nanda BCE 424-321 Empire Maurya BCE 321184 Empire BCE

 Sunga 185-73 Empire Kanva BCE 75-26 Empire Kharavela BCE 209170 Empire Kuninda BCE 200s KingdomBCE300s CEIndo-Scythian 200 BC400 Kingdom CEChera 300 BCE1200 Kingdom CEChola 300 EmpireBCE1279 CEPandyan 250 BCE1345 Kingdom CESatavahana 230 EmpireBCE220 CEIndo-Greek 180 BCE10 Kingdom Middle CE 1CE1279 Kingdoms CEIndo-Parthian 21130s Kingdom CEWestern Satrap 35405 Empire CEKushan 60240 Empire CEIndo-Sassanid 230360 Kingdom CEVakataka 250500 Empire CEKalabhras 250600 Kingdom CEGupta 280550 Empire CEPallava 275800 Kingdom CEKadamba 345525 Empire CEWestern Ganga 3501000 Kingdom CEVishnukundina 420-624 Empire CEHuna 475-576 Kingdom CEChalukya 543753 Empire CEHarsha 590-647 Empire CEShahi 565-670 Kingdom CEEastern Chalukya 624-1075 Kingdom CEPratihara 6501036 Empire CEPala 7501174 Empire CE

 Rashtrakuta 753982 Empire CEParamara 8001327 Kingdom CEYadava 8501334 Empire Solanki CE 9421244 Kingdom CEWestern Chalukya 9731189 Empire CEHoysala 10401346 Empire CESena 10701230 Empire CEEastern Ganga 10781434 Empire CEKakatiya 10831323 Kingdom CEKalachuri 11301184 Empire s CElamic 12061596 Sultanates CEDelhi 12061526 Sultanate CEDeccan 14901596 Sultanates Ahom CE 12281826 Kingdom Vijayanagara CE 13361646 Empire Mysore CE 13991947 Kingdom Mughal CE 15261858 Empire Madurai Nayak CE 1559 1736 Kingdom Thanjavur Nayak CE 15721918 Kingdom Maratha CE 16741818 Empire SikhCE 17161799 Confederacy SikhCE 17991849 Empire Company rule in CE 17571858 India British CE 18581947 India Partition of CE 1947 India Nation CE Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan histories Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri India Lanka Regional Assam Bihar Balochistan histories Himachal Pradesh Orissa Pakistani Bengal Punjab Regions South India Tibet

Specialised Coinage histories Dynasties Economy Language Literature ndology Military Science and Technology Maritime Timeline This box: view talk edit The South Asian Stone Age covers the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and periods in Neolithic South Asia. In Mehrgarh, in what is today western Pakistan, Neolithic begins ca. 7000 and lasts until 3300 BCE and the first beginnings of the Bronze Age. In South India, the Mesolithic lasts until 3000 BCE, and the the until 1400 Neolithic BCE, followed by a Megalithic transitional period mostly skipping Bronze Age. The Iron Age begins roughly simultaneously in North and South the around India, 1200 to 1000 BCE (Painted Grey Ware culture, Content Hallur). [ shide ] 1 Paleolithic o 1.1 Homo erectus o 1.2 The coming of Homo 2 Neolithic sapiens 3 References 4 See also 5 External links [edit] [edit] Homo Paleolithic Further erectus information: Acheulian, Soanian, and Homo Riwaterectus lived on the Pothohar Plateau, in upper Punjab, Pakistan along Soan the River (nearby Rawalpindi) during the Pleistocene Epoch. Biface handaxe cleaver traditions may have originated in the middle Pleistocene.[1] The and of the use beginning of Acheulian and chopper-chopping tools of lower paleolithic may dated to approximately the middle Pleistocene. be [edit] The coming of Homo [2] sapiens Bhimbetka rock painting, Madhya Pradesh, India. Stone age writing of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, Analysis of mtDNA dates the immigration of Homo sapiens to South Asia to 70,000 India. 50,000 years ago.[3] An analysis of Y chromosome haplogroups found one man to village west of Madurai to be a direct descendant of these migrators.[4] in a populations spread further to Southeast Asia, reaching Australia by 40,000 These ago. yearsCave sites in Sri Lanka have yielded the earliest record of modern sapiens in South Asia. They were dated to 34,000 years ago. (Kennedy 2000: homo For finds from the Belan in southern Uttar Pradesh radio carbon data 180). indicated an age of 18-17kya. Palaeolithic rock art is also wellhave At the known. Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka humans lived throughout the Upper (10th to 8th Paleolithic millennia BC), revealing cave paintings dating to ca. 7000 BC; Sivaliks and the Potwar (Pakistan) region also exhibit many vertebrate the remains fossil and paleolithic tools. Chert, jasper and quartzite were often used humans during this by [edit] period. Further information: Mehrgarh and Neolithic Tamil Neolithic The Naduaceramic Neolithic (Mehrgarh I,Baluchistan, Pakistan, also dubbed "Early Producing Era") lasts ca. 7000 - 5500 BC. The ceramic Neolithic lasts up to Food BC, 3300blending into the Early Harappan (Chalcolithic to Early Bronze Age) period.

One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa, at Middle region, Ganges C14 dated around 7th millennium BC.[5]. Recently another site near confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers called Jhusi yielded a C14 dating of the BC for its Neolithic levels. 7100 n[6] South India the Neolithic began by 3000 BC and lasted until around BC.South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in 1400 region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. Comparative excavations carried out Karnataka Adichanallur in Thirunelveli District and in Northern India have provided in of a southward migration of the Megalithic culture[7] The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around evidence BC, 1000which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably Adichanallur, 24 km from Tirunelveli, where archaeologists from the at Survey of India Archaeological unearthed 12 urns with Tamil Brahmi script on them human skulls, skeletons and bones, plus husks, grains of rice, charred rice containing Neolithic celts, giving evidence confirming it of the Neolithic period 2800 and ago. yearsThis proved that Tirunelveli area has been the abode for human since the Neolithic period about 3,000 years ago. Adhichanallur has been habituation as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies.[8] announced [edit] [9] References Kennedy, Kenneth Adrian Raine (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Palaeoanthropology of South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Men: Press.James, Hannah V. A.; Petraglia, Michael D. (December 2005). "Modern Origins and the Evolution of Behavior in the Later Pleistocene Record of Human Asia" South (PDF). Current Anthropology 46 (Supplement): S3. http://www.humandoi:10.1086/444365. evol.cam.ac.uk/Members/Petraglia/pubs/JamesPetraglia(CA2005).pdf. Misra, V. N. (November 2001). "Prehistoric human colonization of (PDF).India" Journal of Biosciences 26 (4): 491531. http://www.ias.ac.in/jbiosci/nov2001/491.pdf doi:10.1007/BF02704749. 1. . ^ (Kennedy 2000: p. 136) 2. ^ (Kennedy 2000: p. 160) 3. ^ Petraglia 2005, S6 4. ^ Spencer Wells, The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. Random House, 0-8129-7146-9 ISBN 5. ^ Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Asia: A 6. ^ Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the Neolithic" at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in excavations No. 16 "Electronic Version Pragdhara 7. p.28" ^ Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta. A History of South India. pp. 51. 49 8. ^ Subramanian, T. S. (2004-05-26). "Skeletons, script found at burialancient Tamil Nadu". The site in http://www.hindu.com/2004/05/26/stories/2004052602871200.htm. Retrieved on Hindu. 07-31. 20079. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil A. (1992). Companion Studies to the History of Literature. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 2122. ISBN 9004093656. "The Tamil interesting pre-historic remains in Tamil India were discovered most Adichanallur.There is a series of urn burials. seem to be related to at megalithic complex." the Mehrgar F hrom Wikipedia, the free Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia Holocene search This epochbox: view talk edit Pleistocene

Holocen e Preboreal (10.3 ka 9 Boreal (9 ka 7.5 ka), ka), Atlantic (7.5 ka 5 ka), Subboreal (5 ka 2.5 ka) Subatlantic (2.5 ka present) Mehrgarh, (Urdu: ) one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BC to 3200 BC) sites in archaeology, lies on what is now the "Kachi plain" of Balochistan, Pakistan. It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of today's (wheat farmingand barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between Asia."[1]. present-day Pakistani cities of Quetta, Kalat and Sibi, Mehrgarh was discovered the 1974 by an archaeological team directed by French archaeologist Jeanin Jarrige, Franois and was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986. The settlement at Mehrgarhin the northeast corner of the 495-acre (2.00 km2) site earliest a small farming village dated between 7000 BC5500 was Content BC. [ shide ] 1 Lifestyle and technology 2 Archaeological 3 Mehrgarh Period I significance 4 Mehrgarh Period VII 5 Common variant spellings 6 See also 7 Notes 8 External links [edit] Lifestyle and technology Early farming village in Mehrgarh, c. 7000 BC, with houses built with mud (Muse bricks.Guimet, Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain Paris). granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large in containers with bitumen. They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer basket jujubes wheat, and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the period later (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint tanning, knapping,bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied until about continuously2600 BC. n [2]April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the (and first early Neolithic) evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth oldest vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. in [edit] Archaeological [3] significance A relief map of Pakistan showing Mehrgarh Mehrgarh.is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. at Mehrgarh "Discoverieschanged the entire concept of the Indus civilization," according Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus of archaeology at Quaid-e-Azam to slamabad, University,"There we have the whole sequence, right from the beginning of village life."[4] According to Catherine Jarrige of the Centre for settled Research Indus Archaeological Balochistan, Muse Guimet, the ParisKachi plain and in the Bolan basin (are) situated at the Bolan peak pass, of onethe main routes connecting southern Afghanistan, eastern Iran, the hills and the Indus valley. This area of rolling hills is thus located on Balochistan western edge of the Indus valley, where, around 2500 BC, a large the urban

civilization emerged at the same time as those of Mesopotamia and the Egyptian ancient empire. For the first time in the Indian subcontinent, a sequence of continuous dwelling-sites has been established from 7000 BC to 500 BC, result (as a of the) explorations in Pirak from 1968 to 1974; in Mehrgarh from 1975 1985; and of Nausharo from 1985 to 1996. to The [5] chalcolithic people of Mehrgarh also had contacts with cultures in northern Afghanistan, northeastern Iran and southern central contemporaneous [edit] Mehrgarh Period Asia.[6] A figurine from Mehrgarh, c. 3000 BCE. (Muse Guimet, [hide]History of South Paris) Asia Stone before 3300 Age BCE ndus Valley 33001700 Civilization Vedic BCE 2000600 Civilization BCE ron 12001 Age Maurya BCE 321184 Empire Chola BCE 300 EmpireBCE1279 Satavahana CE 230 EmpireBCE220 Middle CE 1CE1279 Kingdoms Gupta CE 280550 Empire Chalukya CE 543753 Empire Pala CE 7501174 Empire CElamic s 1206 Sultanates Mughal 1596 1526 Empire Sikh 1858 1733 Empire British 1849 1858 India Modern 1947 since States Timelin 1947 e This box: view talk edit Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods. Period I Mehrgarh 7000 BC5500 BC, was Neolithic and aceramic (i.e., without the use pottery). The earliest farming in the area was developed by semi-nomadic of using peopleplants such as wheat and barley and animals such as sheep, goats and The settlement was established with simple mud buildings with four cattle. subdivisions. Numerous burials have been found, many with elaborate goods such internal baskets, stone and bone tools, beads, bangles, pendants and occasionally as sacrifices, with more goods left with burials of males. Ornaments of sea animal limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone and polished copper have been shell, found,

along with simple figurines of women and animals. Sea shells from far sea and lapis lazuli found far in Badakshan, Afghanistan shows good contact with shore areas. those A single ground stone axe was discovered in a burial, and several more obtained from the surface. These ground stone axes are the earliest to come were stratified context in the South from a Asia. n 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh made discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, from the the Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, it early announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first was Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e. in a early person) living was found in Mehrgarh. According to the authors, their discoveries to a pointtradition of proto-dentistry in the early farming cultures of that "Here we region. describe eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults discovered Neolithic graveyard in Pakistan that dates from 7,500 to 9,000 years ago. in a findings provide evidence for a long tradition of a type of proto-dentistry in These early farming an [edit] Mehrgarh Period culture."[3] S Vomewhere between 2600 BC and 2000 BC, the city seems to have been abandoned, which is when the Indus Valley Civilisation was in its middle stages largely development. It has been surmised that the inhabitants of Mehrgarh migrated to of fertile Indus valley as the Balochistan became more arid due to climatic the [edit] Common variant changes. Mehrgarh is also spelled as Mehrgahr, Merhgarh or spellings Kachi plain is also spelled as Kacchi plain, Katchi Merhgahr. ndus plain. Valley From Wikipedia, the free Civilization Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia search The extent of Indus Valley [hide]History Civilization. of South Asia Stone before 3300 Age ndus Valley BCE Vedic Civilization 2000600 Civilization BCE ron 12001 Age Maurya BCE 321184 Empire Chola BCE 300 EmpireBCE1279 Satavahana CE 230 EmpireBCE220 Middle CE 1CE1279 Kingdoms Gupta CE 280550 Empire Chalukya CE 543753 Empire Pala CE 7501174 Empire CElamic s 1206 Sultanates Mughal 1596 1526 Empire Sikh 1858 Empire

33001700 BCE

1733 British 1849 1858 India Modern 1947 since States Timelin 1947 e This box: view talk edit Bronze This Age box: view talk edit Neolithic Near East (3300-1200 Caucasus, Anatolia, Levant, Ugarit, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Elam, BC) China Sistan(3100-700 List BC) of Bronze Age sites South Asia (3000-1200 Pontic-Caspian steppe (5500-1200 BC) Europe (3000-600 BC) Aegean civilization BC) Beaker culture Unetice culture Tumulus culture Urnfield culture Apennine culture Terramare culture Atlantic Bronze Age Bronze Age Britain Nordic Bronze Age Korea (800-400 BC) Copper Age, Bronze, Arsenical bronze, Writing, Literature, Sword, Axe, Boat, Gold hat, Chariot, Collapse ron age The Indus Valley Civilization (mature period 26001900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, an wasancient civilization in South Asia that flourished around the Indus basin. River Primarily centered along the Indus river, the civilization encompassed of what is now Pakistan, mainly the provinces of Sindh, Punjab and Balochistan, most well as extending into modern day Indian states of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab as Rajasthan. Remains have been excavated from Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Iran, and well. The mature phase of this civilization is known as the Harappan as as the first Civilization of its cities to be unearthed was from Harappa in Pakistan. Excavation of IVC sites have been ongoing since 1920, with important [1] occurring as breakthroughsrecently as 1999. The [2] civilization is sometimes referred to as the Indus Ghaggarcivilization[3] or the Indus-Sarasvati civilization. The appellation Hakra Sarasvati is based on the possible identification of the Ghaggar-Hakra River Industhe withSarasvati River mentioned in the Rig Veda,[4] but this usage is disputed linguistic and geographical grounds. on Content [5] [ shide ] 1 Discovery and excavation 2 Periodisation 3 Geography

 o o o o o o o o

4 Origins 5 Early Harappan 6 Mature Harappan 6.1 Cities 6.2 Science 6.3 Arts and culture 6.4 Trade and 6.5 Agriculture transportation 6.6 Writing or symbol 6.7 Religion system 7 Late Harappan 7.1 Legacy 8 Historical context 9 See also 10 Notes 11 Bibliography 12 External links

Discovery and The ruins excavationof Harrappa were first described in 1842 by Charles Masson in Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab, his locals where talked of an ancient city extending "thirteen cosses" (about 25 miles), no butarchaeological interest would attach to this for nearly a century. [6]1856, British engineers John and William Brunton were laying the East n Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi and Lahore. John wrote: Indian was "I much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of railway." They were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, the Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, called "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted," the city and Brahminabad was reduced to ballast.[7] A few months later, further north, of brother John's William Brunton's "section of the line ran near another ruined bricks city, from which had already been used by villagers in the nearby village Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of km) (150of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore."[7] Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan. Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with n 187275 erroneous identification as Brahmi letters).[8] It was half a century later, an 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. Fleet, prompting in excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 192122 and resulting in an discovery of the hitherto unknown civilization at Harappa by Sir John the Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats, and at Mohenjo-daro by Rakhal Marshall, Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall. By 1931, much of MohenjoDas had Darobeen excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Wheeler, Mortimer director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the partition of the subcontinent other 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc in Stein Aurel F .ollowing the Partition of India, the bulk of the archaeological finds inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based, and excavations from were time this include those led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1949, archaeological adviser the to Government of Pakistan. Outposts of the Indus Valley civilization excavated as far west as Sutkagan Dor in Baluchistan, as far north as at were on the Amudarya or Oxus River in current Shortugai Periodisatio Afghanistan. M nain article: Periodization of the Indus Valley The mature phase of the Harappan civilization lasted from c. 2600 to 1900 Civilization BCE.

With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor culturesEarly Harappan Late and Harappan, respectivelythe entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. Two terms are employed to the for periodization of the IVC: Phases and Eras.[9][10] The Early Harappan, Harappan, and Late Harappan phases are also called the Mature Regionalisation, Localisation eras, respectively, with the Regionalization ntegration, and reaching back to the Neolithic Mehrgarh II period. "Discoveries at era changed Mehrgarhthe entire concept of the Indus civilization," according to Ahmad Dani, Hasan professor emeritus at Quaid-e-Azam University, Islamabad. "There we have whole sequence, right from the beginning of settled village the Date range life."[11] 5500(BCE)IPhaseIEra Mehrgarh II-VI (Pottery Regionalisation 3300 Neolithic) 3300Era Early Harappan (Early Bronze 2600 Age) 3300Harappan 1 (Ravi 2800Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, Mehrgarh 2800 Phase) 26002600 Mature Harappan (Middle Bronze VII) ntegration Age) 1900 2600Era Harappan 3A (Nausharo 2450Harappan 2450 II) 22002200 Harappan 3B 1900Late Harappan (Cemetery H, Late Bronze 1900 3C LocalisationAge) 1300 1900Harappan Era 17001700 Harappan 4 Geograph 1300 5 y Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. The shaded area does include recent excavations such as Rupar, Balakot, Shortughai in not Manda in Jammu, etc. See[1] for a more detailed Afghanistan, The map.Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan, extending Balochistan to Sindh, and extending into modern day Indian states of from Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab, with an upward reach to Rupar on the upper Gujarat, Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan's northwestern Sutlej. Province Frontier as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while isolated smaller colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor[12] in Western Baluchistan to Lothal[13] Coastal Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan,[14] in the Gomal River valley in northwestern Pakistan, in at Manda on the Beas River near Jammu,[16] India, and at Alamgirpur on the [15] River, Hindon only 28 km from Delhi.[17] Indus Valley sites have been found most often rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast,[18] for example, Balakot,[19] and on islands, for example, Dholavira. on There [20] is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in and the Pakistanseasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus Valley (or Harappan) have sitesbeen discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds.[21] Among them are: Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, and Ganwariwala.[22] According to J. G. Shaffer Rupar, D. andA. Lichtenstein,[23] the Harappan Civilization "is a fusion of the Hakra, Bagor, and Koti Dij traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the Ghaggar-Hakra valley the on borders of India and According to some archaeologists, over 500 Harappan sites have been Pakistan."[21] along the discovereddried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries, in contrast to only about 100 along the Indus and its tributaries; [24] consequently, in their opinion, the appellation Indus Ghaggar-Hakra [25] or Indus-Saraswati civilisation is justified. However, these politically civilisation arguments inspired are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the GhaggarHakra

desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since the of endthe Indus period and hence shows more sites than found in the alluvium of ndus valley; second, that the number of Harappan sites along the Ghaggarthe river beds have been exaggerated and that the Ghaggar-Hakra, when it existed, Hakra a tributary of the Indus, so the new nomenclature is redundant.[26] was Civilization" remains the correct one, according to the common "Harappan usage of naming a civilization after its first archaeological Origin findspot. S see also: Substratum in Vedic There are Sanskrit several theories as to the origin of the Indus Valley civilization. earliest hypothesis was that it was an early form of a Vedic civilization The would which come to dominate most of South Asia, which was presumed to have characterized by influence from Indo-European migrations. However, this been began theoryto be rejected when no signs of the traditional culture associated with Vedas was uncovered in that of the Indus Valley. The absence of horses amongst the many the realistic representations of animals was also considered considering significant,the importance of horses and chariots to the culture described in Vedas. Detailed bone analysis has revealed that the horse itself was introduced the the to subcontinent only at the beginning of the second millennium B.C., contributes to the chronological problem with this theory.[27][28] Finally, which concept of urban life which dominates the Indus Valley civilization is foreign the the to more rural lifestyle which is described in the Vedas. The [29]next theory put forward was that the civilization was of protoorigin.[30] This theory was first proposed by researchers from Russia and Dravidian who attempted to show that Indus valley symbols could be derived from Finland Dravidian language group. Today, the Dravidian language family is the mostly in southern India and northern Sri Lanka, but pockets of it still concentrated throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which remain credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that lends uniformity of the Indus inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely the languages different being used, and that an early form of Dravidian language must have the beenlanguage of the Indus people. However, the proto-Dravidian origin theory far is from being confirmed due to an emphasis on linguistic connection evidence of a broader cultural connection remains to be found. while Early [29] The Early Harappan Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted circa from 3300 BCE until 2800 BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800the BCE, 2600 Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan, near Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date from around 3000 BCE. Mohenjo The [31]mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri Amri and in Pakistan.[32] Kot Diji (Harappan 2) represents the phase leading up Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority and to increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found an Kalibangan in India on the Hakra River. at Trade [33] networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and sources distant of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for making. Villagers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including beadsesame peas, seeds, dates and cotton, as well as various animals, including the buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 water from BCE, where the mature Harappan phase Mature started. By 2600 HarappanBCE, the Early Harappan communities had been turned into large centers. Such urban centers include Harappa, Ganeriwala, Mohenjo-daro in urban day Pakistan and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, Lothal in modern modern day ndia. In total, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in general region of the Indus Rivers and their the Citie tributaries. s

So-called "Priest King" statue, Mohenjo-daro, late Mature Harappan National period, Museum, Karachi, A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Pakistan Valley Indus Civilization making them the first urban centers in the region. The of municipal town planning suggests the knowledge of urban planning and quality municipal efficient governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or, accessibility alternately, to the means of religious As seen ritual. in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently partially excavated this urban Rakhigarhi,plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a the that room appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to to courtyards and smaller lanes. The house-building in some villages in the inner still regionresembles in some respects the house-building of the Harappans. The [34]ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were developed and used cities throughout the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the in is shown Harappansby their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms protective walls. The massive walls of Indus cities most likely protected and Harappans from floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.[citation the The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to needed] civilization's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, no large this structures monumental were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or templesor kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been of Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath, which may have been a granaries. bath. publicAlthough the citadels were walled, it is far from clear that structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood these Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with waters. pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Materials from others regions distant were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads and other Among the objects. artifacts discovered were beautiful glazed faeence beads. Steatite have sealsimages of animals, people (perhaps gods) and other types of including the inscriptions, yet un-deciphered writing system of the Indus Valley Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods and most probably Civilization. other uses as had Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization cities well. remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism. All the houses were access to water and drainage facilities. This gives the impression of a had with relatively low wealth concentration, though clear social leveling is seen society personal in Scienc adornments. F eurther information: Harappan The people mathematicsof the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform length, and measures. Their measurements are said to be extremely precise; weights comparison however, a of available objects indicates large scale variation across the territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found Indus Lothal, was approximately 1.704 mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a in of the scale Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by measurement hexahedron their These chert weights were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1 with weights of 0.05, weights. 0.2, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each unit approximately 28 grams, similar to the English Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, weighing smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. and However,

as in other cultures, actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. weights and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) The the are same as those used in Lothal. Unique Harappan inventions include an instrument which was used to measure [35] sections of the horizon and the tidal lock. In addition, Harappans evolved whole new sometechniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead and tin. engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building The after docks a careful study of tides, waves and currents. The function of the so"dock" called at Lothal, however, is disputed.archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, n 2001, made the discovery that the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, from Pakistan, early Harappan periods, had knowledge of proto-dentistry. Later, in April 2006, the was it announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a early person) living was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh that dates, from 7,500-9,000 were ago. yearsAccording to the authors, their discoveries point to a tradition of dentistry in the early farming cultures of that region. protoA touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably [36] for usedtesting the purity of gold (such a technique is still used in some parts ndia). of Arts and [37] culture The "dancing girl of Mohenjo Various Daro." sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry and anatomically figurines detailed in terracotta, bronze and steatite have been found at the sites excavation A . number of gold, terra-cotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses the presence of some dance form. Also, these terra-cotta figurines included reveal bears, cows, monkeys, and dogs. Sir John Marshall is known to have reacted with when he surprisesaw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a slender-limbed dancing girl Mohenjoin When daro: I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about were art, earlyand culture. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must the have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 surely older years than those to which they properly belonged. Now, in these statuettes, is it just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder in this whether,all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the anticipated Many crafts "such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed steatite Indus. making" were used in the making of necklaces, bangles, and other ornaments bead all fromphases of Harappan sites and some of these crafts are still practiced in subcontinent today.[38] Some make-up and toiletry items (a special kind of the (kakai), the use of collyrium and a special three-in-one toiletry gadget) combs were that found in Harappan contexts still have similar counterparts in ndia.[39] Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800-2600 BCE) which modern red color applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair). had Seals [39] have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, another sitting cross-legged in what some call a yoga-like pose (see image, and so-called Pashupati, the A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found below). Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also at various toys and games, among them cubical dice (with one to six holes on made faces), which were found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro. the Trade [40] and transportation

Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement at Sokhta Koh Pasni near on the westernmost outreaches of the Further information: Lothal and civilization The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on Meluhha which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. These trade, included advances bullock carts that are identical to those seen throughout South today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flatAsia craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus bottomed today; River however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. have discovered Archaeologists a massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a facility docking at the coastal city of Lothal in western India (Gujarat state). extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been discovered An H.-P. by During 43003200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (copper age), the Indus Francfort. Civilization area shows ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan Valley northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and trade. During the and Harappan period (about 32002600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, Early ornaments, figurines, etc., document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia and ranian plateau. the Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artifacts, the trade [41] economically, integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, networks, coastal regions of Persia, northern and western India, and the There was an Mesopotamia. extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan Mesopotamian civilizations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with and commerce being handled by "middlemen merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain much Failaka located in the Persian Gulf).[42] Such long-distance sea trade and feasible with the innovative development of plank-built watercraft, equipped became a single central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or with Several cloth. coastal settlements like Sotkagen-dor (astride Dasht River, north Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride Shadi River, north of Pasni) and Balakot of Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in India testify to their role as (near trading Harappanoutposts. Shallow harbors located at the estuary of rivers opening the intosea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian Agricultur cities. S eome post-1980 studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the ndus Valley. It is known that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats barley,[43] and the major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a and derived from two-row barley (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995, crop Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarh 1999). "demonstrates that food production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" site that and the data support interpretation of "the prehistoric urbanization and social complexorganization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not cultural isolated,developments." Others, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that took some 2000 years before Middle Eastern wheat was acclimatised to South it conditions Asian W .riting or symbol Main article: Indus system script Ten Indus characters discovered near the northern gate of Dholavira, c. 2000 Well BCE over 400 distinct Indus symbols (some say 600)[44] have been found on small seals,tablets, or ceramic pots and over a dozen other materials, "signboard" including a that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the ndus city of Dholavira. Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") five exquisitely tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch are (2.54

cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three faces of differenta mass-produced object) has a length of 26 While the symbols. Indus Valley Civilization is often characterized as a literate on the societyevidence of these inscriptions, this description has been challenged linguistic and archaeological grounds: it has been pointed out that the brevity on the of inscriptions is unparalleled in any known premodern literate society. partly on this evidence, a controversial paper by Farmer, Sproat, and Based (2004)[45] argues that the Indus system did not encode language, but was Witzel similar instead to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the East Near and other societies. Others have claimed on occasion that the symbols exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained were appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were the produced in molds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known massany in other early ancient civilizations.[46] In a 2009 study published in computer Science, scientists, comparing the pattern of symbols to various scripts and linguistic nonlinguistic systems, including DNA and a computer language, found that the Indus script's pattern is closer to that of spoken programming supporting the hypothesis that it codes for an as-yet-unknown language.[47] words, Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the [48] of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991), edited by A. Parpola and Corpus colleagues. Publication of a final third volume, which will reportedly his photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen republish along with many discovered in the last few decades, has been announced for inscriptions, years, severalbut has not yet found its way into print. For now, researchers supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in must excavation reports of Marshall (1931), Mackay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), the reproductions in more recent scattered or Religio sources. F nurther information: Prehistoric religion and History of Hinduismof the large number of figurines[49] found in the Indus valley, it n view been widely suggested that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother has symbolizing fertility. However, this view has been disputed by S. Clark.[50] goddess ndus Some valley seals show swastikas which are found in later religions mythologies, especially in Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism. and earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism are present before and during the The Harappan period[51][52]. Phallic symbols resembling the Hindu Siva lingam early been have found in the Harappan remains.[53] Many [54] Indus valley seals show animals. One famous seal shows a figure seated posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was in a after named Pashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of Shiva and Rudra.[55][56]. n the earlier phases of their culture, the Harappans buried their dead; [57] later, especially in the Cemetery H culture of the late Harrapan period, they however, cremated their dead and buried the ashes in burial urns, a transition notably also alluded to in the Rigveda, where the forefathers "both cremated (agnidagdhf-) also uncremated (fnagnidagdha-)" are invoked (RV and Late 10.15.14). Main article: Late Harappan Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and by around Harappan BCE, 1700 most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilization not did disappear suddenly, and many elements of the Indus Civilization can be in later cultures. Current archaeological data suggests that material found classified as Late Harappan may have persisted until at least c. 1000-900 BCE culture was and partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware culture. Archaeologists have emphasised that, just as in most areas of the world, there [58] a continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the so-called two was phases major of urbanisation in South Asia". [58]

ndus tablets. The first one shows a ASwastika natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate possible that is change also signaled for the neighboring areas of the Middle East: The valley Indus climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked a togeneral weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra factor system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the river Plain, Ganges though there is complete uncertainty about the date of this event as settlements inside Ghaggar-Hakra river beds have not yet been dated. Although most particular factor is speculative, and not generally accepted, the decline of this VC, the as with any other civilization, will have been due to a combination various reasons.[citation needed] New geological research is now being of by a group conducted led by Peter Clift, from the University of Aberdeen, to investigate the how courses of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago in order test whether climate or river reorganizations are responsible for the decline to the of Harappan. A 2004 paper indicated that the isotopes of the Ghaggar-Hakra do not system come from the Himalayan glaciers, and were rain-fed instead, a Harappan time mighty "Sarasvati' river. contradicting Legac [59] yn the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's collapse, regional cultures to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus Civilization. In emerged, formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond the regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the to a Coloured Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. Ochre Cemetery H culture has the earliest evidence for cremation, a practice dominant The Hinduism until in Historical today. The IVC context has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha known Sumerian records. It has been compared in particular with the civilizations from Elam (also in the context of the Elamo-Dravidian hypothesis) and with Minoan of (because of isolated cultural parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship Crete depictions of bull-leaping).[60] The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC and contemporary to the Early to Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East, is particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to in Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to First Intermediate Period Ur The language of the IVC is unknown, although there are a number of Egypt. Proto-Dravidian,[61][31] Proto-Munda (or Para-Munda) and a "lost phylum" hypotheses: related (perhapsor ancestral to the Nihali language)[62] have been proposed as See candidates. also Charles Masson - First European explorer of Sokhta HarappaKoh - A coastal Harappan Meluhha settlementa place name used in Mesopotamia which may have referred to ndus the Civilization Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric Brahui language - a language sometimes linked to that of the cultures ndus (southern) Civilization Gola dhoro Note 1 ^ Beck, Roger B.; Linda Black, Larry S. Krieger, Phillip C. Naylor, s. bo Shabaka, (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, Dahia McDougal Littell. ISBN 0-395-87274IL: 2. X. ^ "'Earliest writing' found". BBC http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/334517.stm News. 3. . ^ Ching, Francis D. K.; Jarzombek, Mark;Prakash, Vikramaditya (2006). GlobalA History of Architecture. Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley & Sons. pp. pp. 28 32. 0471268925. SBN 4. ^ (McIntosh 2001, p.24) 5. ^ Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Trading Encounters: From the Euphrates to the

ndus in the Bronze Age. Oxford University Press, India. ISBN 6. 019568088X. ^ Masson, Charles (1842). "Chapter 2: Haripah". Narrative of Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab; including a residence Various those countries from 1826 to 1838. London: Richard Bentley. pp. 472. "A long in preceded our arrival at Haripah, through jangal of the closest march When I joined the camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous description.... castle. Behind us was a large circular mound, or eminence, and to the west was brick irregular rocky height, crowned with the remains of buildings, in fragments an walls, with niches, after the eastern manner.... Tradition affirms the of here of a existence city, so considerable that it extended to Chicha Watni, thirteen distant, and that it was destroyed by a particular visitation of cosses brought down Providence, by the lust and crimes of the sovereign." Note that the measure coss, a of distance used from Vedic period to Mughal times, is miles (3.2 km). approximately 2 7. ^ a b Davreau, Robert (1976). "Indus Valley". in Reader's Digest. Last Mysteries. World's 8. ^ Cunningham, A., 1875. Archaeological Survey of India, Report for the 1872-73, 5: 105-8 and pl. 32-3. Calcutta: Archaeological Survey of Year 9. India. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan Western India". Journal of World Prehistory 5: 164. and 10. ^ (Shaffer 1992, doi:10.1007/BF00978474.I:441-464, II:42511. ^ Chandler, Graham (September/October 1999). "Traders of the Plain". 446.) AramcoSaudi World: 3442. http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199905/traders.of.the.plain.ht 12. ^ Dales, George F. (1962). "Harappan Outposts on the Makran m. Antiquity 36 (142): 86. Coast". 13. ^ Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1973). Lothal and the Indus London: Asia Publishing House. ISBN civilization. 14. ^ (Kenoyer 1998, p. 96) 0210222786. 15. ^ Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1970-1971). "Excavations in the Gomal Valley". Pakistan (5): 1177. Ancient 16. ^ Joshi, J. P.; Bala, M. (1982). "Manda: A Harappan site in Jammu Kashmir". in Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: A and perspective. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 185 recent 17. ^ A. Ghosh, ed. "Excavations at Alamgirpur". Indian Archaeology, A 95. (1958-1959). Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India. pp. 51 Review 18. ^ Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient 52. Asia. South Cambridge University Press. pp. 95. ISBN 19. ^ Dales, George F. (1979). "The Balakot Project: summary of four 0521011094. excavations in Pakistan". in Maurizio Taddei (ed.). South Asian Archaeology years Naples: Seminario di Studi Asiatici Series Minor 6. Instituto 1977. Orientate. pp. Universitario 241274. 20. ^ Bisht, R. S. (1989). "A new model of the Harappan town planning revealed at Dholavira in Kutch: a surface study of its plan and architecture". as Chatterjee, Bhaskar (ed.). History and Archaeology. New Delhi: Ramanand in Bhawan. pp. 379408. ISBN Vidya 21. ^ a b 8185205469. Possehl, Gregory L. (1990). "Revolution in the Urban Revolution: Emergence of Indus Urbanization". Annual Reviews of Anthropology 19 (19): 261 The (Map 282 on page 263). http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/toc/anthro/19/ doi:10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401. 22. ^ Mughal, M. R. 1982. "Recent archaeological research in the 1. desert". in Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization. Delhi: Oxford & Cholistan & A.I.1.S.. pp. 8595. IBH 23. ^ Shaffer, Jim G.; Lichtenstein, Diane A. (1989). "Ethnicity and Change the Indus Valley Cultural Tradition". Old Problems and New Perspectives in in Archaeology of South Asia. Wisconsin Archaeological Reports 2. pp. 117 the 24. 126. ^ (Gupta 1995, p. 183) 25. ^ e.g. Misra, Virendra Nath (1992). Indus Civilization, a special Number of

the Eastern Anthropologist. pp. 1 26. 19. ^ Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Understanding Harappa: Civilization in Greater Indus Valley. New Delhi: Tulika Books. ISBN the 27. 8189487027. ^ Indus writing: Sanskrit or 28. ^ Hinduism Dravidian? and The Indus Valley 29. ^ a b Ancient Civilization Indus Valley Script: Dani Interview Text 30. ^ Indus Writing Analysis by Asko Only 31. ^ a b Parpola, Asko (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Parpola University Press. ISBN Cambridge 32. 0521430798. ^ Durrani, F. A. (1984). "Some Early Harappan sites in Gomal and Valleys". in Lal, B. B. and Gupta, S. P.. Frontiers of Indus Civilisation. Bannu Books Delhi:& Books. pp. 505 33. 510. ^ Thapar, B. K. (1975). "Kalibangan: A Harappan Metropolis Beyond the Valley". Expedition 17 (2): 19 Indus 34. ^ It has been noted that the courtyard pattern and techniques of flooring 32. Harappan houses has similarities to the way house-building is still done in of villages of the region. (Lal 2002, pp. 93 some 35. 95) ^ Sergent, Bernard (1997) (in French). Gengse de l'Inde. Paris: Payot. 113. ISBN 2228891169. pp. 36. ^ Coppa, A.; et al. (2006-04-06). "Early Neolithic tradition of Flint dentistry: surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a tips were population". prehistoric Nature 440: 755. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pd doi:10.1038/440755a. 37. f. ^ Bisht, R. S. (1982). "Excavations at Banawali: 1974-77". in Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. New Possehl, Oxford Delhi: and IBH Publishing Co.. pp. 113 38. 124. ^ Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1997). "Trade and Technology of the Indus New Insights from Harappa, Pakistan". World Archaeology 29 (2: "HighValley: Archaeology: Threads Through the Past"): 262 Definition 39. 280. ^ a b (Lal 2002, p. 82) 40. ^ (Lal 2002, p. 89) 41. ^ (Parpola 2005, pp. 23) 42. ^ Neyland, R. S. (1992). "The seagoing vessels on Dilmun seals". in D.H.; Keith, Carrell, T.L. (eds.). Underwater archaeology proceedings of the Society Historical Archaeology Conference at Kingston, Jamaica 1992. Tucson, AZ: for for Historical Archaeology. pp. 68 Society 43. ^ Jarrige, J.-F. (1986). "Excavations at Mehrgarh-Nausharo". 74. Archaeology 10 (22): 63 Pakistan 44. 131. ^ Wells, B. An Introduction to Indus Writing. Early Sites Research (West)Society Monograph Series, 2, Independence MO 45. 1999 ^ Farmer, Steve; Sproat, Richard; Witzel, Michael. The Collapse of ndus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan the http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf Civilization. 46. . ^ These and other issues are addressed in (Parpola 47. ^ "Entropic Evidence for Linguistic Structure in the Indus Script.". 2005) 324 (5931): 1165. May 2009. Science http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1170391. Retrieved on 2009-06doi:10.1126/science.1170391. 48. 05. ^ Indus Script Encodes Language, Reveals New Study of Ancient Newswise, Retrieved on Jun 5, Symbols 49. 2009. ^ Photos: 50. ^ Clark, Sharri R. (2007). The social lives http://www.harappa.com/figurines/index.html of figurines: the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan.. Harvard recontextualizing PhD. 51. ^ "Rigveda". The Hindu Universe. HinduNet http://www.hindunet.org/vedas/rigveda/. Retrieved on 2007-06Inc. 52. 25. ^ "Hindu History". http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/history/history_1.shtml. The names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of BBC the

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 Lal, B. B. (2002). The Sarasvati flows McIntosh, Jane (2001). A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the on. Civilization. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN Indus 0813335329. Mughal, Mohammad Rafique (1997). Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology Architecture. Ferozesons. ISBN and 9690013505. Parpola, Asko (2005-05-19). "Study of the Indus http://www.harappa.com/script/indusscript.pdf. (50th ICES Tokyo Script". Session) Possehl, Gregory (2002). The Indus Civilisation. Walnut Creek: Alta Press.Mira Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1991). Dawn and Devolution of the Civilisation. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-85179-74Indus 3. Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in Asian South Archaeology". in George Erdosy (ed.). Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Berlin Asia. u.a.: de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447 Shaffer, Jim G. (1999). "Migration, Philology and South Asian 6. in Bronkhorst and Deshpande (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia.. Archaeology". Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. ISBN 1-888789Cambridge: 04-2. Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". in R. W. Ehrich (ed.). Chronologies Helmand Old in World Archaeology (Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Witzel, Michael (February 2000). "The Languages of Harappa". Journal of Vedic Studies. Electronic http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/IndusLang.pdf. Cemetery H From Wikipedia, the free culture Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia search Geography of the Rigveda, with river names; the extent of the Swat and cultures are Cemetery H [hide]History of South indicated. Asia Stone before 3300 Age ndus Valley BCE 33001700 Civilization Vedic BCE 2000600 Civilization ron BCE 12001 Age Maurya BCE 321184 Empire Chola BCE 300 EmpireBCE1279 Satavahana CE 230 EmpireBCE220 Middle CE 1CE1279 Kingdoms Gupta CE 280550 Empire Chalukya CE 543753 Empire Pala CE 7501174 Empire s CElamic 1206 Sultanates Mughal 1596 1526 Empire 1858

Sikh 1733 Empire British 1849 1858 India Modern 1947 since States Timelin 1947 e This box: view talk edit The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Civilization around 1900 BCE, in and around western Punjab region located Valley present-day Pakistan. It was named after a cemetery found in "area H" at in The Cemetery H culture is part of the Punjab Phase, one of three cultural Harappa. that developed in the Localization Era of the Indus Valley Tradition.[1] It phases considered to be part of the Late Harrappan is The distinguishing features of this culture include:[citation phase. needed] The use of cremation of human remains. The bones were stored in pottery burial urns. This is completely different from the Indus painted where bodies civilization were buried in wooden coffins. The urn burials and the skeletons" were nearly contemporaneous. "grave [2] Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun or motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier star period. Expansion of settlements into the Rice east.became a main crop. Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, materials such as marine shells no longer with used. Continued use of mud brick for The Cemetery H culture also "shows clear biological affinities" with the building. population of Harappa. earlier The [3] archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture "may only reflect a change the in focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of earlier Harappan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, the aliens, invadingor site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the Remains of past."[4] the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 Together with the Gandhara grave culture and the Ochre Coloured Pottery BCE. it is considered by some scholars a nucleus of Vedic civilization. culture, needed [citation [ ]edit] See also ndus Valley Tradition Painted Grey Ware [edit] 1. ^ Kenoyer 1991a; Shaffer References 2. ^ Sarkar 1964 1992 3. ^ Kennedy 2000, p. 312; Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 103, 4. ^ Kenoyer 1991b, p. 56 310 Kennedy, Kenneth A. R. (2000). God-Apes and Fossil Men: of South Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Palaeoanthropology Press.Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991a). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan Western India". Journal of World Prehistory 5: 164. and Kenoyer, Jonathan doi:10.1007/BF00978474. Mark (1991b). "Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: preliminary model from Harappa". in Meadow, R. H. (ed.). Harappa Excavations A 1990: 1986- A multidiscipinary approach to Third Millennium urbanism. Madison, Prehistory Press. pp. 29 WI: Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European 60. LondonCulture. and Chicago: Fitzroy Sarkar, Sasanka Sekhar (1964). Ancient Races of Baluchistan, Panjab, Dearborn. Sind. and

 Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". in Ehrich, R. W.. Chronologies in Helmand World Archaeology (Second ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. Old 464, II:425446. I:441 http://www.harappa.com http://pubweb.cc.uRetrieved from tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html Vedic "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemetery_H_culture" From Wikipedia, the free period encyclopedia from Vedic (Redirected Jump to: Period) navigation, search Map of northern India in the late Vedic Theperiod Period (or Vedic Age) is the period during which the Vedas, the Vedic sacred oldest texts of the Indo-Aryans, were being composed. Scholars place the period Vedic in the second and first millennia BCE continuing up to the 6th century based on literary BCE The associated culture, sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization, was evidence. in the northern and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. Its early centered saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase phase ca. 600 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by (from Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE), the golden age, classical age of the literature, and the Middle kingdoms of Sanskrit Content India. [ shide 1 Overview ] 2 Rigvedic period o 2.1 Political organization o 2.2 Society and economy 3 Vedic Religious 4 The later Vedic period Practices o 4.1 Kingdoms 5 Notes 6 References 7 Further reading 8 See also 9 External links Overview The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on textdetails. internal Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five strata chronological 1 :. Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in preserved, that are content, not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken over placeseveral centuries, and apart from that of the youngest books (first part and of 1all of 10), would have been complete by 1000(?) BCE. Archaeologically, period may correspond with the Gandhara Grave Culture, the Cemetery H culture this the of Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. There is widely accepted archaeological or linguistic evidence of direct no continuity from the Indus Valley cultural 2. Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of civilization. Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda the (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Samhita Many of these texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have Yajurveda. certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. undergone changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the Conspicuous kuru-

verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in western north- India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 10th century the 3. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection BCE. codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete and of the injunctive. The Brahmana part ('commentary' on mantras and ritual) of loss Black Yajurveda (MS, KS, TS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the the Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds, and the shift of Painted political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas on the the 4. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this Ganges. as well period, as the Aranyakas, the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) and oldest Shrautasutras (BSS, the 5. Sutra VadhSS). language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. BCE, 500 comprising the bulk of the Irauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads KathU, (e.g. MaitrU). All but the five prose Upanishads are post-Buddhist[1]). (N. Bihar) as a third political center is Videha 6. Epic and established.Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana and the epics, Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic, belongs to the time after 500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of and Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this Northern The earliest Vedanta, Gautama Buddha, and the Pali Prakrit dialect of period. scripture Buddhist belong to this Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and period. scarce remain throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a by apex finalin the codification of Sutra texts, and at the same time the beginning Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the early of century BCE marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms 6th the of Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira, Shaka), Kushan ultimately the Islamic Sultans. The most important historical source of and geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian the report whose is based on the Mauryan time ambassador to Patna, Rigvedic Megasthenes. See also Rigvedic tribes period The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus civilization, Indo-Aryan migration and Gandhara Grave culture related Valley remains culturescontroversial and politically charged in Indian society, often leading disputes on the history of Vedic culture. The Rigveda is primarily a collection to religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths of stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in and 27, booksalthough some hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, contain is it difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, due to the semi-nomadic it of the nature society described, it cannot be easily localized, and in its earliest describes tribes that were essentially on the phase RigVedic Aryans have a lot in common with the Andronovo culture and the move. kingdoms Mittanni as well as with early Iranians. The Andronovo culture is believed to the be site of the first horse-drawn Political chariots. The grama (wagon train), vis and jana were political units of the early organization Aryans. A vish was a subdivision of a jana or "krishti", and a grama was a Vedic unit than the other two. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that smaller vish of a was called The rashtra (polity) was governed by a rajan (chieftain, 'king'). The king vishpati. often referred to as gopa (protector) and occasionally as samrat (supreme is He governed the people with their consent and approval. He was elected ruler). restricted class of 'royals' (rajanya). There were various types of meetings from a such

as the vidhata or "Sabha". Gana was the non-monarchial assembly that is a one to the monarchial assemblies of that period headed by Jyestha the same parallel referred in Buddhist text named Jettaka. The Sabha, sitated outside of was was restricted to the Vratyas, bands of roving Brahmins and Kshatriyas in settlement, of cattle, with a common woman (pumscali) [2] while the vidatha was the search like ritual distribution of bounty potlatchThe main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by [3]. functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; several army). sena: The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also was his driver chariotand practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on (pattis) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow, were common. foot king The employed spaI (spies) and dutas (messengers). He collected taxes ceremonial (originallygifts, bali), from the people which he had to Society and redistribute. economy Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, Malwa, 1300 The BCE.concept of varna (class) and the rules of marriage were rigid as is from Vedic verses (RV 10.90, W. Rau 1957). The status of the Brahmins evident Kshatriyas was higher than that of the Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmins and specialized in creating poetry, preserving the sacred texts, and carrying were various types of rituals. Functioning as intellectual leadership, they out restricted social mobility between the varnas, as in the fields of science, also literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses war, ritual was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and in Kshatriyas harvests. amassed wealth (cattle), and many commissioned the performance sacrifices. Kshatriyas helped in administering the polity, maintained of structure of society and the economy of a tribe, and helped in maintaining law the order and .n the Early Vedic Period all the three upper classes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas were considered as relatively equal Arya, but in the Later Vedic and the Age Brahmins and Kshatriyas became upper class. The Vaishyas were pastoralists farmers; the Shudras were the lower class; they included artisans and were and to serve the upper three classes [4]. As the caste system became deep-rooted meant were theremany restrictions and rules which were to be Cattle were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; followed. were often goddesses compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more with time prominent as the community gradually began to settle down in post-Rigvedic The economy was based on bartering with cattle and other valuables such as salt times. metals or F .amilies were patrilineal, and people prayed for the abundance of sons. Society was strictly organized in a system of four varna (classes, to The distinguished from caste, be Vedic jati) Religious Main articles: Historical Vedic religion, Vedic Practices The Vedic astrology forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts to date to considered the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Aranyakas Brahmanas,and the older Upanishads as well as the oldest Shrautasutras are considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the also and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Shrauta priests and the rituals The rishis, purohitas. the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered poets and inspired seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an existing Irauta means "what is eternallyVeda, The mode heard"). of worship was performance of sacrifices which included the chanting Rigvedic verses (see Vedic chant), singing of Samans and 'mumbling' of of mantras offering(Yajus) . The priests executed rituals for the three upper classes of Vedic (varna) society, strictly excluding the Sudras. People offered for abundance rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining of 'heaven'.

The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (the sacrificial and Soma and some deities of social order such as Mitra-Varuna, Aryaman, Bhaga fire), Amsa, further nature deities such as Surya (the Sun), Vayu (the wind), and (the earth). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi and Aditi (the mother Prithivi the of Aditya gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The also between humans and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the relationship fire) taking sacrificial the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a ndo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the common worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha fire sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in Rome (horse old and Ireland, was continued in India until at least the 4th century AD and under Jay Singh in 1740 revived Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious AD. considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon path a asunitary view of the universe with 'God' (Brahman) seen as immanent transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman. These post-Vedic systems and thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat), have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. of ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are preserved in the conservative The tradition, in part with the exception of animal sacrifice, which was Irauta abandoned by the higher castes by the end of the Vedic period, partly under mostly influence of the Buddhist and Jain religions, and their criticism of the practices[citation such The later needed]. Vedic The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by period emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a the decline in the corresponding significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in with hand this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the importance increasing of land and long distance trade. The late Vedic period, from ca. BCE 500 onward, more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle of kingdoms India known from historical Kingdom sources. T she late Vedic period was marked by the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas to in some of the literature. The power of the king and the Kshatriyas referred increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), greatly (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin ('who moves the wheel'). The sarvabhauma performed sacrifices like rajasuya (royal consecration), vajapeya kings chariot race) (including a and, for supreme dominance over other kings, the ashvamedha sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. (horse functionaries, in addition to the purohita and the senani, took part. The role Several the of people in political decision making and the status of the Vaishyas as such greatly was Note decreased. 1 ^ V.A. Gunasekara, s. 2. ^ H.Falk, Bruderschaft udn Wrfelspiel, http://www.budsas.org/ebud/ebdha255.htm Freiburg 3. ^ F.B.J. Kuiper, Selected Writings on Indian Linguistics and Philology, 1986 406-417 pp. 4. ^ W. Rau, Staat und Gesellschaft, Reference 1957 Bokonyi, S. 1997b. "Horse Remains from the Prehistoric Site of s Kutch,Surkotada, Millennium BC.", South Asian Studies 13: 297Late 3rd 307. Kocchar, Rajesh, The Vedic people: their history and geography, OrientHyderabad: (1999). Longmans Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora Fauna and & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books Michael International.Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97 les 265.

 Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the texts,Vedic Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) EVJS Further [1]. reading C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The History and Culture of R. ndianthe People. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 R.C. Majumdar et al. An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak "The Arctic Home in the Vedas", Messrs 1967. Bros.,Tilak 1903 Ankerl, Guy. Global communication without universal civilization. societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : AraboINU Bharati, Muslim, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004See 5. alsoIron Age From IndiaWikipedia, the free Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia [hide]History of South search Asia Stone before 3300 Age ndus Valley BCE 33001700 Civilization Vedic BCE 2000600 Civilization ron 12001 BCE Maurya Age BCE 321184 Empire Chola BCE 300 EmpireBCE1279 Satavahana CE 230 EmpireBCE220 Middle CE 1CE1279 Kingdoms Gupta CE 280550 Empire Chalukya CE 543753 Empire Pala CE 7501174 Empire CElamic s 1206 Sultanates Mughal 1596 1526 Empire Sikh 1858 1733 Empire British 1849 1858 India Modern 1947 since States Timelin 1947 e This box: view talk edit Ancient This box: view talk history edit Prehistory Ancient Near Sumer East Akkad Egypt Babylonia Hittite Empire Syro-Hittite states Neo-

Assyrian Empire Urartu Classical Archaic Greece Median Empire . Achaemenid Empire Classical Greece Antiquity Thrace Dacia Scythia Macedon Hellenism Roman Republic Roman Empire Arsacid Empire Sassanid Empire Late Parthia . East Antiquity HIng Bing Dynasty Gojoseon Shang China Qin Dynasty Han Dynasty Asia Dynasty Jin South Vedic Asia India Maha Janapadas Mauryan India Chola India Satavahana Gupta India India Pre-Columbian Aztecs Americas Incas Mayas Olmecs Teotihuacan see also: World history Ancient maritime history Protohistory Axial Age Age Historiography Ancient literature Ancient warfare Cradle ron civilizatio of n Middle Ages The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley H) There has Tradition.been fresh evidence for even earlier iron-working in India. studies on Technical materials dated c. 1000 BCE at Komaranhalli (Karnataka) showed that smiths of this site could deal with large artifacts, implying that they the already been experimenting for centuries (Agrawal et al. 1985: 228-29). had (1979: 366) drew attention to the presence of iron in Chalcolithic deposits Sahi Ahar, and suggested that the date of the beginning of iron smelting in India at well may be placed as early as the sixteenth century BCE and by about the decade early of thirteenth century BCE iron smelting was definitely known in India bigger scale. on a The [1] earliest Iron Age sites in South India are Hallur, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu[2] Adichanallur, at around 1000 [edit] BC. Kenoyer, J.M. 1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. References University Press and American Institute of Pakistan Studies, Oxford Kenoyer, J. M. 1991a The Indus Valley Tradition of Pakistan and Karachi. ndia.Western In Journal of World Prehistory 5(4): 331385. Kenoyer, J. M. 1995a Interaction Systems, viara is the one writing ancient India and her project grade need to be a 80- or for Specialized Crafts and Culture Change: The Indus Valley Tradition and the higher Gangetic Tradition in South Asia. In The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South IndoLanguage, Material Culture and Ethnicity, edited by G. Erdosy, pp. 213Asia: Berlin, W. 257. Shaffer, J. G. 1992 The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand DeGruyter. Neolithic Through Bronze Age. In Chronologies in Old Worlsfgagd Archaeology Traditions: Edition), edited by R. Ehrich, pp. 441-464. Chicago, University of Chicago (3rd Press.Chakrabarti, D.K. o 1974. Beginning of Iron in India: Problem Reconsidered, in A.K. Ghosh Perspectives in Palaeoanthropology: 345-356. Calcutta: Firma K.L. (ed.), o 1976. The Beginning of Iron in India. Antiquity 4: 114Mukhopadhyay. o 1992. 124. The Early Use of Iron in India. Delhi: Oxford University o 1999. Press.India An Archaeological History. Delhi: Oxford University Mahajanapada Press F srom Wikipedia, the free Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia search This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please

improve this article if you can. (January 2009) This article needs additional citations for Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced verification. may be challenged and removed. (May material 2008) Map of the Mahajanapadas Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: , MahIjanapadas), literally "Great realms," (from Maha, "great", and Janapada "foothold of a tribe", "country") were Ancient kingdoms or countries. Ancient Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya [1] Indian frequent reference to sixteen great kingdoms and republics (Solas make which had evolved and flourished in the northern/north-western parts of the Mahajanapadas) subcontinent prior to the rise of Buddhism in India. Indian Content [2] [ shide 1 Overview ] 2 Kasi 3 Kosala 4 Anga 5 Magadha 6 Vajji or Vriji 7 Malla 8 Chedi or Cheti 9 Vamsa or Vatsa 10 Kuru 11 Panchala 12 Machcha or Matsya 13 Surasena 14 Assaka or Ashmaka 15 Avanti 16 Gandhara 17 Kamboja 18 See also 19 References [edit] The political structure of the ancient Indians appears to have started with Overview nomadic tribal units called Jana (meaning subjects). Early Vedic texts semiseveral attest Janas or tribes of the Aryans, living in semi-nomadic tribal fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep state, green pastures. These early Vedic Janas later coalesced into Janapadas of the and Age. Epic The term "Janapada" literally means the foothold of a tribe. The fact Janapada is derived from Jana points to an early stage of land-taking by the that tribe Jana for a settled way of life. This process of first settlement on land completed its final stage prior to the times of Buddha and Panini. The had Buddhist North-west region of Indian sub-continent was divided into PreJanapadas demarcated from each other by boundaries. In Panini, Janapada stands several country and Janapadin for its citizenry. Each of these Janapadas was named for the Kshatriya tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled there-in.[3][4] after Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations The Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha. They do not (Solasa any giveconnected history except in the case of Magadha. The Buddhist Nikaya, at Anguttara several places,[5] gives a list of sixteen great nations:

1. Kasi 2. Kosala 3. Anga 4. Magadha 5. Vajji (or Vriji) 6. Malla 7. Chedi 8. Vatsa (or Vamsa) 9. Kuru 10. Panchala 11. Machcha (or Matsya) 12. Surasena 13. Assaka 14. Avanti 15. Gandhara 16. Kamboja Another Buddhist text Digha Nikaya mentions only first twelve Mahajanapadas omits the last four in the above list. and Chulla-Niddesa, another ancient text of the Buddhist canon, adds Kalinga to [6] list the and substitutes Yona for Gandhara, thus listing the Kamboja and the Yona the as only Mahajanapadas from Uttarapatha.[7] The [8] Jaina Bhagvati Sutra gives slightly different list of sixteen viz: Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Malavaka, Accha, Vaccha, Mahajanapadas (Kachcha?), Padha, Ladha (Lata), Bajji (Vajji), Moli (Malla), Kasi, Kosala, Kochcha and Sambhuttara. Obviously, the author of Bhagvati has a focus on the countries Avaha Madhydesa and of far east and south only. He omits the nations from of like the Kamboja and Gandhara. The more extended horizon of the Bhagvati and Uttarapatha omission of all countries from Uttarapatha "clearly shows that the Bhagvati the is of list later origin and therefore less The main idea reliable."[9] in the minds of those who drew up the Janapada lists was more tribal than geographical, since the lists include names of the people and basically the not countries. As the Buddhist and Jaina texts only casually refer to Mahajanapadas with no details on history, the following few isolated facts, the best, are gleaned from them and other ancient texts about these ancient at [edit] nations. Main Kasi article: Kasi This detailed map shows the locations of Kingdoms mentioned in the Indian The Kasis were Aryan people who had settled in the region around Varanasi epics. Banaras). The capital of Kasi was at Varanasi. The city was bounded by (modern Varuna rivers and Asi on north and south which gave Varanasi its name. Before Kasi was Buddha, the most powerful of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. Several Jatakas witness to the superiority of its capital over other cities of India and bear high of speaks its prosperity and opulence. The Jatakas speak of long rivalry of with Kasi Kosala, Anga and Magadha. A struggle for supremacy went on among them time.King Brihadratha of Kasi had conquered Kosala but Kasi was later for a into Kosala incorporatedby King Kansa during Buddha's time. The Kasis along with the and Videhans find mention in Vedic texts and appear to have been a closely Kosalas people. allied Matsya Purana and Alberuni read Kasi as Kausika and Kaushaka All other ancient texts read respectively. [edit] Kasi. Main article: Kosala The country of Kosalas was located to the north-west of Magadha with its Kosala at Savatthi (Sravasti). It was located about 70 miles to north-west of capital and comprised territory corresponding to the modern Awadh (or Oudh) in Gorakhpur Pradesh. It had river Ganga for its southern, river Gandhak for its eastern Uttar the and Himalaya mountains for its northern boundaries. The kingdom was ruled by king

Prasenjit followed by his son Vidudabha. There was struggle for supremacy king Pasenadi (Prasenjit) and king Ajatasatru of Magadha which was finally between once the settled confederation of Lichchavis became aligned with Magadha. Kosala ultimately merged into Magadha when Vidudabha was Kosala's ruler. Ayodhya, was Benares Saketa, and Sravasti were the chief cities of [edit] Kosala. Anga Ancient Cities of India during the time of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Main article: Buddha. The Angafirst reference to the Angas is found in the Atharva-Veda where they mention along with the Magadhas, Gandharis and the Mujavats apparently find despised people. The Jaina Prajnapana ranks Angas and Vangas in the first group as a Aryan peoples. Based on Mahabharata evidence, the country of Anga of corresponded to the region of Bhagalpur and Monghyr in Bihar and parts of roughly River Champa formed the boundaries between the Magadha in the west and Anga in Bengal. east. Anga was bounded by river Ganga on the north. Its capital Champa, the known as formerly Malini, was located on the right bank of river Ganga, near its with river Champa. It was one of the very flourishing cities and is referred to junction one as of six principal cities of ancient India (Digha Nikaya). It was also a center great of trade and commerce and its merchants regularly sailed to Suvarnabhumi. Anga was annexed by Magadha in the time of distant [edit] Bimbisara. Main article: Magadha The first reference to the Magadhas occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they Magadha found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and the Mujavats as a are people. despisedThe bards of Magadha are, however, referred to in early Vedic and are spoken of in terms of contempt. The Vedic dislike of the Magadhas in literature times early was due to the fact that the Magadhas were not yet wholly Rigveda mentions a king Pramaganda as a ruler of Kikata. Yasaka declares Brahmanised. Kikata was a non-Aryan country. Later literature refers to Kikata as synonym that Magadha of W .ith the exception of the Rigvedic Pramaganda, whose connection with Magadha very speculative, no other king of Magadha is mentioned in Vedic is According to literature. the Mahabharata and the Puranas, the earliest ruling dynasty Magadha was founded by king Brihadratha, but Magadha came into prominence of under only king Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru. In the war of supremacy which went for on long between the nations of Majjhimadesa, kingdom of Magadha finally victorious and became a predominant empire in Mid emerged The kingdom of the Magadhas roughly corresponded to the modern districts of India. and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on Patna north by river Ganga, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by the mountains and on the west by river Sona. During Buddha's time, its Vindhya included Anga. Its earliest capital was Girivraja or Rajagriha modern Rajgir boundaries Patna district of Bihar. The other names for the city were in Brihadrathapura, Vasumati, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. It was an active Magadhapura, of Jainism in ancient times. The first Buddhist Council was held in Rajagriha center the in Vaibhara Hills. Later on, Pataliputra became the capital of [edit] Vajji or Magadha. Main Vrijiarticle: The Vajjians or Virijis included eight or nine confederated clans of whom Vajji Licchhavis, the Videhans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most the Mithila (modern Janakpur in district of Tirhut) was the capital of Videha important. became which the important center of political and cultural activities of ndia. It northern was in the time of king Janaka that Videha came into prominence. last king of Videha was Kalara who is said to have perished along with his The on account of his attempt on a Brahmin maiden. On the ruins of his kingdom kingdom the republics of Lichchhavis, Videhans and seven other small republics. arose The

Lichchhavis were very independent people. Mother of Mahavira was a princess. LichchhaviVaishali (modern Basarh in Vaishali District of North Bihar) was capital of Licchhavis and the political headquarters of powerful the confederacy. Vaishali was located 25 miles north of river Ganga and 38 miles Varijian Rajagriha and was a very prosperous town. The Second Buddhist Council was held from Vaishali. The Licchhavis were followers of Buddha. Buddha is said to have at the Licchavis on many occasions. The Licchhavis were closely related by visited to the Magadhas and one branch of Lichhavis dynasty ruled Nepal until start of marriage Middle Ages but have nothing to do with current ruling shah dynasty in Nepal. the Licchavis are represented as (Vratya) Kshatriyas in Manusmriti. Vaishali, The headquarters of the powerful Vajji republic and the capital of Lichchavis the defeated by king Ajatasatru of was [edit] Magadha. Main Mallaarticle: Malla The Mallas are frequently mentioned in Buddhist and Jain works. They (India) powerful people dwelling in Eastern India. Panduputra Bhimasena is said to were a conquered the chief of the Mallas in course of his expedition of Eastern have Mahabharata mention Mallas along with the Angas, Vangas, and Kalingas as India. tribes. eastern The Mallas were republican people with their dominion consisting of territories (Kalpa Sutra; Nirayavali Sutra), one of each of the nine nine clans. Two of confederated these confederations...one with KuIinIra (modern Kasia Gorakhpur) as its capital, second with Pava (modern Padrauna, 12 miles from near as the Kasia) capital, had become very important at the time of Buddha. KuIinIra and are Pavavery important in the history of Buddhism since Buddha took his last meal was and taken ill at Pava and died at The Mallas, like the Lichchhavis, are mentioned by Manusmriti as Kusinara. Kshatriyas. They are called Vasishthas (Vasetthas) in the Vratya Suttanta. The Mallas originally had a monarchical form of government but Mahapparnibbana they laterswitched to Samgha (republic) of which the members called themselves The Mallas were a brave and warlike people. Jainism and Buddhism found rajas. followers among the Mallas. The Mallas appeared to have formed alliance many Lichchhavis for self defense. They however, lost their independence not long with Buddha's death and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan after [edit] empire.Chedi or Main Chetiarticle: Chedi The Chedis, Chetis or Chetyas had two distinct settlements of which one was in Kingdom mountains of Nepal and the other in Bundelkhand near Kausambi. According to the authorities, Chedis lay near Yamuna midway between the kingdom of Kurus old Vatsas. In the mediaeval period, the southern frontiers of Chedi extended to and banks of river Narmada. Sotthivatnagara, the Sukti or Suktimati of the was the capital of Chedi. The Chedis were an ancient peoples of India and Mahabharata, mentioned in the Rigveda. A branch of Chedis found a royal dynasty in the are of Kalinga according to the Hathigumpha Inscription of kingdom [edit] Vamsa or Kharvela. Main Vatsaarticle: The Vatsas, Vamsas or Vachchas are stated to be an offshoot from the Kurus. Vatsa Vatsa or Vamsa country corresponded with territory of modern Allahabad in The Pradesh. It had monarchical form of government with its capital at Uttar (identified with village Kosam, 38 miles from Allahabad). Kausambi had been a Kausambi prosperous city where large number of millionaire merchants resided. It was very most the important entreport of goods and passengers from north-west and Udayana south. was the ruler of Vatsa in sixth century BCE at the time of Buddha. He very was powerful, warlike and fond of hunting. Initially king Udayana was opposed Buddhism but later on he became follower of Buddha and made Buddhism the to religion state [ .edit] Main Kuru article: Kuru The Puranas trace the origin of Kurus from the Puru-Bharata family. (India) Aitareya

Brahmana locates the Kurus in Madhyadesha and also refers to the Uttarakurus living beyond the Himalayas. According to Buddhist text Sumangavilasini as 481), (II. pthe people of Kururashtra (the Kurus) came from the Uttarakuru. Vayu attests Purana that Kuru, son of Samvarsana of the Puru lineage, was the ancestor eponymousof the Kurus and the founder of Kururashtra (Kuru Janapada) Kurukshetra. The country of the Kurus roughly corresponded to the in Thaneswer, union territory of Delhi and Meerut district of Uttar modern According Pradesh. to Jatakas, the capital of Kurus was Indraprastha (Indapatta) modern Delhi which extended on seven leagues. At Buddha's time, the Kuru near was ruled by a titular chieftain (king consul) named Korayvya. The Kurus country Buddhist period did not occupy the same position as they did in the Vedic of but they continued to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and period health. The Kurus had matrimonial relations with Yadavas, the Bhojas and sound Panchalas. There is a Jataka reference to king Dhananjaya introduced as the from the race of Yudhishtra. Though a well known monarchical people in prince period, earlier the Kurus are known to have switched to republic form of government sixth/fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya's Arthashastra also during the Kurus following the Rajashabdopajivin (king consul) attests [edit] constitution. Main article: Panchala The Panchalas occupied the country to the east of the Kurus between the Panchala and river mountains Ganga. It roughly corresponded to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh. The country was divided into Uttarathe and Dakshina-Panchala. The northern Panchala had its capital at Adhichhatra Panchala Chhatravati (modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly District), while southern or had it capital at Kampilya or Kampil in Farrukhabad District. The famous city Panchala Kanyakubja or Kanauj was situated in the kingdom of Panchala. of monarchical Originally aclan, the Panchals appear to have switched to republican in the sixth corporation and fifth century BCE. Fourth century BCE Kautiliya's also attests Arthashastra the Panchalas as following the Rajashabdopajivin (king constitution consul) [ .edit] Machcha or Main article: Matsya Matsya Country Kingdom of Matsya or Machcha tribe lied to south of the Kurus and west of Yamuna which separated them from the Panchalas, It roughly corresponded to the state formerof Jaipur in Rajasthan, and included the whole of Alwar with portions Bharatpur. The capital of Matsya was at Viratanagara (modern Bairat) which is of to have been named after its founder king Virata. In Pali literature, the said are usually associated with the Surasenas. The western Matsya was the hill Matsyas on the tract north bank of Chambal. A branch of Matsya is also found in later days Vizagapatam region. The Matsyas had not much political importance of their in during the times of Buddha. King Sujata ruled over both the Chedis and own thus showing that Matsya once formed a part of Chedi Matsyas [edit] kingdom. Main article: Surasena Country Surasenaof the Surasenas lied to south-west of Matsya and west of Yamuna. It its had capital at Madhura or Mathura. Avantiputra, the king of Surasena was the among first the chief disciples of Buddha through whose help, Buddhism gained ground Mathura country. The Andhakas and Vrishnis of Mathura/Surasena are referred to in the in Ashtadhyayi of Panini. In Kautiliya's Arthashastra, the Vrishnis are as Samgha described or republic. The Vrishnis, Andhakas and other allied tribes of Yadavas formed a Samgha and Vasudeva (Krishna) is described as the Samghathe Mathura, mukhya. the capital of Surasena was also known at the time of Megasthenes as centre of Krishna worship. The Surasena kingdom had lost its independence the annexation by Magadhan on [edit] empire.Assaka or Main article: Ashmaka The Country of Assaka or Ashmaka tribe was located in Dakshinapatha or Assaka southern

ndia. In Buddha's time, Assakas were located on the banks of river (south of Vindhya mountains). The capital of Assakas was Potana or Potali Godavari corresponds to Paudanya of Mahabharata. The Ashmakas are also mentioned by which They are Panini. placed in the north-west in the Markendeya Purana and the Brhat River Godavari separated the country of Assakas from that of the Mulakas Samhita. Alakas). The commentator of Kautiliya's Arthashastra identifies Ashmaka (or Maharashtra. The country of Assaka lay outside the pale of Madhyadesa. It with located on a southern high road, the Dakshinapatha. At one time, Assaka was Mulaka and their country abutted with Avanti (Dr included [edit] Bhandarkaar). Main article: Avanti Avanti Country (India) of the Avantis was an important kingdom of western India and was one the of four great monarchies in India when Buddhism arose, the other three Kosala, Vatsa and Magadha. Avanti was divided into north and south by being Vetravati. Initially, Mahissati (Sanskrit Mahishamati) was the capital of river Avanti, Southernand Ujjaini (Sanskrit Ujjayini) was of northern Avanti, but at the of Mahavira and Buddha, Ujjaini was the capital of integrated Avanti. The times of Avanti roughly corresponded to modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of country Madhya Pradesh. Both Mahishmati and Ujjaini stood on the southern high road the Dakshinapatha which extended from Rajagriha to Pratishthana (modern called Avanti was Paithan). an important center of Buddhism and some of the leading theras theirs were born and resided there. King Nandivardhana of Avanti was defeated and king Shishunaga of Magadha. Avanti later became part of Magadhan by [edit] empire. Main article: Gandhara The wool Gandhara of Gandharis is referred to in the Rigveda. The Gandharis, along with Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned in the Atharvaveda, the apparently as a despised people. Gandharas are included in the but division of Uttarapatha Puranic and Buddhistic traditions. Aitareya Brahmana refers to Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporary of raja Janaka of Videha. According king Dr to Zimmer, Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the south bank of Kubha river (Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus itself. Later the Gandharas crossed and expanded into parts of north-west Panjab. Gandharas and their king Indus prominently as strong allies of the Kurus against the Pandavas in Mahabharata figure The war.Gandharas were a furious people, well trained in the art of war. According Puranic traditions, this Janapada was founded by Gandhara, son of to descendant Aruddha, a of Yayati. The princes of this country are said to have come from line the of Druhyu who was a famous king of Rigvedic period. The river Indus the lands of Gandhara. Taksashila and Pushkalavati, the two cities of watered Mahajanapada, are said to have been named after Taksa and Pushkara, the two this of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya. According to Vayu Purana (II.36.107), sons Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the end of Kaliyuga. Panini the mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as the later form Gandhara in has Ashtadhyayi. The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira.[10] his of Miletus Hecataeus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e Kashmira) as city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a part of Gandharic kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for the Gandhara Gandhara.Mahajanapada of Buddhist traditions included territories of Afghanistan, and north-west of the Panjab (modern districts of east (Purushapura) and Rawalpindi). Its capital was Takshasila (Prakrit Taxila). Peshawar Taxila University was a renowned center of learning in ancient times, The scholars from all over the world came to seek higher education. Panini, the where genius Indian of grammar and Kautiliya are the world renowned products of University. King Pukkusati or Pushkarasarin of Gandhara in middle of sixth Taxila BCE was century the contemporary of king Bimbisara of Magadha. Gandhara was located on grand northern high road (Uttarapatha) and was a centre of the commercial activities. It was an important channel of communication with international ancient Central Asia. According to one school of scholars, the Gandharas ran and and

Kambojas were cognate people.[11][12][13] It is also contended that the Kambojas, Gandharas and Bahlikas were cognate people and all had Kurus, affinities.[14] According to Dr T. L. Shah, the Gandhara and Kamboja were Iranian but two nothing provinces of one empire and were located coterminously hence each others influencing language.[15] Naturally, they may have once been a people.[16][17][18][19] Gandhara was often linked politically with the cognate regions of Kashmir and Kamboja. neighboring [edit] [20] Main article: Kamboja Kambojas are also included in the Uttarapatha. In ancient literature, the is variously associated with the Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika Kamboja Ancient Kamboja is known to have comprised regions on either side of (Bactria). Hindukush. The original Kamboja was located in eastern Oxus country as neighbor the Bahlika, but with time, some clans of Kambojas appear to have crossed to and planted colonies on its southern side also. These latter Kambojas Hindukush associated with the Daradas and Gandharas in Indian literature and also are mention in the Edicts of Ashoka. The evidence in Mahabharata and in find Geography Ptolemy's distinctly supports two Kamboja settlements.[21] The cisregion from Nurestan up to Rajauri in southwest of Kashmir sharing borders Hindukush the withDaradas and the Gandharas constituted the Kamboja country.[22] The capital Kamboja was probably Rajapura (modern Rajori) in south-west of Kashmir. of Kamboja Mahajanapada of the Buddhist traditions refers to this cisThe branch of Hindukush ancient Kambojas. The [23]trans-Hindukush region including Pamirs and Badakhshan which shared with the borders Bahlikas (Bactria) in the west and the Lohas and Rishikas Sogdiana/Fergana in the north, constituted the Parama-Kamboja country. of The [24]trans-Hindukush branch of the Kambojas remained pure Iranian but a section of the Kambojas of cis-Hindukush appears to have come under large cultural influence. The Kambojas are known to have had both Iranian as well Indian as ndian affinities.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32] [33][34] The Kambojas were also a well known republican people since Epic [35] Mahabharata refers to several Ganah (or Republics) of the Kambojas. times. Kautiliya's Arthashastra [37] and Ashoka's Edict also attest that the [36] Kambojas followed republican constitution. Panini's Sutras,[38] though tend No. X convey that the Kamboja of Panini was a Kshatriya Monarchy, but "the special to and rulethe exceptional form of derivative" he gives to denote the ruler of Kambojas implies that the king of Kamboja was a titular head (king the only. consul) According to Buddhist texts, the first fourteen of the above Mahajanapadas [39] to Majjhimadesa (Mid India) while the last two belong to Uttarapatha or the belong west division of northJambudvipa. n a struggle for supremacy that followed in the sixth/fifth century BCE, growing state of Magadhas emerged as the most predominant power in ancient the annexing several of the Janapadas of the Majjhimadesa. A bitter line in India Brahmin Puranas laments that Magadhan emperor Mahapadma Nanda exterminated the Kshatriyas, none worthy of the name Kshatrya being left thereafter. This all refers to obviously the Kasis, Kosalas, Kurus, Panchalas, Vatsyas and other neo-Vedic of the tribes east Panjab of whom nothing was ever heard except in the legend and The Kambojans and Gandharans, however, never came into direct contact poetry. Magadhan state until Chandragupta and Kautiliya arose on the scene. But with nations also fell a prey to the Achaemenids of Persia during the reign of these (558-530 BCE) or in the first year of Darius. Kamboja and Gandhara formed Cyrus twentieth and richest strapy of Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus I is said to the destroyed the famous Kamboja city called Kapisi (modern Begram) in have [edit] See Paropamisade. also ron Age India Kingdoms of ancient India [edit] References

1. ^ Anguttara Nikaya I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 2. ^ http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/16261. 3. ^ India as Known to ini: A Study of the Cultural Material in mahajanapadas.html AshdhyIyI, 1963, p 427, Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala - India; India in the P the Patajali,of Time 1968, p 68, Dr B. N. Puri - India; Socio-economic and Political of Eastern India, 1977, p 9, Y. K Mishra - Bihar (India); Tribes of Ancient History 1977, p 18, Mamata Choudhury - Ethnology; Tribal Coins of Ancient India, India, xxiv, Devendra Handa - Coins, Indic - 2007; The Journal of the Numismatic 2007, p of India, 1972, p 221, Numismatic Society of India - Numismatics Society 4. . ^ A History of PIli Literature, 2000 Edition, p 648 B. C. Law & Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, pp 230-253, Dr B. C. Some 5. Law. ^ Anguttara Nikaya: Vol I, p 213, Vol IV, pp 252, 256, 260 6. ^ Digha Nikaya, Vol II, p etc. 7. ^ Chulla-Niddesa (P.T.S.), p 200. 8. ^ Lord MahIvIra and his times, 1974, p 197, Dr Kailash Chand Jain; 37. History and Culture of the Indian People, 1968, p lxv, Dr Ramesh Chandra The Bharatiya Majumdar, Vidya Bhavan, BhIratIya ItihIsa Samiti; Problems of Ancient India, p 7, 2000,K. D. Sethna. 9. ^ Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 86; History & Culture ndianof People, Age of Imperial Unity, p 1510. ^ Jataka No 406. 16 11. ^ Revue des etudes grecques 1973, p 131, Ch-Em Ruelle, Association l'encouragement des etudes grecques en pour 12. France. Early Indian Economic History, 1973, pp 237, 324, Rajaram ^ Saletore. Narayan 13. ^ Myths of the Dog-man, 199, p 119, David Gordon White; Journal of Oriental Institute, 1919, p 200; Journal of Indian Museums, 1973, p 2, the Association of India; The PIradas: A Study in Their Coinage and History, Museums 52, Dr 1972, pB. N. Mukherjee - PIradas; Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, 50, Rabindra Bharati University, Dept. of Sanskrit- Sanskrit literature; 1989, p Journal of Academy of Indian Numismatics & Sigillography, 1988, p 58, Academy The of ndian Numismatics and Sigillography - Numismatics; Cf: Rivers of Life: Or and Streams of the Faiths of Man in All Lands, 2002, p 114, J. G. R. Sources 14. Forlong.Journal of the Oriental Institute, 1919, p 265, Oriental ^ (Vadodara, India) - Oriental studies; For Kuru-Kamboja connections, see Dr Institute Chakraberty's views in: Literary history of ancient India in relation to Chandra racial and linguistic affiliations, pp 14,37, Vedas; The Racial History of its 1944, India,p 153, Chandra Chakraberty - Ethnology; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p Qamarud Din Ahmed 330, 15. Pakistan. ^ Ancient India, History of India for 1000 years, four Volumes, Vol I, pp 38,1938, T. L. Shah. 98 Dr 16. '^ IMPORTANT NOTE: Ancient Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya's list Mahajanapadas includes the Gandhara and the Kamboja as the only two of Mahajanapadas in the Uttarapatha. However, the Chulla-Niddesa list (5th c salient which BCE), is one of the most ancient Buddhist Commentaries, includes the Kamboja Yona and but no Gandhara (See: Chulla-Niddesa, (P.T.S.), p.37). This shows that Chulla-Niddesa Commentary was written, the Kambojas in the Uttarapatha when predominant people and that the Gandharans, in all probability, formed part of were a Kamboja Mahajanapada around this time---thus making them a one people. the Arthashastra Kautiliya's (11.1.1-4) (4th c BCE) refers only to clans of the Kurus, Madrakas, Panchalas,Kambojas etc but it does not mention the Gandharas as separate from the Kambojas. The Mudrarakshasa Drama by Visakhadatta also refer to people Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Bahlikas and Kiratas but again it does the include the Gandharas in Chandragupta's army list. The well known Puranic not (told legendin numerous Puranas) of king Sagara's war with the invading tribes from north-west includes the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, and Paradas but the the Gandharas are not included in Haihayas's army (Harivamsa 14.1-19; e.g again Purana 88.127-43; Brahma Purana (8.35-51); Brahmanda Purana (3.63.123-141); Vayu Shiva

Purana (7.61.23); Vishnu Purana (5.3.15-21), Padma Purana (6.21.16-33) etc Again, etc). the Valmiki Ramayana --(a later list) includes Janapadas of Pundras, Andhras, Cholas, Pandyas, Keralas, Mekhalas, Utkalas, Dasharnas, Avantis, Vidarbhas, Mlecchas, Pulindas, Surasenas, Prasthalas, Bharatas, Abravantis, Madrakas, Kambojas, Daradas, Yavanas, Sakas (from Saka-dvipa), Rishikas, Kurus, Chinas, Maha-Chinas, Kiratas, Barbaras, Tanganas, Niharas, Pasupalas etc Tukharas, 4.43). Yet at another place in the Ramayana (I.54.17; I.55.2 seq ), the (Ramayana western north- martial tribes of the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas, Haritas/Tukharas, Barbaras and Mlechchas etc joined the army of sage Kiratas, during the Vasishtha battle of Kamdhenu against Aryan king Viswamitra of Kanauj. In both references in the Ramayana, the Kambojas are conspicuously mentioned in the the of north-western frontier peoples, but no reference is made to the Gandharas lists the or Daradas. Yaska in his Nirukta (II.2) refers to the Kambojas but not to Gandharas. Among the several unrighteous barbaric hordes (opposed to Aryan the Vikarmaditya), Brhat Katha of Kshmendra (10.1.285-86) and Kathasaritsagara king Somadeva (18.1.76-78) each list the Sakas, Mlechchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, of Hunas, Tusharas, Parasikas etc but they do not mention the Gandharas. Vana Neechas, of Mahabharata states that the Andhhas, Pulindas, Sakas, Kambojas, Parva Valhikas, Yavanas, Aurnikas and Abhiras etc will become rulers in Kaliyuga and will the ruleearth (India) un-righteously(MBH 3.187.28-30). Here there is no mention Gandhara since it is included amongst the Kamboja. Sabha Parava of of enumerates Mahabharatanumerous kings from the north-west paying gifts to Pandava Yudhistra at the occasion of Rajasuya amongs whom it mentions the king Vairamas, Kambojas, Paradas, Pulindas, Tungas, Kiratas, Pragjyotisha, Yavanas, Nishadas, Aushmikas,Romikas, Vrishnis, Harahunas, Chinas, Sakas, Sudras, Abhiras, Valhikas, Tukharas, Kankas etc etc (Mahabharata 2.50-1.seqq). The lists does Nipas, include the Gandharas since they are counted as the same people as the not Kambojas. of Krsna digvijay, the Mahabharata furnishes a key list of twentyn context ancient Janapadas viz: Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vatsa, five Karusha, Pundra, Avanti, Dakshinatya, Parvartaka, Dasherka, Kashmira, Garga, Pishacha, Mudgala, Kamboja, Vatadhana, Chola, Pandya, Trigarta, Malava, and Ursa, (MBH 7/11/15-17). Besides, there were Janapadas of Kurus and Panchalas Darada nterestingly, no mention is made to Gandhara in this list. Again in another also. its well known Shlokas, the Mahabharata (XIII, 33.20-23; XIII, 35, 17-18), of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Dravidas, Kalingas, Pulindas, Usinaras, lists Mekalas, Sudras, Mahishakas, Latas, Kiratas, Paundrakas, Daradas etc as Kolisarpas, Vrishalas/degraded Kshatriyas (See also: Comprehensive History of India, the 190, p 1957,K. A. N. Sastri). It does not include the Gandharas in the list though in another similar shloka (MBH 12.207.43-44), the same epic now brands the yet Kambojas, Yavanas, Gandharas, Kiratas and Barbaras (Yauna Kamboja Gandharah barbaraih) etc as Mlechcha tribes living the lives of the Dasyus or Kirata Barbarians. Thus in the first shlokas, the Gandharas and the Kambojas the definitely treated as one people. The Assalayana-Sutta of Majjima Nakaya says are in the frontier lands of the Yonas a, Kambojas and other nations, there are that two onlyclasses of People...Arya and Dasa where an Arya could become Dasa and varsa vice- (Majjima Nakayya 43.1.3). Here again, the Gandharas are included among the Kambojas as if the two people are same. Rajatarangini definitively Kalhana, a Sanskrit text from the north, furnishes a list of northern of which king Lalitaditya Muktapida (Kashmir) (8th c AD) undertakes to reduce in nations dig-vijaya expedition. The list includes the Kambojas, Tukharas, Bhauttas his Baltistan in western Tibet), Daradas, Valukambudhi, Strirajya, Uttarakurus (in Pragjyotisha respectively, but no mention of Gandharas (Rajatarangini: and 4.175). 4.164- Apparently the Gandharas are counted among the Kambojas. Sikanda (Studies in the Geography, 1971, p 259-62, Sircar, Hist of Punjab, 1997, p 40, Purana L. Dr M. Joshi and Dr Fauja Singh (Editors)), contains a list of 75 countries which among it includes Khorasahana, Kuru, Kosala, Bahlika, Yavana, Kamboja, Sindhu, Kashmira, Jalandhara (Jullundur), Hariala (Haryana), Bhadra Siva, Kachcha, (Madra), Saurashtra, Lada, Magadha, Kanyakubja, Vidarbha, Kirata, Gauda, Nepala

etc but no mention of Gandhara in this list of 75 countries. Kavyamimasa Rajasekhara (880-920 AD) also lists 21 north-western countries/nations of of Saka, Kekaya, Vokkana, Huna, Vanayuja, Kamboja, Vahlika, Vahvala, Lampaka, the Kira, Tangana, Tushara, Turushaka, Barbara, Hara-hurava, Huhuka, Kuluta, Hamsamarga (Hunza), Ramatha and Karakantha etc but no mention of Gandhara Sahuda, Darada (See: Kavyamimasa, Rajashekhara, Chapter 17; also: Kavyamimasa or Kedarnath, trans. K. Minakshi, pp 226-227).. Here in both the lists, the Editor and Gandharas are also treated as the Kambojas. The Satapancasaddesavibhaga Daradas Saktisagama Tantra (Book , Ch VII, 1-55) lists Gurjara, Avanti, of Vidarbha, Maru, Abhira, Virata, Pandu, Pancala, Kamboja, Bahlika, Malava, Khurasana, Cina, Maha-Cina, Nepala, Gauda, Magadha, Utkala, Huna, Kirata, Surasena, Kaikeya, Kuru Saindhava, Kachcha among the 56 countries but the list does include the Gandharas and Daradas. Similarly, Sammoha Tantra list also contains not nations and lists Kashmira, Kamboja, Yavana, Sindhu, Bahlika, Parsika, 56 Saurashtra, Malava, Maharashtra, Konkana, Avanti, Chola, Kamarupa, Kerala, Barbara, etc but Simhala no mention of Daradac and Gandhara (See quotes in: Studies in 1971, p 78, Geography, D. C. Sircar; Studies in the Tantra, pp 97-99, Dr P. C. Obviously, the Daradas and Gandharaa are included among the Kambojas. Raghu Bagchi). by Kalidasa refers to numerous tribes/nations of the east (including the Vamsa Vangas, Sushmas,Utkalas, Kalingas and those on Mt Mahendra), then of the south Pandyas, Malaya, Dardura, and Kerals), then of the west (Aprantas), and then (including the of north-west (like the Yavanas, the Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas) finally those of the north Himalayan (like the Kirats, Utsavasketas, and Pragjyotishas) etc etc (See: Raghuvamsa IV.60 seq). Here again no mention of Kinnaras, Gandharas though Raghu does talk of the Kambojas. And last but not the least, the the evenwell known Manusmriti, the Hindu Law Book, refers to the Kambojas, Shakas, Yavanas,Paradas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas, Daradas and Khasha besides also Paundrakas, Chodas, Dravidas but surprisingly enough, it does not make any the of the mentionGandharas in this very elaborate list of the Vrishalah (Manusamriti X.43-44). The above references amply demonstrate that the Ksatriyas were many Gandharas times counted among the Kambojas themselves as if the were one and same the people. Thus, the Kambojas and the Gandhara do seem to have been a people. cognate 17. ^ There are also several instances in the ancient literature where reference has been made only to the Gandharas and not to the Kambojas. In the cases, these the Kambojas have obviously been counted among the Gandharas 18. ^ Kalimpur Inscriptions of Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal (770-810 AD) themselves. the nations around his kingdom as the Bhoja (Gurjara), Matsya, Madra, lists Avanti, Gandhara and the Kira (Kangra) which he boasts of as if they are Kuru, vassal states. From Monghyr inscriptions of king Devapala (810 - 850AD) his successor of king Dharmapalal, we get the list of the nations as Utkala the Pragjyotisha (Assam), Dravida, Gurjara (Bhoja), Huna and the Kamboja. These (Kalinga), the are nations which cavalry of Pala king Devapala is said to have scoured during war his expeditions against these people. Obviously the Kamboja of the inscriptions of king Devapala here is none else than the Gandhara of the Monghyr inscription of king Dharamapala. Hence, the Gandhara and the Kamboja are Kalimpur interchangeably in the records of the Pala kings of Bengal, thus indicating used to be them same group of 19. ^ people. James Fergusson observes: "In a wider sense, name Gandhara implied all countries west of Indus as far as Candhahar"(The Tree and Serpent Worship, the 47, James Fergusson). 2004, p 20. ^ Encyclopedia Americana, 1994, p 277, Encylopedias and 21. ^ Ptolemy's Geography mentions Tambyzoi located in eastern Bactria Dictionaries. ndia (Ancient as Described by Ptolemy: Being a Translation of the Chapters ... 268, John Watson McCrindle - Geography, Ancient; Barrington Atlas of the Greek 1885, p Roman World, History - 2000, p 99,(Editors) Richard J.A. Talbert) and and people located to south of Hindukush Mountains(Geography 6.18.3; See map Ambautai McCrindle, p 8). Dr S Levi has identified Tambyzoi with Kamboja (Indian in Antiquary,

1923, p 54; Pre Aryan and Pre Dravidian in India, 1993, p 122, Dr Sylvain Lvi, Jean Przyluski, Jules Bloch, Asian Educational Services) while land of Dr has also Ambautai been identified by Dr Michael Witzel (Harvard University) with Kamboja Sanskrit(Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, Vol. 5,1999, issue 1 Dr. M. Witzel; Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian (September), 2005, p History,257, Laurie L. Patton, Edwin Bryant; The Indo-Aryans of Ancient Asia: : Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity, 1995, p 326, George South 22. Erdosy. MBH VII.4.5; II.27.23. ^ 23. ^ See: Problems of Ancient India, 2000, p 5-6; cf: Geographical Data in Early the Puranas, p 168. 24. ^ MBH II.27.27. 25. ^ Vedic Index I, p 138, Dr Macdonnel, Dr 26. ^ Ethnology of Ancient BhIrata 1970, p 107, Dr Ram Chandra Keith. 27. ^ The Jain. Journal of Asian Studies 1956, p 384, Association for Asian Far Eastern Association Studies, 28. (U.S.). BalocistIn: siyIsI kashmakash, muzImirIt va ^ 1989, p 2, nIt AImad ruj MarrI. MunIr 29. ^ India as Known to ini: A Study of the Cultural Material in AshdhyIyI 1953, p 49, Dr the Vasudeva Sharana P 30. Agrawala. ^ Afghanistan, p 58, W. K. Fraser, M. C. 31. ^ Afghanistan, its People, its Society, its Culture, Donal N. Wilber, Gillet. p 80, 1962, 311 etc. 32. ^ Iran, 1956, p 53, Herbert Harold Vreeland, Clifford R. 33. ^ Geogramatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Revisions Barnett. the Best Books..., 1953, p 49, Dr Peggy Melcher, Dr A. A. McDonnel, Dr of Kanta, Surya Dr Jacob Wackmangel, Dr V. S. 34. ^ Geographical and Economic Studies in the MahIbhIrata: UpIyana Parva, Agarwala. p 33, 1945, Dr Moti Chandra 35. India.^ A Grammatical Dictionary of Sanskrit (Vedic): 700 Complete Reviews of ..., 1953, p 49, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala, Surya Kanta, Jacob the Arthur Anthony Macdonell, Peggy Melcher Wackernagel, 36. India.^ MBH 7/91/39. 37. ^ Arthashastra 11/1/4. 38. ^ Ashtadhyayi IV.1.16839. ^ Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 175. and Parts I p 52, Dr Kashi Prasad Jayaswal - Constitutional history; ., 1955, Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, PrIcIna JiyIlIla KImboja - Kamboja Dr Retrieved from (Pakistan). Magadh "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanapadas" F arom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia from Magadha (Redirected Jump to: Empire) navigation, search The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century History of South BC Asia Stone before 3300 Age BCMehrgarh 70003300 Culture n BCdus Valley 33001700 Civilization BCLate Harappan 17001300 Culture Vedic BC 2000600 Civilization BC

ron 12001 Age BCMaha 700300 Janapadas BCMagadha 684424 Empire Nanda BC 424-321 Empire BCMaurya 321184 Empire BCSunga 185-73 Empire BCKanva 75-26 Empire BCKharavela 209170 Empire BCKuninda 200s KingdomBC300s ADIndo-Scythian 200 BC400 Kingdom ADChera 300 BC1200 Kingdom ADChola 300 EmpireBC1279 ADPandyan 250 BC1345 Kingdom ADSatavahana 230 EmpireBC220 ADIndo-Greek 180 BC10 Kingdom Middle AD 1AD1279 Kingdoms ADIndo-Parthian 21130s Kingdom ADWestern Satrap 35405 Empire ADKushan 60240 Empire ADIndo-Sassanid 230360 Kingdom ADVakataka 250500 Empire ADKalabhras 250600 Kingdom ADGupta 280550 Empire ADPallava 275800 Kingdom ADKadamba 345525 Empire ADWestern Ganga 3501000 Kingdom ADVishnukundina 420-624 Empire ADHuna 475-576 Kingdom ADChalukya 543753 Empire AD

 Harsha 590-647 Empire ADShahi 565-670 Kingdom ADEastern Chalukya 624-1075 Kingdom Pratihara AD 6501036 Empire ADPala 7501174 Empire ADRashtrakuta 753982 Empire ADParamara 8001327 Kingdom ADYadava 8501334 Empire ADSolanki 9421244 Kingdom ADWestern Chalukya 9731189 Empire ADHoysala 10401346 Empire ADSena 10701230 Empire ADEastern Ganga 10781434 Empire ADKakatiya 10831323 Kingdom ADKalachuri 11301184 Empire s ADlamic 12061596 Sultanates ADDelhi 12061526 Sultanate ADDeccan 14901596 Sultanates Ahom AD 12281826 Kingdom Vijayanagara AD 13361646 Empire Mysore AD 13991947 Kingdom Mughal AD 15261858 Empire Madurai Nayak AD 1559 1736 Kingdom Thanjavur Nayak AD 15721918 Kingdom Maratha AD 16741818 Empire SikhAD 17161799 Confederacy SikhAD 17991849 Empire Company rule in AD 17571858 India British AD 18581947 India AD

Partition of 1947 India Nation AD Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan histories Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri India Lanka Regional Assam Bihar Balochistan histories Himachal Pradesh Orissa Pakistani Bengal Punjab Regions South India Tibet Specialised Coinage histories Dynasties Economy Language Literature ndology Military Science and Technology Maritime Timeline This box: view talk edit Magadha (Sanskrit: ) formed one of the sixteen MahIjanapadas (Sanskrit Countries") or regions"Great in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagaha (modern Rajgir) of Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and then with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively,[1] followed by much Bengal eastern Uttar Pradesh. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is mentioned in of Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas. It is also heavily mentioned in Buddhist and the texts. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the AtharvaJain where Veda they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats despised peoples. Two of India's major religions started from Magadha; two as ndia's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated of Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, from astronomy, religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "Golden mathematics, The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community Age". Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs of Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, called military and Content functions. [ shide ] 1 Geography 2 History 3 Magadha Dynasties o 3.1 Brihadratha dynasty o 3.2 Pradyota dynasty o 3.3 Haryanka dynasty o 3.4 Nanda dynasty o 3.5 Maurya dynasty o 3.6 Sunga dynasty o 3.7 Kanva dynasty o 3.8 Gupta dynasty 4 Kings of Magadha o 4.1 Brihadratha Dynasty o 4.2 Pradyota dynasty o 4.3 Hariyanka dynasty (545 BC-346 o 4.4 BC) Shishunaga dynasty (430-364 o 4.5 BC) Nanda Dynasty (424-321 o 4.6 BC) Maurya Dynasty (324-184 o 4.7 BC) Shunga Dynasty (185-73 o 4.8 BC) Kanva Dynasty (73-26 BC)

4.9 Gupta Dynasty (c. 240-550 5 References AD) 6 See also

[edit] Geography The Magadha state circa 600 BC, before it The kingdom of the Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern districts of expanded and Gaya in southern Bihar, and parts of Bengal in the east. It was bounded on Patna north by the river Ganga, on the east by the river Champa, on the south by the Vindhya mountains and on the west by the river Sona. During the Buddhajs time the onward, its boundaries included and [edit] Anga. There is History little certain information available on the early rulers of Magadha. most The important sources are the Puranas, the Buddhist Chronicles of Sri Lanka, other Jain and Buddhist texts, such as the Pali Canon. Based on these sources, and appears that Magadha was ruled by the Haryanka dynasty for some 200 years, c. it BC 684- 424 Siddhartha Gautama himself was born a prince of Kapilavastu in Kosala around BC. BC, 563 during the Haryanka dynasty. As the scene of many incidents in his including his enlightenment, Magadha is often considered a blessed land. life, Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, King Anga in what is now West conquering The death of King Bimbisara was at the hands of his son, Prince Ajatashatru. Bengal. Pasenadi, king of neighboring Kosala and brother-in-law of King Bimbisara, King the gift of the Kashi province and a war was triggered between Kosala and retook Ajatashatru was trapped by an ambush and captured with his army. However, Magadha. Pasenadi allowed him and his army return to Magadha, and restored the province King Kashi. King Pasendi also gave his daughter in marriage to the new young of Accounts differ slightly as to the cause of King Ajatashatru's war with king. Licchavi republic, an area north of the river Ganges. It appears that the sent a minister to the area who for three years worked to undermine the unity Ajatashatru the of Licchavis. To launch his attack across the Ganga River (Ganges), built a fort Ajatashatru at the town of Pataliputra. Torn by disagreements the Licchavis many with tribes that fought with Ajatshatru. It took fifteen years for Ajatshatru defeat them. Jain texts tell how Ajatashatru used two new weapons: a catapult, to a covered chariot with swinging mace that has been compared to a modern and Pataliputra began to grow as a center of commerce and became the capitol tank. Magadha after Ajatashatru's of The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shishunaga dynasty. The last ruler death. Shishunaga Dynsty, Kalasoka was assainated by Mahapadma Nanda in 424 BC, the of of the first so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons). The Nanda ruled for about 100 Dynasty n 326 years. BC, the army of Alexander the Great approached the boundaries of Magadha. The army, exhausted and frightened at the prospect of facing the giant Indian army at the Ganges, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas) another refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his and Coenus, officer,was persuaded that it was better to return and turned south, his way down the Indus to the conquering Around Ocean. 321 BC, the Nanda Dynasty ended and Chandragupta became the first king the of great Mauryan Dynasty and Mauryan Empire with the help of Vishnugupta. Empire later extended over most of Southern Asia under King Asoka, who was The first known as 'Asoka the Cruel' but later became a disciple of Buddhism at became known as 'Dhamma Asoka'. Later, the Mauryan Empire ended and the and Empire Gupta began. The capital of the Gupta Empire remained Pataliputra, in [edit] Magadha Magadha. Brihadratha Dynasty, Pradyota Dynasty, IiIunIga Dynasty ruled Magadha from Dynasties 684 -

424 BC. Afterwards the Nanda Dynasty, Maurya Dynasty, Sunga Dynasty, Dynasty, Gupta Dynasty expanded beyond Kanva Amongst Magadha.the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha rose to prominence under a number dynasties that peaked with the reign of Asoka Maurya, one of India's of legendary and famous most [edit] Brihadratha emperors. Main article: Legendary Kings of dynasty According to the Puranas,the Magadha Empire was established by the Magadha Dynasty, who Brihadratha was the sixth in line from Emperor Kuru of the Bharata through dynasty his eldest son Sudhanush. The first prominent Emperor of the branch of Magadhan Bharathas was Emperor Brihadratha. His son Jarasandha appears in legend popularand is slain by Bhima in the Mahabharatha. Vayu Purana mentions that Brihadrathas ruled for 1000 the [edit] years. Pradyota Main article: Pradyota dynasty The Brihadrathas were succeeded by the Pradyotas who according to the Vayu dynasty ruled Puranafor 138 years. One of the Pradyota traditions was for the prince to kill father to become king. During this time, it is reported that there was high his in Magadha. The people rose up and elected Haryanka to become the new king, crimes destroyed the power of the Pradyotas and created the Haryanka dynasty. Due in which to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to part emergence of the Haryanka the [edit] dynastyHaryanka Main article: Haryanka dynasty According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 dynasty whose capital was Rajagriha, later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna. BC, dynasty lasted till 424 BC, when it was overthrown by the Nanda dynasty. This period saw the development of two of India's major religions that started This Magadha. Gautama Buddha in the 6th or 5th century BC was the founder of from which later spread to East Asia and South-East Asia, while Mahavira revived Buddhism, propagated the ancient sramanic religion of Jainism. Bimbisara was responsible and expanding the boundaries of his kingdom through matrimonial alliances for conquest. The land of Kosala fell to Magadha in this way. Bimbisara (543-493 and was imprisoned and killed by his son Ajatashatru (ruled 491-461 BCE) who BCE ) became his successor, and under whose rule the dynasty reached its largest then Licchavi extent. was an ancient republic which existed in what is now Bihar state ndia, since the before the birth of Mahavira (b. 599 BC),[2][3] Vaishali was of capital of the Licchavis and the Vajjian Confederacy. Its courtesan, Ambapali, the famous for her beauty, and helped in large measure in making the was prosperous[4]. Ajatashatru went to war with the Licchavi several city Ajatashatru, is thought to have ruled from 491-461 BCE and moved his capital time. the of Magadha kingdom from Rajagriha to Patliputra. Udayabhadra eventually his father, Ajatashatru, under him Patliputra became the largest city in succeeded world the [ .edit] Nanda Main article: Nanda dynasty Dynasty The Nanda Empire at its greatest The Nanda dynasty was established by an illegitimate son of the king Mahanandin extent the of previous Shishunaga dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88, ruling bulk the of this 100-year dynasty. The Nandas are sometimes described as the empire first builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and to extend it to yet more distant frontiers. The greatest extent of the empire wished led was by Dhana Nanda. The Nandas were followed by the Maurya [edit] Maurya dynasty. Main article: Maurya dynasty Empire

The Maurya Empire at its greatest extent(Asoka's n 321 empire)BC, exiled general Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya dynasty overthrowing the reigning Nanda king Dhana Nanda to establish the Maurya after During Empire.this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by government Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not the conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into only and Central Asia, conquering the Gandhara region. Chandragupta was succeeded Persia his by son Bindusara, who expanded the kingdom over most of present day barring India, the extreme south and east. The Buddhist stupa at Sanchi, built during the Mauryan The only region that was not under the Mauryan's were present day Tamil Nadu period Kerala (which was a Tamil kingdom then). There are references in one of the and Tamil oldestSangam literature, Purananuru, that a Mauryan army was driven out unified Tamil army under the leadership of Ilanchetchenni, a Chola King. by a unified Tamil force is supposed to be broken by King Kharavela, a Kalinga This as per ruler, one of his The kingdom was inherited by his son Ashoka The Great who initially sought inscriptions. expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion to Kalinga, he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of non-violence or of after ahimsaconverting to Buddhism. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest historical preserved documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under Ashoka was responsible of the for proliferation of Buddhist ideals across the whole of East Asia and SouthAsia, East fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a Ashoka whole. the Great has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world seen has . Extent of the Sunga [edit] Empire Sunga Main article: Sunga dynasty The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about fifty years after Empire death, when the king Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was Ashoka's by the then assassinatedcommander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra while Sunga,he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga ascended the then [edit] throne.Kanva Main article: Kanva dynasty The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty, and ruled in the eastern part dynasty of ndia from 71 BC to 26 BC. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of by Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their the dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the southern former swept power away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror. Following the collapse of was Kanva dynasty, the Satavahana dynasty of the Andhra kingdom replaced the the kingdom as Magandhan the most powerful Indian [edit] state. Gupta Main article: Gupta dynasty Empire The Gupta Empre under Chandragupta II (ruled 375The 415)Gupta dynasty ruled from around 240 to 550 AD. The Gupta Empire was one of largest political and military empires in ancient India. The Gupta age is the referred

to as the Classical age of India by most historians. The time of the Gupta was an Empire Indian "Golden Age" in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion philosophy. They had their capital at Pataliputra. The difference between and and Mauryan administration was that the in the Mauryan administration power Gupta centralised but in the Gupta administration power was more decentralised. The was occupied a powerful and important position and often took titles to assert king supremacy. A council of ministers and some officials helped him. The empire his divided into provinces and provinces were further divided into districts. was were the Villages smallest units. The kingdom covered Gujarat, North-east India, eastern south- Pakistan, Orissa, northern Madhya Pradesh and eastern India. Art architecture flourished during the Gupta age. People were mostly and Temples devoted to Shiva and Vishnu were built during this period. Early Vaishnavas. had a large room where the idol of god was kept. Today these can be found temples Deogarh in Jhansi. Temples were mostly made of brick or stone. The doorways in very were decorative. Wall murals flourished during this age.These can be seen Ajanta caves which are about 100 km from Aurangabad. These murals depict the in of Buddha.Yajnas were performed by Brahmins. All forms of worship were carried life in outSanskrit. Astronomy made rapid strides. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were great Astronomers and Mathematicians. Aryabhatta stated that the earth moved two the sun and rotated on its own Axis. Metallurgy too made rapid strides. Proof round the is Iron Pillar near Mehrauli on the outskirts of Delhi. Ayurveda was known to people of Gupta age. People lived in a happy and prosperous life. Most the lived peoplein villages and led a simple life. Rest houses and hospitals were set Laws up. were simple and punishments were not very harsh. However there was a flaw. The bad, inhuman treatment of the Chandalas or Untouchables. They were serious to live outside the city and even their shadows were considered capable made polluting. The material sources of this age were Kalidasa's works i.e of Meghdoot, Malavikagnimitram and Abhinjnana Shakuntalam, works of FaRaghuvamsa, Chinese hein,thebuddhist scholar, Allahabad pillar inscription called Prayag Books by Prashsti,Harisena and [edit] others.Kings of [edit] MagadhaBrihadratha Semi-legendary rulers in Purana Dynasty accounts. Brihadratha Jarasandha Sahadeva Somapi (1678-1618 BC) Srutasravas (1618-1551 BC) Ayutayus (1551-1515 BC) Niramitra (1515-1415 BC) Sukshatra (1415-1407 BC) Brihatkarman (1407-1384 Senajit (1384-1361 BC) BC) Srutanjaya (1361-1321 BC) Vipra (1321-1296 BC) Suchi (1296-1238 BC) Kshemya (1238-1210 BC) Subrata (1210-1150 BC) Dharma (1150-1145 BC) Susuma (1145-1107 BC) Dridhasena (1107-1059 BC) Sumati (1059-1026 BC) Subhala (1026-1004 BC) Sunita (1004-964 BC) Satyajit (964-884 BC) Biswajit (884-849 BC) Nipunjaya (849-799 BC) [edit] Pradyota dynasty

Ruling 799-684 BC according to calculations based on the Vayu needed] Purana[citation Pradyota . Palaka Visakhayupa Ajaka Varttivarddhana [edit] Hariyanka dynasty (545 BC-346 Bimbisara (545-493 BC), founder of the first Magadhan empire[5] BC) Ajatashatru (493-461 BC) [6] Darshaka (from 461 BC) UdayBhadra Anurudhra Mund NagDasak [edit] Shishunaga dynasty (430-364 Shishunaga (430 BC), established the kingdom of BC) Kakavarna (394-364 BC) Magadha Kshemadharman (618-582 BC) Kshatraujas (582-558 BC) Kalasoka Mahanandin (until 424 BC), his empire is inherited by his illegitimate Mahapadma Nanda son [edit] Nanda Dynasty (424-321 Mahapadma Nanda (from 424 BC), illegitimate son of Mahanandin, founded BC) Nanda the Empire after inheriting Mahanandin's empirePandhuka Panghupati Bhutapala Rashtrapala Govishanaka Dashasidkhaka Kaivarta Dhana (Agrammes, Xandrammes) (until 321 BC), lost his empire to MauryaChandragupta defeated by after being [edit] Maurya Dynasty (324-184 him Chandragupta Maurya (Sandrakottos) (324-301 BC), founded the Mauryan BC) after Empire defeating both the Nanda Empire and the Macedonian Seleucid EmpireAmritrochates (301-273 BC) Ashoka Vardhana (Ashoka the Great) (273-232 BC), considered the ancient Indian emperor, first emperor to unify India (after conquering most greatest South Asia and Afghanistan), adopt Buddhism, grant animal rights and promote of violence, a secular administrator,often called the emperor of all non ages. Dasaratha (232-224 BC) Samprati (224-215 BC) Salisuka (215-202 BC) Devavarman (202-195 BC) Satadhanvan (195-187 BC), the Mauryan Empire had shrunk by the time of reign his Brihadrata (187-184 BC), assassinated by Pusyamitra [edit]Shunga Dynasty (185-73 Shunga BC) Pusyamitra Shunga (185-149 BC), founded the dynasty after Brihadrata assassinating Agnimitra (149-141 BC), son and successor of Vasujyeshtha (141-131 BC) Pusyamitra Vasumitra (131-124 BC) Andhraka (124-122 BC) Pulindaka (122-119 BC)

 Ghosha Vajramitra Bhagabhadra, mentioned by the Devabhuti (83-73 BC), last Sunga Puranas [edit]king Kanva Dynasty (73-26 BC) Vasudeva (from 73 BC) Successors of Vasudeva (until 26 [edit]BC) Gupta Dynasty (c. 240-550 Sri-Gupta I (c. 240-290) AD) Ghatotkacha (290-305) Chandra Gupta I (305-335), founder of the Gupta Empire, which is regarded as the golden age of Indian often Samudra Gupta (335-370) culture Rama Gupta (370-375) Chandra Gupta II (Chandragupta Vikramaditya) (375-415), son of Gupta,Samudra the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith under his reign, the Chinese Fa-Hsien pilgrim describes Indian culture during his reign Kumara Gupta I (415-455) Skanda Gupta (455-467) Kumara Gupta II (467-477) Buddha Gupta (477-496) Chandra Gupta (496-500) Vainya Gupta (500-515) Narasimha Gupta (510-530) Kumara Gupta III (530-540) Vishnu Gupta (c. 540-550) [edit] 1. References ^ Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass SBN 81-208-0436-8. Publ. 2. ^ "Licchavi", Encyclopedia Britannica 3. ^ Vaishali, Encyclopedia Britannica Online 4. ^ Vin.i.268 Online 5. ^ Rawlinson, Hugh George. (1950) A Concise History of the Indian OxfordPeople, University Press. p. 6. ^ Muller, F. Max. (2001) The Dhammapada And Sutta-nipata, Routledge (UK). 46. xlvii.p. ISBN 0-7007-1548-7. [edit] See also iIunIga dynasty Nanda dynasty Middle kingdoms of India Timeline Northern EmpiresISouthern Northwestern : Dynasties Kingdoms 6th century 5th BCE century BCE century 4th BCE 3rd century 2nd BCE century BCE 1st century BCE century 1st CE 2nd century 3rd 4th century century 5th century

6th century 7th 8th century century 9th 10th century 11th century Magadha Shishunaga dynasty century Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Harsha Pala Empire Solanki Sena dynasty

Satavahana empire Pandyan Cholas Chera Kalabhras Kadamba Dynasty Pallava Chalukya Rashtrakuta

Western Chalukyas Hoysala Empire Gandhara (Persian (Greek rule) conquests) ndo-Greeks ndo-Scythians ndo-Parthians Kushan Empire ndo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom ndo-Hephthalites

(Islamic invasions) Shahi (Islamic empires

Nanda From Wikipedia, the free Dynasty (Redirected encyclopedia from Nanda Jump to: Empire) navigation, search The Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 The BC. Nanda Empire originated from the kingdom of Magadha in Ancient India the 5th during and 4th centuries BC. At its greatest extent, the Nanda Empire from Bihar and Bengal in the East to Sindh and Balochistan in the West.[1] extended Nanda Empire was later conquered by Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the The Empire Maurya C .ontent [ shide 1 Establishment of the ] 2 Nanda dynasty Rule 3 The Fall 4 List of Nanda rulers 5 See Also 6 Footnotes [edit] Establishment of the Mahapadma Nanda has been described as the destroyer of all the Kshatriyas. dynasty defeated the Ikshvaku dynasty, Panchalas, Kasis, Haihayas, Kalingas, He Kurus, Maithilas, Surasenas, Vitihotras, etc. He expanded his territory till Asmakas, of Deccan. Mahapadma Nanda died at the age of 88 and, therefore, he ruled the south of the period of this dynasty, which lasted 100 bulk The Nandas who usurped the throne of the Shishunaga dynasty were of low years. Some sources state that the founder, Mahapadma, was the son of a Shudra origin. others mother,that he was born of a union of a barber with a courtesan. Nandas were first of a number of dynasties of northern India who were of nonthe origin.[citation kshatriya [edit] needed]Nanda The RuleNandas are sometimes described as the first empire builders of India. inherited the large kingdom of Magadha and wished to extend it to yet more They frontiers. To this purpose they built up a vast army consisting of distant infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at 200,000 lowest estimates).[2] According to Plutarch however, the size of the Nanda the was armyeven larger, numbering 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 war and 6,000 chariots, war elephants. However, the Nandas never had the opportunity to their army up against Alexander, who invaded India at the time of Dhana see since Nanda,Alexander had to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab, for forces, frightened by the prospect of facing a formidable foe, mutinied at his Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River) refusing to march any further. This the thus rivermarks the eastern-most extent of Alexander's conquests: Asia in 323BC, showing borders of the Nanda Empire in relation to Empire and Alexander's "As for the neighbors. Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do courage repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two to horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the thousand Ganges river also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered its multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that with kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty the horsemen, thousand two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand

fighting elephants."[3]. The Nandas made the methodical collection of taxes by regularly officials appointed a part of their administrative system. The treasury was replenished, continually the wealth of the Nandas being well-known. The Nandas also canals built and carried out irrigation projects. The possibility of an structure imperial based on an essentially agrarian economy began to germinate in ndian the [edit] The mind. The Falllast of the Nandas was Dhana Nanda (called Xandrames or Aggrammes in Greek and Latin sources). Dhana Nanda was dethroned after he was defeated ancient Chandragupta Maurya, a young adventurer born of a Nanda prince and a maid by "Mura". He had a great potential to rule. Dhana Nanda was murdered which named signaled finally the advent of the Maurya Empire in 321 Plutarch records that Chandragupta Maurya had stated that he was able to BC. Dhana Nanda since he was hated and despised by his subjects on account of overthrow wickedness of his the "Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are disposition: that told he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making master himselfof the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of baseness and low his [edit] List birth."[4] of Nanda rulersMahapadma Nanda (c. 424 BC Pandhuka ?) Panghupati Bhutapala Rashtrapala Govishanaka Dashasidkhaka Kaivarta Dhana Nanda (Argames) (? c. 321 The Puranas describe the duration of the Nanda dynasty as 100 BC) Preceded years. Shishunaga by Magadha dynasty Succeeded dynasties Maurya by dynasty [edit] See Middle kingdoms of Also India Timeline Northern EmpiresISouthern Northwestern : Dynasties Kingdoms 6th century BCE century 5th 4th BCE century BCE 3rd century BCE century 2nd BCE 1st century 1st BCE century CE 2nd 3rd century century 4th 5th century century 6th century

7th century 8th 9th century 10th century 11th Magadha century century Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Harsha Pala Empire Solanki Sena dynasty

Satavahana empire Pandyan Cholas Chera Kalabhras Kadamba Dynasty Pallava Chalukya Rashtrakuta

Western Chalukyas Hoysala Empire Gandhara (Persian (Greek rule) conquests) ndo-Greeks ndo-Scythians ndo-Parthians Kushan Empire ndo-Sassanids Kidarite Kingdom ndo-Hephthalites

(Islamic Shahi invasions) (Islamic empires) Maurya Empire

From Wikipedia, the free Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia "Ancient India" redirects here. For other uses, see Ancient search (disambiguation) India M .aurya Empire The Maurya Dynasty at its largest extent under Ashoka the Great. mperial The Lion Capital of Symbol: Ashoka Founde Chandragupta r Maurya Preceding The Nanda Dynasty of The State(s) Magadha Mahajanapadas Language S sanskri M tagadhi Pali Prakrit Other Prakrit Prakrits Religion H sistorical Vedic Buddhis religion J mainis mjIvik CarvIk Local a Deities Capita P lataliputr a Head of Samraat State (Emperor) First Chandragupta Emperor Maurya Last Brhadrat Emperor a Governmen C tentralized Absolute Monarchy with Divine Right of Kings as described in Arthashastr the a Division 4 Tosal s provinces: U ijjai S nuvarnagir T iaxil S aemi-independent Administratio tribes nnner Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad) under a Mahamantri with a assembly of ministers larger Extensive network of officials from treasurers (Sannidhatas) to (Mantrinomantriparisadamca). (Samahartas) and clerks collectors Provincial (Karmikas).administration under regional viceroys (Kumara or Aryaputra) with own Mantriparishads and supervisory officials their Provinces divided into districts run by lower officials and similar (Mahamattas). stratification

down to individual villages run by headmen and supervised by Imperial (Gopas) officials . Area 5 million kmk [1] (Southern Asia and parts of Central Asia) Populatio 5 n0 million [2] (one third of the world population [3]) Currenc S yilver Ingots (Panas) Existe 3 d22185 DissolutionMilitary coup by Pusyamitra BCE Sunga Succeeding stateISunga Empire The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive and powerful empire in ancientruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 ndia, Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern BC. eastern Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal) in the eastern side of the Indian the empire had subcontinent, its capital city at Pataliputra (near modern Patna). The Empire founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty was rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India and advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the taking westward by withdrawal Alexander the Great's Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the had fully occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conquering the satraps empire by left At its greatest extent, the Empire stretched to the north along the Alexander. boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. natural the To west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan and much of is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The what was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the Empire Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored emperors and forested regions near Kalinga (modern tribal The Mauryan Empire was one of the largest empires to rule the Indian Orissa). subcontinent. ts decline began fifty years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in 185 Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which Magadha. under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus was a I,Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and external trade, and agriculture and economic activities, all both and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient thrived of finance, administration and security. After the Kalinga War, the system experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka: India Empire prosperous and stable empire of great economic and military power whose was a influence political and trade extended across Western and Central Asia and Europe. ndia also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, Mauryan expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace and Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his of while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism was the foundation of the reign of social society, political peace and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored and spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia the Mediterranean and Chandragupta's minister Kautilya Chanakya wrote the Arthashastra, one of Europe. greatest treatises on economics, politics, foreign affairs, the military arts, administration,war, and religion ever produced in the India. Archaeologically, the

period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra and the Edicts of Ashoka are primary sources Polished written records of the Mauryan times. The Mauryan empire is considered one of of most the significant periods in Indian history. The Lion Capital of Asoka at is the emblem of Sarnath, Content India. [hide s ] 1 Background o 1.1 Chanakya and Chandragupta o 1.2 Conquest of Magadha Maurya o 1.3 Chandragupta Maurya o 1.4 Bindusara o 1.5 Asoka the Great 2 Administration 3 Economy 4 Religion o 4.1 Jainism o 4.2 Buddhism o 4.3 Brahmanism 5 Architectural remains 6 Natural history in the times of the 7 Contacts with the Hellenistic Mauryas o 7.1 Foundation of the world o 7.2 Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 Empire o 7.3 BCE)Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 7.3.1 BCE) Marital alliance 7.3.2 Exchange of 7.3.3 Exchange of presents ambassadors o 7.4 Greek populations in o 7.5 Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 India o 7.6 (206 BCE) BCE)Subhagsena and 8 Decline Antiochos o 8.1 Sunga coup (185 BCE) o 8.2 Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 9 See BCE) Also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links [edit] Alexander Backgroundset up a Greek-Macedonian garrison and satrapies (vassal states) in trans-Indus region of modern day Pakistan, ruled previously by kings Ambhi the Taxila and Porus of Pauravas (modern day of [edit] Chanakya and Chandragupta Jhelum). Main articles: Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya Maurya The court of Chandragupta Maurya, especially Chanakya, played an important part the in foundation and governance of the Maurya Following dynasty. Alexander's advance into the Punjab, a brahmin named Chanakya (real Vishnugupt, also known as Kautilya) traveled to Magadha, a kingdom that was name and militarily-powerful and feared by its neighbors, but was dismissed by its large Dhana, of the Nanda Dynasty. However, the prospect of battling Magadha king Alexander's troops from going further east: he returned to Babylon, and deterred deployed most of his troops west of the Indus river. When Alexander died reBabylon, soon after in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented, and local kings in their independence, leaving several smaller satraps in a disunited declared Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhana. The Greek generals Eudemus, and Peithon, state. ruled

until around 316 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who now was his advisor) surprised and defeated the Macedonians and consolidated region under the control of his new seat of power in the Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On Magadha. one the hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama (Poem of Rakshasa - Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Mudrarakshasa describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A Visakhadatta, tribe known as the Maurya's are referred to in the earliest Buddhist kshatriya Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without texts, historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts further "Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[4] He is as said also to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape. Chanakya's original intentions were to train a guerilla army under [5] command. The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina Chandragupta's Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king work sometimes Parvatka, identified with Porus (Sir John Marshall "Taxila", p18, and al.) Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up This Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Nepalese), of (Persians) Parasikas and Bahlikas (Bactrians)[6] [7] With [8]. the help of these frontier martial tribes from Central Asia, Chandragupta able was to defeat the Nanda/Nandin rulers of Magadha and found the powerful empire Maurya in northern [edit] India. Conquest of Main articles: Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda Dynasty, and Magadha Chanakya Magadha encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men of across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive from of king Dhana, plus resources necessary for his army to fight a long series rule battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, other of students of accomplishedChanakya, the representative of King Porus of Kakayee, his Malayketu, and the rulers of small son Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya hatched a plan. A battle was announced states. the and Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt engage of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the general which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to kingdom, over win popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to and went into Chandragupta, exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, prime to notthe Magadha dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely also Magadha affect and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of and Rakshasa Magadha. became Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position an of elder statesman. The approximate extent of the Magadha state in the 5th century The BCE.Nanda Empire at its greatest extent under Dhana Nanda circa 323 The BCE.Maurya Empire when it was first founded by Chandragupta Maurya circa 320 after BCE, conquering the Nanda Empire when he was only about 20 years Chandragupta extended the borders of the Maurya Empire towards Seleucid old. after Persiadefeating Seleucus circa 305 BCE. [9] Chandragupta extended the borders of the empire southward into the Deccan circa 300 BC. Plateau [10] Ashoka the Great extended into Kalinga during the Kalinga War circa 265 BCE, and

established superiority over the southern [edit] Chandragupta kingdoms. Main article: Chandragupta Maurya Approximate Dates of Mauryan Maurya Dynasty Empero Reign startReign r end Chandragupta 322 Maurya 298 BCE BCE Bindusar 2 a97 BCE 272 BCE Asoka The 273 BCE Great 232 BCE Dasarath 2 a32 224 BCE BCE Samprat 2 i24 BCE 215 BCE Salisuk 2 a15 202 BCE BCE Devavarma 2 n02 BCE 195 BCE Satadhanva 1 n95 187 BCE BCE Brihadrath 1 a87 BCE 185 BCE ndian postage stamp depicting Chandragupta Chandragupta was again in conflict with the Greeks when Seleucus I, ruler of Maurya Seleucid Empire, tried to reconquer the northwestern parts of India, the campaign during a in 305 BCE, but failed. The two rulers finally concluded a peace a marital treaty (Epigamia) was concluded, implying either a marital treaty: between alliancethe two dynastic lines or a recognition of marriage between Greeks and ndians, Chandragupta received the satrapies of Paropamisade (Kamboja Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan), and and received 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his Seleucus I against victory western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. relations Diplomaticwere established and several Greeks, such as the historian Deimakos and Megasthenes, Dionysius resided at the Mauryan Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex court. administration

at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers (and) rivaled the splendors of wall Persian sites such as Susa and Ecbatana." Chandragupta's son Bindusara contemporaneous the rule extended of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. He also had a ambassador at his court, named Deimachus (Strabo 1 Greek Megasthenes describes a disciplined multitude under Chandragupta, who live 70). honestly, and do not know simply, " The Indians all live frugally, especially when in camp. They dislike a writing: undisciplined multitude, and consequently they observe good order. Theft is great very rare occurrence. Megasthenes says that those who were in the camp of Sandrakottos, wherein lay 400,000 men, found that the thefts reported on any of day one did not exceed the value of two hundred drachmae, and this among a people have who no written laws, but are ignorant of writing, and must therefore in all business of life trust to memory. They live, nevertheless, happily enough, the simple being in their manners and frugal. They never drink wine except at Their beverage is a liquor composed from rice instead of barley, and their food sacrifices. principally a rice-pottage." Strabo XV. i. 53-56, quoting is [edit] Megasthenes[11] Main article: Bindusara [edit] Asoka the Bindusara Main Greatarticle: Ashoka the Great Emperor Ashoka The Chandragupta's grandson was Ashokavardhan Maurya, better known as Ashoka the Great (ruled Great 273- 232 As a BCE).young prince, Ashoka was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in and Taxila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Ujjain superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Empire's which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Although Ashoka's army Kalinga in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an succeeded 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including estimated 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were over affected adverselyby the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse, and he cried 'what have I the Although done?'. the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings Gautama Buddha, and renounced war and violence. For a monarch in ancient of this was an historic times, Ashoka feat. implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in sports ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labor and servitude). While warmaintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain he Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and authority, sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building he across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka campaign of onethe most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains idealized figure of inspiration in modern an The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. India. from as Ranging far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although District), written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek, and one in both Greek predominantly Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as and forming peoples a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The sent precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such edicts Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) as Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism. The Edicts and accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being also miles), about 7 corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece

(roughly 4,000 miles). [12] A representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was erected around 250 BCE. the emblem of t is India. Statuettes of the Maurya period, 4th-3rd century BCE. Muse Guimet. The distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka.[13] is a concrete indication of extent of Ashoka's rule. To the West, it went as far as Kandahar (where the the were written in Greek and Aramaic), and bordered the contemporary Edicts metropolis Hellenisticof Ai Khanoum. [edit] Administration Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd century British BCE. The Empire was divided into four provinces, which one of the four, look Museum. giant like acrescents. with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in edicts, west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas the council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the and level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of imperial Historians Ministers).theorize that the organization of the Empire was in line with extensive bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a the civil service sophisticated governed everything from municipal hygiene to international The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to trade. been have the largest standing army of its time[citation needed]. According Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 to and 9,000 cavalry, war elephants. A vast espionage system collected intelligence for internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare both expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, and protect the Empire and instill stability and peace across West and South to [edit] Asia. Economy Silver punch mark coin of the Mauryan empire, with symbols of wheel and 3rd century elephant. For BCE.the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with allowed agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of increased many small kingdoms, armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave to waya disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally-administered collection strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in and Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, the a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service and justice providedand security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains wiped sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental who revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways in enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to newfound political unity and internal to peace. Mauryan cast copper coin. Late 3rd century BCE. British Museum.

Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern an of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically-important port of trade boundary intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in and Asia West became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods the textiles, spices and exotic foods. The Empire was enriched further with and exchange of scientific knowledge and technology with Europe and West Asia. an also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, Ashoka hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many overlycanals, administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop rigorous helped increase productivity and economic activity across the collection, n many Empire. ways, the economic situation in the Maurya Empire is comparable to Roman Empire several centuries later, which both had extensive trade the and both had connections organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had entities which organizational were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan had numerous private commercial entities which existed purely for India commerce. This was due to the Mauryas having to contend with pre-existing private commercial entities hence they were more concerned about keeping the support private these pre-existing organizations, while the Romans did not have such preof entities existing to contend with hence they were able to prevent such entities developing.[14] (See also Economic history of from [edit] India.) Religion Buddhist stupas during the Mauryan period were simple mounds without Butkara stupa, 3rd century BCE. decorations. [15] Buddhist proselytism at the time of king Ashoka (260-218 BCE). Balarama, holding mace and conch (lower right) on a Maurya coin. Balarama originally a powerful independent deity of Hinduism, and later became an avatar was Vishnu. 3rd-2nd century CE. British of Museum. Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Mounts. Grottoe of Lomas Richi. 3rd BCE. century [edit] Emperor Jainism Chandragupta Maurya became the first major Indian monarch to religious initiate atransformation at the highest level when he embraced religious Jainism, amovement resented by orthodox Hindu priests who usually attended imperial court. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and the possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a material of Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the disciple but self rigorous purifying Jain ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at Belagola Shravana in Karnataka. However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, preserved traditions and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, Hindu grandson of Ashoka also embraced Jainism. Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monk Arya Suhasti Suri and he is known to have built the Jain Temples across India. Some of them are still found in towns of 125,000 Viramgam, Ahmedabad,Ujjain & Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & middle-east for the spread of sent But till Jainism. date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a force vital under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta & Samprati, are credited for spread Jainism in Southern India. Lakhs of Jain Temples & Jain Stupas were erected of their duringreign. But due to lack of royal patronage & its strict principles, along

with rise of Shankaracharya & Ramanujacharya, Jainism, once the major religion southern India, of [edit] declined. But when Buddhism Ashoka embraced Buddhism, following the Kalinga War, he expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra renounced the on use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and and Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist daughter that he ideals adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka many sent Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and the construction of monasteries, schools and publication of Buddhist commissioned across the literature empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas ndia acrossi.e. Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity Buddhism in Afghanistan,Thailand and north Asian countries. Ashoka helped of the Third Buddhist Council of India and South Asia's Buddhist orders, near convene capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of his Buddhist the [edit] religion. While himself a Buddhist, Ashoka retained the membership of Brahmana priests Brahmanism ministers in his court, and he maintained religious freedom and tolerance and the Buddhist faith grew in popularity with his patronage. Brahmanic society although embracing the philosophy of ahimsa, and given the increased prosperity began improved law enforcement, crime and internal conflicts reduced dramatically. and greatly discouraged was the caste system and orthodox discrimination, Also Brahmanism began to absorb the ideals and values of Jain and Buddhist as Social freedom began expanding in an age of peace and teachings. [edit] Architectural prosperity. Main article: Edicts of remains Architectural remains of the Maurya period are rather few. Remains of a Ashoka building hypostylewith about 80 columns of a height of about 10 meters have been found Kumhrar, 5 km from Patna Railway station, and is one of the very few site that in been has connected to the rule of the Mauryas in that city. The style is reminiscent of Persian Achaemenid architecture. rather The [16]grottoes of Barabar Caves, are another example of Mauryan especially the architecture, decorated front of the Lomas Rishi grotto. These were offered the by Mauryas to the Buddhist sect of the Ajivikas. The [17]most widespread example of Maurya architecture are the Pillars of often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Ashoka, continent sub[ .edit] Natural history in the times of the The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of Mauryas Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity the ndia, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, its denizens and fauna in general is of in The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as a resource. For them, the most interest. forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not important upon only horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the of Seleucus, Alexander's governor of the Punjab. The Mauryas sought to defeat supplies preserve of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not and maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies only responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests: the On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded [18] foresters. The Superintendent should with the help of guards...protect by elephants whether along on the mountain, along a river, along lakes or in the tracts...They should kill anyone slaying an marshy elephant. The Mauryas Arthashastraalso designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as

well as lions and tigers, for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods also for safegrazing The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms cattle. instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest and with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. tribes employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and They animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless trap the Mauryas to guard their vast empire. enabled When [19] Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought significant changes in his style of governance, which included about protection providing to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first in history to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had ruler inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the rules example king's in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states: Our [19]king killed very few Edict on animals. Fifth However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than Pillar events; actual the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal royal conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in restrictions felling, hunting, fishing and setting fires in forests. [edit] Contacts with the Hellenistic [19] world Mauryan Statuette, 2nd Century [edit] Foundation of the BCE. Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning Empire the of Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with the Great, Alexander probably around Taxila in the "Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are northwest: that told he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making master himselfof the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62his [edit] 3[20] Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 310 Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories BCE) ruled by formerly the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have in Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or been son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure Peithon, Babylon in 316 for "India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if BCE. the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but shaking had he transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from the domination" Justin XV.4.12foreign "Later, 13[21] as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he wild remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, became a possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory." Sandracottos XV.4.19[22] Justin [edit] Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE) Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator, who fought Chandragupta Maurya, and later an alliance with made Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of him. former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories Alexander's as

far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), in 305 until BCE he entered in a confrontation with "Always lying Chandragupta: in wait for the neighboring nations, strong in arms and in council, persuasive he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and Cappadocia, adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, other that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that so Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to of Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars Seleucus". Though 55[23] no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared against poorly the Indian Emperor as he failed in conquering any territory, and in was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus fact, Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in and BCE, 305 Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to including southern Afghanistan and parts of Chandragupta, Accordingly, Seleucus obtained five hundred war elephants, a military asset Persia. would which play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 [edit] Marital BCE. t is generally thought that an alliance was made, and that a Greek alliance princess was bethrothed to the Maurya Dynasty.[9][24] Seleucid A matrimonial alliance was also agreed upon (called Epigamia in ancient [25] meaning sources,either the recognition of marriage between trans-Indus inhabitants Greeks, or a dynastic and "He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king alliance): the of Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship". an History Appian, of Rome, The Syrian Wars The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians 55[23] recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred was dynastic rulers or common people, or among [edit] both. Exchange of Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and ambassadors Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (Modern later in Bihar state). Later Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt Patna contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent and ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court. an [edit] Exchange of [26] Classical presents sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various and to aphrodisiacs "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in Seleucus: matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, such reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the by sent to Indians,Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter of His son 32[27] Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in sources as Classical having exchanged present with Antiochus "But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, I: Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that as Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it even Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and is dried some figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The figs dry and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" be [edit] Greek populations in XIV.67[28] Greek India populations apparently remained in the northwest of the Indian under Ashoka's rule. In his Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, some of them subcontinent written

in Greek, Ashoka describes that Greek populations within his realm converted Buddhism to " :Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, the people are everywhere following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma". Rock Edict (S. Nb13Dhammika). Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul (Click Museum.image for Fragments of translation).Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in Greek both and Aramaic has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this in Ashoka Edict, uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek translation for ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in the "Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made Prakrit: (the knowndoctrine of) Piety , Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he made men more pious, and ( everything thrives throughout the whole world. And has king the abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (are) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; (were) obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the and also past in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and happily". (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli more [edit] Buddhist missions to the West (c.250 [1]) BCE) Front view of the single lion capital in Also, in Vaishali.the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the as a recipient of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical period of this record event "The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six remain: yojanas hundred (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond where there the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri likewise (Edicts Lanka)."of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Ashoka also Dhammika). claims that he encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for and men animals, in their "Everywhere territories:within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the and the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos Satiyaputras, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-ofrules, Gods, the- King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical medical suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported herbs grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them and and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit imported humans and animals". 2nd Rock of The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation Edict Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, of described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active are Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, in [edit] Subhagsena and (206 XII[29]). Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan BCE) of the 3rd century BCE, described Antiochos ruler ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagsena or Subhashsena in Prakrit. His name in mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes[citation needed], and also in the list is the of Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu of Kush,

possibly in Gandhara. , the Seleucid king, after having made with Euthydemus in Bactria, went topeace in 206 BC and is said to have Antiochos India his friendship with the Indian king renewed "He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed there: friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more his until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned elephants, troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of his the duty Cyzicus of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over him". Polybius 11.39 to [edit] Ashoka Declinewas followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brhadrata, last the ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk from the time considerably of emperor Ashoka, although he still upheld the Buddhist [edit] faith. Sunga coup (185 Brihadrata was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade, by the BCE) in-chief of commander- his guard, the Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga, who then took the overthrone and established the Sunga dynasty. Buddhist records such as Asokavadana write that the assassination of Brhadrata and the rise of the the empire Sunga led to a wave of persecution for Buddhists,[30] and a resurgence Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall,[31] Pusyamitra may have been the of author of the persecutions, although later Sunga kings seem to have been main supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[32] and more Thapar,[33] among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favor of Romila allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent the magnitude of the atrocities have been and [edit] Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 exaggerated. Main BCE) article: Indo-Greek The fall kingdom of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of invasion foreign followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the up, and break- he conquered southern Afghanistan and Pakistan around 180 BC, forming ndo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the transthe region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under Indus Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings Menander became a famous figure them, Buddhism, he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of of However, Sialkot. the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in to subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of the successes against indigenous powers such as the Sungas, Satavahanas, and their are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed IndoKalingas brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained Scythians, in the lands trans-Indus, the region of Mathura, and Sunga Gujarat. From Wikipedia, the free Empire Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia For other uses of the term Sunga see Shunga search Shunga (disambiguation) Empire 185 BC75 BC Approximate greatest extent of the Sunga empire (circa 185 BCE). Capita P lataliputr V aidis a Language(s)Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali

Religio H ninduism/Buddhis m Governmen M tonarch y King - 185-151 Pusyamitra BC Sunga - 83-75 BCDevabhuti Historical Antiquit era y - Established 185 - Disestablished75 BC BC The Shunga Empire ) or Sunga Empire is a Magadha dynasty (Sanskrit: North-central and Eastern that controlled India as well as parts of the northwest Pakistan) from around 185 to 73 BCE. It was established after the fall of (now the ndian Maurya Empire. The capital of the Sungas was Pataliputra. Later kings as Bhagabhadra also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. such The [1] Sunga Empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and powers. Although very much isn't known, the Mathura school of art and the works indigenous Patanjali colored North India during this of Content empire. [ shide 1 Origins ] 2 Buddhism o 2.1 Support given 3 Wars of the Sungas 4 Cultural Contributions 5 Script 6 List of Sunga kings 7 See Also 8 Notes 9 References 10 See also 11 References 12 External links [edit] Origins Balustrade-holding Yaksa, Madhya Pradesh (?), Sunga period (2nd-1st century Musee BCE). The Shunga dynasty was established in 185 BCE, about 50 years after Guimet. death, when the king Brhadrata, the last of the Mauryan rulers, was Ashoka's by the then assassinatedcommander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga while [2], he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga ascended the then Pushyamitra Sunga became the ruler of the Magadha and neighbouring throne. The kingdom territories.of Pushyamitra was extended up to Narmada in the south, and Jalandhar controlledand Sialkot in the Punjab in the north-western regions, and the city Ujjain [3] in central India. The Kabul Valley and much of the Punjab passed of the intohands of the Indo-Greeks and the Deccan to the Satavahanas.

Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187-151 BCE). He was succeeded by Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by one of India's son playwrights, Kalidasa. Agnimitra was viceroy of Vidisha when the story greatest place. takes The power of the Sungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were Sunga ten The Sungas were succeeded by the Kanva dynasty around 73 kings. [edit] BCE. Buddhism Yaksa reliefs. Bharhut, 2nd century Main BCE. article: Pusyamitra See also: Decline of Buddhism in Sunga Following the Mauryans, the first Brahmin king was Pusyamitra Sunga, is India by some believedwriters with the persecution of Buddhists and a resurgence of that forced Brahmanism Buddhism outwards to Kashmir, Gandhara and Bactria.[4] However, is doubt as to whether he did persecute Buddhists actively.[4] According to there 2nd the century "Then King Pusyamitra equipped a fourfold army, and intending to destroy Ashokavadana: Buddhist religion, he went to the Kukkutarama. (...) Pusyamitra the destroyed therefore the sangharama, killed the monks there, and After some departed. time, he arrived in Sakala, and proclaimed that he would give a dinara hundredreward to whomever brought him the head of a Buddhist monk" Ashokavadana, 133, trans. John (Shramanas) [edit] Strong.Support Later given Sunga kings were seen as amenable to Buddhism and as having contributed the to building of the stupa at Bharhut. Some [5] writers believe that Brahmanism competed in political and spiritual with realmBuddhism[4] in the gangetic plains. Buddhism flourished in the realms of Bactrian kings. the Some [6] Indian scholars are of the opinion that the orthodox Sunga kings were intolerant towards Buddhism and that Buddhism prospered during the time of not Sunga kings. The existence of Buddhism in Bengal in the Sunga period can also the inferred from a terracotta tablet that was found at Tamralipti and is on be at the exhibitAsutosh Museum, University of An inspriction at Bodh Gaya at the Mahabodhi Temple records the construction Calcutta. the of temple as "The gift follows: of Nagadevi the wife of King Brahmamitra." So then this further that meansthe Sungas were in support of Buddhism (Barua, B.M., 'Old Buddhist Shrines Bodh-Gaya Inscriptions). Another inscription at "The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of reads: ndragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace King (Barua, B.M., 'Old Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya shrine "[2] Inscriptions). Cunningham has regretted the loss of the latter part of these important As regards the first coping inscription, he has found traces of eleven records. letters Brahmi after "Kuramgiye danam", the first nine of which read "rajapasadasa". Bloch reads these nine letters as "raja-pasada-cetikasa" and translates cetika expression in relation to the preceding this "(the words:gift of Kurangi, the wife of Indragnimitra the and mother of living sons), "to the caitya of the noble temple", taking the word raja (cetika) pasada before as an epithet on ornans, distinguishing temple as a particularly large and stately the similar buildingto such expressions as rajahastin 'a elephant', rajahamsa la goose (as distinguished noble hamsa from 'a duck'), etc." Cunningham has translated expression by "the royal palace, the the suggesting that "the mention of the raja-pasada caitya", would

seem to connect the donor with the king's Luders doubtfully suggests "to the king's temple" family," a asrendering of "raja-pasada[edit] Wars cetikasa." of the Sungas Vedika pillar with Greek warrior. Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh, Sunga Period, 80BC. c.100-Reddish brown sandstone.[7]Indian Museum, Calcutta War and conflict characterized the Sunga period. They are known to have (drawing). with the Kalingas, Satavahanas, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas warred Mathuras and T .he Shunga Empire's wars with the Indo-Greek Kingdom figure greatly in the of this history period. From around 180 BCE the Greco-Bactrian ruler Demetrius, the Kabul conquered Valley and is theorized to have advanced into the trans-Indus. The Greek Indo Menander is credited with either joining or leading a campaign Pataliputra with other Indian Kings; however, very little is know about the to nature exact and success of the campaign. The net result of these wars uncertain remains S .ome interpretations of the Mahabharata and Yuga Purana have attempted to for account The Anushasanaparava of the Mahabharata affirms that the city of Mathura was this: the joint control of the Yavanas and the Kambojas. under Also [8] the Hindu text of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical in the events form of a prophecy,[9] relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the Pataliputra, a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates capital to Megasthenes,[10] and describes the ultimate destruction of the city's according "Then, walls: after having approached Saketa together with the Panchalas and Mathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town the the of flower-standard", Pataliputra). Then, once Puspapura (another name Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud[-walls] cast down, all of realm will be in disorder." (Yuga Purana, Paragraph 47-48, 2002 the edition.) Bronze coin of the Sunga period, Eastern India. 2nd-1st century Pushyamitra is recorded to have performed two Ashvamedha Yagnas and Sunga BCE. inscriptions have extended as far as Jalandhar. Scriptures such as imperial Divyavadhana note that his rule extended even farther to Sialkot, in the the Moreover, if it was lost, Mathura was regained by the Sungas around 100 BCE (or Punjab. other indigenous rulers: the Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) and Yaudheyas by military mention victories on their coins ("Victory of the Arjunayanas", "Victory of Yaudheyas"), and during the 1st century BCE, the Trigartas, Audumbaras and the the Kunindas also started to mint their own coins). Accounts of battles finally the Greeks and the Sunga in Northwestern India are also found in between MlavikIgnimitram, a play by KIlidIsa which describes a battle between the cavalrymen and Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra, on the Indus river, Greek which the Indians defeated the Greeks and Pushyamitra successfully completed in Ashvamedha Yagna. the Nevertheless, very little can be said with great certainty. However, what [11] appear clear is that the two realms appeared to have established does diplomatic normalized relations in the succeeding reigns of their respective The Indo-Greeks and the Sungas seem to have reconciled and exchanged rulers. missions around 110 BCE, as indicated by the Heliodorus pillar, which records diplomatic dispatch of a Greek ambassador named Heliodorus, from the court of the Indothe king GreekAntialcidas, to the court of the Sunga king Bhagabhadra at the site Vidisha in central of [edit] India. Cultural Contributions

A relief from While there is much debate on the religious politics of the Sunga dynasty, it Bharhut. recognized for a number of contributions. Art, education, philosophy, and is learning flowered during this period. Most notably, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras other Mahabhasya were composed in this period. It is also noted for its and mention in subsequent the Malavikaagnimitra. This work was composed by Kalidasa in the Gupta period, and romanticized the love of Malavika and King Agnimitra, later background of court with a Artistry intrigue.on the subcontinent also progressed with the rise of the Mathura which is school, considered the indigenous counterpart to the more Hellenistic school of Gandhara Afghanistan and During the Pakistan. historical Sunga period (185 to 73 BCE), Buddhist activity also to survive somewhat in central India (Madhya Pradesh) as suggested by managed architectural expansions that were done at the stupas of Sanchi and some originally started under King Ashoka. It remains uncertain whether these Barhut, were worksdue to the weakness of the control of the Sungas in these areas, or a sign tolerance on their of The last of the Sunga kings was Devabhuti (83-73 BCE). He was assassinated by part. minister (Vasudeva Kanva) and is said to have been overfond of the company his women. The Sunga dynasty was then replaced by the subsequent of Kanvas. Sunga Yakshi, 2nd-1st century Sunga BCE.I masculine figurine (molded plate). 2nd-1st century Sunga BCE. woman with child. 2nd-1st century Sunga BCE. Yaksa. 2nd-1st century BCE. Sunga fecundity deity. 2nd-1st century Sunga BCE. fecundity deity. 2nd-1st century [edit] BCE. The script used by the Sunga was a variant of Brahmi, and was used to write Script Sanskrit language. The script is thought to be an intermediary between the the and the Maurya Kalinga brahmi scripts. [edit] List of Sunga [12] kings Pusyamitra Sunga (185 - 149 Agnimitra (149 - 141 BCE) BCE) Vasujyeshtha (141 - 131 Vasumitra (131 - 124 BCE) BCE) Andhraka (124 - 122 BCE) Pulindaka (122 - 119 BCE) Ghosha (?) Vajramitra (?) Bhagabhadra (?) Devabhuti (83 - 73 BCE) Kanva From Wikipedia, the free dynasty Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia The Kanva dynasty replaced the Sunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the search part of eastern India from 75 BCE to 26 BCE. The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed was kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of the former their dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. Little is known the Kanvas; however, their dynasty was brought to an end by the Satavahanas of about south the [ .edit] RulersVasudeva (c. 75 - c. 66 Bhumimitra (c. 66 - c. 52 BCE) Narayana (c. 52 - c. 40 BCE) Susarman (c. 40 - c. 26 BCE) BCE)

Kharavel F arom Wikipedia, the free Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia search Maximum extent of Kharavela ( ) Kalingan Empire: 2nd century B.C.E

Hathigumpha on Udayagiri Hills, Bhubaneswar Hathigumpha inscription of King KhIravela at Udayagiri Hills Khandagiri caves Kharavela ) (IAST: KhIravela, ) , Oriya: (?209 ( after 170 BCE) wasDevanagari: the greatest Oriya emperor of Kalinga, the ancient name Orissa state of India. The Chedi dynasty of Kalinga under the kingship of KhIravela ascended to eminence and restored the lost power and glory of of which was Kalinga, subdued since the devastating Kalinga war with Ashoka. All happened within a century of Ashokan era. The Kalingan military might these reinstated by Kharavela. Under Kharavela's generalship, the Kalinga kingdom was formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then Simhala had a Lanka), Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, Borneo, Bali, Sumatra and Jabadwipa (Java). (Sri religion side, though extremely liberal, Emperor KhIravela patronised On Jainism. Emperor Kharavela ) led many successful campaigns against Kingdoms ( Magadha, Anga, Satavahanasof and the then South Indian regions of Pandya present kingdom,Tamil Nadu state, and expanded Kalinga till the river Ganga in North and river Kaveri in South, with full West to East coverage. ) was Kharavela king of the Mahameghavahana dynasty. The main source of the third ( about Kharavela is his famous seventeen line rock-cut Hathigumpha inscription information cave in a in Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar in Content Orissa . [ shide 1 Introduction ] 2 Hathigumpha Inscription o 2.1 Salient features of the Hathigumpha 3 Minor Inscriptions of Inscription 4 Period Kharavela 5 Wars & Expeditions 6 Dynasty 7 Queens of Kharavela 8 Remembering Kharavela 9 See also 10 External links 11 References [edit] The chief source of information about emperor Kharavela is the Introduction inscription Hathigumpha at Udayagiri caves, near present Bhubaneswar city. According to inscription, Kharavela belonged to the Chedi clan, and was a lineal descendant the the of sage king Vasu. Apart from this eulogic descent amounting to a myth, historians have tried to speculate the origin of Kharavela. However, in absence several any of material evidence to the converse, Kharavela has been accepted as being an Odia from descent.

Etymologically, the name Kharavela is the prakrit transformation of Sanskrit word Ksharavela ). The first syllable KhIra ) is the (Devanagari: (Devanagari: corrupt form of KshIra ) meaning 'saltish'. The letter (Devanagari: Kh (Devanagari ) in the Hathigumpha inscription is the transformed : corrupt (Apabhramsha) form of kshI ). The second syllable, Vela means (Devanagari: 'wave' or ncidentally, in north-western part of India, there is a clan of Jats having 'shore'. clan name KhIrvel, which claims descent from the Emperor Kharavela, the during the originated north-western conquest of the emperor. Similarly, in history books Air () has been stated as a clan that originated from Nagavanshi ruler named Airawat. [1] However, deep and multi-disciplinary research is required to arrive at exact origin of the [edit] Hathigumpha Kharavela. This inscription, consisting of seventeen lines has been incised in deep Inscription Brahmi script on the overhanging brow of a natural cavern called cut Hathigumpha (Oriya: ) (Meaning in English: The Elephantjs Cave) in the southern side of the Udayagiri hills near present day Bhubaneswar. The inscriptions date back the to 1st Century BCE. It faces straight towards the rock Edicts of Asoka at which is Dhauli, situated at a distance of about six The inscription was first discovered/noticed by A. Stirling in 1820 who miles. an eye copy of it in Asiatic Researches, XV , as well as , in his book titled published Account, Geographical , Statistical and Historical of Orissa or An Thereafter, indologist and linguist James Princep succeeded in deciphering Cuttack. inscription. Subsequently, Princepjs reading along with a facsimile prepared the Kittoe was published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society Bengal, VI by According to Princep, the referred personality in the Hatigumpha inscription (1837). kinganamed mAiraj. Towards the end of 1871 A.D., a plaster cast of the was was prepared inscription by H. Locke, which is now preserved in the Indian Museum, Later, Alexander Cunningham published this inscription in 1877 in the Calcutta. Corpus nscriptionum Indicarrum Vol. I and in 1880 R.L. Mitra published a modified version in the book Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. slightly The II. first authentic reading of the inscription is credited to historian Lal Indraji. Indraji presented the novel approach before the Sixth Bhagwan Congress of Orientalists in 1885, which was widely accepted. Pandit Indraji International the was first scholar to declare that the King referred to and eulogised in Hathigumpha inscription was named Kharavela' and not Aira. However, there the large are a number of lacunae and faults (Both syntactical and physical deformities) the in inscription, which obstruct its correct reading and the mutilated condition the of inscription has given the space for rival claims and given rise controversies to [ .edit] Salient features of the Hathigumpha The Hathigumpha inscription starts with a version of the auspicious Jain Inscription Namokar Mantra: [] [] for in Jainism. The body-text mentions that: n the very first year of his coronation, (His Majesty) caused to repaired the gate, rampart and structures of the fort of Kalinga Nagari, which be been had damaged by storm, and caused to be built flight of steps for the cool and laid all gardens at the cost of thirty five hundred thousand mudra (coins) tanks thus and pleased all his subjects.the second year, without caring for Satakarni, (His Majesty) sent to n west a the large army consisting of horses, elephants, infantry and chariots, struck terror to Asikanagara with that troop that marched up to the and Kanhavemna. river

 Then in the fourth year, (His Majesty] .... the Vidhadhara tract, that been established by the former kings of Kalinga and had never been crossed had The Rathika and Bhojaka chiefs with their crown cast off, their umbrella and before. insignia thrown aside, and their Jewelry and wealth confiscated, were, made to royal obeisance at the feet (of His pay Majesty). in the fifth year, (His Majesty) caused the aqueducts that had And excavated by king Nanda three hundred years before, to flow into Kalinga been through Tanasuli. Nagri And in the seventh year of his reign [the Queen] of Vajiraghara, with ablessed son attained n the motherhood. 8th year of his reign, (His Majesty) attacked Rajagriha in and forced the Indo-Greek king Demetrius (described as the Yavana king Magadha raja") named Dimintao) to retreat to ("Yavana Mathura. the 12th year of his reign, he attacked the king of Uttarapatha. n broughtThen the holy idols of Kalinga's Jain Gods (The Blessed Tirthankars) back earlier Magadha rulers had carried away with them after Kalinga war in which Tirthankarjs idol was brought back with its crown and endowment and the Past. plundered by king Nanda from the Kalinga royal palace, along with the treasures jewels Anga and Magadha were of regained. Majesty) then attacked and vanquished the kingdom of Magadha, (His Pataliputra, the then capital of the Sunga, and made king "Bahasatimita" (May and Sunga be a king Bruhaspatimitra, or Pusyamitra himself) bow at his (His feet. Majestyjs) The inscription states that the Emperor Kharvela had a liberal religious Kharavela describes himself spirit. as: (Prakrit Language, Devanagari script) Translation: The worshipper of all religious orders, the restorer of shrines all of [edit] gods. Minor Inscriptions of Main article: Minor Inscriptions of Kharavela Besides the celebrated Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, there are Kharavela other minor inscriptions in the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri several which Caves,were deciphered earlier by Prof. R. D. Banerjee during the years (Epigraphic Indica - XIII) and subsequently by B. M Barua (Indian 1915-16 Quarterly-XIV). These minor inscriptions pertaining to Emperor Kharavela have Historical engraved in Brahmi script, prakrit language. Shri Sadananda Agrawal, been has given historian,details and clarifications about [edit] those. The dating of Kharavela's period has been highly debatable and controversial. Period has It been a formidable challenge to ascertain the correct date of ascendancy Kharavelajsand reign within a definite chronological frame The internal evidence from the Hathigumpha inscription, reasonably places the work. of emperor Kharavelajs reign in second half of the first century BC. An exact date bracketing has been unachievable at present. The exact time bracket of time emperor KalinganKharavela will continue to be controversial so long any corroborative evidences have not been other The Indian discovered.numismatist P.L. Gupta has suggested that the Hatigumpha inscription from the 2nd century CE:[2]: "The Hpthqgumphp inscription refers in line 8 is yavana-rpja, who fled to Mathura when he realized the might of Khpravela. The to a of the yavana-rpja bears three letters, of which the second letter may be name read as fairly ma or mi. It has been doubtfully restored as Dimita, meaning Demetrius the ndo-Greek king. But as early as 1951, I thought it to be Vimaka, meaning Kadphises. The Patna Museum has a plaster cast of this inscription, Vima personally examined when I was there as Curator. It confirms my which I There are some issues with this interpretation, since the stated facts are suggestion." the thatname consists of three letters, of which the second is mi or ma, and that king the is categorized as yavana, not kushan or tukhara, nor saka or pahlava. It is

otherwise unknown for a Kushan king to have been referred to as a yavana, and Vima for Kadphises to be referred to as Vimaka (expanded from Vema/Vima). Also, are palaeographic problems with dating the Hpthqgumphp text so late as there Kadphises (Reign 90s-110s CE). The period of 1st century BC, or Wema contemporary approximatelywith the Sanchi inscriptions from the reign of the Satakarni, Satavahana has been preferred by Indic script [edit] Wars & specialists. Expeditions t is revealed from Line-4 of the Hathigumpha inscription that Kharavela in second year of his reign dispatched a strong force comprising cavalry, the infantry and chariots to the western quarter without caring for or bothering elephants, SItakarnI, and the kingdom of Asikanagara was frightened of its (Kharavelajs about reaching the river army) . Some scholars prefer to read Masikanagara of Asikanagara and locate it insteadcoastal region of Andhra in the Kanhavem An article about Emperor Kharavela mentions about the rule of Kaswan in Pradesh. century of Vikram samvat. It has been mentioned in mHathi Gumpha and three 2nd inscriptionsj (page 24) in Sanskrit as other under: Sanskrit - AST kshatriyIn prIpt masika nagaraI. ca Translation: The city of 'Masiknagara' was captured with the help of KusawIn SahIyyatIvat Kshatriyas 'Kuswan' A .ccording to Sadananda Agrawal, interpretation of the city as Masikanagara is well-supported. not is commonly equated with the river Krishna flowing However, Krishna lies much to the south of Kalinga, Kanhavemin Andhra Pradesh.coastal and not west as averred in the epigraph ). But there is another (Devanagari: stream flowing to the west of Kalinga in Vidarbha and known locally at present Kanhan which flows about 17 km northwest of Nagpur and joins the river as (Wainganga), and it is the combined flow of these two streams that is spoken Vena Kanhave in our as The recentrecords. a seal belonging to the Asikajanapada in course of find of m archaeological excavations at Adam (Nagpur district) has solved also the intensive of locating the historical Asikanagara whose king or and people became problem at the arrival of Kharavela's army at frightful , as per the inscription. In view of the evidence of a highlyHatigumpha city unearthed prosperous Kanhavem Adam, Prof. A. M. Shastri is of the opinion that Adam itself represents at Asikanagara of Hathigumpha inscription. It is worth noting in the present the that a contextterracotta sealing having a legend, has been discovered from Adam, on the right bank of the river Wainganga, which reads Asakajanapadasa situated (Devanagari: ). The Hathigumpha inscription tells us that again in his fourth regnal Kharavela directed his invasion against the Satavahana territory. In course of year campaign the army of Kalinga marched headlong against the Rathikas and the who inhabited the western Deccan and whose chiefs might have been subordinates Bhojakas vassals under Satavahana king or Satakarni. likely that the Rathikas are to be located in southern t is quite region and adjoining Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh where a large number of coins Maharashtra some chiefs styled MahIrathi have been found in excavations. Likewise , as of the Bhojakas, it is not impossible that they flourished in the region of Goa regards adjoining parts of Karnataka where the Bhoja Kings are found a few and later. As centuries a result of this victory Kharavelajs suzerainty spread over the from land the eastern sea to western The sea.eighth regnal year of Kharavela, three years after his war in western heard India,the war trumpets of Kalinga blowing in direction of the Kharavela entered into the territory of Magadha and fought out north. engagement important with the army of that empire at Gorathagiri and stormed that fortress outlying which guarded Rajagrha, the former capital of Magadha. The strong was fortdemolished and Rajagrha was put to great trouble.

Gorathagiri has been identified with the modern Barabar hill in the Gaya in Bihar district state. In the Sabhaparva of the Mahabharata this hill has been to by the referred name Gorathagiri wherefrom Girivraja (Rajagrha) the capital of was surveyed by Krishna, Bhima and Arjuna on the way of their campaign Magadha Jarasandha against .t is worth nothing here that two small inscriptions are found engraved in hill, which read Gorathgiri and Goradhagiri respectively. While the former that to Asokan period the latter seems to be incised by one of the men who belongs accompanied Kharavela in this had campaign. that critical time that one Yavana King (Indo-Greek) who was then t was by occupation of Mathura was advancing against Magadha. The king's name has been in extremely doubtfully as "Dimita", and has been identified by many scholars read the withfamous Indo-Greek King Demetrius, son and successor of Euthydemus belonging 2nd to century n BC.commemoration of this victory over the Indo-Greeks and age old enemy Kharavela constructed the great victory palace in Kalinganagari at a cost Magadha, thirty eight hundred thousand coins which stood to personify in all its of the great grandeur victory a great The tenth conqueror.year witnessed another expedition towards north. According Hathigumpha inscription that year he caused his army much towards to Dr Sahu Bharatavarsha. In the remarks:epigraphic records of India the name Bharatavarsha appears for the time firstin Hathigumpha inscription. This name however, denoted to Northern India that by When the twelfth year of his reign dawned Kharavela marched against time. (Northwest UttarapathaIndia) with a vast army. This was his third onslaught against ndia, North forcing several chiefs to submission, who were very likely the IndoOn his return from Uttarapatha Kharavela planned for the final encounter Greeks. Magadha against and the Kalingan army encamped on the banks of the Ganges not far Pataliputra. The people of Magadha were struck with terror at the sight of off elephants and horses and Brhaspatimitra, the king of Magadha was humbled the Kharavela and made the Magadhan king touch his feet. Many renowned scholars by Brhaspatimitra with Pushyamitra, the founder of Sunga equate dynasty. t is worth nothing in the present context that for recording the events of reign Kharavela chose the Hathigumpha in the southern side of Udayagiri hill his faces which straight towards the Dhauli hill bearing Rock Edicts of Ashoka. In former hill we find the inscription of the victory of Magadha and in the the that of latter the victory of Kalinga. Kharavelajs inscription seems to have intended to counter affect Asokajs been Before his home ward march the monarch brought back from Magadha the greatest inscription. by andfar the most significant war trophy to his home land was the Original Idol Kalinga's Jain Tirthankars (Gods) Idol that adorned the spiritual realm of Magadha. This Kalinga Tirthankars (Jain God) was once the invaluable of property religiousof Kalinga but was carried away from Kalinga during the first wave of northern invasion under Mahapadmananda emperor of the Dr. N.K.Sahu aptly remarks about his expeditions: Thus within a short span of Magadha. years (form his 2nd to 12th regnal years.) Kharavela could achieve a series ten brilliant victories extending his suzerainty from the North-Western part of of to the India farthest extend in the South. T he political and military performances of Kharavela have, in fact, no parallel history and this great monarch fully justifies the epithet Chakravarti given in him to in the inscription of his chief He seems to have abandoned his throne in the 13th year of his reign, and queen. succeeded by his son was [edit] Kudepasiri. Dynastyfirst line of Hathigumpha inscription Kharavela styles himself n the AST-Airena MahIrIjena MahImeghavIhana ChetarIja vasa Vadhanena as KalimgIdhipatinI Siri xxx KhIravelan

(Devanagari : ) While the earliest scholar J. Princep and R. L. Mitra take the word Aira as name the of the king of Kalinga eulogised in the inscription, other few scholars inclined to take the word as dynastic name and connected the ancestry of are with the Kharavelapuranic Aila belonging to the lunar Kshatriya dynasty. Bhagwan ndraji is the first scholar to assert that the King whose activities Lal glorified in the inscription in named are t is a significant to note here that there is also no direct evidence Kharavela. Hathigumpha inscription to show that Kharavela belongs to Cedi Dynasty. The in meaning conveyed by this expression is that Kharavela was the son of only CetarIja (Devanagari ). : There is a small crack in the stone above the letter ) giving the impression ta ( of medial i. this crack misled some eminent scholars like R.D. Banerji and D.C. Sircar to decipher the word as Ceti ) and this conjectural (Devanagari: led the renowned scholars to hold the view that Kharavela belongs to Cedi reading But in no dynasty. way this can be accepted. It is pertinent to note in this context small that ainscription is found engraved in the Mancapuri Cave where King (one of the Kudepasiri successor of Kharavela) styled himself as Aira Maharaja Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana ). (Devanagari: has also been The King Sada styled himself as Maharaja Kalinga Mahisika Mahameghavahana. Both Kudepasiri and Sada, happen to be the successors Adhipati Kharavela, have never been stated in their respective inscription to be of to Cedi dysasty. It is significant that the word Aira has not been prefixed belonging the withname of The Vahana ending dynastic (and personal) names were quite popular during the Sada. centuries preceding. The meaning of Mahameghavahana is the great one riding few clouds. Dr. Sahu takes Maha as the prefix of Megha and opines: on literary means Mahameghavahanaone whose vehicle is great cloud. 17 of the Hathigumpha inscription Kharavela claims to have been n line from Rajarsi Vasu Kula. King Vasu recorded in Hathigumpha inscription can not descended taken as Cedi king. It is pertinent to note in the context that in be Meghavahana Mahabharata,as a dynastic name is found mentioned (Sabha Parva, XIV, 13) while same the epic preserves detailed accounts regarding the activities of Cedi Cedi and dynasty. Meghavahana have been flourished as two distinct dynasties since early times, so both the dynasties should not be the Cetaraja equated. was the father of Kharavela and it seems probable that he was immediate predecessor of Kharavela, belonging to be the second king in the Mahameghavahana line in the The line-7 of the Hathigumpha inscription indicates that the Queen of Kalinga. (Chief Queen Vajiraghara of Kharavela ?) gave birth to a son. Another inscription in the storey lower of the same caves informs us that it had been executed by the Aira Kalingadhipati Mahameghavahana Kudepasiri. In this cave another inscription Maharaja incised which reveals the name of Kumara Badukha. It is to be noted here is Kumara Badukha has not assumed any royal title. However, it is difficult to that sure of the relationship between Kharavela and Kudepasir. As no available be speaks record any thing more about prince Badukha, he stands an obscure figures, history but seems to be the son or brother in Mahiska country denoted the modern coastal Andhra (Guntur Krishna region) Kudepasiri. was apparently added to the Mahameghavahana kingdom at least during the reign which Maharaja of The Sada rule came to an end during end first century / early second century Sada. On basis of above discussion we can say that Kharavela belonged to A.D. Mahameghavahana

dynasty and the Genealogical chart of can be given as 1- Mahameghavahana 2- Cetaraja 3- Kharavela 4- Kudepasiri 5- Badukha 6under: 7-Mahasada Sadajs [edit] Queens of successors. The Hathigumpha inscription mentions that in the seventh year of his reign Kharavela Queen] of Vajiraghara was blessed with a son attained motherhood. Sometime [the his coronation the prince very probably married chief queen as per presence before essentially required in anointation ceremony. The chief queen, whose record was been has engraved in the upper storey of Mancapuri Cave, was the great-grand of Hastisimha and the daughter of king Lalaka or Lalarka. It is to be pointed daughter here out that not much is known about Hastisimha and Lalarka from any other source. We find mention of Lal ) as a gotra of Jats living in Muzaffarnagar district ( in Uttar Pradesh, India, who originated from mahapurusha ). The famous Lala ( stone inscription, now in (Pakistan), written in the year 122 of Saka Panjtar referse to one Lala, the protector of the Kushana dynasty of Maharaja ara, This Lala, Kanishka. was a Lalli Jat It also refers to the gift of two trees by one in the Moika eastern region of Kasua. That last word Kasua is the same as Kasuan name the of the Kushana clan (and territory) which is still existing. [3] R. [4]D. Banerjee has identified Vayiraghara with Wairagarh in present district of Maharastra, because in some medieval inscription this place is Chanda referred to as Vayirakara. However, Dr. M. K. Sahu identifies this place found Vajradantadesa mentioned in the Kamasutra of with King Kharavela is known to have two queens. Line-15 of the Haithgumpha Vatsyayana. refers to the queen of Simhapatha, who was very likely his second inscription Simhapatha may be same as Simhapura which was the capital of Kalinga during queen. rule the of the Matharas in the 4th century A.D. The place is identified with Singupuram in Srikakulam district of Andhra modern [edit] Remembering Pradesh. Kharavela Nagar is an important commercial district of Bhubaneswar and home to city's first mall. With the rise of industry, in particular IT and the education, the history of ancient Kalinga and in particular Kharavela is higher revived as Orissa's golden being Kuninda age. From Wikipedia, the free Kingdom Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia search Silver coin of the Kuninda Kingdom, c. 1st century Obv: BCE. Deer standing right, crowned by two cobras, attended by Lakshmi lotus flower. Legend in Prakrit (Brahmi script, from left to right): holding a Kunindasya Amoghabhutisya maharajasya ("Great King Amoghabhuti, of the Rajnah Rev: Stupa Kunindas").surmounted by the Buddhist symbol triratna, and surrounded swastika, a "Y" symbol, and a tree in railing. Legend in Kharoshti script, by a righ from to left: Rana Kunidasa Amoghabhutisa Maharajasa, ("Great King Amoghabhuti, the of The Kingdom Kunindas"). of Kuninda (or Kulinda in ancient literature) was an ancient Himalayan kingdom from around the 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century, located central the in modern state of Uttarakhand and southern areas of Himachal in northern The history of the kingdom is documented from around the 2nd century BCE. They India. mentioned in Indian epics and puranas. The Mahabharata relates they were are by defeated One of Arjuna.the first kings of the Kuninda was Amoghbhuti, who ruled in the valley of the Jamuna and Sutlej rivers (in today's Uttarakhand and mountainous Himachal southern in northern The Greek historian Ptolemy linked the origin of the Kuninda to the country India). the rivers Ganges, Yamuna, and Sutlej originate. where [1]

One the Edicts of Ashoka on a pillar is also present at Kalsi, in the region Garhwal, indicating the spread of Buddhism to the region from the 4th century of The BCE.Kuninda kingdom disappeared around the 3rd century, and from the 4th it seems century, the region shifted to Shaivite Content beliefs. [ shide 1 Coinage ] 2 Rulers 3 See also 4 External links 5 Notes [edit] There are two types of Kuninda coinage, the first one issued around the Coinage century BCE, and the second around the 2nd century CE. The first coins of 1st Kuninda were influenced by the numismatic model of their predecessor Indothe kingdoms, and incorporated Buddhist symbolism such as the triratna. These Greek typically follow the Indo-Greek weight and size standards (drachms, of about coins in weight and 19 mm in diameter), and their coins are often found together 2.14g with ndo-Greek coins in hoards, such as those of the Yaudheyas, or the They represent the first effort by an Indian to produce coins that could Audumbaras. with those of the Indocompare [edit] Greeks. RulersAmoghabhuti (late 2nd century-1st century ndo- BCE) From Wikipedia, the free Scythians Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia search ndo-Scythian Kingdom 200 BCE400 CE Territories (full line) and expansion (dotted line) of the Indo-Scythians at its Kingdomgreatest Capita extent. S liga T laxil M aathur a Language(s)Scythian Persian language Pali (Kharoshthi language Sanskrit, Prakrit (Brahmi script) Possibly script) Aramaic Religio B nuddhis A mncient Greek Hinduis religion Z moroastrianis m Governmen M tonarch y King - 85-60 BCE Maue s

- 10s Hajatri CE a Historical Antiquit era y - Established 200 - Disestablished400 BCE CE The Indo-Scythians are a branch of Sakas (Scythians), who migrated from Siberia southerninto Bactria, Sogdiana, Arachosia, Gandhara, Kashmir, Punjab, and parts into of Western and Central India, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan, from middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE. The first Saka king in the was Maues or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually India supremacy extended over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with last in 395 the Western Satrap The invasion of India by Scythian CE. Rudrasimha tribes from Central Asia, often referred to the as Indo-Scythian invasion, played a significant part in the history of India well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter as the in events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict Chinese tribes which had lasting effects on Bactria, Kabol, Parthia and India with well as far off Rome in the as The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, west. besides includedthe Sakas[1] other allied tribes, such as the Medii[2], Xanthii[3] Massagetae[5], Getae[6], Parama Kambojas, Avars, Bahlikas, Rishikas and [4], Content Paradas. [ shide 1 Origins ] o 1.1 Yuezhi expansion 2 Settlement in Sakastan 3 Indo-Scythian kingdoms o 3.1 Abiria to Surastrene o 3.2 Gandhara and Punjab 3.2.1 Sculpture 3.2.2 Bimaran casket o 3.3 Mathura area ("Northern o 3.4 Pataliputra Satraps") o 3.5 Kushan and Indo-Parthian o 3.6 Western Kshatrapas conquests 4 Indo-Scythian coinage legacy 5 Depiction of Indoo 5.1 Buner Scythians reliefs o 5.2 Stone palettes 6 The Indo-Scythians and o 6.1 Butkara Stupa Buddhism o 6.2 Gandharan sculptures o 6.3 Mathura lion capital 7 Indo-Scythians in Western 8 Indo-Scythians in Indian sources 9 Sai-Wang literature Scythian hordes of Chipin or 10 Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern Kipin 11 Evidence about joint India 12 Main Indo-Scythian invasions o 12.1 Northwestern India rulers o 12.2 Kshaharatas o 12.3 Apracarajas (Bajaur o 12.4 area)Paratarajas o 12.5 "Northern Satraps" (Mathura o 12.6 area)Minor local rulers

o o o o

12.7 Western Satraps 12.8 "Degraded Kshatriyas" from the 12.9 Military actions northwest 12.9.1 Ancient wars (1500500 12.10 Military alliance with Chandragupta (c 320 BC) 12.10.1 Invasion of India (c 180 BC) 12.10.2 Extinction BC) 12.10.3 Relation between the descendants of Indo13 Descendants of the IndoScythians 14 See also Scythians 15 Footnotes 16 References 17 External links

[edit] Main article: Origins Sakas A Scythian horseman from the general area of the Ili river, Pazyryk, c 300 BCE. The treasure of the royal burial Tillia tepe is attributed to 1st century Sakas in BCE Bactria. Bearded man with cap, probably Scythian, Bamiyan, 3rd4th The ancestors of the Indo-Scythians are thought to be Sakas (Scythian) centuries. originally settled in southern Siberia, in the Ili river tribes, [edit] area. Yuezhi expansion n the second century BCE, a fresh nomadic movement started among the Asian tribes, producing lasting effects on the history of Rome in Europe Central Bactria, Kabul, Parthia and India in the east. Recorded in the annals of the and dynasty and other Chinese records, this great tribal movement began after Han Yuezhi tribe was defeated by the Xiongnu, fleeing westwards after their defeat the creating a domino effect as they displaced other central Asian tribes in and path their A .ccording to these ancient sources Mao-tun of the Hsiung-nu tribe of attacked Mongolia the Yuezhi and evicted them from their homeland Kansu (Nan-shan). Leaving behind a remnant of their number, most of the population moved [7] and following the route north of Takla Makan, entered the lands of the westwards, Sakas of Issyk-kul Lake through the passes of Tien-shan. Unable to withstand Haumavarka assault, the Haumavarka Sakas allowed the Yue-chi to settle in their lands. In the years to come, the Haumavarka Sakas (Sakas of Wu-sun?) sought the help of the Hsiung-nu people and evicted the Yuethe Even chi. so, the initial clash with the invading Yue-chi caused a large group of Haumavarka Shakas to leave their ancestral home. These Sakas journeyed the Tashkent through and Ferghana (Sogdiana) (inhabited by the Sugud or Shulik tribe of the ranians) and occupied the Doab of Oxus and Jaxartes, also overrunning the parts of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.[8] Others suggest Tukhara (India and western Asia, 1955, p 125, P. C. Bagchi). D. C. Sircar reconciles the difference Central suggesting that Ta-hia referred to Tukhara and the eastern parts of by After being Bactria.[9] defeated and evicted by the joint forces of the Wu-sun and people, the Ta Yue-chis also moved southwards, overrunning in their path Hsiung-nu Rishikas, Parama-Kambojas, Lohas and other allied Scythian clans living in the Transoxian regions as far as Fargana. Many fled in a southwesterly direction the joined the Haumavarka Sakas in Bactria. The Yue-chi followed behind. Once and under again extreme pressure, the Sakas and other allied Scythian groups including Kambojas were forced to leave the Bactria.

They first tried to enter India via the Kabul valley but were vigorously by the opposedIndo-Greek powers there. Rebuffed, the clans turned westwards to Herat then and took a southerly direction, reaching Helmund valley (Sigal) in southAfghanistan, the region later called Sakasthan or Seistan. Some scholars west that this Indo-Scythian migration through Herat to Drangiana was accompanied believe groups of Kambojas (Parama-Kambojas), Rishikas and other allied tribes by Transoxiana that were also displaced by the Yuezhi.[10] from Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi tribes (probable related to the Tocharians) who [11] in eastern Tarim Basin area, were defeated by the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu or lived tribes, and fled west into the Ili river area. There, they displaced the Hun) who migrated south into Ferghana and Sogdiana. According to the Chinese Sakas, historical chronicles (who call the Sakas, ): "Sai"Yuezhi attacked the king of the Sai who moved a considerable distance to "The south and the Yuezhi then occupied his lands" (Han Shu 61 the Sometime after 155 BCE, the Yuezhi were again defeated by an alliance of the 4B). and the Xiongnu, and were forced to move south, again displacing the Wusun who migrated south towards Bactria, and south-west towards Parthia Scythians, Afghanistan and T .he Sakas seem to have entered the territory of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 145 BCE, where they burnt to the ground the Greek city of Alexandria on the around The Yuezhi remained in Sogdiana on the northern bank of the Oxus, but they Oxus. suzerains of the Sakas in Bactrian territory, as described by the became ambassador Zhang Qian who visited the region around 126 Chinese BCE. n Parthia, between 138124 BCE, the Sakas tribes of the Massagetae and came into conflict with the Parthian Empire, winning several battles, and Sacaraucae successively King Phraates II and King Artabanus killing The I. Parthian king Mithridates II finally retook control of Central Asia, first defeating the Yuezhi in Sogdiana in 115 BCE, and then defeating the Scythians by Parthia and Seistan around 100 in After BCE. their defeat, the Yuezhi tribes migrated into Bactria, which they were control for several centuries, and from which they later conquered northern to to found the Kushan Empire. The area of Bactria they settled came to be known India Tocharistan, since the Yuezhi were called Tocharians by the as [edit] Greeks.Settlement in Sakastan Map of Sakastan around 100 TheBCE. Sakas settled in areas of southern Afghanistan, still called after Sakastan. From there, they progressively expanded into the Indian them where they established various kingdoms, and where they are known as subcontinent, Scythians" "IndoT .he Arsacid emperor (c 12388/87 BCE) had scored many against the Mithridates Scythians and added many provinces to the Parthian empire,[12] successes apparently the Bactrian Scythian hordes were also conquered by him. A section and these people moved from Bactria to Lake Helmond in the wake of Yue-chi of and settled about Drangiana (Sigal), a region which later came to be pressure "Sakistana of the Skythian (Scythian) Sakai",[13] towards the end of first called BCE.[14] century The region is still known as Sakistan Seistan. or Seistan of Drangiana may not only have been the habitat of the alone Saka but may also have contained population of the Pahlavas and the Kambojas. The [15]Rock Edicts of King Ashoka only refer to the Yavanas, Kambojas and Gandharas in the northwest, but no mention is made of the Sakas, who immigrated the the in region more than a century later. It is thus likely that the immigrant populations who settled in Afghanistan did so among or near the Kambojas Saka nearby Greek cities.[16] Numerous scholars believe that during and immediately preceding Christian era, there had occurred extensive social centuries cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and and the

Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas etc.... such that their cultures and social had become almost customs The presence of the Sakas in Sakastan in the 1st century BCE is mentioned identical. by sidore of Charax in his "Parthian stations". He explained that they were at that time by Greek cities to the east (Alexandria of the Caucasus bordered Alexandria of the Arachosians), and the Parthian-controlled territory of and to the Arachosia "Beyond south: is Sacastana of the Scythian Sacae, which is also Paraetacena, 63 There are schoeni. the city of Barda and the city of Min and the city of Palacenti and city the of Sigal; in that place is the royal residence of the Sacae; and nearby the is city of Alexandria (and nearby is the city of Alexandropolis), and villages." Parthian stations, 18. six [edit] Indo-Scythian [17] kingdoms Asia in AD 1, showing the Indo-Scythians and their neighbors. Early anepigraphic coinage of the Indo-Scythians (c 110100 Obv: BCE).Horse walking right with her head turned Rev: back.Goddess Nike walking right. Control mark, possibly for Afghanistan Khandahar, [ .edit] Abiria to The first SurastreneIndo-Scythian kingdom in the Indian subcontinent occupied the part of southernPakistan (which they accessed from southern Afghanistan), in the from areasAbiria (Sindh) to Surastrene (Gujarat), from around 110 to 80 BCE. progressively further moved north into Indo-Greek territory until the conquests They Maues, c 80 of The BCE.1st century CE Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the territories Scythian "Beyond there: this region (Gedrosia), the continent making a wide curve from the across the depths of the bays, there follows the coast district of Scythia, east lies whichabove toward the north; the whole marshy; from which flows down the Sinthus, the greatest of all the rivers that flow into the Erythraean river bringing down an enormous volume of water (...) This river has seven mouths, Sea, shallow and marshy, so that they are not navigable, except the one in the very at which middle; by the shore, is the market-town, Barbaricum. Before it there small lies aisland, and inland behind it is the metropolis of Scythia, The Indo-Scythians ultimately established a kingdom in the northwest, based Minnagara."[18] Taxila, with two Great Satraps, one in Mathura in the east, and one in in (Gujarat) Surastrenein the southwest. n the southeast, the Indo-Scythians invaded the area of Ujjain, but subsequently repelled in 57 BCE by the Malwa king Vikramaditya. To commemorate were event Vikramaditya established the Vikrama era, a specific Indian the starting calendar in 57 BCE. More than a century later, in 78 CE the Sakas would invade again Ujjain and establish the Saka era, marking the beginning of the longSaka livedWestern Satraps kingdom. [edit] Gandhara and [19] Punjab A coin of the Indo-Scythian king . The Azespresence of the Scythians in north-western India during the 1st century was BCE contemporary with that of the Indo-Greek Kingdoms there, and it seems initially recognized the power of the local Greek they Maues first conquered Gandhara and Taxila around 80 BCE, but his rulers. disintegrated after his death. In the east, the Indian king Vikrama retook kingdom from the Indo-Scythians, celebrating his victory by the creation of the Ujjain Era (starting 58 BCE). Indo-Greek kings again ruled after Maues, and prospered, Vikrama as

indicated by the profusion of coins from Kings Apollodotus II and Not until Azes Hippostratos. I, in 55 BCE, did the Indo-Scythians take final control northwestern India, with his victory over of [edit] Hippostratos. Sculpture A toilet tray Several Sirkap. stone corresponding No4, found) in the were Marshall. of the type found in the Early Saka layer at sculptures have been found in the Early Saka layer (Layer to the period of Azes I, in which numerous coins of the latter ruins of Sirkap, during the excavations organized by John

The Bimaran casket, representing the Buddha surrounded by Brahma (left) and (right) was found inside a stupa with coins of Azes II inside. British Iakra Several Museum. of them are toilet trays (also called Stone palettes) roughly imitative earlier, and finer, Hellenistic ones found in the earlier layers. of comments Marshall that "we have a praiseworthy effort to copy a Hellenistic original obviously without the appreciation of form and skill which were necessary for but task". From the same layer, several statuettes in the round are also known, the very rigid and frontal in [edit] style. Bimaran Main article: Bimaran casket Azes II casket is connected to the Bimaran casket, one of the earliest representations the of Buddha. The casket was used for the dedication of a stupa in Bamiran, Jalalabad in Afghanistan, and placed inside the stupa with several coins of near AzesThis event may have happened during the reign of Azes II (3010 BCE), . slightly later. The Indo-Scythians are otherwise connected with Buddhism or Mathura lion capital), and it is indeed possible they would have commended (see work the [ .edit] Mathura area ("Northern Satraps") Coin of Rajuvula (c 10 CE), AE, Obv: Bust Mathura. of King Rajuvula, with Greek Rev: Pallas standing right (crude). Kharoshthi legend. legend. The Mathura lion capital is an important Indo-Scythian monument dedicated to Buddhist religion (British the Museum). n central India, the Indo-Scythians conquered the area of Mathura over kings around 60 BCE. Some of their satraps were Hagamasha and Hagana, who were Indian turn followed by the Saca Great Satrap in The Mathura lion capital, an Indo-Scythian sandstone capital in crude style, Rajuvula. Mathura in Central India, and dated to the 1st century CE, describes in from the gift of kharoshthi a stupa with a relic of the Buddha, by Queen Nadasi Kasa, the wife the of Indo-Scythian ruler of Mathura, Rajuvula. The capital also mentions genealogy of several Indo-Scythian satraps of the Rajuvula Mathura. apparently eliminated the last of the Indo-Greek kings Strato II 10 CE, around and took his capital city, The coinage of the period, such as that of Rajuvula, tends to become very Sagala. and barbarized in style. It is also very much debased, the silver content crude lower and becoming lower, in exchange for a higher proportion of bronze, an technique alloying (billon) suggesting less than wealthy The Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that Mathura fell under the finances. of the controlSakas. The inscriptions contain references to Kharaosta Kamuio and Kamuia. Aiyasi Yuvaraja Kharostes (Kshatrapa) was the son of Arta as is attested by own his coins.[20] Arta is stated to be brother of King Moga or Maues.[21] Aiyasi Kambojaka, also called Kambojika, was the chief queen of Princess Shaka

Mahakshatrapa Rajuvula. Kamboja presence in Mathura is also verified from verses of epic Mahabharata which are believed to have been composed around some period.[22] This may suggest that Sakas and Kambojas may have jointly ruled this Mathura/Uttara Pradesh. It is revealing that Mahabharata verses only attest over Kambojas and Yavanas as the inhabitants of Mathura, but do not make any the to the Sakas.[23] Probably, the epic has reckoned the Sakas of Mathura among reference Kambojas (J. L. Kamboj) or else have addressed them as Yavanas, unless the Mahabharata verses refer to the previous period of invasion occupation by the Yavanas around 150 the The BCE.Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the "Northern in opposition to the "Western Satraps" ruling in Gujarat and Malwa. Satraps", Rajuvula, several successors are known to have ruled as vassals to the After such as Kushans,the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara, who are from knownan inscription discovered in Sarnath, and dated to the 3rd year of (c 130 CE), in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushans. Kanishka [edit] [24] Pataliputra Silver coin of Vijayamitra in the name of Azes II. Buddhist triratna symbol in left the field on the reverse. Profile of the Indo-Scythian King Azes II on one of his The text of the Yuga Purana describes an invasion of Pataliputra by the coins. sometimes Scythians during the 1st century BCE, after seven great kings had ruled succession in Saketa following the retreat of the Yavanas. The Yuga in explains that the king of the Sakas killed one fourth of the population, before Purana was he himself slain by the Kalinga king Shata and a group of Sabalas (Sabaras). [edit] Kushan and Indo-Parthian [25] After the conquests death of Azes II, the rule of the Indo-Scythians in northwestern finally crumbled with the conquest of the Kushans, one of the five tribes of India Yuezhi who had lived in Bactria for more than a century, and were now the into India expanding to create a Kushan Empire. Soon after, the Parthians invaded from west. Their leader Gondophares temporarily displaced the Kushans and founded the ndo-Parthian Kingdom that was to last towards the middle of the 1st century the The Kushans ultimately regained northwestern India from around 75 CE, and the CE. of Mathura from around 100 CE, where they were to prosper for several area [edit] Western Kshatrapas centuries. legacy Coin of the Western Kshatrapa ruler Bhratadaman (278 to 295 CE), a descendant the of IndoMain article: Western Scythians. The Indo-Scythians continued to hold the area of Seistan until the reign of Kshatrapas (276293 CE), and held several areas of India well into the 1st Bahram Kathiawar and Gujarat were under their rule until the 5th century under millennium: designation of Western Kshatrapas, until they were eventually conquered by the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II (also called the The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kshmendra (10/1/285-86) informs us that around Vikramaditya). CE 400the Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had unburdened the sacred ofearthBarbarians like the Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, the Parasikas, Tusharas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinners The 10th century CE Kavyamimamsa of Raj Shekhar (Ch 17) still lists the completely. Tusharas, Vokanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Tangana, Turukshas, Shakas, together and states them as the tribes located in the Uttarapatha etc. [edit] Indo-Scythian division. coinage

Silver tetradrachm of the Indo-Scythian king Maues (8560 BCE). ndo-Scythian coinage is generally of a high artistic quality, although it deteriorates towards the disintegration of Indo-Scythian rule around 20 CE clearly of Rajuvula). A fairly high-quality but rather stereotypical coinage (coins continue in the Western Satraps until the 4th century would CE. ndo-Scythian coinage is generally quite realistic, artistically somewhere ndo-Greek and Kushan coinage. It is often suggested Indo-Scythian between benefited from the help of Greek celators coinage ndo-Scythian coins essentially continue the Indo-Greek tradition, by using (Boppearachchi). Greek language on the obverse and the Kharoshthi language on the reverse. the portrait of the king is never shown however, and is replaced by depictions of The king the on horse (and sometimes on camel), or sometimes sitting cross-legged cushion. The reverse of their coins typically show Greek on a Buddhist symbolism is present throughout Indo-Scythian coinage. In divinities. they adopted particular, the Indo-Greek practice since Menander I of showing forming the divinities vitarka mudra with their right hand (as for the mudra-forming Zeus the on coins of Maues or Azes II), or the presence of the Buddhist lion on the of the coins same two kings, or the triratana symbol on the coins of [edit] Depiction of IndoZeionises. Scythians Azilises on horse, wearing a Besides tunic. coinage, few works of art are known to indisputably represent Scythians. Indo-Scythians rulers are usually depicted on horseback in armour, Indothe but coins of Azilises show the king in a simple, undecorated, Several tunic. Gandharan sculptures also show foreigner in soft tunics, sometimes the typical Scythian cap. They stand in contrast to representations of Kushan wearing who men,seem to wear thicks, rigid, tunics, and who are generally represented much in a more simplistic manner. [edit] Buner [26] ndo-Scythian soldiers in military attire are sometimes represented in reliefs friezes in the art of Gandhara (particularly in Buner reliefs). They are Buddhist in ample depicted tunics with trousers, and have heavy straight sword as a weapon. wear They a pointed hood (the Scythian cap or bashlyk), which distinguishes them the fromIndo-Parthians who only wore a simple fillet over their bushy hair,[27] which is also systematically worn by Indo-Scythian rulers on their coins. With and right hand, some of them are forming the Karana mudra against evil spirits. the Gandhara, such friezes were used as decorations on the pedestals of In stupas. BuddhistThey are contemporary with other friezes representing people in Greek purelyattire, hinting at an intermixing of Indo-Scythians (holding military and Indo-Greeks (confined, under Indo-Scythian rule, to civilian power) Another life). relief is known where the same type of soldiers are playing instruments and dancing, activities which are widely represented elsewhere musical Gandharan art: Indo-Scythians are typically shown as reveling in devotees. ndo-Scythians pushing along the Greek god Dyonisos with Ariadne. [28] Hunting Hunting scene. Hunting scene. [edit] scene. Stone Main article: Stone palettes Numerous palette stone palettes found in Gandhara are considered as good of Indo-Scythian representatives art. These palettes combine Greek and Iranian influences, and often realized in a simple, archaic style. Stone palettes have only been found are archaeological layers corresponding to Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indoin rule, and Parthian are essentially unknown the preceding Mauryan layers or the Kushan layers. succeeding [29]

Very often these palettes represent people in Greek dress in mythological a few in scenes, Parthian dress (head-bands over bushy hair, crossed-over jacket on a chest, jewelry, belt, baggy trousers), and even fewer in Indo-Scythian bare (Phrygian hat, tunic and comparatively straight trousers). A palette found dress Sirkap and now in the New Delhi Museum shows a winged Indo-Scythian in riding winged deer, and being attacked by a horseman [edit] The Indo-Scythians and lion. Buddhism The Taxila copper plate records Buddhist dedications by Indo-Scythian (British rulers The Indo-Scythians seem to have been followers of Buddhism, and many of Museum). practices apparently continued those of the Indo-Greeks. They are known for their numerous Buddhist dedications, recorded through such epigraphic material as their Taxila copper plate inscription or the Mathura lion capital the [edit] Butkara inscription. Stupa Buddhist stupas during the late Indo-Greek/Indo-Scythian period were decorated structures with columns, flights of stairs, and decorative highly leave friezes. Butkara stupa, Swat, 1st century BCE. Acanthus [30] Possible Scythian devotee couple (extreme left and right, often described "Scytho-Parthian"[31]), around the Buddha, Brahma and as Excavation at the Butkara Stupa in Swat by an Italian archaeological team Indra. yielded various Buddhist sculptures thought to belong to the Indo-Scythian have period. n particular, an Indo-Corinthian capital representing a Buddhist devotee foliage has been found which had a reliquary and a coins of Azes II buried at within base, securely dating the sculpture to around 20 BCE.[32] A contemporary its with the pilaster image of a Buddhist devotee in Greek dress has also been found at same the spot, again suggesting a mingling of the two populations.[33] Various at the reliefssame location show Indo-Scythians with their characteristics tunics pointed hoods within a Buddhist context, and side-by-side with reliefs of and Buddhas. standing [edit] Gandharan [34] Other reliefs have been found, which show Indo-Scythian men with sculptures characteristic pointed cap pushing a cart on which is reclining the Greek their Dionysos with his consort god [edit] Mathura lion Ariadne. The Mathura lion capital, which associates many of the Indo-Scythian rulers capital Maues from to Rajuvula, mentions a dedication of a relic of the Buddha in a stupa. also bears centrally the Buddhist symbol of the triratana, and is also filled It mentions of the bhagavat Buddha Sakyamuni, and characteristically Buddhist with such phrases "sarvabudhana puya dhamasa puya saghasa as: "Revere all the Buddhas, revere the dharma, revere the puya" (Mathura sangha" lion capital, inscription O1/O2) ndo-Corinthian capital from Butkara Stupa, dated to 20 BCE, during the reign Azes II. Turin City Museum of Ancient of Art. Dancing Indo-Scythians (top) and hunting scene (bottom). Buddhist relief Swat, from Butkara door jamb, with Indo-Scythians dancing and reveling. On the back side Gandhara. relief of a standing is a Buddha[35] [edit] Indo-Scythians in Western sources

"Scythia" appears around the mouth of the river Indus and along the western of India, in the Roman period Tabula coast The presence of Peutingeriana. Scythian territory in northwestern India, and especially the mouth of the Indus is mentioned extensively in Western maps and around descriptions of the period. The Ptolemy world map, as well as the Periplus of travel Erythraean Sea mention prominently Scythia in the Indus area, as well as the Tabula Roman Peutingeriana. The Periplus states that Minnagara was the capital Scythia, and that Parthian king were fighting for it during the 1st century CE. of also distinguishes Scythia with Ariaca further east (centered in Gujarat It Malwa), over which ruled the Western Satrap king and [edit] Indo-Scythians in Indian Nahapana. Main article: Indo-Scythians in Indian literature The Indo-Scythians were named "Shaka" in India, an extension on the name Saka literature by the Persians to designate Scythians. From the time of the Mahabharata used (40001500 BCE roughly[citation needed]) Shakas receive numerous mentions in wars like textsthe Puranas, the Manusmriti, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the of Patanjali, the Brhat Samhita of Vraha Mihira, the Kavyamimamsa, the Mahabhasiya Katha-Manjari, the Katha-Saritsagara and several other old texts. They Brihatdescribed as part of an amalgam of other war-like tribes from the are [edit] Sai-Wang Scythian hordes of Chipin or northwest. Kipin Coin of Azes II, with king seated, holding a drawn sword and a A section of the Central Asian Scythians (under Sai-Wang) is said to have whip. southerly direction and after passing through the Pamirs it entered the Chipin taken Kipin after crossing the Hasuna-tu (Hanging Pass) located above the valley or Kanda in Swat country.[36] Chipin has been identified by Pelliot, of Raychaudhury and some others with Kashmir[37] while other scholars identify Bagchi, with Kapisha (Kafirstan).[38][39] The Sai-Wang had established his kingdom it Kipin. S. Konow interprets the Sai-Wang as Saka Murunda of Indian in Murunda being equal to Wang i.e. king, master or lord,[40] but Bagchi who literature, the word Wang in the sense of the king of the Scythians but he distinguishes takes Sai the Sakas from the Murunda Sakas.[41] There are reasons to believe that Scythians were Kamboja Scythians and therefore Sai-Wang belonged to Sai Scythianised Kambojas (i.e. Parama-Kambojas) of the Transoxiana region and the back came to settle among his own stock after being evicted from his ancestral located in Scythia or Shakadvipa. King Moga or Maues could have belonged to land group this of Scythians who had migrated from the Sai country (Central Asia) Chipin.[42] The Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions attest that the members of to family of King Moga (q.v.) had last name Kamuia or Kamuio (q.v.) which the term has Khroshthibeen identified by scholars with Sanskrit Kamboja or Kambojaka.[43] Sai-Wang and his migrant hordes which came to settle in Kabol valley in Thus, may indeed have been from the transoxian Parama Kambojas living in Shakadvipa Kapisha Scythian land. or [edit] Establishment of Mlechcha Kingdoms in Northern [44] India Coin of Maues depicting Balarama, 1st century BCE. British The mixed Scythian hordes that migrated to Drangiana and surrounding Museum. later spread further into north and south-west India via the lower Indus regions, Their migration spread into Sovira, Gujarat, Rajasthan and northern valley. including kingdoms in the Indian India, There are mainland. important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Yavanas, Shakas, Kambojas and Pahlavas in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana also. Leading Indologists like H. C. Raychadhury glimpses in these verses the [45] between the Hindus and the invading hordes of Mlechcha barbarians from struggles the

northwest. The time frame for these struggles is the second century BCE Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana onwards. or after the second century CE. around This [46] picture presented by the Ramayana probably refers to the political that emerged when the mixed hordes descended from Sakasthan and advanced into scenario lower Indus valley via Bolan Pass and beyond into the Indian mainland. It the to the hordes' struggle to seize political control of Sovira, Gujarat, refers Punjab, Malwa, Maharashtra and further areas of eastern, central and Rajasthan, ndia southern Mahabharata too furnishes a veiled hint about the invasion of the mixed . from the northwest. Vanaparava by Mahabharata contains verses in the form hordes prophecy deploring that "......the Mlechha (barbaric) kings of the of Yavanas, Shakas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, etc. shall rule the earth (i.e. India) unin Kaliyuga..". righteously According to H. C. Ray Chaudhury, this is too clear a statement to be ignored [47] explained or Mahabharata's epic reference apparently alludes to the chaotic politics away. followed the collapse of the Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and which area's subsequent occupation by foreign hordes of the Saka, Yavana, the Pahlavas, Kamboja, Bahlika, Shudra and Rishika tribes from the See also: northwest.Migration of [edit] Evidence about joint Kambojas The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various kingdoms, invasions besides includedthe Sakas[48] other allied tribes, such as the Xanthii[50][51],Massagetae[52], Getae[53]. These peoples were all absorbed Medii[49], the intocommunity of Kshatriyas of mainstream Indian society. The [54]Shakas were formerly a people of trans-Hemodos region---the Shakadvipa of Puranas or the Scythia of the classical writings. Isidor of Charax (beginning the first c AD) attests them in Sakastana (modern Seistan). First century CE of of the Erythraean Sea (c AD 7080) also attests a Scythian district in lower Periplus with IndusMinnagra as its capital. Ptolemy (c AD 140) also attests Indo-Scythia south-western India which comprised Patalene, Abhira and the in (Saurashtra) Surastrene territories. H.S. Williams wrote: The extent of the Scythian invasion has been variously estimated. scholars believe that they virtually supplanted the previous population of Some Punjab region and there seems little doubt that by far the most numerous the of the sectionPunjab population is of Scythian origin. [55] The second century BCE Scythian invasion of India, was in all probability out jointly by the Sakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Rishikas and other carried tribes allied from the northwest.[56] As a result, groups of these people who originally lived in the northwest before the Christian era, were also found had have lived in southwest India in post-Christian times. All these groups of to western north- peoples apparently entered Indian mainland following the Scythian of invasion [edit] India. Main Indo-Scythian [edit] rulers Northwestern India Maues, c 9060 BCE Vonones, c 7565 BCE Spalahores, c 7565 BCE, satrap and brother of King Vonones, and the later King Spalirises. probably Spalirises, c 6057 BCE, king and brother of King Spalagadames c 50 BCE, satrap, and son of Vonones. Azes I, c 5735 BCE Spalahores. Azilises, c 5735 BCE Azes , c 3512 BCE Zeionises, c 10 BCE 10 CE

 Kharahostes, c 10 BCE 10 CE ndravarman Hajatria [edit] Main article: Kshaharatas Kshaharatas Kusuluka, satrap of Liaka Kusulaka Patika, satrap of Chuksa and son of Liaka Chuksa Abhiraka Kusulaka Bhumaka Nahapana (founder of the Western [edit]Satraps) Apracarajas (Bajaur Main area)article: Vijayamitra (12 BCE 15 Apracarajas CE) travasu (c 20 CE) Aspavarma (1545 CE) [edit] Main article: Paratarajas Paratarajas Bi-drachm of Parataraja Obv: Robed bust of Bhimajhunasa left, wearing tiara-shaped Bhimajhunasa. Rev: Swastika with legend diadem. 1.70g. around.Senior (Indo-Scythian) 286.1 Kuvhusuvhume Spajhana Spajhayam Bhimajhuna Yolamira, son of Bagavera (2nd Arjuna, century)son of Yolamira (2nd Karyyanapa century) Hvaramira, another son of Yolamira(2nd Mirahvara, son of Hvaramira (2nd century) Miratakhma, another son of Hvaramira (2nd century) [edit]century) "Northern Satraps" (Mathura area) Hagamasha (satrap, 1st century Hagana (satrap, 1st century BCE) Rajuvula, c 10 CE (Great BCE) Sodasa, Satrap) son of Rajuvula "Great Satrap" Kharapallana (c 130 "Satrap" Vanaspara (c 130 CE) [edit]CE) Minor local rulersBhadayasa Mamvadi Arsakes [edit] Western Main article: Western Satraps Nahapana (119124) Satraps Chastana (c 120), son of Ghsamotika Jayadaman, son of Chastana Rudradaman I (c 130150), son of Jayadaman Damajadasri I (170175) Jivadaman (175 d 199) Rudrasimha I (175188 d 197) svaradatta (188191) Rudrasimha I (restored) (191 Jivadaman (restored) (197 197) Rudrasena I (200222) 199) Samghadaman (222223)

 Damasena (223232) Damajadasri II (232239) Viradaman (234238) with Yasodaman I (239) Vijayasena (239250) Damajadasri III (251255) Rudrasena II (255277) Visvasimha (277282) Bhratadarman (282295) Visvasena (293304) with Rudrasimha , son of Lord (Svami) Jivadaman (304348) Yasodaman II with (317332) Rudradaman (332348) Rudrasena (348380) Simhasena (380 ?) Rudrasena IV (382388) Rudrasimha (388395) [edit] "Degraded Kshatriyas" from the The Manusmriti, written about 200, groups the Shakas with the Yavanas, northwest Paradas, Kambojas,Pahlavas, Kiratas and the Daradas, etc., and addresses them all "degraded warriors" or Kshatriyas" (X/43-44). Anushasanaparva of the as also views Mahabharatathe Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas etc... in the same light. Patanjali his in Mahabhashya regards the Shakas and Yavanas as pure Shudras (II.4.10). Vartika of the Katyayana informs us that the kings of the Shakas and the The like those of the Kambojas, may also be addressed by their respective Yavanas, names. tribal The Mahabharata also associates the Shakas with the Yavanas, Kambojas, Gandharas,Pahlavas, Tusharas, Sabaras, Barbaras, etc. and addresses them all the as Barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha. In another verse, the same epic groups Shakas and Kambojas and Khashas and addresses them as the tribes from Udichya the north i.e. division (5/169/20). Also, the Kishkindha Kanda of the Ramayana locates Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Paradas in the extreme north-west beyond the the (i.e. Hindukush) Himavat [edit] Military (43/12). [edit] actionsAncient wars (1500500 According to numerous Puranas, the military corporations of the Shakas, BC) Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas, known as "five hordes" (pInca-ganah), militarily supported the Haihaya and Talajunga Kshatriyas in depriving had king Bahu Ikshvaku (the 7th king in descent from Harishchandra), of his Ayodhya A generation later, Bahu's son Sagara managed to recapture Ayodhya after kingdom. these foreign hordes. Sagara punished them by meting out to them defeating punishments. He made the Shakas shave half of their heads, the Kambojas and weird Yavanas the totality, the Pahlavas to keep their beards and the Paradas to the their hair go let The Kalika Purana, one of the Upa-Puranas of the Hindus, refers to a war free. king Kalika king Kali and states the Shakas, Kambojas, Khasas, etc. as a between military powerful allies of King Kali. The Purana further states that these Barbarians the (6), 22 takeorders from their women (Ref: Kalika The Balakanda of the Ramayana also groups the Shakas40). the Kambojas, Purana, with Pahlavas Yavanas, and Mlechhas and refers to them as military allies of sage Vashistha against Vedic king Vishwamitra (55/2Vedic The 3). Udyogaparva of the Mahabharata (5/19/21-23) tells us that the composite of the Kambojas, Yavanas and Shakas had participated in the Mahabharata war army the supreme command of Kamboja king Sudakshina. The epic repeatedly applauds under composite army as being very fierce and this [edit] Military alliance with Chandragupta (c 320 wrathful. The BC) Buddhist drama Mudrarakshas by Visakhadutta and the Jaina Parisishtaparvan refer to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king works This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a powerful composite army made up of Parvataka. the

frontier martial tribes of the Shakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Bahlikas which etc. he utilised to defeat the Nanda rulers of Magadha, and thus establishing Mauryan Empire in northern India (See: Mudrarakshas, his [edit] Invasion of India (c 180 II). The BC) Vanaparva of the Mahabharata contains verses in the form of prophecy that kings of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas and Abhiras etc. shall the unrighteously in Kaliyuga (MBH 3/188/34rule This 36). reference apparently alludes to the precarious political scenario the collapse of Mauryan and Sunga dynasties in northern India and its following by foreign occupation hordes of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and [edit] Pahlavas. The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of the Kshemendra (10/1/285-86) relates that around Extinction AD, 400 the Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred of the earth barbarians" like the Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Tusharas, Hunas, etc., by annihilating these "sinners" The 10th century Kavyamimamsa of Raj Shekhar (Ch. 17) still lists the completely. Tusharas, Vokanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Tangana, Turukshas, Sakas, together, and states them as the tribes located in the Uttarapatha etc. [edit] Relation between the descendants of Indodivision. The Punjabi tribes having Indo-Scythian origin (Khatri, Jatt, Tarkhan, Scythians Rajput, Gujjar, Lohar and Kamboj) are genetically and ethnically closely related to other.[citation needed] These tribes are said to be related to various tribes each Central Asia and Eastern Europe.[citation of [edit] needed]Descendants of the IndoThere is Scythiansspeculation that a number of communities in South Asia, mainly in northwestern regions, are partly descended from the Indo-Scythians. These the Ahirs[57][58][59][60][61][62][63] include: Gujjars [64] Jats[65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77][78] Kambohs [79] Kodavas[80][81] Lohars Nairs[82][83] Bunts Pashtuns Tarkhan[84] Rajputs[85] Khatris[86][87][88][89] Chera From Wikipedia, the free Dynasty Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia For district of Kuala Lumpur, see Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, the town in Spain, search Chera, Valencia, for the town in Selangor, see Cheras, see Selangor. Chera s Chera Official territories Tami language l Capital K sizhanthur-Kandallur (Vanchi Muthur , Kodungallur) Governmen M tonarch y Preceding Unknow state n

Succeeding statesGangas, Zamorins, Kochi, Travancore, Hoysala, Vijayanagara History of South Asia Stone before 3300 Age Mehrgarh BCE 70003300 Culture ndus Valley BCE 33001700 Civilization Late Harappan BCE 17001300 Culture Vedic BCE 2000600 Civilization ron BCE 12001 Age Maha BCE 700300 Janapadas Magadha BCE 684424 Empire Nanda BCE 424-321 Empire Maurya BCE 321184 Empire Sunga BCE 185-73 Empire Kanva BCE 75-26 Empire Kharavela BCE 209170 Empire Kuninda BCE 200s KingdomBCE300s CEIndo-Scythian 200 BC400 Kingdom 300 BCE1200 CEChera Chola Kingdom CE 300 EmpireBCE1279 CEPandyan 250 BCE1345 Kingdom CESatavahana 230 EmpireBCE220 CEIndo-Greek 180 BCE10 Kingdom Middle CE 1CE1279 Kingdoms CEIndo-Parthian 21130s Kingdom CEWestern Satrap 35405 Empire CEKushan 60240 Empire CEIndo-Sassanid 230360 Kingdom CEVakataka 250500 Empire CEKalabhras 250600 Kingdom CEGupta Empire

 280550 CEPallava 275800 Kingdom CEKadamba 345525 Empire CEWestern Ganga 3501000 Kingdom CEVishnukundina 420-624 Empire CEHuna 475-576 Kingdom CEChalukya 543753 Empire CEHarsha 590-647 Empire CEShahi 565-670 Kingdom CEEastern Chalukya 624-1075 Kingdom CEPratihara 6501036 Empire CEPala 7501174 Empire CERashtrakuta 753982 Empire CEParamara 8001327 Kingdom CEYadava 8501334 Empire CESolanki 9421244 Kingdom CEWestern Chalukya 9731189 Empire CEHoysala 10401346 Empire CESena 10701230 Empire CEEastern Ganga 10781434 Empire CEKakatiya 10831323 Kingdom CEKalachuri 11301184 Empire CElamic s 12061596 Sultanates CEDelhi 12061526 Sultanate CEDeccan 14901596 Sultanates Ahom CE 12281826 Kingdom Vijayanagara CE 13361646 Empire Mysore CE 13991947 Kingdom Mughal CE 15261858 Empire Madurai Nayak CE Kingdom

1559 1736 Thanjavur Nayak CE 15721918 Kingdom Maratha CE 16741818 Empire SikhCE 17161799 Confederacy SikhCE 17991849 Empire Company rule in CE 17571858 India British CE 18581947 India Partition of CE 1947 India Nation CE Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan histories Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri India Lanka Regional Assam Bihar Balochistan histories Himachal Pradesh Orissa Pakistani Bengal Punjab Regions South India Tibet Specialised Coinage histories Dynasties ndology Economy Language Literature Military Science and Technology Maritime Timeline This box: view talk edit The Chera Dynasty (Tamil: ) was a Dravidian Tamil dynasty that ruled southern India from before the in Sangam era (300 BC - 250 AD) until the century twelfth AD. The early Cheras ruled Kerala, Kongu Nadu and Salem. Their capital Vanchi Muthur, this have been located at present-day Kodungallur in was district Thrissur of Kerala .[1]. Since they were a hill tribe, their ancient capital not be could on the plains or on the coast. Karur is on the plains and Kodungallur is the on sea coast. They cannot be considered as their ancient capital, Vanchi Their ancient capital Vanchi Muthur is in Kanthallur-Kizhanthur region of Muthur. District of Kerala, for obvious reasons.[citation needed] They moved Idukki administrative capital to Karur (Karur Vanchi) in second century, until the their dynasty perished in 3rd Century AD.[citation needed] The second dynasty ruled first out fromskirts of Muziris on the banks of River Periyar [2] from 8th century The CE. other two major Tamil dynasties were the Cholas in the eastern Coast and CoromandelPandyas in the South Central Peninsula. Chera rulers engaged in warfare frequentas well as constant intermarriage with the Pandyas and Cholas. the reign Throughoutof the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to the then Country (part of which was modern-day Kerala), with spices, ivory, timber, Tamil and gems being exported to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and pearls Evidence Arabia. of extensive foreign trade from the ancient period is throughout available the Malabar Coast, from the Greek, Roman and Arabic coins from Kollam, Kodungallur, Eyyal (near Thrissur) etc in Kerala. Muziris has unearthed referenced by ancient writers, such as the author of the Periplus of been Erythraean Sea to be an inland port probably near Kodungallur. Sangam Chera the and inscriptions are found in Pattanam, near Kodungallur in Kerala, coins Namakkal, Erode and Coimbatore regions of modern-day Tamil Karur, While Nadu. Cheras had their own religion (Hinduism), other religious traditions like

Buddhism came to this area during the period of the Chera Kings. Jainism came Chera Kingdom by the second century BCE.[3] Some adhered to Islam as to notably, Cheraman Perunal who ruled the Chera Dynasty in the late 8th well, Content century.[4] [ shide ] 1 Etymology 2 History o 2.1 Sangam Cheras o 2.2 Bhakti era Cheras 3 Notes 4 References [edit] The word EtymologyChera is derived from the word Cheral meaning declivity of a hill mountain slope in classical Tamil[5]. This is supported by the fact that the or a Kings Chera were called Chera-alatan which means Lord of the Slopes in Tamil[6] classical [ .edit] The earliest Tamil literary works, such as the Kalittokai, mention a History called Kumari Nadu or Kumari Kandam, which was believed to have been located continent the to South of the present-day Kanyakumari tens of thousands of years ago, the then between Kumari and Pahruli rivers. Pandyan kings such as Chenkon, and the supposedly ruled this country, tens of thousands of years ago. They fought Cheras defeated the Nagas, who might have been a non-Dravidian people, or another and of living beings. Kalittokai again mentions a war between the combined forces species Villavars and the Meenavars (the Cheras and the Pandyas respectively), who of a fierce war against the Nagas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war, fought subsequently Central India to the Nagas. Bhil Meena of North India could be and equivalent rulers in North the Also, India.the Cheras, along with the Pandyas and the Cholas, find mention as one the of three ruling dynasties of the Southern region of the then Bharatavarsha, the in very ancient [Hindu] epic of the Ramayana.[7][8] They are also mentioned the in Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they (along with the Pandyas the and Cholas) are believed to have been on the side of the Pandavas in the War.[9][10][11] Great Again [12] in other early Tamil literature the great Chera rulers are referred to Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also as Kothai called or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in The word general. Kerala, of possible Prakrit origins, does not appear in Literature. Ashoka's edicts mention an independent dynasty known by the Sangam Kedalaputho, who were outside Ashoka's name The unknown author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Chera as empire. ("Keralaputhra") whose capital is Karur, while Pliny, the Roman historian of Cerobothra first century, calls it Caelobothras. It is believed that religiously the the were Shaivites.[13] Some kings of the dynasty referred to themselves Cheras Vanavaramban, Imayavaramban etc. as [edit] Sangam [14] The only source available for us regarding the early Chera Kings is Cheras anthologies of the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that the literature belongs to the first few centuries AD.[15] The internal chronology this this literature is still far from settled. The Sangam literature is full of of of the names kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these are not rich into connected history so far. Their capital is stated to be modern Karur in worked Nadu Tamil P .athirruppaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology mentions a number Chera Kings of the Chera dynasty. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by of Court Poet and the Kings are in the following the order:

1. Nedum Cheralathan 2. Palyane Chel Kezhu 3. Kalankai Kuttuvan Kanni Narmudi 4. Chenkuttuvan Cheran (Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Cheral 5. Attu Kottu Kuttuvan) Pattu 6. Chelva Kadunko Azhi Athan Cheralathan 7. Thakadur Erintha Perum Cheral 8. Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai The first recorded King was the son of Uthiyan Cheralathan and Veliyan Irumporai. The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan, while the Nallini. of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was Chola Princess Manikilli. mother Kadunko Chelva Vazhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan Cheral Irumporai and Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son of Vazhiyathan and Ilam Porayan Cheral rumporai was the son of a Chera ruler Kuttuvan Irumporai (son of Mantharan rumporai).[citation Cheral Archaeology has also found epigraphic evidence regarding these early Cheras needed] recorded history.[16]. Some inscriptions trace the Chera Dynasty from of Kings of Puranic Chandraditya Dynasty, meaning that they descended from both the Solar Lunar Races. The most important of these is the Pugalur and inscription. This (Aranattarmalai) inscription refers to three generations of Chera Rulers, Adam Cheral Irrumporai, his son Perumkadungo, and his son Ilamkadungo. The namely was issued when Perum Kadungo was the Ruler Monarch and Ilam Kadungo was charter Prince. Athan refers only to a crowned King of the Chera Dynasty who accepted appointed title this at the time of coronation. Athan Cheral Irumporai was the son of Cheral Perum Irumporai. It therefore follows that Perumkadungo was the son of a King of crowned the Chera Dynasty. Perum Kadunko means that he was the Senior Ko ruler) (Seniorof Kadunadu, located in the Tamil Nadu side of the Sahya Mountains. Cheral Athan Irumporai was probably the last crowned king of the first 'Purananuru' refers to a certain Udiyan Cheral. It is said that he fed the dynasty. armies rival during the war of Mahabharata. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, Sangam anotherAge King claimed to have conquered Bharatavarsha up to the Himalayas and have inscribed his emblem on the face of the mountains. Senguttuvan was to famous anotherChera, whose contemporary Gajabahu II of Lanka according to visited the Chera country. Mahavamsa The [17]early Cheras controlled a large territory of the Kongu region. They also the Kodunthamizh regions of Travancore (Venadu) and the Malabar (Kuttanadu) ruled Coast West through vassals. They were in contact with the Satavahanas in the north with and the Romans and Greeks.[18] Trade flourished overseas and there considerable exchange of gold and coins, as seen by archaeological evidence was a literature. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' and from Malainadu. (Pepper) [edit] Bhakti era [2] Little Cheras is known about the Cheras between c. third century AD and the eight AD. An centuryobscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century AD. A Pandya Ruler, the Parankusa Arikesari Maravarman (c.730 765AD), mentioned in a number of Pandya copperinscriptions, was a prominent ruler during this period. He claims to have plate a prominent Chera King. The name of the Chera King is not known, however from defeated details of the battles between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera territory the seems ceded to have included the entire Malabar and Travancore (Kuttanadu and and the Venadu) Southern Pandya country from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli, the seat of Cheras being in Karur Kongu Nadu. The Chera kings took the title of Perumal the this period and patronised the Vaishnavite sect. Kulasekara Alwar who ruled in during 8th the century became a devotional Vaishnavite poet. Pallavas also mention in inscriptions their battles with the Cheras. Pulakesin II, in his their inscription mentioned " Pulikesin II, driving the Pallava behind the forts Aihole Kanchi, reached as far south as the Kaveri river, and there caused prosperity of to

the Chola, Chera and Pandya". During the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 790), the Cheras [19] still were in Karur and were a close ally of the Pallavas. Pallavamalla defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king. Cultural Nadivarman between contactsthe Pallava court and the Chera country were common.[20] The Saivite Cheraman Perumal and the other is the Vaishnavite saint Kulasekhara, were saint in the Hindu religious movements. Kulasekhara became one of the celebrated famous and his Alvars poems came to be called the Perumal Thirumozhi. Cheraman Perumal around ruled the eighth and the ninth centuries. In this Kulasekhara calls Kongar himselfKon (the king of the Kongu people) hailing from Kollinagar (Karur). Shankara was his contemporary. Kongumandala Satakam also says that Adi Perumal Cheramanwent to Kayilai with Sundarar from Kongu [edit] Nadu. 1. Notes ^ Nagaswami, R. (1995). Roman Karur: A peep into Tamil's past. Prakashan, Madras.http://www.tamilartsacademy.com/books/roman Brahad 2. %20karur/cover.html ^ (Ancient name, Chully ref: Akam. 3. ^ akananuru 149) 4. ^ A social history of India, By S. N. Sadasivan, 5. ^ A Survey of Kerala History by A. Sreedhara Menon - Kerala (India) pg.306 6. ^ The 1967 Chronology of the Early Tamils - Based on the Synchronistic Tables Their of Kings, Chieftains and Poets Appearing in the Sangam Literature By Pillai Sivaraja 7. ^ http://www.sacred8. ^ texts.com/hin/dutt/rama07.htm 9. ^ http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/ramayana/bk07.asp 10. ^ http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/sars238/shortencybrit.html 11. ^ http://www.bvashram.org/articles/105/1/Mahabharata-The-Great-Warhttp://www.tamilnation.org/heritage/chera/index.htm World-History/Page1.html and12. ^ http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/1013. ^ P. 104 Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian 07/features806.htm Association By Indian Anthropological Anthropological 14. Association15 The ^ P. IcIrya, IaIkara of KIladI: A Story By Savita R. Bhave, M. Gyaltsan, aff AmIn, 1933- Madugula, I S G. 15. Mu ^ The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between Madugula evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek the Romans such as Periplus of the Erythrian Sea. See Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., and of South History India, pp 106 16. ^ See report in Frontline, June/July 2003 17. ^ See Mahavamsa http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/. Since Senguttuvan [1] pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of Gajabahu II he was the (Kadal King Cheraduring 170-185 AD. 18. ^ These foreigners were called Yavana in the ancient 19. ^ See times Verse 31 Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/HISTORY/primarydocs/Epigraphy/AiholeInscr on.htm ipti 20. ^ See A History of South India pp 146 Chola 147 From Wikipedia, the free Dynasty (Redirected encyclopedia from Chola Jump to: Empire) navigation, "Chola" search redirects here. For the Spanish term, see Cholo. Chola Dynasty00s BC1279 3 CE

Chola's empire and influence at the height of its power (c. Capita 1050) E larly Cholas: Poompuhar, Medieval Urayur, Cholas: Pazhaiyaarai, Gangaikonda Thanjavur Cholapuram Language(s)Tami l Religio H ninduis m Governmen M tonarch y King - 848-871IVijayalaya Chola - 1246Rajendra Chola 1279 Historical Middle era Ages - Established 300s - Rise of the medieval BC - Disestablished1279 Cholas CE

848

The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: , o ]) was a Dravidian IPA: ['t India until the 13th century. The Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern originated in the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. Karikala Chola was the dynasty famous among the early Chola kings, while Aditya I, Parantaka I, Rajaraja Chola most Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola, Kulothunga Chola I, Vikrama Chola and Kulothunga I, were notable emperors of the Cholas Chola medieval T .he Cholas were at the height of their power continuously from the later half the of 9th century till the beginning of the 13th centuries.[1] Under Rajaraja Chola his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia.[2][3] During the period 10101200, the Chola and stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as territories banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.[4] Rajaraja Chola the peninsular conquered South India, annexed parts of what is now Sri Lanka and occupied islands of the Maldives.[3] Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to the North that touched the river Ganga and defeated the Pala ruler of ndia Mahipala. He also successfully invaded kingdoms of the Malay Archipelago as Pataliputra, as expanding the empire from coastal Burma to Vietnam.[5] well The [6] Chola tottered at the beginning of the thirteenth century and vanished the withrise of the Pandyas and the Hoysala. The [7] Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and zeal theirin building temples have resulted in some great works of Tamil literature architecture.[3] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples and their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of in activity.[8][9] They pioneered a centralised form of government and economic disciplined established a Content bureaucracy. [ shide 1 Origins ] o 1.1 Clan o 1.2 Etymology of Chola

 o o o o o o o o o o o o

2 History 2.1 Early Cholas 2.2 Interregnum 2.3 Medieval Cholas 2.4 Later Cholas 3 Government and society 3.1 Chola country 3.2 Nature of government 3.3 Local government 3.4 Foreign trade 3.5 Chola society 4 Cultural contributions 4.1 Art 4.2 Literature 4.3 Religion 5 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links

[edit] Part of Origins a series on History of Tamil Nadu Chronology of Tamil history Sangam period Source s Government Economy Society Religion Music Early Cholas Early Pandyans Medieval Pallava history s Pandya s Chola Empire Chera Dynasty Vijayanagara Empire Madurai Nayaks Tanjore Nayaks This box: view talk edit

An early silver coin of Uttama Chola found in Sri Lanka showing the Tiger of the emblem Cholas.In Grantha Tamil.[10] There [11] is very little information available regarding the origin of the Dynasty. The antiquity of this dynasty is evident from the mentions in Chola Tamil literature and in inscriptions. Later medieval Cholas also claimed a ancient and ancient lineage to their dynasty. Mentions in the early Sangam literature long 150 (c. CE)[12] indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 Parimelalagar, the annotator of the Tamil classic Tirukkural, mentions that CE. could this be the name of an ancient [edit] king. The Clanmost commonly held view is that this is, like Cheras and Pandyas, the name the of ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity.[13] On the history of the early Cholas there is very little authentic written [14] available. Historians during the past 150 years have gleaned a lot of knowledge evidence the on subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The literature, source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early main literature of the Sangam Period.[15] There are also brief notices on the Tamil country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of Chola Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei).[16] Periplus is a work by an the Alexandrian merchant, written in the time of Domitian (8196) and contains anonymous little information of the Chola country.[17] Writing half a century later, very geographer Ptolemy gives more detail about the Chola country, its port and the inland cities.[18] Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text, recounts a number of its between the inhabitants of Ceylon and the Tamil immigrants.[19] Cholas conflicts mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCE232 BCE) inscriptions, are they whereare mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were friendly terms with him.[20][21] on [edit] Etymology of [22] n Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, Chola the lines of Pandya or the old country. However Sanskrit scholars deem that in word the Chola is derived from the Tamil word Sora or Chora.[23] Numerous by Brahmin scribes mention the Dynasty as Chora or Sora but pronounced inscriptions Chozha.[24] Sora or Chozha in Tamil becomes Chola in Sanskrit and Chola or as in Telugu. Choda [edit] [25] List of History Chola Early kings Cholas lamcetcenni Karikala Chola Nedunkilli Killivalavan Kopperuncholan Kocengannan Perunarkilli nterregnum (c.200 848) Medieval Cholas Vijayalaya 848 Chola Aditya 871(?) 871 Parantaka Chola 907

907 Gandaradity 950 9 a50 Arinjaya 957 956 Chola Sundara 957 957 Chola Uttama 970 970 Chola Rajaraja Chola 985 985 Rajendra Chola 1014 1012 Rajadhiraja 1044 1018 Chola Rajendra Chola 1054 1051 Virarajendra 1063 1063 Chola Athirajendra 1070 1067 Chola Later 1070 Cholas Kulothunga Chola 1070 Vikrama 1120 1118 Chola Kulothunga Chola 1135 1133 Rajaraja Chola 1150 1146 Rajadhiraja Chola 1163 1163 Kulothunga Chola 1178 1178 Rajaraja Chola 1218 1216 Rajendra Chola 1256 1246 1279 Chola Chola society government Chola military Chola Navy Chola art Chola literature Solesvara Temples Poompuhar Urayur Gangaikonda Cholapuram Thanjavur Telugu Cholas edit

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the early Cholas of the literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise Sangam the of medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter and the of eleventh century. [edit] Early [26] Main article: Early Cholas The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in Cholas Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of the common era.[12] The internal chronology of the literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of this history of the period cannot be derived. The Sangam literature records the the of the names kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be rich into connected history. worked The [27]Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings.[28] [30][31] These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary [29] the of sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence.[32] Two [33]names stand out prominently from among those Chola kings known to existed, who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala Chola[34][35][36] have Kocengannan.[37] There is no sure means of settling the order of succession, and fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of of the same period.[38][39] Urayur (now in/part-of Thiruchirapalli) was their about capital.[30] Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital.[40] oldest Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as The invaded Elara, the island around 235 BCE and that King Gajabahu visited Chera around 108 CenguttuvanCE.[30] [edit] [41] There is not Interregnum much information about the transition period of around centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) to that in which the Pandyas three Pallavas dominate the Tamil country.[42] An obscure dynasty, the and invaded the Kalabhras, Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for three aroundcenturies.[43][44][45] They were displaced by the Pallavas and the in the Pandyas6th century.[35][46] Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second the of the quarterninth century. Epigraphy and literature provide a few faint glimpses of the transformations [47] came that over this ancient line of kings during this long interval. What is certain that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the is and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,[36][48] this dynasty Pandyas compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.[2] was The [49]Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the neighbourhood Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, of Pandayas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out the regard for their reputation.[50] Numerous inscriptions of Pallavas, Pandyas of Chalukya of this period mention conquering 'the Chola country'.[51][52] and this loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total Despite of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose grip prominence hailed from this geographical area.[53] to Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day [54] Pradesh.[53] These Telugu Cholas (or Chodas) traced their descent to the Andhra Sangam early Cholas. However, it is not known if they had any relation to the Cholas.[55] It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north early the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from during dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.[56] The Chinese the Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639640 writes about pilgrim 'kingdom of Culi-ya', in an apparent reference to the Telugu Chodas.[47][57] the [edit] Medieval [58] Cholas

Main article: Medieval Cholas Detail of the statue of Rajaraja Chola at Brihadisvara Temple at While there Thanjavur. is little reliable information on the Cholas during the period the early Cholas and Vijayalaya dynasties, there is an abundance of materials between diverse sources on the Vijayalaya and the Later Chola dynasties. A large number from stone inscriptions by the Cholas themselves and by their rival kings, Pandyas of Chalukyas, and copper-plate grants, have been instrumental in constructing and history of Cholas of that period.[59][60] Around 850, Vijayalaya rose the obscurity to take an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas from Pallavas,[61] captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line and the of medieval Cholas.[62] The [63]Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the period.[1] Through their leadership and vision, kings such as Rajaraja Chola I medieval Rajendra Chola I extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits and Tamil of a kingdom.[2][3] At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island Sri of Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north.[64] The kingdoms the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. along Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.[5][6] [4] Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever[65] Sinhalas, resilient who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka,[66][67] princes Pandya who tried to win independence for their traditional territories, and the by growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan.[68] This period constant warfare between the Cholas and these antagonists. A balance of saw existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas, with the Chola forces power deep in to penetratingthe Kannada country up to Tungabhadra in Central Karnataka controlling the Konkan coast up to Bhatkal where a Chola temple exists even and n contrast, the Chalukyas never rose to any kind of prominence, they never today. able to occupy any territory in Chola country during their entire were excepting existence,mounting some invasions in and around the Chola protectorate of Vengi hegemony during the existence of the Cholas and they predeceased the Cholas or 1198 when Kulothunga III collaborated with Veera Ballala II and his son around to sound Narasimhathe death-knell of the Chalukya Kingdom.[69] However, the bone contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the of kingdom.[70] The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful attempts to Vengi the Chola emperors in war and except for a brief occupation of Vengi engage between 1118-1126, all their other attempts ended in failure with successive territories emperors routing the armies of the Chalukyas at various places in many wars. It Chola also pertinent to note that even under the not so strong emperors of the is like Kulothunga I, Vikrama Chola etc. the wars against the Chalukyas were Cholas fought mainly in Chalukya territories in Karnataka or in the Telugu country like Kakinada or Anantapur or Gutti. In any case, in the internecine wars among Vengi, small Kannada kingdoms of the Kadambas, Hoysalas, Vaidumbas or Kalachuris, the Chalukya interference was to cause them dearly with these Kingdoms the increasing their stock and ultimately the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, the steadily and the Seunas consuming the Chalukyas and sending them into oblivion.[71] Kalachuris the WithKalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years sometime 1135 afterand with the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the under Vishnuvardhana where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in-charge Hoysalas the at Hoysala capital Dorasamudra around AD 1149, the Chalukya kingdom was starting already to dissolve, mainly due to incompetency of its rulers, while the would Cholasbe stable till 1215 AD, and finally getting consumed by the Pandiyan [72] The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III even contributed to the downfall empire dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera , the and in-law Ballalaof the Chola monarch, in a series of wars with Somesvara IV thesonChalukya king whose territories did not include the erstwhile Chalukyan last Manyakheta, around AD 1190. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan capital power[73]

though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135[edit] 1140. Later Main article: Later Cholas (1070-1279 Cholas AD) Chola territories during Kulothunga Chola I c. Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during 1120 reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi.[74] Rajaraja Chola's the married daughterChalukya prince Vimaladitya.[75] Rajendra Chola's daughter was married to an eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra. also Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a [76] disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga Chola I, the son of Rajaraja civil ascended Narendra,the Chola throne starting the Later Chola dynasty.[69][76] The [77]Later Chola dynasty saw capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I, his son Chola, Vikramaother successors like Rajaraja , Rajadhiraja Chola II and the Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam and Kataha; however, the rule Chola great the of later Cholas was not as strong as those of the emperors up to Rajendra . While the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up Chola 1215 AD, during his time itself, the decline of the Chola power started to with his beginningdefeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in1215-16 AD.[78] The lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Cholas power. SinhalaAround 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysalas. However, these were and temporary setbacks, because under king Vikrama Chola successor of Kulothunga only Chola Cholas lost no time shortly after his accession in recovering the , the of Vengi by defeating Chalukya and also recovering Gangavadi province the Hoysalas. In the Pandya territories, thefrom of a controlling Somesvara lack administration prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to central civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy.[79] cause a The [80]Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola were III, quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory, Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja as hostage for the sometime.[81][82] At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of Chola Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the the country, Kannada but they too faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the who were occupying Chalukya capital for those empires were their new rivals. Kalachuris naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with So Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala the Ballala Veera but who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. continued This during the time of Rajaraja the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III[78][83] The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank Chola great of a power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas who were allies of the from Tamil country and subsequently causing the demise of the Cholas themselves Cholas AD in 1279. They first steadily gained control of the Tamil country as well territories in Sri Lanka, Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman as Pandiyan Sundara II his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan before several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, inflicting successor Rajendra Chola and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his his Ramanatha[78] Rajendra tried to survive by aligning with the Kadava son and the Hoysalas in turn in order to counter the constantly rising power of Pallavas Pandiyans who were a major players in the Tamil Kingdom from AD 1215 and the intelligently consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-Cheranadu had Kanniyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in and Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as well as in the the Delta Kaverii.e. Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-Kanchi, finally all the marchingway up to ArcotTirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by AD. 1250The Pandiyas steadily routed both the Hoysalas and the Cholas.[84] They also

dispossessed the Hoysalas, who had been overestimating their power by in the politics of Tamil country by routing them under Jatavarman Sundara interfering at Kannanur Kuppam and chased the Hoysalas back to the Mysore plateau and Pandiyan the war stopped only thereafter. [85] At the close of Rajendrajs reign, the Pandyan was at empire the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in eyes the of the foreign observers.[86] The last recorded date of Rajendra III is There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another 1279. prince.[87][88] The Hoysalas were routed from Kannanur Kuppam around 1279 Chola Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same war the last Chola emperor was by routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter. Thus the Chola empire Rajendra completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity by the was of endthe 13th century.[82] [edit] Government and [88] Main article: Chola society [edit] Chola Government According to Tamil tradition, the old Chola country comprised the region country includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District and the Thanjavur District that Tamil Nadu. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape in generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by of hills major or valleys. The river Kaveri, also known as Ponni (golden) river, special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked had a occasion for celebration, Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took an Kaverippattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town. part. Ptolemy knew of this and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the [30] important centres of Cholas.[18] These two towns became hubs of trade and most and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism.[89] Roman ships commerce their found way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of common era have been found near the Kaveri delta.[90] the The [91]other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known Kumbakonam.[30] After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda as Thanjavur lost its importance.[92] The later Chola kings moved around Cholapuram, capitals frequently and made cities such as Chidambaram, Madurai and their their regional Kanchipuram [edit] Nature of capitals. n the age government of the Cholas, the whole of South India was, for the first brought under a single government,[93] when a serious attempt was made to face time, solve the problems of public administration. The Cholas' system of government and monarchical, as in the Sangam age.[35] However, there was little in common was the local chiefdoms of the earlier time and the imperial-like states of between Chola and Rajaraja his successors. Between 980, and c. 1150, the Chola Empire comprised the entire south [94] peninsula, extending east to west from coast to coast, and bounded to the north Indian an by irregular line along the Tungabhadra river and the Vengi frontier.[2][4] Although Vengi had a separate political existence, it was closely connected to [64] Chola Empire and, for all practical purposes, the Chola dominion extended up the the to banks of the Godavari river. Thanjavur, and later, Gangaikonda Cholapuram were the imperial capitals. [95] both Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals, in However occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme commander and a which dictator.[96] His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands benevolent responsible officers when representations were made to him.[97] A to bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of administration and in executing powerful orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the his sense, modern the fairness of kingjs orders dependent on the goodness of the man and his in belief in Dharmaa sense of fairness and The Chola justice. kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth.[8][98] temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of The activity, economic benefiting their entire community.[8] [99]

[edit] Local Every village was a self-governing unit.[100] A number of villages government larger entity constituted a known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on area.[100][101][101][102] A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu.[103] the structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the These period. Chola Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were [104] at the settledvillage level.[102] Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of or a finesdirection for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of Even state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the the punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation typical property. of [edit] [105] Foreign See also: Chola trade Navy Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java clearly showing Dravidian influence architectural [ s106 T ]he Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.[107] Towards the end of the their century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and 9th activity.[108][109] The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west commercial the and east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of ventures.[110][111][112] The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in these Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Bagdad the the weremain trading partners. Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) [113] the Chinese court in the year 1077,[114][115][116] and that the king of reached Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.[117] It is possible that the syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy these trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned was a '81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, with glass articles, and spices'. including A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a [118] guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from merchant four the countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the country.[109] The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an Chola overseas trade during the Chola period. active [edit] [115] Chola There is society little information on the size and the density of the population the Chola reign.[119] The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people during lead a productive and contented life. There is only one recorded instance of to disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign.[120] However, there civil reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.[121] were The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a presence of high [122] of literacy and education in the society. The text in these inscriptions level written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in was contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial the to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics evidence reading and writing to children,[123] although there is no evidence of of educational systematic system for the masses.[124] Vocational education was hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. through was the medium of education for the masses; Sanskrit education was restricted Tamil the to Brahmins. Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of which were learning, supported by the government.[125][126] [edit] [127] Cultural contributions

Detail of the main vimanam (tower) of the Thanjavur Under Templethe Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in religion and literature.[128] In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked art, culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas.[129][130] Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples the sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved and ndia. in The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their [131] commercial continued contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the cultures.[132] Many of the surviving examples of the Hindu cultural local found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of influence Cholas.[133] the [edit] [134] Main Art article: Chola The Art Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design.[135] They built a and of Siva number temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. These temples were not large on a scale until the end of the 10th century.[129][136] [137] With heavily ornamented pillars accurate in detail and richly sculpted walls, Airavateswara temple at Darasuram is a classic example of Chola art the architectur and T eemple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I.[138] The maturity and grandeur of which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples to Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Siva temple of of completed Thanjavur,around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of time the of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it at is the apex of South Indian architecture.[74] The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation [139] Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor.[140][141] Completed of 1030, aroundonly two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the the Empire Chola under Rajendra.[135] The Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram [142] Gangaikondacholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared at World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO, and are referred to as the Great living as temples. Chola The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.[144][145] [143] Among [146] the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples South India may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, such as of and his Vishnu consort Lakshmi, and the Saivaite saints.[135] Though conforming to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the generally worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a sculptors grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of classic the Divine Dancer.[147] Nataraja [148] Chola bronze from the Ulster [edit] Museum Main article: Chola Literature The age of literature the Imperial Cholas (8501200) was the golden age of Tamil marked by culture, the importance of literature.[3] Chola inscriptions cite many works, majority of which have been lost. the The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred [149] the

construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saiva and devotional Vaishnava literature.[150] Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, in fewer although numbers than in previous centuries.[151] Jivaka-chintamani Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable by nonby authors.[152][153][154] The art of Tirutakkatevar is marked by all the Hindu of great qualitiespoetry.[155] It is considered as the model for Kamban for his Ramavataram. masterpiece Kamban [156] flourished during the reign of Kulothunga .[157] His Ramavatharam (also Chola referred to as Kambaramayanam) is a great epic in Tamil literature, although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is and accepted generallythat his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the epic: Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own Sanskrit his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the time; country.[154][158] Chola Jayamkondarjs masterpiece Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry [159] draws that a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This the events describes during Kulothunga Chola Ijs war in Kalinga and depicts not only pomp the and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of field.[159][160][161] The famous Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary the Kulothunga Chola I and served at the courts of three of of successors.[156][159][160][162] Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a Kulothunga's extolling the virtues of the Chola king. poem The impulse to produce devotional religious literature continued into the [163] period Chola and the arrangement of the Saiva canon into 11 books was the work of Andar Nambi Nambi, who lived close to the end of 10th century.[164][165] relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the later Chola However, possibly period, because of the apparent animosity towards the Vaishnavites by the Chola Later monarchs. [edit] [166] Religion Bronze Chola Statue of Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York n general, Cholas were the adherents of Hinduism. Throughout their history, City were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of they Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Even the early Cholas followed a version of the classical Hindu faith. There is evidence in Purananuru for Karikala Cholajs the in the faith Vedic Hinduism in the Tamil country.[167] Kocengannan, another early was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Saiva canon as a saint. Chola, Later [37] Cholas were also staunch Saivites,[168] although there was a sense toleration towards other sects and religions.[169] Parantaka I and Sundara of endowed and built temples for both Siva and Vishnu.[170] Rajaraja Chola patronised Buddhists, and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara Chola I Buddhist monastery) in Nagapattinam at the request of the Srivijaya (a king.[29][171][172][173] While it is true that the biggest and grandest temples Sailendra the of Cholas were dedicated to Lord Siva, all Chola kings especially from Aditya Rajendra IV not only built great temples for Lord Vishnu but also gave to grants and gifts to them (rrr) In fact during the time of Aditya I (871-903 numerous the AD) Gangas of Kannada country had recognized his superiority which he by marrying acknowledgedinto that family and making grant contributions to the construction the of Sri Ranganatha temple at modern Srirangapatnam. In fact it was Aditya dictat which was faithfully carried out by his illustrious son Parantaka I and I's successors wherein it was declared in edicts that the Siva Temple of his (at that time the grand Siva temples of Tanjore and Gangaikonda Cholapuram Chidambaram not werein existence) and the Sri Ranganatha Swami temple of Srirangam were 'Kuladhanams' i.e. tutelary (deities) treasures of the Chola emperors(rrr) In the this fact dictat was repeated around 300 years back when the last great Chola Kulothunga III, the builder of the great Sarabeswarar Temple at Tribhuvanam on King, outskirts of Kumbakonam, hails Lord Ranganatha at Srirangam in an inscription the in

the Srirangam Koil, as his 'tutelary deity' (rrr) As per findings of Dr. the great Hultzsch, epigraphist, in this very inscription acknowledgment is made to earlier great Chola king Parantaka about declaring the Chidambaram (Siva) Koil the the and Srirangam (Vishnu) Koil as 'Kuladhanams' of the Cholas, which is a pointer the to fact that the Cholas were secular and patronized equally all religions sub-sects within the same religion(rrr) Another proof of this fact is and existence of as many as 40 Vaishnava Divyadesams out of 108 such temples in the Chola country, which are functioning and flourishing even today. In fact, the king CholaSundara (Parantaka-II) was a staunch devotee of the reclining Vishnu Azhagiya (Vadivu Nambi) at Anbil in the banks of Cauvery on the outskirts of Tiruchy, whom he gave numerous gifts and embellishments, and prayed before him by to his sword before the deity, prior to his proceeding for war for regaining keeping territories in and around Kanchi and Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas and the leading expeditions against both Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka). while During (rrr) the period of Later Cholas, there were assumed to be instances intolerance towards Vaishnavites,[174] especially towards Ramanuja, the acharya of the of Vaishnavites.[175] Kulothunga Chola II, a staunch Saivite, is said to removed a statue of Vishnu from the Siva temple at Chidambaram, though this have only a probability[176][177] is [edit] [178] In popular culture Standing Hanuman, Chola Dynasty, The history 11thCentury.of the Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors to literary produce and artistic creations during the last several decades.[179] These of popular literature have helped continue the memory of the great Cholas in works minds of the Tamil people. The most important work of this genre is the the Ponniyin popular Selvan (The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Krishnamurthy.[180] Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Kalki Chola.[181] Ponniyin Selvan deals with the events leading up to the ascension Rajaraja Uttama Chola on the Chola throne. Kalki had cleverly utilised the confusion in of succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Sundara Chola.[182] This the was bookserialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid 1950s.[183] serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication The awaited with great interest. was Kalki [184] perhaps laid the foundations for this novel in his earlier romance Parthiban Kanavu, which deals with the fortunes of an imaginary historical prince Chola Vikraman who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava Narasimhavarman I during the 7th century. The period of the story lies within king interregnum during which the Cholas were in eclipse before Vijayalaya the revived their fortune.[181] Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Chola weekly Kalki during the early 1950s. Raghu Kasthuri is a great descendent from the previously ruled by the area Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It Cholas. serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kadal Pura is set during the period was Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom, after he was denied when throne that was rightfully his. Kadal Pura speculates the whereabouts the Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work Yavana Rani written in of early 1960s is based on the life of Karikala Chola.[185] More the Balakumaran wrote the opus Udaiyar based on the event surrounding Rajaraja recently, construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. Chola's There [186] were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the and in 1950s 1973, Shivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of this play Rajaraja Cholan. The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board titled produced by Avalon game, [edit] Hill. See also History of Tamil Nadu Tamil and Sanskrit inscriptions in Malaysia

[edit] 1. Notes ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 2. ^ 5 a b c d Kulke and Rothermund, p 3. ^ a 115 b c d e Keay, p 215 4. ^ a b c Majumdar, p 407 5. ^ a b The kadaram campaign is first mentioned in Rajendra's datinginscriptions from his 14th year. The name of the Srivijaya king was Vijayatungavarman. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, pp 211220 Sangrama 6. ^ a b Meyer, p 73 C 7. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 8. ^ a 192 b c Vasudevan, pp 20 9. ^ 22Keay, pp 217218 10. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 11. ^ 18Chopra et al., p 31 12. ^ a b The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient Greek the Romans such as Periplus. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p and 13. 106 ^ Tirukkural poem 955. The annotator Parimelazhagar writes "The charity peopleof with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) forever generous in spite of their reduced are means". 14. ^ Other names in common use for the Cholas are ), Valavan Killi ( () and Sembiyan ). Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil ) ( meaning ( dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the This land.word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nalankilli Nedunkilli,and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with 'valam' ) fertility and means owner or ruler of ( a fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a a figures falcon among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Sibi as, 1920 The C pp 15. ^ The period covered by the Sangam poetry is likely to extend not than five or six generations - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, as, p 3 longer 16. The C ^ The Periplus refers to the region of the eastern seaboard of South as Damirica - The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Ancient History source India 17. book).^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 18. ^ 23a b Ptolemy mentions the town of Kaveripattinam (under the form - Proceedings, American Philosophical Society (1978), vol. 122, No. 6, p Khaberis) 19. ^ Mahavamsa eText 414 20. ^ The Asokan inscriptions speak of the Cholas in plural, implying that, http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/ his time, there were more than one Chola - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, as, p 20 in 21. The C ^ The Edicts of Ashoka, issued around 250 BCE by the Mauryan emperor mention the Cholas as recipients of his Buddhist prozelitism: "The conquest Ashoka, Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas by 9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the (5,400 kings four named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the among south the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)". S. The Edicts Dhammika, of King Asoka: An English 22. ^ Smith, p viii Rendering 23. ^ Tripathi, p 456 24. ^ Archaeological News A. L. Frothingham, Jr. The American Journal Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar., 1888), of 69125 pp. 25. ^ "The name Coromandel is used for the east coast of India from Cape to Nellore, or from point Calimere to the mouth of Krishna. The word is a Comorin form of corrupt Choramandala or the Realm of Chora, which is the Tamil form of the title

of the Chola dynasty". - Gupta AN, p 26. 182 ^ The direct line of Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty came to an end the death of Virarajendra Chola and the assassination of his son with Chola. Kulothunga Chola I, ascended the throne in 1070. K.A. Nilakanta Athirajendra History of Sastri, A South India, pp 170 27. 172 ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 1920, pp 104 28. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 104 106 29. ^ a 116 b South Indian Inscriptions, Vol 30. ^ 3 a b c d e Tripathi, p 31. ^ Manimekalai (poem 00-10) 457 32. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 33. ^ 67Manimekalai (poem 2234. ^ Majumdar, p 137 030) 35. ^ a b c Kulke and Rothermund, p 36. ^ a 104 b Tripathi, p 458 37. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 38. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 105 116 39. ^ The only evidence for the approximate period of these early kings is 106 Sangamthe Literature and the synchronization with the history of Sri Lanka as in the given Mahavamsa. Gajabahu I who is said to be the contemporary of the Senguttuvan is determined to belong to the 2nd century. This leads us to date Chera poems mentioning Senguttuvan and his contemporaries to belong to this the 40. ^ period. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 41. ^ Gnanaprakasar, Nallur Swami. "Beginnings of tamil rule in 113 lankalibrary.com. http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/ancient/tamil ceylon". Retrieved on %20rule.htm. 2006-12-05. 42. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 43. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 130, 135, 130 44. ^ Majumdar, Ancient India. p 137 45. ^ Thapar, p 268 139 46. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 47. ^ a 135 b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 130, Quote:"The Cholas disappeared from the Tamil land almost completely in 133. debacle, though a branch of them can be traced towards the close of the period this Rayalaseema - the Telugu-Chodas, whose kingdom is mentioned by Yuan Chwang in in seventh century A.D the 48. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 102 49. ^ C Pandya Kadungon and Pallava Simhavishnu overthrew the Acchchutakalaba is likely the last Kalabhra king - Nilakanta Sastri, as, Kalabhras. 102 The C p 50. ^ Periyapuranam, a Saiva religious work of 12th century tells us of Pandyathe king Nindrasirnedumaran, who had for his queen a Chola princess. Chopra al., p 95 et 51. ^ Copperplate grants of the Pallava Buddhavarman(late 4th century) that the king as the 'underwater fire that destroyed the ocean of the Chola mention - Nilakanta Sastri, The as, pp 104105 army'. 52. ^ Simhavishnu (575600) is also stated to have seized the Chola C Mahendravarman I was called the 'crown of the Chola country' in his country. The Chalukya inscriptions.Pulakesin II in his inscriptions in Aihole states that he the Pallavas and brought relief to the Cholas. - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, defeated as, p 105 The C 53. ^ a b Chopra et al., p 95 54. ^ Tripathi, p459 55. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 4. Quote:"it is known not relation, if any, the Telugu-Chodas of the Renadu country in the what District, bore to their namesakes of the Tamil land, though they claimed Ceded from Karikala, the most celebrated of the early Chola monarchs of the Sangam descent 56. age" ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri postulates that there was a live connection between

the early Cholas and the Renandu Cholas of the Andhra country. The migration northward probably took place during the Pallava domination of Simhavishnu. also categorically rejects the claims that these were the descendants of Sastri Chola KarikalaK.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 107 57. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 102 C 58. ^ C Tripathi, pp 458459 59. ^ The Chola inscriptions followed the practice of prefacing the text with a historical recounting, in a poetic and ornate style of Tamil, of intended main the achievements of the reign and the descent of the king and of his South Indian ancestors - Inscriptions, Vol 60. ^ Chopra et al., p 102 2 61. ^ The opportunity for Vijayalaya arose during the battle of between the Pallava ally Ganga Pritvipati and the Pandya Varaguna. K.A. Sripurambayam Sastri, A Nilakanta History of South India, p 62. ^ Vijayalaya invaded Thanjavur and defeated the Muttarayar king, 158 of thefeudatory K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p Pandyas. 63. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 122 158 64. ^ a 123 b Rajendra Chola I completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka captured the Sinhala king Mahinda V prisoner. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas and 194210 pp 65. ^ Stuart Munro-Hay, Nakhon Sri Thammarat - The Archaeology, History Legends of a Southern Thai Town, p 18, ISBN and 66. ^ Chopra et al., p 107 9747534738 67. ^ Chopra et al., p 109 68. ^ Chopra et al., pp 107 69. ^ a 109 b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South 70. ^ K.A. India, Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 71. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South 158 72. ^ K.A. India, Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 73. ^ K.A. p.179 Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p. 74. ^ a 180 b Keay, p 216 75. ^ Majumdar, p 405 76. ^ a b Chopra et al., p 120 77. ^ Majumdar, p 372 78. ^ a b c Tripathi, p 471 79. ^ Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the and Pallavarayanpettai Indian Inscriptions, Vol. nscriptions. South 80. ^ Chopra et al., pp 128 12 81. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 129 82. ^ a 194 b Tripathi, p 472 83. ^ Majumdar, p 410 84. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 85. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 195 86. ^ Tripathi, p 485 196 87. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 88. ^ a 197 b Chopra et al., p 130 89. ^ The Buddhist work Milinda Panha dated to the early Christian era, Kolapttna among the best-known sea ports on the Chola coast. Nilakanta Sastri, mentions C Theas, p 23 90. ^ Nagaswamy, Tamil Coins - a 91. ^ K.A. study Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 92. ^ Chopra et al., p 106 107 93. ^ The only other time when peninsular India would be brought under umbrella before the Independence was during the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 one 94. 1614) ^ Stein, p 26 95. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 448 96. ^ C There were no legislature or controls on the executive. The king ruled by

edicts, which generally followed dharma a culturally mediated concept of 'fair proper' practice. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, pp 451, 460461 and 97. ^ For example, Rajaraja is mentioned in the Layden copperplate grant to C issuedhave oral order for a gift to a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam, and an orders were written out by a clerk - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, as, p 461 his 98. The C ^ Keay, p 218 99. ^ Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements. temples temple served as a centre for redistribution of wealth and contributed towards The integrity of the kingdom. - Keay, pp 217 the 100. ^ a b Tripathi, pp 474475 218 101. ^ a b Stein, p 20 102. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 103. 185 ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 104. 150 ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 465 105. C K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 477 ^ 106. C K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 424 ^ 107. 426 ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 116 108. 117 ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 109. 12a b Kulke and Rothermund, p ^ 110. 118 ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 111. 124 ^ Tripathi, p 465 112. ^ Tripathi, p 477 113. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 604 114. C Keay, p 223 ^ 115. ^ a b Kulke and Rothermund, p 116. 117 ^ See Thapar, p xv 117. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 316 118. C The Tamil merchants took glassware, camphor, sandalwood, rhinoceros ^ ivory,horns, water, asafoetida, spices such as pepper, cloves, etc. K.A. rose Sastri, A Nilakanta History of South India, p 119. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 173 120. 284 ^ during the short reign of Virarajendra Chola, which possibly had sectarian roots. some 121. ^ Chopra et al., p 125 122. ^ Chopra et al., p 129 123. ^ Scharfe, p 180 124. ^ 17th century Italian traveler Pietro Della Valle (1623) has given a account of the village schools in South India. These accounts reflect the vivid of primary education in existence until the morder times in Tamil system 125. Nadu ^ Rajendra Chola I endowed a large college in which more than 280 learntstudents teachers - K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p from 14 126. ^ The students studied a number of subjects in these colleges, 293 philosophy (anvikshiki), Vedas (trayi the threefold Vedas of Rigveda, including and Samaveda. The fourth Atharvaveda was considered a non-religious Yajurveda economics (vartta), government (dandaniti), grammar, prosody, text.), astronomy, etymology, logic (tarka), medicine (ayurveda), politics (arthasastra) and K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p music. 127. ^ Scharfe, pp 172173 292 128. ^ Mitter, p 2 129. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 130. 418 ^ Keay, p 174 131. ^ It was, however, in bronze sculptures that the Chola craftsmen producing images rivalling the best anywhere. Thapar, p excelled, 132. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, p 403 133. 159 ^ The great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number similarities with the South Indian architecture. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, as, of p 709 The C

134. ^ Kulke and Rothermund, pp 159 135. 160 b c Tripathi, p 479 ^ a 136. ^ Harle, p 295 137. ^ Mitter, p 57 138. ^ Vasudevan, pp 2124 139. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 140. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, 421 141. p423 ^ Keay, p221 142. ^ Nagasamy R, 143. Gangaikondacholapuram Temples". UNESCO. ^ "Great Living Chola Retrieved on 2008-06-03. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250. 144. ^ Chopra et al., p 186 145. ^ Mitter, p 163 146. ^ Thapar, pp 309310 147. ^ Wolpert, p174 148. ^ By common consent, the finest Cola masterpieces are the bronze images Siva Nataraja. Mitter, p of 149. ^ , including Rajarajesvara Natakam- a work on drama, Viranukkaviyam by 59 Virasola Anukkar, and Kannivana Puranam, a work of popular nature. K.A. one Sastri, The as, pp 663664 Nilakanta 150. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p C 151. 333 ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 152. 339 ^ Chopra et al., p 188 153. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 339 154. 340 b Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 2, p ^ a 155. 1195 ^ Chopra et al., p 196 156. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 157. 340 ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 672 158. C K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 341 ^ 159. 342 b c Chopra et al., p ^ a 160. 116 b K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p ^ a 161. 20K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 340 ^ 162. 341 ^ Majumdar, p 8 163. ^ Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 1, p 164. 307 ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, pp 342 165. 343 ^ Chopra et al., p 115 166. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 681 167. C Purananuru (poem 224) movingly expresses his faith and the grief caused ^ his passing away. by 168. ^ Vasudevan, p 22 169. ^ Tripathi, p 480 170. ^ Vasudevan, p 102 171. ^ The name of the Sailendra king was Sri Chulamanivarman and the Vihara named was 'Chudamani vihara' in his honour. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, as, p 214 172. The C ^ Keay, pp 222223 173. ^ Majumdar, p 406 174. ^ Stein, p 134 175. ^ Vasudevan, p 104 176. ^ K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India, p 177. 176 ^ There is an inscription from 1160 that the custodians of Siva temples had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their who K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, The as, p 645 property. 178. ^ Chopra et al., p 126 C 179. ^ Das, p 108 180. ^ "Versatile writer and patriot". The http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/03/20/stories/13200178.htm. Retrieved on Hindu. 29. 2008-05181. ^ a b Das, p 109

182. ^ Das, pp 108109 183. ^ "English translation of Ponniyin Selvan". The http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/lr/2003/01/05/stories/2003010500100100.h Hindu. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. tm. 184. ^ "Lines that Speak". The http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/07/23/stories/13230766.htm. Retrieved on Hindu. 29. 2008-05185. ^ Encylopaedia of Indian literature, vol. 1, pp 631 186. 632 ^ "Book review of Udaiyar". The http://www.hindu.com/br/2005/02/22/stories/2005022200101501.htm. Retrieved Hindu. 2008-05-30. on (rrr) www.whatsindia.com/south_indian_inscriptions Pandyan (Vol.24) From Wikipedia, the free Kingdom Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia search Pandya s Extent of the Pandya Territories c. 1250 Official C.E. Tami language l Capital K sorka M iadura i Governmen M tonarch y Preceding Kalabhra state s Succeeding statesDelhi Sultanate,Vijayanagar, Nayaks of Madurai, The Pandyan Kingdom ) was an ancient Tamil state in South (Tamil: India. The Pandyas, Chola, Chera and Pallava Dynasties are the four Dravidian Dynasties which ruled South India till the 15th century CE. They initially Tamil from ruledKorkai, a seaport on the Southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and later times moved to Madurai. Pandyan was well known since the ancient in with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire; during the 13th period, of the centuryChristian era Marco Polo mentioned it as the richest kingdom existence[1] in T .he Pandyan Kingdom of Southern India is believed to have been founded around to six centuries before the Christian Era. Their recorded existence and five are found in records dating to as early as 550 BC. Emperor Augustus of Rome mention Antioch knew of the Pandion of Dramira and received a Pandyan ambassador at letters and gifts from this ancient Tamil Kingdom. Strabo described an with to emperor ambassador Augustus Caesar from a South Indian King called Pandion. The country the of Pandyas, Pandi Mandala, was described as Pandionis Mediterranea by and Modura Regia Pandionis by Periplus The early Pandyan Dynasty of the Sangam Literature went into obscurity during Ptolemy[2]. invasion of the Kalabhras. The dynasty revived under Kadungon in the early the century, pushed the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and ruled from 6th They again Madurai[3].went into decline with the rise of the Cholas in the 9th century were and in constant conflict with them. The Pandyas allied themselves with Sinhalese and the Cheras in harassing the Chola empire until they found the opportunity for reviving their fortunes during the late 13th an century.

The Later Pandyas (1150-1350)entered their golden age under Maravman Pandiyan Sundara and Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (c. 1251), who expanded the empire Telugu country, conquered Kalinga (Orissa) and invaded and conquered Sri into They also had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires Lanka. Srivijaya and their successors. During their history, the Pandyas were of in conflict repeatedly with the Pallavas, Cholas, Hoysalas and finally the Muslim from the Delhi Sultanate. The Pandyan Kingdom finally became extinct after invaders establishment of the Madurai Sultanate in the 16th the The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature from before the Christian century. They Era. controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls known in the Sri ancient world. Tradition holds that the legendary Sangams were held in known under their patronage, and that some of the Pandya Kings were poets Madurai Content themselves. [ shide ] 1 Etymology 2 Sources o 2.1 Sangam Literature o 2.2 Epigraphy o 2.3 Foreign Sources 3 History o 3.1 Early Pandyas o 3.2 First Empire o 3.3 Under the Cholas o 3.4 Pandya Revival o 3.5 Zenith followed by the end of 4 Government and Society Pandyas o 4.1 Trade 5 Religion 6 Culture 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links [edit] Historians Etymology have used several sources to identify the origins of the early dynasty Pandyan with the pre-Christian Era and also to piece together the names of Pandyan kings. Pandyas were the longest ruling dynasty of Indian the Unfortunately, the exact genealogy of these kings has not been history. established authoritatively [edit] yet. Main article: Early Pandyan Sources [edit] KingdomSangam Literature Four-armed Vishnu, Pandya Dynasty, 8-9th century Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam CE. Among them Literature.Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam', and Peruvaludi Mudukudimi 'of several sacrifices' deserve special mention. Beside several poems short found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two works major Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection of which give Pattupattu)aglimpse into the society and commercial activities in the kingdom Pandyan during the Sangam age. difficult to estimate the exact dates of these Sangam age Pandyas. t is period covered by the extant literature of the Sangam is unfortunately not easy The determine with any measure of certainty. Except the longer epics to and Manimekalai, which by common consent belong to an age later than the Silapathikaram age, the poems have reached us in the forms of systematic anthologies. Sangam Each

individual poem has generally attached to it a colophon on the authorship subject matter of the poem. The name of the king or chieftain to whom the and relates and the occasion which called forth the eulogy are also poem found.from these colophons, and rarely from the texts of the poems t is that we gather the names of many kings and chieftains and the poets and themselves, patronized poetesses by them. The task of reducing these names to an ordered scheme in the different generations of contemporaries can be marked off one another has which been not easy. To add to the confusions, some historians have even denounced colophons as later additions and untrustworthy as historical these Any attempt documents. at extracting a systematic chronology from these poems should into take consideration the casual nature of these poems and the wide between the differences purposes of the anthologist who collected these poems and historianjs attempts to arrive at a continuous the [edit] history. The earliest Pandya to be found in epigraph is Nedunjeliyan, figuring in Epigraphy Minakshipuram record assigned from the second to the first centuries BCE. the record documents a gift of rock-cut beds, to a Jain ascetic. Punch marked coins The the in Pandya country dating from around the same time have also been Pandyas found. are also mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 - 232 BCE). his In inscriptions Asoka refers to the peoples of south India the Cholas, Pandyas Cheras, and Satiyaputras as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism.[4][5] kingdoms, although not part of the Mauryan Empire, were on friendly terms These Asoka with " :The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six yojanas hundred (5,4009,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond where there the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri likewise [6] Lanka)." Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during the second century BCE, in Hathigumpha inscription, claims to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil his (mjTamiradesasanghatamjj) which had lasted 132 years, and to have acquired a states quantity of pearls from the Pandyas. large [edit] Foreign [5] Sources Coin of the Roman emperor Augustus found at the Pudukottai, South Megasthenes knew of the Pandyan kingdom around 300 BC. He described it in India. as occupying the portion of India which lies southward and extends to the Indika According to his account, it had 365 villages, each of which was expected to sea. the meetneeds of the royal household for one day in the year. He described the queen at Pandyan the time, Pandaia as a daughter of Heracles. The [7].Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60 - 100 CE) describes the riches 'Pandian of a ...Nelcynda is distant from Muziris by river and sea about five hundred Kingdom': and is stadia,of another Kingdom, the Pandian. This place also is situated on a about river,one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea.... According to Hiuen-Tsang, the Pandya country was a depot for sea pearls, [8] people were harsh and of different religions. They were very good at its The Chinese historian Yu Huan in his 3rd century text, the Weile, mentions trade[3]. Kingdom of The ...The Panyue:kingdom of Panyue is also called Hanyuewang. It is several thousand li the to southeast of Tianzhu (Northern India)...The inhabitants are small; they the are same height as the Chinese... The [9] Roman emperor Julian received an embassy from a Pandya about 361. A trading centre was located on the Pandyan coast at the mouth of the Vaigai Roman southeast of river, Pandyas also had trade contacts with Ptolemaic Egypt and, through Egypt, with Madurai). by the first century, and with China by the 3rd century. The 1st century Rome Greek

historian Nicolaus of Damascus met, at Damascus, the ambassador sent by a from king Dramira "named Pandion or, according to others, Porus" to Caesar around 13 Augustus CE (Strabo XV.1-4, and Strabo XV.1-73).[10] [11] n 1288 and again in 1293 the Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited the kingdom and left a vivid description of the land and its people. Polo Pandyan that exclaimed "The darkest man is here the most highly esteemed and considered better than : others who are not so dark. Let me add that in very truth these people portray the depict their gods and their idols black and their devils white as snow. For and say theythat God and all the saints are black and the devils are all white. That why is they portray them as I have [edit] described." The earliest Tamil literary works, such as the Kalittokai, mention a History called Kumari Nadu or Kumari Kandam, which was believed to have been located continent the to South of the present-day Kanyakumari tens of thousands of years ago, the then between Kumari and Pahruli rivers. Pandyan kings such as Chenkon, and the supposedly ruled this country, tens of thousands of years ago. They fought Cheras defeated the Nagas, who might have been a non-Dravidian people, or another and of living beings. Kalittokai again mentions a war between the combined forces species Villavars and the Meenavars (the Cheras and the Pandyas), who fought a fierce of against the Nagas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war, and war Central India subsequently to the Nagas. Bhil Meena of North India could be the rulers in equivalentNorth Also, India.the Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, find mention as one the of three ruling dynasties of the Southern region of the then Bharatavarsha, the in very ancient [Hindu] epic of the Ramayana.[12][13] They are also mentioned the in Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Mahabharata, where they are (along with the and the Cheras Cholas) believed to have been on the side of the Pandavas in the War.[14] Great Although there are many instances of the Pandya Kingdom being referred to [15] surviving ancient Hindu texts including the Mahabharata, we currently have no in of waydetermining a cogent genealogy of these ancient kings. In order to verifiability of this article, the names of these early Pandya Kings have maintain omitted. We have a connected history of the Pandyas from the fall of been during the Kalabhras middle of the 6th century. Kalittokai mentions that many different ethnicallynon Tamil Naga tribes such as Maravar, Eyinar, Oliar, Oviar, and Parathavar migrated to the Pandyan kingdom and started living there in Aruvalur Third Tamil Sangam period 2000 years ago.[16]. The Pandyan kings had the the Maran title T .he following lists of the Pandya kings are based on the authoritative A of South History India from the Early Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar by K.A.N. Oxford Sastri,U Press, New Delhi (Reprinted [edit] 1998). Early Main article: Early Pandyan Pandyas The following is a partial list of Pandyan emperors who ruled during the Kingdom age:[17][18] Sangam [19] Nedunj Cheliyan I ( Aariyap Padai Kadantha Nedunj Cheliyan Pudappandiyan ) Mudukudumi Paruvaludhi Nedunj Cheliyan II Nan Maran Nedunj Cheliyan ( Talaiyaalanganathu Seruvendra Nedunj Cheliyan Maran Valudi ) Musiri Mutriya Cheliyan Ukkirap Peruvaludi [edit] First After Empirethe close of the Sangam age, the first Pandyan empire was established Kadungon in the 6th century by defeating the Kalabhras. The by following

chronological list of the Pandya emperors is based on an inscription found on Vaigai the Kadungon 560 - 590 A.D riverbeds. Maravarman Avani Culamani 590 - 620 Cezhiyan Cendan 620 - 640 A.D Arikesari Maravarman Nindraseer Nedumaaran 670 - 710 A.D Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran 710 - 735 A.D Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman Rajasimha I 735 - 765 A.D. Parantaka Nedunjadaiyan 765 - 790 A.D Rasasingan A.D 790 - 800 A.D Varagunan I 800 - 830 A.D Sirmara Srivallabha 830 - 862 Varagunavarman II 862 - 880 A.D Parantaka Viranarayana 880 - 900 A.D Maravarman Rajasimha II 900 - 920 A.D After A.D defeat of the Kalabhras, the Pandya kingdom grew steadily in power the territory. With the Cholas in obscurity, the Tamil country was divided between and Pallavas and the Pandyas, the river Kaveri being the frontier between the After them. Vijayalaya Chola conquered Thanjavur by defeating the Muttarayar around 850, chieftains the Pandyas went into a period of decline. They were harassing constantlytheir Chola overlords by occupying their territories. Parantaka invaded Chola I the Pandya territories and defeated Rajasinha III. However, the reversed Pandyas this defeat to regain most of their lost [edit] Under territories. the The Chola domination of the Tamil country began in earnest during the reign Cholas Parantaka Chola II. Chola armies led by Aditya Karikala, son of Parantaka of defeated Vira Pandya in battle. The Pandyas were assisted by the Sinhalese Chola of Mahinda IVPandyas were driven out of their territories and had to seek forces on the refuge island of Sri Lanka. This was the start of the long exile of the They were Pandyas. replaced by a series of Chola viceroys with the title Chola Pandyas ruled from Madurai from c. who The following list gives the names of the Pandya kings who were active during 1020. 10th the century and the first half of 11th century. It is difficult to give dates their of accession and the duration of their rule. Nevertheless, their presence the in southern country requires recognition. Pandya I Sundara Vira Pandya I Vira Pandya II Amarabhujanga Tivrakopa Jatavarman Sundara Chola Maravarman Vikrama Chola Pandya Maravarman Parakrama Chola Pandya Jatavarman Chola Pandya Pandya Srivallabha Manakulachala (1101 Maaravaramban Seervallaban (1132 1124) Parakrama Pandiyan (1161 1161) Kulasekara Pandyan III 1162) Vira Pandyan III Jatavarman Srivallaban (1175 Jatavarman Kulasekara Devan (1180 1180) [edit]1216) Pandya Revival A Pandya The 13th sculpturecentury is the greatest period in the history of the Pandyan Their power reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan in the middle Empire. the of 13th century. The foundation for such a great empire was laid by Sundara Pandya early in the 13th Maravarman century.

 Maravarman Sundara Pandya (1216 Sundaravaramban Kulasekaran II (1238 1238) Maaravaramban Sundara Pandiyan II (1241 1240) Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1251 1251) Maaravaramban Kulasekara Pandyan I (1268 1268) Sundara Pandyan IV (1309 1308) Vira Pandyan IV (1309 1327) [edit]1345) Zenith followed by the end of The Pandyan kingdom was replaced by the Chola princes who assumed the title Pandyas Chola Pandyas in the 11th century. After being overshadowed by the Pallavas as Cholas for centuries, Pandyan glory was briefly revived by Maravaramban and Pandyan Sundara and by (probably his younger brother or son) the much Jatavarman celebrated Sundara Pandyan in 1251. The Pandya power extended from the countries on banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. Telugu revival of the Pandyan dynasty was to coincide with the gradual but steady The of the declineChola empire. The last two or three Chola kings who followed were either Kulothunga very weak or incompetent. The Cholas of course did not lack valour had but been unable to stop the revival of the Pandiyan empire from the times Maravaramban Sundara Pandyan, the revival of the Kadava Pallavas at Kanchi of Kopperinchunga I and indeed the growing power and status of the Telugu Cholas, under Renanti and the Irungola Cholas of the Telugu country; for the last threethe had been very trusted allies of the Cholas up to Kulothunga III, having helped named in himconquering Kalinga. The marital alliance of Kulothunga III and one of successors, Raja Raja III, with the Hoysalas did not yield any advantage, his (initially, at least) Kulothunga III took the help of the Hoysalas in though the Pandiyan resurgence. countering had even conquered Karur, Cheranadu addition to However, his strength rested on Kulothunga Madurai, Ilam and Kalinga. in from Hoysalas, whose king Veera Ballala II was his son-in-law. However, support Ballala himself had lost quite a bit of his territories between 1208-1212 Veera his local to adversaries in Kannada country, like the Kalachuris, Seunas etc. resurgent Pandiyans under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan went to war The Kulothunga and first at Kandai and then near Manaparai on the outskirts of against Tiruchirappalli, the Pandiyans routed the Chola army and entered modern Srirangam Tiruchy, and Thanjavur victorious in war. But it appears that in the Tiruchy Srirangam areas, there was renewed control of the Cholas, presumably with the and of the Hoysalas under Vira Someswara with the Hoysalas later shifting help allegiance to the Pandyans either during the last years of Maravarman their Pandyan Sundara or the early years of his successor Jatavarman Sundara Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan was a very brave, ambitious warrior king, who Pandyan. to completely subjugate the Cholas. He initially tolerated the presence of wanted Hoysalas under Vira Someshwara with his son Visvanatha or Ramanatha ruling the Kuppam near Samayapuram on the outskirts of Srirangam. This was because from feudatories of the Hoysalas were also growing in power and threatening the other kingdom Hoysala itself. Besides, the Muslim invasion of the Deccan had started under Kafur. Malik The challenged Hoysalas did have a foothold in and around Tiruchy Srirangam for a few years and seemed to have indulged in some temple and activity building at Srirangam also. But Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan, who subdued Chola Rajendra in around 1258-1260 AD was an equal antagonist of the Hoysalas presence whose he absolutely disliked in the Tamil country. He first vanquished Kadava Pallavas under the , who had challenged the Hoysala stationed in and Kopperinchungan- around Kanchi and killed a few of their commanders. army Rajendra III suffered another defeat at the hands of Vira Someshwara, because Though the of growing power of Pandiyans being felt by both Cholas and Hoysalas, there political affinity between the two which was cemented also by marital was a At the time relations. the Pandiyans and the Kadava Pallavas,with an earlier Chola, Raja Raja having been held in captivity by Kopperinchunga II and his release , secured by the Hoysalas. Ultimately, the Kadava Pallavas, Hoysalas and also being Telugu Choda Timma who invaded Kanchi were all one by one vanquished by the Jatavarman

Sundara Pandiyan with the Cholas finally becoming extinct after defeat of Ramanatha as well as his ally Rajendra iii around 1279 by Maravarman Hoysala Pandiyan Kulasekhara J .atavarman Sundara Pandiyan seized the opportunity with the Hoysalas being Tiruchy and not having any ally, the rapidly weakening Cholas seeking in with the alliance Kadava Pallavas who were themselves being threatened by the Cholas. In 1254 (or 1260) Jatavarman first dragged the Hoysalas into war Telugu routing his son Ramanatha out of Tiruchy. Vira Someshwara Hoysala, who had by the control of the empire to his sons, had to come out of his slumber and tried given challenge Jatavarman. Between Samayapuram and Tiruchy, the armies of to Someshwara were routed with Vira Someshwara losing his life in this battle. Vira ended This the presence of the Hoysalas in Tamil country. Jatavarman did not there: he went inside Kannada country after conquering Tiruchy and occupied stop of Hoysala territory up to the Konkana coast and established his son Vira parts as ruler Pandiyan of those territories. Temporarily, at least, the Hoysalas were disarray in Kannada country in Next the itself. Pandiyan prince Jatavarman concentrated on completely wiping out Chola empire. Rajadhiraja the had interfered in an earlier Pandiyan war succession and defeated a confederation of Pandiyan princes. The predecessors of Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan had suffered at the time of the Chola invasion and of wanted to take revenge. This was his opportunity. had been counting he on Hoysala assistance in case he was challenged by the Pandiyans, keeping in Rajendra the mindearlier marital alliance of the Cholas with the Hoysalas. Unfortunately Rajendra III, the Hoysalas had lost any claim to regional power in Kannada and for Tamil countries, as they had been wiped out of Tamizhagam and indeed the territories inside Kannada country itself to Jatavarman Sundara lost nitially, Pandiyan. Jatavarman consodlidated the Pandiyan hold on Tiruchy and Srirangam marched towards Tanjore and Kumbakonam. The Chola capital and Gangaikondacholapuram, too, was not far from reach. During the years 1270-1276 of appeared that Rajendra it ruled mainly in and around Gangaikondacholapuram Tanjore. Tiruchy and Srirangam had been lost to the Cholas forever, at least and 1254 from AD. Though Rajendra had been opposed to the Hoysalas due to alliance with the Pandiyans,their new hostilities emerging between Hoysalas with the and Pandiyans, Rajendra had hoped for renewed friendship and military with the Hoysalas. When challenged by Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan, the brave alliance tactically naive Rajendra but marched against the Pandiyans between Tanjore Tiruchy, hoping for assistance and participation in war from the and However, Hoysalas.the already vanquished Hoysalas were in a defensive position. They not did want to go to war and risk yet another defeat by the resurgent Rajendra III, hopelessly isolated, was thoroughly routed and humiliated in Pandiyans. war, this which is variously dated as between 1268-1270. The known rule of Sundara Pandiyan is of course, up to 1268 only. Probably Jatavarman fled the battlefield and had continued in obscurity up to 1279 but without any of Rajendra erstwhile Chola territories. By 1280 AD, the Chola empire was no the On the more. death of Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I in 1308, a conflict stemming succession disputes arose amongst his sons. Sundara Pandyan and Vira from fought Pandyaneach other for the throne. Sundara Pandyan however with the help of loyal generals and Veera Ballala III was successful in supressing Vira his into a Pandyanpetty army chief with just 500 Maravars who was indeed supported for throne by his father Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I and the people of the Since then an uneasy truce existed between the two brothers. The Kingdom now madurai. Sundara Pandyan revived its infrastructure and military strength to gain under and drive autonomy out Hoysala Empire from its political Scenarios affairs. changed during 1311, when Alauddin Khilji of Khilji dynasty sent favourite slave general, Malik Kafur, on a buccaneering expedition to the his of the South. Malik Khafur was not seeking to expand the borders of the kingdoms Sultanate; he was merely engaging in a military treasure-hunt on the Delhi behalf. Sultan'sMalik's victory over Veera and loot of hindu temples Ballala at

Halebidu sent alarming bells to the Pandyan Kingdom. Kafur on the other heard hand, about the raised strength of the pandyan army and its defensive within the walls of madurai was reluctant in carrying out his expedition position south. furtherIt was Alauddin Khilji himself ordered and sent reinforcements to Kafur attack Madurai after hearing the richness of it via Veera Virupaksha Ballala to was who sent to Delhi as an act of peace by his defeated father Veera . Being a strong Saivite, Sundara Pandyan was enraged by the destruction of Ballala hindu temples by the invading muslim armies. He assembled his army and planned the march them at once to face the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate. This to was ideahowever opposed by Vira Pandyan who felt that taking a defensive might be position more advantageous. Sundara Pandyan ignored his words and ordered his to march leaving Vira Pandyan to safeguard madurai with his men. The pandyan army managed to march well intact till Melaithirukattupalli. But their reliance on army river Kaveri as the water source turned disastrous as the river ran dry during the hot the summer of 1311. The already exhausted pandyan army planned to march west search of nearby water source. Their speed was drastically reduced due to in general's decision of marching on the dried beds of River Kaveri. Kafur's the on the forces other hand tactically planned on their ration and water supplies, Sundara Pandyan much before Thiruchirapalli. The physically exhausted met infantry Pandyan easily fell prey for the Sultanate's army. However, the Pandyan revived cavalry its attack on the mulsim cavalry. But, the mulsim cavaliers were armed well with turcopoles and chain mail armors while pandyan horsemen were armored and inferiorly heavily relied on heavy swords. Tactical strikes by Kafur's men over crossbow the hindu cavalry, followed by the muslim infantry's attack blocked possible retreat for the Sundara Pandyan's army. The generals of Kafur's army any Sundara Pandyan as captive and beheaded all the others captured. Few took cavaliers managed to escape to Madurai to report their defeat to Vira Pandya. Pandyan victorious sultanate went on plundering the temples of Thiruchirapalli The Srirangam and T .he walled city of Madurai was now left only with the Vira pandyan's men with alongthe aid from maravars of Ramanathapuram. Their sole aim was to Meenakshi safeguard Sundareswarar Temple and also yield time for the safe passage of and children to the hilly regions of present day Kerala. Understanding the women that fact they were largely outnumbered, the defenders' only hope is to delay enemies long enough for them to negotiate. Kafur's siege on Madurai continued their weeks, however, it turned futile as his army lacked any Ballistas or for and relied Trebuchets on Battering Rams of inferior quality. On the other hand, archery attack by Maravars and surprise cavalry attacks on the Muslim continuous during night times tremendously increased the casualties on Kafur's side. infantry lost Kafurabout half of his army, and then managed to breach the wall after weeks siege. Vira Pandyan and his maravars still managed to hold the line, thus of Kafur makingto finally come down for negotiation. Kafur offered the following terms Vira Pandyan: 1. Hand over all the treasures belonging to the Meenakshi Temple to Madurai Treasury which included 96,000 gold coins and precious stones 2. Half and the of Rice rationed inside the walls of madurai 3. All the elephants and available with Pandyas. In return, Vira Pandyan was promised the release of horses brother, Sundara Pandyan and safety of the idols in the inner sanctum of his Meenakshi the Following this there were two other expeditions from the Delhi Sultanate in Temple. CE led by Khusrav Khan and in 1323 CE by Ulugh Khan. These expeditions led 1314 already weakened Pandyas to confine around the small region of Tirunelveli. the inscriptions about Pandyas are known since then. Sayyid Jalal-ud-Din Ahsan No appointed governor of the newly created southern-most Ma'bar province of the was sultanate by Muhammad bin Tughluq. In 1333 CE, Sayyid declared his Delhi and created independenceMadurai Sultanate which was replaced by Vijayanagar Empire in Telugu 1378. kamma Nayak governors were appointed to rule Madurai. These continued to govern Madurai until the arrival of British Nayaks [edit] forces.Government and Society

[edit] Megasthenes reported about the pearl fisheries of the Pandyas, indicating that Trade Pandyas derived great wealth from the pearl trade. [20] the [edit] [21] Historical Madurai was a stronghold of Saivism. Following the invasion Religion Kalabhras, Jainism gained a foothold in the Pandyan kingdom. Jainism was of not new to the land of Pandyas as references to a jainist (and buddhist) past something found in ancient Tamil literature (see Civaka Cintamani). With the advent are Bhakti movements, Saivism and Vaishnavism resurfaced. The latter-day Pandyas of 600 AD after were Hindus who claimed to descend from Lord Shiva and Goddess Pandyan Nedumchadayan was a staunch Vaishnavite. Parvati. [edit] [22] Middle Culturekingdoms of India Timeline Northern EmpiresISouthern Northwestern : Dynasties Kingdoms 6th century BCE century 5th 4th BCE century BCE 3rd century BCE century 2nd BCE 1st century 1st BCE century CE 2nd 3rd century century 4th 5th century century 6th 7th century century 8th 9th century 10th century 11th Magadha century century Shishunaga dynasty Nanda empire Kalinga Maurya Empire Sunga Empire Kuninda Kingdom Western Satraps Gupta Empire Harsha Pala Empire Solanki Sena dynasty

Satavahan F arom Wikipedia, the free Jump to: navigation, encyclopedia search

Satavahana Empire 230 BC220 AD

Territorial extent of the Satavahana Empire (continuous line), and (dotted conquests Capita line). P laithan, Junnar near Pune and Kotilingala near Godavari River at Karimnagar Language(s)Prakri M taharashtri[1 T ]elugu[2 ] Religio B nuddhis V medi c Governmen M tonarch y King - 230-207 Simuk BC a - 190s ADIMadhariputra Svami Historical Sakasena(?) Antiquit era y - Established 230 - Disestablished220 BC Preceded bySucceeded AD by Mauryan Empire Kadamb a kshvak u Western Satraps Chut u Pallav a

The SItavIhana Empire also known as Andhras[3][4] were a dynasty which ruled Junnar (Pune), Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra and Kotilingala from in Andhra Pradesh over Southern and Central India from around 230 BCE (Karimnagar) Although onward. there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the liberal estimates suggest that it lasted about 450 years, until around 220 CE. most The

Satavahanas are credited for establishing peace in the country, resisting onslaught of foreigners after the decline of Mauryan the Content empire. [ shide 1 Origins ] 2 Early rulers o 2.1 Simuka (c.230-207 BCE) o 2.2 Satakarni (c.180-124 o 2.3 BCE)Kanva suzerainty (75-35 3 Victory over the Shakas, Yavanas and BCE) o 3.1 Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-106 Pahlavas 4 Successors CE) o 4.1 Decline of the 5 Coinage Satavahanas 6 Cultural achievements o 6.1 Art of Amaravati o 6.2 Art of Sanchi 7 List of rulers 8 References 9 See also 10 External links [edit] The first mention of the Satavahana is in the Aitareya Brahmana, dating back Origins the to 8th century BCE mentioning them to be of Vishwamitra's lineage.In the and on PIrInastheir coins the dynasty is variously referred to as the SItakarnIs, SItavIhanas,Andhras and Andhrabhrityas. A reference to the SItavIhanas by Greek traveller Megasthenes indicates that they possessed 100,000 infantry, the elephants, and had more than 30 well built fortified 1,000 Next come the Andarae, a still more powerful race, which possesses towns: villages, numerous and thirty towns defended by walls and towers, and which supplies king its with an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry, and 1,000 Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 8-23. 11., quoting elephants. The SItavIhanas Megasthenes[5] ruled a large and powerful empire that withstood the from Central Asia. Aside from their military power, their commercialism and onslaughts activity is evidenced by establishment of Indian colonies in southeast naval Asia. The Edicts of Ashoka mention the SItavIhanas as feudatories of Emperor Fragment Ashoka. of the 6th Pillar Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi, British sandstone. The SItavIhanas began as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire. They seem to have Museum. under been the control of Emperor Ashoka, who claims they were in his domain, and he introduced Buddhism among that Here them:in the king's domain among the Yavanas (Greeks), the Kambojas, the the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Nabhakas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Palidas, Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dhamma. The Satavahanas declared independence sometime after the death of Ashoka Dhammika) BCE), (232 as the Maurya Empire began to t is believed that they were Buddhistic Brahmins.[6] Some rulers like weaken. Satakarni are believed to have performed Vedic sacrifices as well. Maharaja They [7] were not only worshipers of The Buddha, but also other incarnations of and Shiva, Gauri, Indra, the sun and moon.[8] They were mostly Vishnu Vaishnavites. Under their reign, Buddha had been worshiped as a form of Vishnu Buddhistic Amaravati[9 in [ ]edit] Early The Satavahanas/ Andhras initially ruled in the area of Andhradesa, the rulers Telugu

name for the people country between the rivers Krishna and Godavari[10], which always their heartland. The PIrInas list 30 Andhra rulers. Many are known was their from coins and inscriptions as [edit] well. Simuka (c.230-207 After BCE) becoming independent around 230 BCE, Simuka, the founder of the conquered dynasty, Maharashtra, Malwa and part of Madhya Pradesh. He was succeeded by brother Kanha (or Krishna) (r. 207-189 BCE), who further extended his kingdom his the to west and the [edit] south. Satakarni (c.180-124 BCE) Early Satakarni issue, Maharashtra - Vidarbha type. Satavahana 1st century BCE coin inscribed in Brahmi: "(Sataka)Nisa". Museum British H .is successor SItakarnI I was the sixth ruler of the Satavahana. He is said in Puranas to have ruled for 56 the Satakarni defeated the Sunga dynasty of North India by wrestling Western years. from Malwathem, and performed several Vedic sacrifices at huge cost, including Horse Sacrifice - Ashwamedha yajna. He also was in conflict with the Kalinga the Kharavela, who mentions him in the Hathigumpha inscription. According to the ruler Purana he conquered Kalinga following the death of Kharavela. He Yuga Satavahana rule over Madhya Pradesh and pushed back the Sakas from Pataliputra extended is (hethought to be the Yuga Purana's "Shata", an abbreviation of the full name Sata Shri that occurs on coins from Ujjain), where he subsequently ruled for 10 By this years. time the dynasty was well established, with its capital PratishthInapura (Paithan) in Maharashtra, and its power spreading into at South all of [edit] India. Kanva suzerainty (75-35 Many BCE) small rulers succeeded Satakarni, such as Lambodara, Apilaka, Meghasvati Kuntala Satakarni, who are thought to have been under the suzerainty of the and dynasty. The Puranas (the Matsya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Brahmanda Kanva the Vishnu Purana) all state that the first of the Andhra kings rose to power Purana, the in 1st century BCE, by slaying Susarman, the last ruler of the Kanvas.[11] feat This is usually thought to have been accomplished by Pulomavi (c. 30-6 BCE), then who ruled over [edit] Victory over the Shakas, Yavanas and Pataliputra. The first Pahlavas century CE saw another incursion of the Sakas of Central Asia into ndia, where they formed the dynasty of the Western Kshatrapas. The four successors of HIla (r. 20-24 CE) had short reigns totalling about a dozen immediate During years. the reign of the Western Satrap Nahapana, the Satavahanas lost considerable territory to the satraps, including eastern Malwa, Southern a and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Poona districts. Gujarat, [edit] Gautamiputra Satakarni (78-106 [12] CE) Coin of Gautamiputra Obv: King Satakarni.in profile. Prakrit legend "Rano Gotamiputasa Siri Yana "In the reign Satakarnisa": of Gautamiputra Sri Yana Rev: Hill Satakarni"with Satavahana symbol, sun and moon. Dravidian legend "Arahanaku putaku gotami Hiru Yana Hatakanaku". Eventually Gautamiputra (Sri Yagna) SItakarni (also known as Shalivahan) (r. [13] 106 CE) defeated the Western Satrap ruler Nahapana, restoring the prestige of 78dynasty by reconquering a large part of the former dominions of the his He was an ardent supporter of SItavIhanas. According Hinduism. to the Nasik inscription made by his mother Gautami Balasri, he is one.. the .

...who crushed down the pride and conceit of the Kshatriyas (the native princes, the Rajputs of Rajputana, Gujarat and Central India); who destroyed Indian Shakas (Western Kshatrapas), Yavanas (Indo-Greeks) and Pahlavas the Parthians),... who rooted the Khakharata family (The Kshaharata family (IndoNahapana); who restored the glory of the Satavahana of Gautamiputra Satakarni may also have defeated Shaka king Vikramaditya in 78 AD race[14] started the calendar known as Shalivahana era or Shaka era, which is followed and the by Marathi and Telugu Gautamiputra SItakarni's son, Vashishtiputra PulumIyi (r. 106-130 CE), people. him. Gautamiputra was the first SItavIhana king to issue the portraitsucceeded coinage, in a style derived from the Western Satraps. type [edit] [15] Successors Silver coin of king Vashishtiputra SItakarni (c. 160 Obv: CE). Bust of king. Prakrit legend in the Brahmi script: "Siri Satakanisa Vasithiputasa": "King Vasishtiputra Sri Rano ... Rev: Ujjain/SItavIhana symbol left. Crescented six-arch chaitya hill right. Satakarni" below. River Dravidian legend in the Brahmi script: "Arahanaku Vahitti makanaku Hatakaniko" - rendered as classical Tamil to "The ruler, Vasitti's son, Tiru Satakani" Highness - -ko being the royal name Gautamiputra's brother, Vashishtiputra SItakarni, married the daughter suffix Rudradaman I of the Western Satraps dynasty. Around 150 CE, Rudradaman I, now of father-in-law, waged war against the Satavahanas, who were defeated twice in his conflicts. Vashishtiputra Satakarni was only spared his life because of his these links familywith Rudradaman: "Rudradaman (...) who obtained good report because he, in spite of having twice [16] fair fight completely defeated Satakarni, the lord of Dakshinapatha, on account in the of nearness of their connection did not destroy Junagadh rock inscription him." As a [17] result of his victories, Rudradaman regained all the former previously territoriesheld by Nahapana, except for the extreme south territories of Poona Nasik.[18] Satavahana dominions were limited to their original base in the and and eastern central India around Deccan However, the last great king of this dynasty, Yajna Satakarni, defeated Amaravati. Western Satraps and reconquered their southern regions in western and the ndia. central[19] During the reign of Sri Yajna SItakarni (170-199 CE) the regained some prosperity, and some of his coins have been found in SItavIhanas but around the Surashtra[20] middle of the third century, the dynasty came to an [edit] Decline of the end. Satavahanas Coin of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni (r. 167-196 Four CE). or five kings of Yajna Satakarni's line succeeded him, and continued to till rule about the mid 200s CE. However, the dynasty was soon extinguished the rise followingof its feudatories, perhaps on account of a decline in central power. Several dynasties divided the lands of the kingdom among themselves. Among [21] were them Western Satraps in the northwestern part of the : Andhra Ikshvakus (or SrIparvatiyas) in the Krishna-Guntur region. (r. kingdom. 320 CE). 220 Abhiras in the western part of the kingdom. They were ultimately to the SItavIhanas in their capital succeed PratishthInapura. Chutus of Banavasi in North Kadambas of Karnataka. Banavasi in North Pallavas of Karnataka. Kanchipuram, of whom the first ruler was Simhavarman I (r. 300 CE). 275[edit] Coinage

Royal earrings, Andhra Pradesh, 1st Century The BCE.Satavahanas are the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins portraits of their rulers, starting with king Gautamiputra Satakarni, a with derived practicefrom that of the Western Satraps he defeated, itself originating with ndo-Greek kings to the the Satavahana coins give unique indications as to their chronology, language, northwest. even and facial features (curly hair, long ears and strong lips). They issued lead and copper coins; their portrait-style silver coins were usually struck mainly coins over of the Western Kshatrapa The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a kings. dialect Prakrit without exception. Some reverse coin legends are in a Dravidian in Telugu language or Tamil[22] , which seems to have been in use in their abutting heartlandthe godavari,probably Kotilingala, Karimnagar district and probably Krishna, Amaravati, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh. Their [23] coins also display various traditional symbols, such as elephants, horses lions, and chaityas (stupas), as well as the "Ujjain symbol", a cross with circles at the end. The legendary Ujjayini emperor Vikramditiya on whose name four Vikram Samvat is initiated might be Satakarni II a Satavahana emperor as the Ujjayini symbol also appeared on the Satavahana the [edit] coins. Cultural achievements An aniconic representation of Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century Amaravati CE, O .f the SItavIhana kings, HIla (r. 20-24 CE) is famous for compiling the of Maharashtri poems known as the Gaha Sattasai (Sanskrit: GIthI collection although from SaptashatI), linguistic evidence it seems that the work now extant must have re-edited in the succeeding century or two. The Lilavati describes his been with a Ceylonese marriage The Satavahanas influenced South-East Asia to a great extent, spreading Princess. culture, language and religion into that part of the world. Their coins had Hindu of images [edit] ships. Art of Amaravati Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 2nd-3rd century The CE. SItavIhana kings are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist and art architecture. They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, the stupa including at Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh. The stupas were decorated in slabs marbleand sculpted with scenes from the life of the Buddha, portrayed characteristic slim and elegant style. The Satavahana empire colonized in a Asia and southeastspread Indian culture to those parts. Mahayana Buddhism, which may originated in Andhra (northwestern India being the alternative candidate), have carried to many parts of Asia by the rich maritime culture of the Satavahanas. was Amaravati style of sculpture spread to Southeast Asia at this The [edit] time. Art of The Satavahanas contributed greatly to the embellishment of the Buddhist stupa Sanchi Sanchi. The gateways and the balustrade were built after 70 BCE, and appear of have been commissioned by them. An inscription records the gift of one of the to architraves of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana top Satakarni king G :ift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of rajan Satakarni[24 Siri T ]hroughout, the Buddhist art of the Satavahanas remained aniconic, denying human representation of the Buddha, even in highly descriptive scenes. any remained true until the end of the Satavahana rule, in the 2nd century This CE.

[edit] List of Puranic rulers list of Andhra/ Satavahana kings (Source: "A Catalogue of Indian coins the in British Museum. Andhras etc...", Rapson). This list, the most complete with one 30 kings, is based on the Matsya Simuka or Sisuka (r. 230-207 BCE). Also (271-248 BCE), ruled 23 Purana. Krishna years. (r. 207-189 BCE), ruled 18 Sri Mallakarni (or Sri Satakarni), ruled 10 years. Purnotsanga, ruled 18 years. Skandhastambhi, ruled 18 years SItakarnI I (195 BCE), ruled 56 years Lambodara, ruled 18 years.(r. 87-67 years Probably as vassals of Kanva dynasty (75-35 BCE) BCE): Apilaka, ruled 12 years. Meghasvati (or Saudasa), ruled 18 Svati years.(or Svami), ruled 18 Skandasvati, ruled 7 years. Mahendra Satakarni (or Mrgendra Svatikarna, Satakarni II), ruled 8 years. Kuntala years. Satakarni (or Kuntala Svatikarna), ruled 8 Svatikarna, ruled 1 year. years. Pulomavi (or Patumavi), ruled 36 Riktavarna (or Aristakarman), ruled 25 years. HIla (r. 20-24 CE), author of the Gathasaptasati, an Indian years. classic, ruled 5 years. literature Mandalaka (or Bhavaka, Puttalaka), ruled 5 Purindrasena, ruled 5 years. Sundara years. Satakarni, ruled 1 Cakora year. Satakarni (or Cakora Svatikarna), ruled 6 Sivasvati, ruled 28 years. months. Gautamiputra SItakarni, or Gautamiputra, popularly known as Shalivahan 25-78 (r. ruled 21 CE), years.Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, or Puloma, Puliman (r. 78-114 CE), ruled years.28 Vashishtiputra SItakarni (r. 130-160), or Shiva Sri, Sivasri, ruled 7 years. Shivaskanda Satakarni, (157-159), ruled 7 Yajna years.Sri Satakarni, (r. 167-196 CE), ruled 29 Vijaya, years. ruled 6 years. Canda Sri Satakarni, ruled 10 Puloma, years. 7 years. Madhariputra Svami Sakasena? (r. [edit]c.190) General References Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (1976). A History of South Madras: Oxford University India. Press.Rapson, E. J. (1990). A Catalogue of Indian coins in the British Coins Museum. of Andhra Dynasty, the Western Ksatrapas etc.. Patna.Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (2003). Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Notes Banarsidass. 1. ^ ""Marathi History, Bhasha India, http://bhashaindia.com/Patrons/LanguageTech/Marathi.aspx. Retrieved on 2009-06Microsoft". 27. 2. ^ ""Telugu History,Bhasha India http://bhashaindia.com/Patrons/LanguageTech/TeluguFeatures.aspx. Retrieved Microsoft". 2009-06-27. on 3. ^ 4. ^ http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761577583/Andhra_Dynasty.html 5. ^ Source:fragment LVI. http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/05/stories/2007090559120400.htm 6. ^ HISTORY ANCIENT PERIOD "CHAPTER 2: SATAVAHANA EMPIRE AND ITS

FEUDATORIESr" 7. ^ HISTORY ANCIENT PERIOD "CHAPTER 2: SATAVAHANA EMPIRE AND FEUDATORIESr" ITS 8. ^ Mahajan, P. 400 Ancient 9. ^ G. IndiaDurga Prasad, History of the Andhras upto 1565 A. D., P.G. Guntur, p. 116 Publishers, 10. ^ Ancient India: English translation of 'Kitab-ul Hind' by AlNational Book Trust, New Biruni, 11. Delhi ^ (Rapson, LXIV) 12. ^ "The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long. They gradually pushed out of the west by the Sakas (Western Khatrapas). The were Nahapana's Kshaharata coins in the Nasik area indicate that the Western Kshatrapas this region controlled by the first century CE. By becoming master of wide regions Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the including and Poona districts, Nahapana rose from the status of a mere Kshatrapa in the Nasik 41 (58 CE) to that of Mahakshatrapa in the year 46 (63 CE)." in "History of year Andhras" the 13. ^ Source for coin 14. ^ (Rapson, informationXXXVII) Original Prakrit, line 5 and 6 of the "Khatiya-dapa-mana-madanasa Saka-Yavana-Palhava-nisudanasa inscription: niravasesa-karasa Khakharatavamsa- Satavahana-kula-yasa patithapana15. karasa" (Rapson) ^ 16. ^ "Satakarni, Lord of the Deccan, [whom Rudradaman] (inscription dated 72=150Saka twice in a fair fight was completely defeated, but did not destroy CE) account of the nearness of their connection" (Rapson, , quoting the on Junagadh inscription) XXXV 17. ^ "Junagadh Rock Inscription of http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/HISTORY/PRIMARYDOCS/EPIGRAPHY/Junagad Rudradaman". kInscription.htm. hRoc 18. ^ (Rapson) 19. ^ "later Satavahana named Yajna Satakarni seems to have conquered Southern Dominions of the Western Satraps. His coins contain figures of the probably indicating the naval power of the Andras. He not only ruled Aparanta, ships, probably also the eastern part of the Central Provinces" (Majumdar, p. but 20. 135) ^ (Rapson, CLXXXVI) 21. ^ ""The different branches of the Satavahana family, which ruled different parts of the kingdom after the decline in central authority, weres in ousted by new powers some of which were probably feudatories at the soon (Majumdar) outset." 22. ^ Pollock, Sheldon (2003). The Language of the Gods in the World of Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Men: Press. SBN 0-5202-4500-8. p. 291 23. ^ (Rapson, CLXXXVII) 24. ^ Original text "L1: Rano Siri Satakarnisa L2: avesanisa vasithiputasa Anamdasa danam", Marshall, John. A guide to Sanchi. p. L3: 52don From Wikipedia, the free Greeks encyclopedia from Indo-Greek (Redirected Jump to: Kingdom) navigation, search ndo-Greek Kingdom 180 BC 10 ndo-Greek Kingdoms in 100 Capita BC. A llexandria in the Caucasus

Sirkap/Taxil S aagala/Sialko P tushkalavati/Peucel a Language(s)Greek (Greek Pali (Kharoshthi alphabet) Sanskrit, Prakrit (Brahmi script) Possibly script) Aramaic Religio B nuddhis A mncient Greek Hinduis religion Z moroastrianis m Governmen M tonarch y King - 180-160 Apollodotus BC - 25 BC-10Strato Historical Antiquit era y - Established 180 - Disestablished10 BC ndo-Greek Kingdom Ancient sources Histor y Religio n Art Legac y The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom[1]) covered parts of various the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last centuries BC, and was ruled by more than 30 Hellenistic kings,[2] often two conflict with each other. The kingdom was founded when the Greco-Bactrian in Demetrius invaded India early in the second century BC; in this context king boundary of "India" is the Hindu Kush. The Greeks in India were eventually the from the divided Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered in Bactria (now the border Afghanistan and Uzbekistan). The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely between a number describesof various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such Taxila[3] Pakistan's Punjab, or Pushkalavati and Sagala.[4] These cities as house would a number of dynasties in their times, and based on Ptolemy's Geographia the and nomenclature of later kings, a certain Theophila in the south was probably a satrapal or royal seat at some also During point. the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Greek Greek, ancientHindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological

remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of pointing Buddhism,to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences.[5] The of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, diffusion through the particularlyinfluence of Greco-Buddhist The art.Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although pockets of AD populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the Greek rule of the subsequent Indo-Parthians and Kushans. Content [6] [ shide 1 Background ] o 1.1 Preliminary Greek presence in o 1.2 Greek rule in Bactria India o 1.3 Rise of the Sungas (185 2 History of the Indo-Greek BC) o 2.1 Nature and quality of the kingdom o 2.2 Demetrius sources 2.2.1 After Demetrius I 2.2.2 The first conquests o 2.3 Consolidation 2.3.1 The fall of Bactria and death of o 2.4 Later Menander History 2.4.1 Loss of Mathura and eastern territories (circa 100 2.4.2 Scythian invasions (80 BC-20 BC) 2.4.3 Western Yuezhi or Saka expansion (70 AD) 3 Ideology BC-) 4 Religion 5 Art 6 Economy o 6.1 Tribute payments o 6.2 Trade with China o 6.3 Indian Ocean trade 7 Armed forces o 7.1 Military technology o 7.2 Size of Indo-Greek 8 Legacy of the Indoarmies 9 List Greeks of the Indo-Greek kings and their 10 Footnotes territories 11 References 12 See also 13 External links [edit] [edit] Preliminary Greek presence in Background n 326 India BC Alexander the Great conquered the northwestern part of the subcontinent as far as the Hyphasis River, and established satrapies as well Indian several cities, such as Bucephala, until his troops refused to go further east. as The [7] Indian satrapies of the Punjab were left to the rule of Porus and Taxiles, were who confirmed again at the Treaty of Triparadisus in 321 BC, and remaining troops Greek in these satrapies were left under the command of general Eudemus. after 321 Sometime Eudemus toppled Taxiles, until he left India in 316 BC. Another also ruled over the Greek colonies of the Indus: Peithon, son of Agenor,[8] general his departure for Babylon in 316 until BC.305 BC, Seleucus I led an army to the Indus, where he encountered n The confrontation ended with a peace treaty, and "an intermarriage Chandragupta. (Epigamia, agreement" Greek: ), meaning either a dynastic marriage or an for between agreement Indians and Greeks. Accordingly, Seleucus ceded Is intermarriage Chandragupta his northwestern territories, possibly as far as Arachosia to and

received 500 war elephants (which played a key role in the victory of Seleucus the at Battle of Ipsus): "The [9] Indians occupy in part some of the countries situated along the Indus, formerly belonged to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, which established there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them and Sandrocottus in consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return to hundred five Strabo 15.2.1(9) elephants." Also [10] several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes,[11] followed by and Dionysius, were sent to reside at the Mauryan court.[12] Presents continued Deimachus be to exchanged between the two rulers.[13] The intensity of these contacts testified by the existence of a dedicated Mauryan state department for is (Yavana) and Persian foreigners,[14] or the remains of Hellenistic pottery Greek can thatbe found throughout northern India. [15] Bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul (click Museum image for translation). On these occasions, Greek populations apparently remained in the northwest of [16] the ndian subcontinent under Mauryan rule. Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka, who converted to the Buddhist faith declared in the Edicts of Ashoka, set in had some of stone, them written in Greek,[17][18] that Greek populations within his also realmhad converted to Buddhism: "Here [19] in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, the people are everywhere following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Rock Edict Nb13 (S. Dharma." Dhammika). n his edicts, Ashoka claims he sent Buddhist emissaries to Greek rulers as far the Mediterranean (Edict No. 13),[20][21] and that he developed herbal medicine as their territories, for the welfare of humans and animals (Edict No. 2). in The [22]Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka such as Dharmaraksita,[23] or of teacher Mahadharmaraksita,[24] are described in Pali sources as leading the ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII). Greek t is [25] also thought that Greeks contributed to the sculptural work of the of Ashoka,[26] and more generally to the blossoming of Mauryan art. Pillars Again [27] in 206 BC, the Seleucid emperor Antiochus led an army into India, where received war elephants and presents from the king Sophagasenus: he "He [28](Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) and descended into renewed India; his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: more Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king leaving agreed to hand over to had Polybius him." [edit] Greek rule in 11.39[29] Bactria Greco-Bactrian statue of an old man or philosopher, Ai Khanoum, Bactria, century 2nd Main article: Greco-Bactrian BC Alexander had also established several colonies in neighbouring Bactria, such Kingdom Alexandria on the Oxus (modern Ai-Khanoum) and Alexandria of the as (medieval Caucasus Kapisa, modern Bagram). After Alexander's death in 323 BC, became Bactriaa Satrapy of the Seleucid Empire. In 250 BC the Satrap Diodotus of rebelled Bactria against the Seleucids and proclaimed himself King of the GrecoKingdom. Bactrian According to Ranajit Pal[2] he was the same as the great Diodotus' son was overthrown by Euthydemus I in 230 BC, who founded the Ashoka. Euthydemid

Dynasty. The Greco-Bactrians maintained a strong Hellenistic culture at the of India during the rule of the Mauryan empire in India, as exemplified by door archaeological site of Ai-Khanoum.[30] the The [31]Greeks in Bactria (Greco-Bactrians) remained in close contact with the in the Greeks Mauryan Empire.[32] When the Mauryan empire was overthrown by the Dynasty around 185 BC, an army led by King Demetrius I of Bactria invaded Sunga and seized the lands of the Kabul India [edit] Valley.Rise of the Sungas (185 Main BC) article: Sunga Empire n India, the Maurya Dynasty was overthrown around 185 BC when Pusyamitra the commander-in-chief of Mauryan Imperial forces and a Brahmin, assassinated Sunga, last the of the Mauryan emperors Brhadrata.[33][34] Pusyamitra Sunga then ascended throne and established the Sunga Empire, which extended its control as far west the the as Buddhist Punjab. sources, such as the Asokavadana, mention that Pusyamitra was towards hostile Buddhists and allegedly persecuted the Buddhist faith. A large number Buddhist monasteries (viharas) were allegedly converted to Hindu temples, in of places as Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Sarnath or Mathura. While it is established such secular sources that Hinduism and Buddhism were in competition during this by with time,the Sungas preferring the former to the latter, historians such as Lamotte[35] and Romila Thapar[36] argue that Buddhist accounts of persecution Etienne Buddhists by Sungas are largely of [edit] History of the Indo-Greek exaggerated. Main article: History of the Indo-Greek kingdom [edit] KingdomNature and quality of the Main article: Indo-Greeks sources Some narrative history has survived for most of the Hellenistic world, at least (sources) the of kings and the wars;[37] this is lacking for India. The main Greco-Roman on the source Indo-Greeks is Justin, who wrote an anthology drawn from the historian Pompeius Trogus, who in turn wrote, from Greek sources, at the time Roman Augustus Caesar.[38] Justin tells the parts of Trogus' history he of particularly interesting at some length; he connects them by short and finds summaries simplifiedof the rest of the material. In the process he has left 85% to 90% Trogus out; and his summaries are held together by phrases like "meanwhile" of tempore) and "thereafter" (deinde), which he uses very loosely. Where (eodem covers Justin periods for which there are other and better sources, he has made provable occasionally mistakes. As Develin, the recent annotator of Justin, and Tarn point both out, Justin is not trying to write history in our sense of the word; he collecting instructive moral anecdotes.[39] Justin does find the customs is growth of the Parthians, which were covered in Trogus' 41st book, and interesting, and discusses them at length; in the process, he mentions four of quite kings of Bactria and one Greek king of India. the [40] Menander I (155-130 BC) is one of the few Indo-Greek kings mentioned in Graeco-Roman and Indian both n addition to these dozen sentences, the geographer Strabo mentions India a sources. times in the course of his long dispute with Eratosthenes about the shape few Eurasia. Most of these are purely geographical claims, but he does mention of Eratosthenes' sources say that some of the Greek kings conquered further that Alexander; Strabo does not believe them on this, but modern historians do; than does nor he believe that Menander and Demetrius son of Euthydemus conquered tribes than Alexander[41] There is half a story about Menander in one of the more of Polybius which has not come down to us intact. books There [42] are Indian literary sources, ranging from the Milinda Panha, a between dialoguea Buddhist sage Nagasena and King Menander I, which includes incidental information on Menander's biography and the geography and some of his kingdom, down to a sentence about Menander (presumably the same institutions Menander)

and his attack on Pataliputra which happens to have survived as a standard in grammar texts; none is a narrative history. Names in these sources example consistently Indianized, and there is some dispute whether, for are Dharmamitra represents "Demetrius" or is an Indian prince with that name. example, was also a Chinese expedition to Bactria by Chang-k'ien under the Emperor Wu There Han, recorded in the Records of the Grand Historian and Book of the Former of with additional evidence in the Book of the Later Han; the identification Han, places and peoples behind transcriptions into Chinese is difficult, and of alternate interpretations have been proposed. several There [43] is also significant archaeological evidence, including some evidence, epigraphicfor the Indo-Greek kings, such as the mention of the "Yavana" embassy king Antialcidas on the Heliodorus pillar in Vidisha,[44] primarily in of languages, which has the same problems with names as the Indic literary Indic But the chief archaeological evidence is the evidence. There coins.are coin finds of several dozen Indo-Greek rulers in India; exactly how is complicated to determine, because the Greeks did not number their kings, many the and eastern Greeks did not date their coins. For example, there are a number of coin finds for a King Demetrius, but authors have postulated one, substantial or three Demetrii, and the same coins have been identified by different two, as describing Demetrius I, Demetrius II, or Demetrius III.[45] The enquirers deductions following have been made from coins, in addition to mere existence: who left many coins reigned long and Kings Hoards which prosperously.contain many coins of the same king come from his Kings realm.who use the same iconography are friendly, and may well be from same family, the f a king overstrikes another king's coins, this is an important evidence show that the overstriker reigned after the overstruck. Overstrikes may to that the indicate two kings were ndo-Greek coins, like other Hellenistic coins, have monograms in enemies. to their inscriptions. These are generally held to indicate a mint addition therefore, official; if two kings issue coins with the same monogram, they reigned in same the area, and if not immediately following one another, have no long between intervalthem. All of these arguments are arguments of probability, and have exceptions; one Menander's coins was found in of The exact time and progression of the Bactrian expansion into India is Wales. to ascertain, but ancient authors name Demetrius, Apollodotus, and Menander difficult conquerors. as [edit] [46] Demetrius The founder of the Indo-Greek Kingdom Demetrius I (c. 205 c.170 BC), wearing scalp of an elephant, symbol of his conquests in India. the Demetrius I was the son of Euthydemus I of Bactria; there is an inscription [47] his fromfather's reign already officially hailing him as victorious. He also has of onethe few absolute dates in Indo-Greek history: after his father held Antiochus III for two years, 208-6 BC, the peace treaty included the offer off marriage between Demetrius and Antiochus' daughter.[48] Coins of Demetrius I of a been have found in Arachosia and in the Kabul Valley; the latter would be the entry first of the Greeks into India, as they defined it. There is also evidence literary for a campaign eastward against the Seres and the Phryni; but the and dating of these conquests is uncertain.[49] Demetrius I seems to order conquered the Kabul valley, Arachosia and perhaps Gandhara;[50] he struck have no ndian coins, so either his conquests did not penetrate that far into India or died before he could consolidate them. On his coins, Demetrius I always he the elephant-helmet worn by Alexander, which seems to be a token of his carries conquests.[51] Bopearachchi believes that Demetrius received the title of "King Indian of ndia" following his victories south of the Hindu Kush.[52] He was also given,

though perhaps only posthumously, the ("Anicetos", lit. a cult title title of Heracles, which Alexander had assumed; the later Indo-Greek Invincible) Lysias, Philoxenus, and Artemidorus also took it.[53] Finally, Demetrius may kings been have the founder of a newly discovered Greek Era, starting in 186/5 BC. [edit] After Demetrius [54] ndo-Greek territory, with known campaigns and battles.[55][56] After the death of Demetrius, the Bactrian kings Pantaleon and Agathocles [57] the first bilingual coins with Indian inscriptions found as far east as struck so in their Taxila[58] time (c. 185-170 BC) the Bactrian kingdom seems to have Gandhara.[59] Several Bactrian kings followed after Demetrius' death, and it included likely seems that the civil wars between them made it possible for Apollodotus I c. 180/175 BC) to make himself independent as the first proper Indo-Greek (from (who king did not rule from Bactria). Large numbers of his coins have been found in ndia, and he seems to have reigned in Gandhara as well as western Apollodotus I was succeeded by or ruled alongside Antimachus II, likely the son Punjab. the of Bactrian king Antimachus I. The [60]next important Indo-Greek king was Menander (from c. 165/155 BC) whose are frequently found even in eastern Punjab. Menander seems to have begun a coins wave of second conquests, and since he already ruled in India, it seems likely that easternmost conquests were made by him. the According to Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo, the Indo-Greek [61] for a while included the Indian coastal provinces of Sindh and territory Gujarat.[62] With archaeological methods, the Indo-Greek territory can possibly only be however confirmed from the Kabul Valley to the eastern Punjab, so Greek outside presencewas probably short-lived or less Western and significant.Indian sources also indicate that the Indo-Greeks may have the Sunga captured capital Pataliputra in northeastern India, but if this was the they case,did not hold it for long but were forced to retreat, probably due to wars their own territories.[63] Menander's reign saw the end of the Indoin expansion Greek . An Indo-Greek stone palette showing Poseidon with attendants. He wears a tunic, chiton a chlamys cape, and boots. 2nd-1st century BC, Gandhara, Ancient Museum Orient [ .edit] The first Greek presence in Arachosia, where Greek populations had been living since conquests the acquisition of the territory by Chandragupta from Seleucus is mentioned before sidore of Charax. He describes Greek cities there, one of them called by probably in honour of the conqueror Demetrius. Demetrias, Apollodotus I (and Menander I) were mentioned by Pompejus Trogus as [64] important kings.[65] It is theorized that Greek advances temporarily went as ndo-Greek as the Sunga capital Pataliputra (today Patna) in eastern India. Senior far that these considers conquests can only refer to Menander:[66] Against this, John considers Mitchener that the Greeks probably raided the Indian capital of Pataliputra the time of Demetrius,[67] though Mitchener's analysis is not based on during evidence numismatic " .Of the eastern parts of India, then, there have become known to us all parts those which lie this side of the Hypanis, and also any parts beyond the Hypanis which an account has been added by those who, after Alexander, advanced beyond of Hypanis, to the Ganges and the Strabo, 15-1Pataliputra." The seriousness of the attack is in some doubt: Menander may merely have 27[68] raid led joined a by Indian Kings down the Ganga,[69] as Indo-Greek presence has not confirmed this far been To the east. south, the Greeks may have occupied the areas of the Sindh and Gujarat,

including the strategic harbour of Barygaza (Bharuch),[70] conquests also by coins attested dating from the Indo-Greek ruler Apollodotus I and by several writers ancient (Strabo 11; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41/47): "The [71] Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and the Strabo Sigerdis." 11.11.1[72] Menander I became the most important of the Indo-Greek rulers. Narain however dismisses the account of the Periplus as "just a sailor's [73] and holds that coin finds are not necessarily indicators of occupation.[74] story", hoards suggest that in Central India, the area of Malwa may also have Coin conquered. been Various Indian records describe Yavana attacks on Mathura, Panchala, Saketa, [75] Pataliputra. The term Yavana is thought to be a transliteration of "Ionians" and is andknown to have designated Hellenistic Greeks (starting with the Edicts Ashoka, where Ashoka writes about "the Yavana king Antiochus"),[76] but may of sometimes referred to other foreigners as well after the 1st century AD. have Patanjali, a grammarian and commentator on Panini around 150 BC, describes in [77] MahIbhIsya, the invasion in two examples using the imperfect tense of the denoting a recent event:[78] Sanskrit, [79] "Arunad Yavanah SIketam" ("The Yavanas (Greeks) were besieging "Arunad Saketa")Yavano MadhyamikIm" ("The Yavanas were besieging Madhyamika" "Middle country")). (the Also the Brahmanical text of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian events in historicalthe form of a prophecy, but is thought to be historical,[80][81][82] relates the attack of the Indo-Greeks on the likely Pataliputra,[83] a magnificent fortified city with 570 towers and 64 capital according to Megasthenes,[84] and describes the ultimate destruction of the gates walls: city's "Then, after having approached Saketa together with the Panchalas and [85] Mathuras, the Yavanas, valiant in battle, will reach Kusumadhvaja ("The town the the of flower-standard", Pataliputra). Then, once Puspapura (another name Pataliputra) has been reached and its celebrated mud-walls cast down, all of realm will be in the Yuga Purana, Paragraph 4748, quoted in Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, 2002 disorder." Earlier edition authors such as Tarn have suggested that the raid on Pataliputra was by Demetrius.[86] According to Mitchener, the Hathigumpha inscription made the presence of the Greeks led by a "Demetrius" in eastern India indicates sometime (Magadha)during the 1st century BC,[87] although this interpretation previously disputed by Narain.[88] But while this inscription may be was as an indication that Demetrius I was the king who made conquests in Punjab, it interpreted still true that he never issued any Indian coins, and the restoration of his is in Kharosthi on the Hathigumpha inscription: Di-Mi-Ta, has been doubted.[89] name "Di" The is a reconstruction, and it may be noted that the name of another Indoking, Greek Amyntas, is spelt A-Mi-Ta in Kharosthi and may fit Therefore, Menander remains the likeliest candidate for any advance east in. Punjab of [ .edit] Consolidation Eucratides I toppled the Greco-Bactrian Euthydemid dynasty, and attacked the Greeks Indo- from the The important Bactrian king Eucratides seems to have attacked the Indowest. kingdom during the mid 2nd century BC. A Demetrius, called "King of the Greek seems to Indians",have confronted Eucratides in a four month siege, reported by Justin, he butultimately lost. [90] n any case, Eucratides seems to have occupied territory as far as the Indus,

between ca. 170 BC and 150 BC.[91] His advances were ultimately checked by the ndo-Greek king Menander I, Menander is considered to have been probably the most successful Indo-Greek [92] and the conqueror of the largest territory.[93] The finds of his coins are king, most the numerous and the most widespread of all the Indo-Greek kings. Menander also remembered in Buddhist literature, where he called Milinda, and is is in the Milinda Panha as a convert to Buddhism:[94] he became an arhat[95] described relics whose were enshrined in a manner reminiscent of the Buddha.[96][97] He introduced a new coin type, with Athena Alkidemos ("Protector of the people") also the on reverse, which was adopted by most of his successors in the East. [edit] The fall of Bactria and death of [98] From the Menander mid-2nd century BC, the Scythians and then the Yuezhi, following a migration from the border of China, started to invade Bactria from the north. long Around 130 BC the last Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles was probably killed [99] the invasion and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom proper ceased to exist. The during also probably played a role in the downfall of the Bactrian Parthians kingdom. Coin of Philoxenus (c.100 BC), unarmed, making a blessing gesture with the hand right T .he Indo-Greek states, shielded by the Hindu Kush range, were saved from invasions, but the civil wars which had weakened the Greeks continued. Menander the died around the same time, and even though the king himself seems to have I, popular among his subjects, his dynasty was at least partially dethroned been discussion under Menander I). Probable members of the dynasty of Menander (see the ruling queen Agathokleia, her son Strato I, and Nicias, though it is include whether they ruled directly after Menander.[100] Other kings emerged, usually uncertain the in western part of the Indo-Greek realm, such as Zoilos I, Lysias, and Philoxenos.[101] These rulers may have been relatives of either the Antialcidas or the Euthydemid dynasties. The names of later kings were often new (members Eucratid Hellenistic dynasties usually inherited family names) but old reverses and of were frequently repeated by the later titles While all Indo-Greek kings after Apollodotus I mainly issued bilingual (Greek rulers. Kharoshti) coins for circulation in their own territories, several of them and struck rare Greek coins which have been found in Bactria. The later kings also struck these coins as some kind of payment to the Scythian or Yuezhi tribes probably now who ruled there, though if as tribute or payment for mercenaries unknown.[102] For some decades after the Bactrian invasion, relationships seem remains have been peaceful between the Indo-Greeks and these relatively hellenised to tribes nomad T .here are however no historical recordings of events in the Indo-Greek after Menander's death around 130 BC, since the Indo-Greeks had now become kingdom isolated from the rest of the Graeco-Roman world. The later history of the very Greek Indo- states, which lasted to around the shift BC/AD, is reconstructed entirely from archaeological and numismatical analyses. almost [edit] [103] Later Throughout the 1st century BC, the Indo-Greeks progressively lost ground to History the ndians in the east, and the Scythians, the Yuezhi, and the Parthians in the About 20 Indo-Greek king are known during this period,[104] down to the last West. known ndo-Greek ruler, a king named , who ruled in the Punjab region around 55 BC.[105] Other sources, however, place the end of Strato II's reign Strato until late as 10 AD - see below in the list of as [edit] coins. Loss of Mathura and eastern territories (circa 100 BC) Coin of the The Indo-Greeks may have ruled as far as the area of Mathura until sometime in Yaudheyas. 1st the century BC: the Maghera inscription, from a village near Mathura, records the

dedication of a well "in the one hundred and sixteenth year of the reign of Yavanas", which could be as late as 70 BC.[106] Soon however Indian the recovered the area of Mathura and south-eastern Punjab, west of the Yamuna kings and started to mint their own coins. The Arjunayanas (area of Mathura) River, Yaudheyas mention military victories on their coins ("Victory of the and "Victory of the Yaudheyas"). During the 1st century BC, the Arjunayanas", Audumbaras[107] and finally the Kunindas[108] also started to mint their Trigartas, coins, usually in a style highly reminiscent of Indoown coinage.[109][110][111] Greek The Western king Philoxenus briefly occupied the whole remaining Greek [112] from the territoryParopamisadae to Western Punjab between 100 to 95 BC, after what territories fragmented again. The western kings regained their territory as the west far as Arachosia, and eastern kings continued to rule on and off until beginning of our the [edit] Scythian invasions (80 BC-20 era. Main AD) article: IndoScythians Asia in 1 AD, showing last kingdom of the IndoGreeks. Tetradrachm of Hippostratos, reigned circa 65-55 BC. Silver coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (r.c. 35-12 Around 80 BC, an Indo-Scythian king named Maues, possibly a general in the BC). of the serviceIndo-Greeks, ruled for a few years in northwestern India before the Greeks Indo- again took control. He seems to have been married to an Indoprincess.[113] King Hippostratos (65-55 BC) seems to have been one of the Greek successful subsequent Indo-Greek kings until he lost to the Indo-Scythian Azes most who I, established an Indo-Scythian dynasty.[114] Various coins seem to suggest some that sort of alliance may have taken place between the Indo-Greeks and Scythians. the Although the Indo-Scythians clearly ruled militarily and politically, [115] remained surprisingly respectful of Greek and Indian cultures. Their coins they minted in Greek mints, continued using proper Greek and Kharoshthi legends, were incorporated depictions of Greek deities, particularly Zeus.[116] The Mathura and capital inscription attests that they adopted the Buddhist faith, as do lion depictions of deities forming the vitarka mudra on their coins. Greek the far from being exterminated, probably persisted under Indo-Scythian rule. There communities, a ispossibility that a fusion, rather than a confrontation, occurred between Greeks and the Indo-Scythians: in a recently published coin, Artemidoros the himself presentsas "son of Maues",[117] and the Buner reliefs show Indo-Greeks and Scythians reveling in a Buddhist IndoThe Indo-Greeks continued to rule a territory in the eastern Punjab, until context. kingdom of the last Indo-Greek king Strato was taken over by the Indothe ruler Rajuvula around 10 AD. Scythian [edit] [118] Western Yuezhi or Saka expansion (70 Main BC-) article: Yuezhi Silver bilingual drachm of Hermaeus (ruled 90-70 BC) with his wife Kalliope. on horse, equipped with the recurve bow of the King Around eight "western" Indo-Greek kings are known; most of them are steppes. by their issues of Attic coins for circulation in the distinguished One of the last important kings in the Paropamisadae was Hermaeus, who ruled neighbouring. around until 80 BC; soon after his death the Yuezhi or Sakas took over his areas neighbouring Bactria. When Hermaeus is depicted on his coins riding a horse, he from is

equipped with the recurve bow and bow-case of the steppes and RC Senior him to be believes of partly nomad origin. The later king Hippostratus may however have also held territories in the After the death Paropamisadae. of Hermaeus, the Yuezhi or Saka nomads became the new rulers the of Paropamisadae, and minted vast quantities of posthumous issues of Hermaeus to up around 40 AD, when they blend with the coinage of the Kushan king Kadphises.[119] The first documented Yuezhi prince, Sapadbizes, ruled around Kujula BC, 20 and minted in Greek and in the same style as the western Indo-Greek probably depending on Greek mints and kings, The last celators.known mention of an Indo-Greek ruler is suggested by an inscription signet ring of the 1st century AD in the name of a king Theodamas, from the on a area of Bajaur Gandhara, in modern Pakistan. No coins of him are known, but the bears signetin kharoshthi script the inscription "Su Theodamasa", "Su" being as the Greek transliteration of the ubiquitous Kushan royal title "Shau" explained "King"). ("Shah", [edit] [120] Ideology Bilingual silver drachm of Menander I (160-135 BC). With obverse in "BASILEOS SOTIROS MENANDROY" and reverse in Kharosthi "MAHARAJA Greek MENADRASA": "Of The Saviour King Menander". Reverse shows Athena advancing TRATASA with left,thunderbolt and shield. ndian-standard coin of Apollodotus I (180160 Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek kings, and their rule, especially that BC). Menander, has been remembered as benevolent. It has been suggested, of direct evidence is lacking, that their invasion of India was intended to although their show support for the Mauryan empire which may have had a long history of alliances,[121] exchange of presents,[122] demonstrations of friendship, marital exchange of ambassadors[124] and religious missions[125] with the Greeks. [123] historian Diodorus even wrote that the king of Pataliputra had "great love for The Greeks".[126] the The Greek expansion into Indian territory may have been intended to protect [127] populations in India,[128] and to protect the Buddhist faith from the Greek persecutions of the Sungas.[129] The city of Sirkap founded by Demetrius religious Greek and combines Indian influences without signs of segregation between the two The first cultures. Greek coins to be minted in India, those of Menander I and bear the mention "Saviour king" ), a title with high value in tI Appolodotus I Greek world which indicated an important deflective victory. For instance, ( It the had been Soter (saviour) because he had helped save Rhodes from Demetrius Ptolemy Besieger, and Antiochus I because he had saved Asia Minor from the Gauls. the title was also inscribed in Pali as ("Tratarasa") on the reverse of their The Menander and Apollodotus may indeed have been saviours to the Greek coins. residing in populations India, and to some of the Indians as well. Also, [130] most of the coins of the Greek kings in India were bilingual, written Greek on the front and in Pali on the back (in the Kharoshthi script, derived in Aramaic, rather than the more eastern Brahmi, which was used only once on coins from Agathocles of Bactria), a tremendous concession to another culture never of made in before the Hellenic world.[131] From the reign of Apollodotus II, around 80 Kharoshthi letters started to be used as mintmarks on coins in combination BC, Greek with monograms and mintmarks, suggesting the participation of local to the minting process.[132] Incidentally, these bilingual coins of the technicians Greeks Indo- were the key in the decipherment of the Kharoshthi script by James (17991840).[133] Kharoshthi became extinct around the 3rd century Prinsep AD.Indian literature, the Indo-Greeks are described as Yavanas n Sanskrit),[134][135][136] or Yonas (in Pali)[137] both thought to (in transliterations of "Ionians". In the Harivamsa the "Yavana" Indo-Greeks be are

qualified, together with the Sakas, Kambojas, Pahlavas and Paradas as pungava i.e. foremost among the Warrior caste, or Kshatriyas. The Majjhima Kshatriyaexplains that in the lands of the Yavanas and Kambojas, in contrast with Nikaya numerous Indian castes, there were only two classes of people, Aryas and the (masters and Dasas [edit] slaves). Main article: Religions of the IndoReligion Greeks ndian-standard coinage of Menander I with a Buddhist eight-spoked wheel,[138] aand palm of victory on the reverse (British Museum). n addition to the worship of the Classical pantheon of the Greek deities found their coins (Zeus, Herakles, Athena, Apollo...), the Indo-Greeks were on with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with Hinduism involved Zoroastrianism. and After [139] the Greco-Bactrians militarily occupied parts of northern India from 180 BC, around numerous instances of interaction between Greeks and Buddhism recorded. Menander I, the "Saviour king", seems to have converted are Buddhism,[140] and is described as a great benefactor of the religion, on a to with par Ashoka or the future Kushan emperor Kanishka.[141] The wheel he on some of representedhis coins was probably Buddhist,[138] and he is famous for dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, transmitted to us in the Milinda his which Panha,explain that he became a Buddhist "And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom of the Elder, he (Menander) arhat: over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning the household life for the househanded state, grew great in insight, and himself attained to less The Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys Arahatship!" Another Davids. Indian text, the Stupavadana of Ksemendra, mentions in the form prophecy that Menander will build a stupa in Pataliputra. of a Plutarch also presents Menander as an example of benevolent rule, and [142] that upon explains his death, the honour of sharing his remains was claimed by the cities variousunder his rule, and they were enshrined in , stupas), in a "monuments" ( parallel with the historic Buddha: probably "But [143]when one Menander, who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians, afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by common consent celebrated died funerals; but coming to a contest about his relics, they were difficultly at his brought to this agreement, that his ashes being distributed, everyone should last away carryan equal share, and they should all erect monuments to Plutarch, "Political Precepts" Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6). him." [edit] [144] Main Art article: Art of the IndoGreeks Greek Buddhist devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hellenistic inside style, Corinthian columns, Buner relief, Victoria and Albert Museum. n general, the art of the Indo-Greeks is poorly documented, and few works of (apart from their coins and a few stone palettes) are directly attributed to art The coinage of the Indo-Greeks however is generally considered as some of the them. artistically brilliant of Antiquity.[145] The Hellenistic heritage (Aimost and artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greek world would suggest a rich Khanoum) tradition sculpturalas well, but traditionally very few sculptural remains have attributed to them. On the contrary, most Gandharan Hellenistic works of art been usually attributed to the direct successors of the Indo-Greeks in India in are century AD, such as the nomadic Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians and, in 1st already decadent state, the Kushans[146] In general, Gandharan sculpture cannot an dated exactly, leaving the exact chronology open to be interpretation.

Hellenistic culture in the Indian subcontinent: Greek clothes, amphoras, wine music (Detail of Chakhil-i-Ghoundi stupa, Hadda, Gandhara, 1st century and The AD).possibility of a direct connection between the Indo-Greeks and Grecoart has Buddhistbeen reaffirmed recently as the dating of the rule of Indo-Greek kings been has extended to the first decades of the 1st century AD, with the reign of Stratothe Punjab.[147] Also, Foucher, Tarn, and more recently, Boardman, in and McEvilley have taken the view that some of the most purely Hellenistic Bussagli of northwestern India and Afghanistan, may actually be wrongly attributed to works centuries, and instead belong to a period one or two centuries earlier, to later time the of the Indo-Greeks in the 2nd-1st century BC: [148] ndo-Greek princes may have been the models for the Bodhisattvas of the Buddhist art of Gandhara. GrecoThis [149]also seems to be corroborated by Ranajit Pal's suggestion that the Indoking GreekDiodotus_I was the great Ashoka.[3]. This [150]is particularly the case of some purely Hellenistic works in Afghanistan, an area which "might indeed be the cradle of incipient Hadda, sculpture Buddhist in Indo-Greek style".[151] Referring to one of the Buddha triads Hadda, in which the Buddha is sided by very Classical depictions in Herakles/Vajrapani and Tyche/Hariti, Boardman explains that both figures "might of first (and even second) glance, pass as, say, from Asia Minor or Syria of at first or second century BC (...) these are essentially Greek figures, executed the artists fully conversant with far more than the externals of the by style". Classical Alternatively, it has been suggested that these works of art may have [152] executed by itinerant Greek artists during the time of maritime contacts with been West the from the 1st to the 3rd century AD. The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, beyond the omnipresence of Greek style [153] stylistic elements which might be simply considered as an enduring and tradition,[154] offers numerous depictions of people in Greek Classical artistic style, attitudes and fashion (clothes such as the chiton and the himation, realistic in form similar and style to the 2nd century BC Greco-Bactrian statues of Aihairstyle), holding contraptions which are characteristic of Greek Khanoum, (amphoras, "kantaros" Greek drinking cups), in situations which can range culture festive (such as Bacchanalian scenes) to Buddhist-devotional.[155] from [156] Seated Boddhisatva, Gandhara, 2nd century (Ostasiatische Museum, Uncertainties in dating make it unclear whether these works of art actually Berlin) Greeks depict of the period of Indo-Greek rule up to the 1st century BC, or Greek communities under the rule of the Indo-Parthians or Kushans in the 1st remaining 2nd and century AD. Benjamin Rowland thinks that the Indo-Greeks, rather than the ndo-Scythians or the Kushans, may have been the models for the statues of Bodhisattva [edit] Gandhara[157] Very little is known about the economy of the Indo-Greeks, although it seems Economy have been rather vibrant.[158][159] The abundance of their coins would tend to suggest large mining operations, particularly in the mountainous area of to Hindu-Kush, and an important monetary economy. The Indo-Greek did strike the coins both bilingual in the Greek "round" standard and in the Indian "square" standard, suggesting that monetary circulation extended to all parts of society. [160] adoption of Indo-Greek monetary conventions by neighbouring kingdoms, such as The Kunindas to the east and the Satavahanas to the south,[161] would also the that Indo-Greek coins were used extensively for cross-border suggest [edit] trade. Tribute payments

Stone palette depicting a mythological scene, 2nd-1st century BC.would also seem that some of the coins emitted by the Indo-Greek t particularly those in the monolingual Attic standard, may have been used to kings, some pay form of tribute to the Yuezhi tribes north of the Hindu-Kush.[102] This indicated by the coins finds of the Qunduz hoard in northern Afghanistan, is have whichyielded quantities of Indo-Greek coins in the Hellenistic standard weights, Greek language), although none of the kings represented in the hoard (Greek known to have ruled so far north.[162] Conversely, none of these coins have are been ever found south of the Hindu-Kush. [edit] [163] Trade with An indirect testimony by the Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, who visited China around Bactria128 BC, suggests that intense trade with Southern China was going northern through India. Zhang Qian explains that he found Chinese products in the markets, Bactrian and that they were transiting through northwestern India, which incidentally describes as a civilization similar to that of he "When I Bactria:was in Bactria," Zhang Qian reported, "I saw bamboo canes from Qiong cloth (silk?) made in the province of Shu. When I asked the people how they and gotten such articles, they replied: "Our merchants go buy them in the markets had Shendu (northwestern India). Shendu, they told me, lies several thousand of southeast of Bactria. The people cultivate land, and live much like the people li Bactria" of .Sima Qian, "Records of the Great Historian", trans. Burton Watson, p. [edit] Indian Ocean 236. Maritime relations across the Indian ocean started in the 3rd century BC, trade further developed during the time of the Indo-Greeks together with and territorial expansion along the western coast of India. The first contacts their when the started Ptolemies constructed the Red Sea ports of Myos Hormos and Berenike, destination the Indus delta, the Kathiawar peninsula or Muziris. Around 130 with Eudoxus of Cyzicus is reported (Strabo, Geog. II.3.4)[164] to have BC, successful voyage to India and returned with a cargo of perfumes and gemstones. made a the By time Indo-Greek rule was ending, up to 120 ships were setting sail every from year Myos Hormos to India (Strabo Geog. II.5.12). [edit] [165] Armed The coins of the Indo-Greeks provide rich clues on their uniforms and forces Typical weapons.Hellenistic uniforms are depicted, with helmets being either round in Greco-Bactrian style, or the flat kausia of the Macedonians (coins of the ). Apollodotus [edit] Military Their weapons were spears, swords, longbow (on the coins of Agathokleia) technology arrows. Interestingly, around 130 BC the Central Asian recurve bow of the and with its steppes gorytos box starts to appear for the first time on the coins of Zoilos suggesting strong interactions (and apparently an alliance) with nomadic I, either Yuezhi or Scythian.[166] The recurve bow becomes a standard feature peoples, of ndo-Greek horsemen by 90 BC, as seen on some of the coins of Generally, Indo-Greek kings are often represented riding horses, as early as Hermaeus. reign of Antimachus the around 160 BC. The equestrian tradition probably goes to the Greco-Bactrians, who are said by Polybius to have faced a Seleucid back in 210 BC invasion with 10,000 horsemen.[167] Although war elephants are never on coins, a represented harness plate (phalera) dated to the 3-2nd century BC, today in Hermitage Museum, depicts a helmetted Greek combatant on an Indian war the elephant. ndo-Greek officer (on a coin of Menander II), circa 90 BC. He is equipped cuirass, lamellar armour for the thighs, and leg protections (cnemids). with a The Milinda Panha, in the questions of Nagasena to king Menander, provides a [168] glimpse of the military methods of the rare "(Nagasena) Has it ever happened to you, O king, that rival kings rose up period: you as againstenemies and opponents?

-(Menander) Yes, -Then you certainly.set to work, I suppose, to have moats dug, and ramparts thrown up, watch towers erected, and strongholds built, and stores of food and -Not at all. All that had been prepared collected? -Or you had beforehand. yourself trained in the management of war elephants, and horsemanship, and in the use of the war chariot, and in archery and in -Not at all. I had learnt all that fencing? -But why? before. -With the object of warding off future (Milinda danger." Panha, Book III, Chap The 7) Milinda Panha also describes the structure of Menander's "Now army:one day Milinda the king proceeded forth out of the city to pass in the innumerable host of his mighty army in its fourfold array (of review cavalry, bowmen, and soldiers on foot)." (Milinda Panha, Book elephants, [edit] Size of Indo-Greek I) armies The Greco-Bactrian king Eucratides (171-145 BC) is said to have vanquished ndo-Greeks, before being himself defeated by 60,000 The armed forces of the Indo-Greeks engaged in important battles with local Menander. forces. Indian The ruler of Kalinga, Kharavela, claims in the Hathigumpha that he led inscription a "large army" in the direction of Demetrius' own "army" "transports", and that he induced him to retreat from Pataliputra to Mathura. and Greek ambassador Megasthenes took special note of the military strength of The in his KalingaIndica in the middle of the 3rd century "The BC: royal city of the Calingae (Kalinga) is called Parthalis. Over their 60,000-foot-soldiers, 1,000 horsemen, 700 elephants keep watch and ward king "procinct of in Megasthenes fragm. LVI. in Plin. Hist. Nat. VI. 21. 823. 11. war." An account by the Roman writer Justin gives another hint of the size of Indo[169] armies, which, in the case of the conflict between the Greco-Bactrian Greek and the Indo-Greek Demetrius II, he numbers at 60,000 (although they Eucratides lost to 300 Grecoallegedly "Eucratides Bactrians): led many wars with great courage, and, while weakened by them, was under siege by Demetrius, king of the Indians. He made numerous sorties, put managed to vanquish 60,000 enemies with 300 soldiers, and thus liberated and four aftermonths, he put India under his Justin, rule" These are XLI,6[170]considerable numbers, as large armies during the Hellenistic typically numbered between 20,000 to 30,000. period The Indo-Greeks were later confronted by the nomadic tribes from Central [171] (Yuezhi and Scythians). According to Zhang Qian, the Yuezhi Asia considerable represented aforce of between 100,000 and 200,000 mounted archer warriors, with [172]customs identical to those of the [edit] Legacy of the IndoXiongnu. Main article: Legacy of the IndoGreeks Greeks The Indo-Scythian Taxila copper plate uses the Macedonian month of "Panemos" calendrical purposes (British Museum). for From [173]the 1st century AD, the Greek communities of central Asia and northwesternunder the control of the Kushan branch of the Yuezhi, apart ndia lived short-lived invasion of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom.[174] The Kushans founded from a Kushan Empire, which was to prosper for several centuries. In the south, the Greeks were under the rule of the Western the Kshatrapas. t is unclear how much longer the Greeks managed to maintain a distinct in the Indian sub-continent. The legacy of the Indo-Greeks was felt however presence several centuries, from the usage of the Greek language and for calendrical

methods,[175] to the influences on the numismatics of the Indian tracable down subcontinent, to the period of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century. The Indo-Greeks may also have had some influence on the religious plan as [176] especially in relation to the developing Mahayana Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism well, been has described as "the form of Buddhism which (regardless of how Hinduized later forms became) seems to have originated in the Greco-Buddhist communities its ndia, through a conflation of the Greek Democritean-Sophistic-Skeptical of with the rudimentary and unformalized empirical and skeptical elements tradition present already in early Buddhism". [edit] [177] List of the Indo-Greek kings and their Today 36 Indo-Greek kings are known. Several of them are also recorded in territories and Indian historical sources, but the majority are known through Western evidence only. The exact chronology and sequencing of their rule is still a numismatic of scholarly inquiry, with adjustments regular being made with new analysis matter coin and finds (overstrikes of one king over another's coins being the most element criticalin establishing chronological sequences). The system used here is from Osmund Bopearachchi, supplemented by the views of R C Senior and adapted other authorities. occasionally NDO-GREEK KINGS AND THEIR [178] Based on Bopearachchi TERRITORIES (1991) Territories D /atesIPAROPAMISAD A ERACHOSI G AANDHAR W AESTERN EASTERN PUNJAB PUNJAB 200-190 BCEDemetrius I 190-180 BCEAgathocles Pantaleo n 185-170 BCEAntimachus I 180-160 BCEApollodotus I 175-170 BCEDemetrius 160-155 BCEAntimachus 170-145 BCEEucratides 155-130 BCEMenander I 130-120 BCEZoilos I Agathokleia 120-110 BCELysias Strato 110-100 BCEAntialcidas Heliokles 100 BCE Polyxenio Demetrius III s 100-95 BCEIPhiloxenus

95-90 Amynta BCE E spande r 90 BCE Peukolao T shras o 90-85 Menander II BCE Artemidoro s 90-70 Archebios BCE

Diomede s Theophilos

Nicia s Hermaeus

Yuezhi Maues tribes (IndoScythian) 75-70 Apollodotus II BCE 65-55 Dionysio BCE s 55-35 BCE 55-35 BCE 25 BCE- 10 CE

Telepho s Hippostratos Azes I (Indo-Scythian)IZoilos II Apollophanes Strato II

Rajuvula (Indo[edit] Scythian) 1. Footnotes in other compounds such as "French-Canadian", "African-American" ^ As "Indo-European" etc..., the area of origin usually comes first, and the area , arrival comes second, so that "Greco-Indian" is normally a more of nomenclature than "Indo-Greek". The latter however has become the general accurate especially since the publication of Narain's book "The Indousage, 2. ^ Greeks".Euthydemus I was, according to Polybius11.34, a Magnesian Greek. His Demetrius I, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek son, at least ethnicityby his father. A marriage treaty was arranged for the same Demetrius a daughter of the Seleucid ruler with (who had some Persian Polybius Antiochus11.34. The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear ("Notes descent). Hellenism in Bactria and India". W. W. Tarn. Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. on (1902), pages 268293). For example, Artemidoros (80 BC) may have been of 22 Scythian ascendency. Some level of inter-marriage may also have occurred, Indoexemplified by Alexander of Macedon (who married Roxana of Bactria) as Seleucus (who married or 3. ^ Apama). Mortimer Wheeler Flames over Persepolis (London, 1968). Pp. 112 ff. It unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by Sir John is excavations Marshall's dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move have Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as "not a Greek of but cityan Indian one"; not a polis or with a Hippodamian 4. plan. ^ "Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a p.83. Greek king of the Euthydemid dysnasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) Bactrian the in Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p.377. However,

"Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's for the capital Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet just as the Ganges flows to the Nagasena, 5. sea." ^ "A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and symbols, along with interesting sculptures and some monumental remains Indian Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and from influences", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, Hellenistic 6. p.130 ^ "When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not killed, nor did they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area all worked for the new masters; contributing considerably to the culture and civilization in southern and central Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, and 7. p.278 ^ India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.928. ^ 93:"To the colonies settled in India, Python, the son of Agenor, was Justinsent." .4 9. ^ India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.106X 10. ^ "Strabo 15.2.1(9)". 107 bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0239&query=head%3D http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi11. %23120. India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.108^ 12. ^ "Three Greek ambassadors are known by name: Megasthenes, ambassador 109 Chandragupta; Deimachus, ambassador to Chandragupta's son Bindusara; to Dyonisius, whom Ptolemy Philadelphus sent to the court of Ashoka, and son", McEvilley, p.367 Bindusara's 13. ^ Classical sources have recorded that following their treaty, and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent Chandragupta aphrodisiacs to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are various wondrous efficacy in such matters as to make people more amorous. And of confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king Phylarchus the of Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish producing a Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32 Ath. Deip. love" Mentioned in McEvilley, I.32. 14. p.367 ^ "The very fact that both Megasthenes and Kautilya refer to a department run and maintained specifically for the purpose of looking state foreigners, who were mostly Yavanas and Persians, testifies to the impact after by these created contacts.", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks", 15. p.363 ^ "It also explains (...) random finds from the Sarnath, Basarth, and regions of terra-cotta pieces of distinctive Hellenistic or with Patna Hellenistic motifs and designs", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, definite 16. p.363 ^ "A minor rock edict, recently discovered at Kandahar, was inscribed in scripts, Greek and Aramaic", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, two 17. p.112 ^ "The second Kandahar edict (the purely Greek one) of Asoka is a part the "corpus" known as the "Fourteen-Rock-Edicts"" Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" of p.452 2003, 18. ^ "It is also in Kandahar that were found the fragments of a translation of Edicts XII and , as well as the Aramean translation of Greek edict of Ashoka", Bussagli, X another 19. p.89 ^ "Within Ashoka's domain Greeks may have had special privileges, ones established by the terms of the Seleucid alliance. Rock Edict perhaps indicates Thirteen the existence of a Greek principality in the northwest of empire -perhaps Kandahar, or Alexandria-of-the-Arachosians- which was not ruled Ashoka's him by and for which he troubled to send Buddhist missionaries and published at some leastof his edicts in Greek", McEvilley, 20. p.368 ^ "Thirteen, the longest and most important of the edicts, contains claim,the seemingly outlandish t first glance, that Ashoka had sent missions to lands of the Greek monarchs -not only those of Asia, such as the Seleucids, the those back in the Mediterranean also", McEvilley, but 21. p.368 ^ "When Ashoka was converted to Buddhism, his first thought was to missionaries to his friends, the Greek monarchs of Egypt, Syria, and despatch Macedonia",

Rawlinson, Intercourse between India and the Western world, p.39, quoted McEvilley, p.368 in 22. ^ "In Rock Edict Two Ashoka even claims to have established hospitals men and beasts in the Hellenistic kingdoms", McEvilley, for 23. p.368 ^ "One of the most famous of these emissaries, Dharmaraksita, who was to have converted thousands, was a Greek (Mhv.XII.5 and 34)", McEvilley, said 24. p.370 ^ "The Mahavamsa tells that "the celebrated Greek teacher in theMahadharmaraksita led a delegation of 30,000 monks from Alexandria-ofsecond century BC Caucasus Alexandra-of-the-Yonas, or of-the-Greeks, the Ceylonese text thesays to actuallythe opening of the great Ruanvalli Stupa at Anuradhapura"", p.370, quoting Woodcock, "The Greeks in India", McEvilley, 25. p.55 ^ Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter 26. ^ "The finest of the pillars were executed by Greek or PersoXII sculptors; others by local craftsmen, with or without foreign Greek Marshall, "The Buddhist art of Gandhara", supervision" 27. p4 ^ "A number of foreign artisans, such as the Persians or even the workedGreeks, alongside the local craftsmen, and some of their skills were copied avidity" Burjor Avari, "India, The ancient past", with 28. p118 ^ "Antiochos III, after having made peace with Euthydemus I after aborted siege of Bactra, renewed with Sophagasenus the alliance concluded by the ancestor Seleucos I", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, his 29. p.52 ^ "Polybius 11.39". bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234&query=head%3D http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi30. %23717. "So far, in Bactria, a theater has been identified at Ai ^ McEvilley, p.386 Khanoum", 31. ^ "The discovery of the Bactrian Greek city of Ai-Khanoum is surely one the most significant gifts archaeology has given to history during the last of years", thirty Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, 32. p.426 ^ "Bactria, as part of the Persian conquests of Alexander the Great, becomehad part of the Seleucid kingdom run from Syria. In the middle of the century BC Bactria, along with another Persian province, Parthia, revolted third the Seleucids. (...) These Greco-Bactrian kings clashed with the Mauryans against their duringforays into northwest India", India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, 33. p.130 ^ "General Pusyamitra, who is at the origin of the Sunga dynasty. He supported by the Brahmins and even became the symbol of the Brahmanical was against turnoverthe Buddhism of the Mauryas. The capital was then transferred Pataliputra (today's Patna)", Bussagli, to 34. p.99 ^ Pushyamitra is described as a "senapati" (Commander-in-chief) of in theBrhadrata Puranas 35. ^ E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Neuve Louvain-la- p. 109. 1988 (1958), 36. ^ Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford Press,University 1960 P200 37. ^ See Polybius, Arrian, Livy, Cassius Dio, and Diodorus. Justin, who will discussed shortly, provides a summary of the histories of Hellenistic be Egypt, Asia, and Parthia. Macedonia, 38. ^ For the date of Trogus, see the OCD on "Trogus" and Yardley/Develin, p. since 2; Trogus' father was in charge of Julius Caesar's diplomatic missions the history was written (Justin 43.5.11), Senior's date in the following before is too early: "The Western sources for accounts of Bactrian and Indo-Greek quotation are: Polybius, a Greek born c.200 BC; Strabo, a Roman who drew on the lost history of Apollodoros of Artemita (c.130-87 BC9, and Justin, who drew on Trogus, a history 87 BC post writer", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins IV, p.x; the extent to which Strabo citing Apollodorus is disputed, beyond the three places he names Apollodorus is he may have those through Eratosthenes). Polybius speaks of Bactria, not of (and India. 39. ^ Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus translated J. C. by Yardley, notes and introduction by Robert Develin. (Atlanta 1994). The

source for these paragraphs, and the next insofar as it is not Justin, is the ntroduction pp. 1-11. See also Tarn (1951) 40. p.50.^ Justin, 41.4.5, 41.4.8-9, 41.6.1-5, ed. cit.; The names of Theodotus I ; Eucratides and his unnamed parricidal son; and "Demetrius, king of and ndians" (so Yardley: Indorum rex, Develin's note implies this is Demetrius the but suggests that Demetrius I and II may be the same person.) Theodotus II, Justin's text is clearly an error for Diodotus; the two prefixes both mean in no coins support his existence, and Trogus' tables of contents (the so"God", prologues) survive (Develin and Yardley, p.284) saying Diodotus; they also called include quoque res additae, gestae per Apollodotum et Menandrum, reges eorum ndicae ndian "some matters, namely the achievements of the Indian kings, Apollodotus Menander.", although Justin does not mention Apollodotus. Tarn, Narain, and Bopearchchi all correct to and 41. Diodotus. ^ Strabo, Geographia 11.11.1 p.516 Casaubon. 15.1.2, p. 686 "tribes" is Jones' version of ethne Casaubon, 42. (Loeb)^ For a list of classical testimonia, see Tarn's Index II; but this ndia,covers Bactria, and several sources for the Hellenstic East as a 43. whole. Tarn, App. 20; Narain (1957) pp. 136, 156 et ^ 44. ^ "The alii. Besnagar Garuda pillar inscription witnesses to the presence of Yavanathe Heliodorus son of Dion in Vidisa as an envoy from Taxila of Antialkidas around 140 BC", Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, king 45. p.64 ^ Tarn and Narain postulate two Demetrii; the former thinks the Anicetus coins describe Demetrius I, although actually made by Demetrius II; Demetrius latter that they are entirely by Demetrius II, and have nothing to do the Demetrius I. Bopearachchi ascribes one more recent find to Agathocles, with depicting Demetrius I; he postulates a much later but for the previously known coins; this result is now fairly widely accepted by numismatists. Demetrius possibility of one Demetrius is attested by Develin and Brill's New The "Demetrius 4" Pauly, 46. ^ This reconstruction is adapted mainly from the works of Bopearachchi (1991,1998) Bopearachchi. 47. ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins, 48. ^ Polybius 11.34 p.xii 49. ^ The first conquests of Demetrius have usually been held to be during father's lifetime; the difference has been over the actual date. Tarn and his agreed Narain on having them begin around 180; Bopearachchi moved this back to 200, has and been followed by much of the more recent literature, but see Brill's Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World (Boston, 2006) "Demetrius" u10, New places which the invasion "probably in 184". D.H. MacDowall, "The Role of Demetrius Arachosia and the Kabul Valley," published in the volume: O. Bopearachchi, in (ed), LandesAfghanistan Ancien Carrefour Entre L'Est Et L'Ouest, (Brepols discusses an inscription dedicated to Euthydemus, "Greatest of all kings" and 2005) son his Demetrius, who is not called king but "Victorious" (Kallinikos). This is to indicate that Demetrius was his father's general during the first conquests. taken is It uncertain whether the Kabul valley or Arachosia were conquered first, whether the latter province was taken from the Seleucids after their defeat by and Romans in 190 BC. Peculiar enough, more coins of Euthydemus I than of the have been I Demetrius found in the mentioned provinces. The calendar of the "Yonas" is by an proveninscription giving a triple synchronism to have begun in 186/5 BC; event what is commemorated is itself uncertain. Richard Salomon "The Indo-Greek era 186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist reliquary inscription", in Afghanistan, Ancien of cited. Carrefour 50. ^ "Demetrius occupied a large part of the Indus delta, Saurashtra Kutch", Burjor Avari, and 51. p.130 ^ "It would be impossible to explain otherwise why in all his Demetrios is crowned with an elephant scalp", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, portraits 52. p.53 ^ "We think that the conquests of these regions south of the Hindu brought to Demetrius I the title of "King of India" given to him by Apollodorus Kush of

Artemita." Bopearachchi, 53. p.52 ^ For Heracles, see Lillian B. Lawler "Orchesis Kallinikos" Transactions Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 79. (1948), pp. and 267, 254- p. 262; for Artemidorus, see K. Walton Dobbins "The Commerce of Kapisene GandhIra after the Fall of Indo-Greek Rule" Journal of the Economic and and History Social of the Orient, Vol. 14, No. 3. (Dec., 1971), pp. 286-302 (Both Tarn, p.132, argues that Alexander did not assume as a title, but was only JSTOR). by it, hailed but see Peter Green, The Hellenistic Age, p.7; see also Senior, Scythian coins, p.xii. No undisputed coins of Demetrius I himself use this Indobut it title, is employed on one of the pedigree coins issued by Agathocles, which on the reverse the classical profile of Demetrius crowned by the elephant bear with the legend DEMETRIOS ANIKETOS, and on the reverse Herakles crowning scalp, with the himself, legend "Of king Agathocles" (Boppearachchi, "Monnaies", p.179 and Pl Tarn, The Greeks in Bactria and India, Chap 8). 54. ^ "It now seeems most likely that Demetrios was the founder of the IV. discovered Greek Era of 186/5", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins newly 55. ^ Davies, Cuthbert Collin (1959). An Historical Atlas of the IV Peninsula. Oxford University Indian 56. Press.^ Narain, A.K. (1976). The Coin Types of the Indo-Greek Kings. Ares. 0890051097. ISBN 57. ^ Hans Erich Stier, Georg Westermann Verlag, Ernst Kirsten, and Aner. Ekkehard Atlas zur Weltgeschichte: Vorzeit. Altertum. Mittelalter. Grosser Westermann, 1978, ISBN Neuzeit. 58. 3141009198. ^ MacDowall, 2004 59. ^ "The only thing that seems reasonnably sure is that Taxila was part of domainthe Agathocles", Bopearachchi, Monnaies, of 60. p.59 ^ Bopearachchi, Monnaies, 61. ^ "There is certainly some truth in Apollodorus and Strabo when p.63 attribute to Menander the advances made by the Greeks of Bactria beyond they Hypanis and even as far as the Ganges and Palibothra (...) That the the advanced Yavanas even beyond in the east, to the Ganges-Jamuna valley, about the middle the of second century BC is supported by the cumulative evidence provided by sources", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" Indian 62. p.267.^ "The Greeks... took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and the Strabo 11.11.1 (Strabo Sigerdis." 63. ^ 11.11.1)"The combination of textual and numismatic evidence allows to see what the conflict between Eucratides and Menander. When Menander was engaged was bloody conquest of the Ganges valley, Eucratides I would have taken advantage in a this opportunity to invade his kingdom. This would be the "civil war" mentioned of the in Yuga Purana; this would explain that Menander had to stop his conquest of Ganges valley, and had to return hastily to face the aggressor", the Monnaies, p.85 Bopearachchi, 64. ^ In the 1st century BC, the geographer Isidorus of Charax Parthians ruling over Greek populations and cities in Arachosia: "Beyond mentions Arachosia. And the Parthians call this White India; there are the city of Biyt is the and city of Pharsana and the city of Chorochoad and the city of Demetrias; Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is Greek, and by it flows then river Arachotus. As far as this place the land is under the rule of the Parthians." "Parthians stations", 1st century BC. Mentioned in the "Monnaies Greco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques", p52. Original text in paragraph Bopearachchi, of 19 Parthian stations 65. ^ Pompeius Trogus, Prologue to Book 66. ^ "When Strabo mentions that "Those who after Alexander advanced beyond XLI. Hypanis to the Ganges and Polibothra (Pataliputra)" this can only refer to the conquests of Menander.", Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history, the 67. p.XIV ^ Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, 2000, p.65: "In line with the discussion, therefore, we may infer that such an event (the incursions above to

Pataliputra) took place, after the reign of Salisuka Maurya (c.200 BC) and that of before Pusyamitra Sunga (187 BC). This would accordingly place the incursions during the reign of the Indo-Greek kings Euthydemus (c.230-190 BC) Yavana Demetrios (c.205-190 as co-regent, and 190-171 BC as supreme or 68. ^ ruler". According to Tarn, the word used for "advance" (Proelonthes) can only a military expedition. The word generally means "going forward"; according to mean LSJ this can, but need not, imply a military expedition. See LSJ, . the Strabo 15-1-27 sub s 69. ^ A.K. Narain and Keay 70. ^ "Menander became the ruler of a kingdom extending along the coast 2000 western India, including the whole of Saurashtra and the harbour Barukaccha. of territory also included Mathura, the Punjab, Gandhara and the Kabul His Bussagli Valley", p101) 71. ^ Tarn, p.147-149 72. ^ Strabo on the extent of the conquests of the Greco-Bactrians/Indo"They Greeks: took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the of what coast, is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis. In short, says that Bactriana is the ornament of Ariana as a whole; and, more than Apollodorus they that,extended their empire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni." 11.11.1 Strabo (Strabo 11.11.1) 73. ^ "Numismats and historians all consider that Menander was one of greatest, if not the greatest, and the most illustrious of the Indo-Greek the Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", kings", 74. p.76 ^ "the account of the Periplus is just a sailor's story", Narain (p.118119) 75. ^ "A distinctive series of Indo-Greek coins has been found at several in central India: including at Dewas, some 22 miles to the east of Ujjain. places therefore add further definite support to the likelihood of an Indo-Greek These in Malwa" presence Mitchener, "The Yuga Purana", 76. p.64 ^ "Because the Ionians were either the first ot the most dominant among group the Greeks with whom people in the east came in contact, the Persians all of called them Yauna, and the Indians used Yona and Yavana for them", Narain, ndo-Greeks, p.249 The 77. ^ "The term (Yavana) had a precise meaning until well into the era, when gradually its original meaning was lost and, like the word Mleccha, Christian degenerated into a general term for a foreigner" Narain, it 78. p.18 ^ "Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the institution", Bopearachchi, Smithsonian 79. p16. ^ Tarn, p.145-146 80. ^ "But the real story of the Indo-Greek invasion becomes clear only on analysis of the material contained in the historical section of the Gargi the the Yuga Samhita, Purana" Narain, p110, The Indo-Greeks. Also "The text of the Yuga as we have shown, gives an explicit clue to the period and nature of the Purana, of Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks took part, for it says that the invasion and the PancalasMathuras were the other powers who attacked Saketa and Pataliputra", Narain, destroyed 81. p.112 ^ "For any scholar engaged in the study of the presence of the Indoor Indo-Scythians before the Christian Era, the Yuga Purana is an important Greeks material" Dilip Coomer Ghose, General Secretary, The Asiatic Society, source 2002 Kolkata, 82. ^ "..further weight to the likelihood that this account of a incursion to Saketa and Pataliputra-in alliance with the Pancalas and Yavana Mathuras- is indeed historical" Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, the 83. p.65 ^ "The advance of the Greek to Pataliputra is recorded from the Indian in theside Yuga-purana", Tarn, 84. p.145 ^ "The greatest city in India is that which is called Palimbothra, in dominions of the Prasians ... Megasthenes informs us that this city stretched the the in inhabited quarters to an extreme length on each side of eighty stadia, and

that its breadth was fifteen stadia, and that a ditch encompassed it all which round,was six hundred feet in breadth and thirty cubits in depth, and that wall the was crowned with 570 towers and had four-and-sixty gates." Arr. Ind. 10. Pataliputra and the Manners of the Indians.", quoting Megasthenes "Of 85. Text ^ "The text of the Yuga Purana, as we have shown, gives an explicit clue the period and nature of the invasion of Pataliputra in which the Indo-Greeks to part, for it says that the Pancalas and the Mathuras were the other powers took attacked Saketa and destroyed Pataliputra", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, who 86. p.112 ^ Tarn, p. "[132-133 INSERT TITLE]". 13287. ^ "The name Dimita is almost certainly an adaptation of "Demetrios", and 133. inscription thus indicates a Yavana presence in Magadha, probably around the middle of the 1st century BC." Mitchener, The Yuga Purana, the 88. p.65 ^ "The Hathigumpha inscription seems to have nothing to do with the of thehistory Indo-Greeks; certainly it has nothing to do with Demetrius I", Narain, ndo-Greeks, p.50 The 89. ^ P.L.Gupta: Kushpna Coins and History, D.K.Printworld, 1994, p.184, 90. ^ "Justin refers to an incident in which Eucratides with a small force note 5 300 was besieged for four months by "Demetrius, king of the Indians" with a of army of 60,000. The numbers are obviously an exageration. Eucratides managed large break out and went on to conquer India.", It is uncertain who this Demetrius to and was,when the siege happened. Some scholars believe that it was Demetrius ."(Demetrius I) was probably the Demetrius who besieged Eucratides for months", D.W. Mac Dowall, p.201-202, Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est four l'ouest. This analysis goes against Bopearachchi, who has suggested that et died long before Eucratides came to Demetrius 91. power. Bopearachchi, p.72 ^ 92. ^ "As Bopearachchi has shown, Menander was able to regroup and take back territory that Eucratides I had conquered, perhaps after Eucratides had the (1991, pp. 84-6). Bopearachchi demonstrates that the transition in Menander's died designs were in response to changes introduced by coin 93. ^ "Numismats and historians are unanimous in considering that Menander Eucratides". one ofwas greatest, if not the greatest, and the most famous of the Indothe kings. Greek The coins to the name of Menander are incomparably more abundant than of any those other Indo-Greek king" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies Grco-Bactriennes et Grecques", p76. Indo94. ^ "Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of a along with Ashoka and Kanishka", McEvilley, Buddhism 95. p.375 ^ "(In the Milindapanha) Menander is declared an arhat", McEvilley, 96. ^ "Plutarch, who talks of the burial of Menander's relics under monuments p.378 stupas, had obviously read or heard some Buddhist account of the Greek or death", king's McEvilley, p.377 97. ^ "The statement of Plutarch that when Menander died "the cities (...) celebrated agreeing that they should divide ashes equally and go away and should monuments to him in all their cities", is significant and reminds one of the erect of the story Buddha", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.123, "This is Buddhist and unmistakably recalls the similar situation at the time of the Buddha's away", passingNarain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, 98. p.269 ^ Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", 99. ^ "By p.86 about 130 BC nomadic people from the Jaxartes region had overrun northern boundary of Bactria itself", McEvilley, the 100. p.372 ^ Bopearachchi, Monnaies, 101. p.88 ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history IV, 102. p.xib "P.Bernard thinks that these emissions were destined to ^ a exchanges with Bactria, then controled by the Yuezhi, and were post-Greek commercial remained faithful to Greco-Bactrian coinage. In a slightly different coins (...) G. Le perspective Rider considers that these emission were used to pay tribute to nomads of the north, who were thus incentivized not to pursue their forays in the the

direction of the Indo-Greek realm", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", 103. p.76. ^ Senior, Indo-Scythian coins and history IV, 104. p.xxxiii the century that followed Menander more than twenty rulers ^ "During known are have struck coins", Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, to 105. p.270 ^ Bernard (1994), p. 126. 106. ^ The Sanskrit inscription reads "Yavanarajyasya sodasuttare varsasate 10 6".100 R.Salomon, "The Indo-Greek era of 186/5 B.C. in a Buddhist inscription", in "Afghanistan, ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest", reliquary 107. p373 ^ "The coinage of the former (the Audumbaras) to whom their trade was importance, starts somewhere in the first century BC; they occasionally of the types of Demetrius and Apollodotus I", Tarn, imitate 108. p.325 ^ The Kunindas must have been included in the Greek empire, not only of their geographical position, but because they started coining at the time because saw the end of Greek rule and the establishment of their independence", which p.238 Tarn, 109. ^ "Further evidence of the commercial success of the Greek drachms is in theseen that they influenced the coinage of the Audumbaras and the fact Narain The Kunindas", Indo-Greeks, 110. p.114 ^ "The wealthy Audumbaras (...) some of their coins after Greek rule imitated Greek types", Tarn, ended 111. p.239 ^ "Most of the people east of the Ravi already noticed as within empireMenander's -Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas- began to coins the in first century BC, which means that they had become independent kingdoms republics.", Tarn, p.324 or 112. ^ "Later, in the first century a ruler of the Kunindas, Amogabhuti, silverissued a "which would compete in the market with the later Indocoinage silver"", Tarn, p.325 Greek 113. ^ "Maues himself issued joint coins with Machene, (...) probably a of onedaughter Indo-Greek houses" Senior, Indo-Scythians, of the 114. ^ p.xxxvi G.K. Jenkins, using overstrikes and monograms, showed that, contrary what Narai would write two years later, Apoloodotus II and Hippostratus to posterior, by far, to Maues. (...) He reveals an overstike if Azes I were Hippostratus. (...) Apollodotus and Hippostratus are thus posterior to Maues over anterior to Azes I, whose era we now starts in 57 BC." Bopearachchi, p.126and 115. 127. ^ "It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and quiver as a A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been type. previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos used Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?" Senior, Indouse coins, p.xxvii Scythian 116. ^ "The Indo-Scythian conquerors, who, also they adopted the greek mintedtypes, with their own names". Bopearachchci, "Monnaies", money 117. p.121 ^ Described in R.C. Senior "The Decline of the Indo-Greeks" [1]. See this source. also 118. ^ "Around 10 AD, with the joint rule of Straton II and his son Straton the area of Sagala, le last Greek kingdom succumbed to the attacks of in the Indo-Scythian satrap of Mathura.", Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", Rajuvula, 119. p.125 ^ "Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire, succeeded there (in Paropamisadae) to the nomads who minted imitations of Hermaeus" the "Monnaies", p.117 Bopearachchi, 120. ^ "We get two Greeks of the Parthian period, the first half of the century AD, who used the Indian form of their names, King Theodamas on his first ring found in Bajaur, and Thedorus son of Theoros on two silver bowls signetTaxila." Tarn, p.389 from 121. ^ Marital alliances: o Discussion on the dynastic alliance in Tarn, pp. 152153: "It has recently suggested that Asoka was grandson of the Seleucid princess, whom been gave in Seleucusmarriage to Chandragupta. Should this far-reaching suggestion be founded, it would not only throw light on the good relations between the well Seleucid

and Maurya dynasties, but would mean that the Maurya dynasty was descended or anyhow connected with, Seleucus... when the Mauryan line became extinct, from, (Demetrius) may well have regarded himself, if not as the next heir, at any he as the heir nearest at hand". Also: "The Seleucid and Maurya lines were rate by the marriage of Seleucus' daughter (or niece) either to Chandragupta or his connected Bindusara" John Marshall, Taxila, p20. This thesis originally appeared in son Cambridge Shorter History of India": "If the usual oriental practice was "The and if we followed regard Chandragupta as the victor, then it would mean that a daughter other female relative of Seleucus was given to the Indian ruler or to one of or sons, so that Asoka may have had Greek blood in his veins." The Cambridge his History Shorter of India, J. Allan, H. H. Dodwell, T. Wolseley Haig, p33 o Source. Description of the 302 BC marital alliance in Strabo 15.2.1(9): "The occupyIndians some of the countries situated along the Indus, which in part belonged formerly to the Persians: Alexander deprived the Ariani of them, and there settlements of his own. But Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus established consequence of a marriage contract, and received in return five in elephants." The ambassador Megasthenes was also sent to the Mauryan court on hundred occasion. this 122. ^ Exchange of presents: o Classical sources have recorded that Chandragupta sent various to Seleucus: "And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of aphrodisiacs efficacy wondrous in such matters as to make people more amourous. And Phylarchus him, by confirmsreference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the ndians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love" wonderful of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32 Ath. Deip. Athenaeus o I.32 Ashoka claims he introduced herbal medicine in the territories of Greeks, for the welfare of humans and animals (Edict the o No2). Bindusara asked Antiochus I to send him some sweet wine, dried figs sophist: "But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, and a Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that as Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it even Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and is dried some figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The figs dry and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to sold in Greece" Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67Athenaeus, be XIV.67 "Deipnosophistae" 123. ^ Treaties of friendship: o When Antiochos III, after having made peace with Euthydemus, went to in 209India he is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king BC, and received presents from him: "He crossed the Caucasus (Hindu Kush) there descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of and ndians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; the having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his and leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which army: king this had agreed to hand over to him."Polybius 124. 11.39 ^ Ambassadors: o Known ambassadors to India are Megasthenes, Deimakos and 125. Dionysius. missions: ^ Religious o n the Edicts of Ashoka, king Ashoka claims to have sent Buddhist to the emissaries west around 250 Hellenistic 126. ^ The historian Diodorus wrote that the king of Pataliputra, BC. Mauryan king, "loved the Greeks": "Iambulus, having found his way to a apparently a village, certain was then brought by the natives into the presence of the king Palibothra, a city which was distant a journey of many days from the sea. of since the king loved the Greeks ("Philhellenos") and devoted to learning And considered Iambulus worthy of cordial welcome; and at length, upon he permission receiving aof safe-conduct, he passed over first of all into Persia and later

arrived safe in Greece" Diodorus 127. ii,60.^ "Diodorus testifies to the great love of the king of apparently a Mauryan king, for the Greeks" Narain, "The Indo-Greeks", Palibothra, 128. p362 ^ "Obviously, for the Greeks who survived in India and suffered from oppression of the Sunga (for whom they were aliens and heretics), Demetrios the have must appeared as a saviour" Mario Bussagli, p. 129. ^ "We can now, I think, see what the Greek 'conquest' meant and how 101 Greeksthe were able to traverse such extraordinary distances. To parts of perhaps India, to large parts, they came, not as conquerors, but as friends or to the Buddhist world in particular they appeared to be its champions" (Tarn, 'saviors'; 180) p. 130. ^ Tarn p. 175. Also: "The people to be 'saved' were in fact Buddhists, and the common enimity of Greek and Buddhists to the Sunga king usually them threwinto each other's arms", Tarn p. 175. "Menander was coming to save them the fromoppression of the Sunga kings",Tarn p. 131. ^ Whitehead, "Indo-Greek coins", p 3178 132. 8 Bopearachchi p. 138 ^ 133. ^ Whitehead, p.vi 134. ^ "These Indo-Greeks were called Yavanas in ancient Indian litterature" + notep.9 "The term had a precise meaning until well into the Christian era, 1 gradually its original meaning was lost and, like the word Mleccha, it when into a general term for a foreigner" p.18, Narain "The Indodegenerated 135. ^ Greeks" "All Greeks in India were however known as Yavanas", Burjor Avari, the ancient past", p.130 "India, 136. ^ "The term Yavana may well have been first applied by the Indians to Greeksthe various cities of Asia Minor who were settled in the areas contiguous of north-west India" Narain "The Indo-Greeks", to 137. p.227 ^ "Of the Sanskrit Yavana, there are other forms and derivatives, viz. Yonaka, Javana, Yavana, Jonon or Jononka, Ya-ba-na etc... Yona is a normal Yona, form from Yavana", Narain "The Indo-Greeks", Prakrit 138. p.228 ^ a b "It is probable that the wheel on some coins of Menander is with Buddhism", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, connected 139. p.122 ^ Tarn, p.391: "Somewhere I have met with the zhole-hearted statement every that in India ended by becoming a Buddhist (...) Heliodorus the Greek was a Bhagavatta, a worshiper of Vshnu-Krishna as the supreme deity ambassador Theodorus the meridrarch, who established some relics of the Buddha "for (...) purpose of the security of many people", was undoubtedly Buddhist". Images of the Zoroastrian divinity Mithra - depicted with a radiated phrygian cap the extensively on the Indo-Greek coinage of the Western kings. This Zeus-Mithra appear also the one represented seated (with the gloriole around the head, and a is protrusion on the top of the head representing the cap) on many coins of small Antialcidas or Heliokles Hermaeus, 140. ^ "It is not unlikely that "Dikaios", which is translated Dhramaika in II. Kharosthi legend, may be connected with his adoption of the Buddhist the Narain, faith." "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, 141. p.124 ^ "Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of a along with Asoka and Kanishka", McEvilley, Buddhism 142. p.375 ^ Stupavadana, Chapter 57, v15. Quotes in 143. E.Seldeslachts. ^ McEvilley, p.377 144. ^ Plutarch "Political precepts", p147148 Full 145. text ^ "The extraordinary realism of their portraiture. The portraits Demetrius, Antimachus and of Eucratides are among the most remarkable that of come have down to us from antiquity" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, 146. p134 ^ "Just as the Frank Clovis had no part in the development of Galloart, the Indo-Scythian Kanishka had no direct influence on that of Indo-Greek Roman and Art;besides, we have now the certain proofs that during his reign this art already stereotyped, of not decadent" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, was p147

147. ^ "The survival into the 1st century AD of a Greek administration presumably some elements of Greek culture in the Punjab has now to be taken and account in any discussion of the role of Greek influence in the development into Gandharan sculpture", The Crossroads of Asia, of 148. ^ On the Indo-Greeks and the Gandhara p14 o 1) "It school:is necessary to considerably push back the start of Gandharan art, the first half of the first century BC, or even, very probably, to the to century.(...) The origins of Gandharan art... go back to the Greek presence. preceding Gandharan iconography was already fully formed before, or at least at the (...) beginning of our era" Mario Bussagli "L'art du Gandhara", p331 very o 2) "The beginnings of the Gandhara school have been dated everywhere 332 the first century B.C. (which was M.Foucher's view) to the Kushan period and from after even it" (Tarn, p394). Foucher's views can be found in "La vieille route l'Inde, de Bactres a Taxila", pp340341). The view is also supported by Sir de Marshall ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", pp5 John o 6). 3) Also the recent discoveries at Ai-Khanoum confirm that "Gandharan descended directly from Hellenized Bactrian art" (Chaibi Nustamandy, art of Asia", 1992). "Crossroads o 4) On the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art: "It was about this time BC) that something took place which is without parallel in Hellenistic (100 Greeks of themselves placed their artistic skill at the service of a history: religion, and created for it a new form of expression in art" (Tarn, p393). foreign have "We to look for the beginnings of Gandharan Buddhist art in the residual Greek Indo- tradition, and in the early Buddhist stone sculpture to the South etc...)" (Bharhut (Boardman, 1993, p124). "Depending on how the dates are worked out, spread of Gandhari Buddhism to the north may have been stimulated by the royal patronage, as may the development and spread of the Gandharan Menander's which seems sculpture, to have accompanied it" McEvilley, 2002, "The shape of thought", p378. ancient 149. ^ Benjamin Rowland JR, foreword to "The Dyasntic art of the Kushan", Rosenfield, 1967 John 150. ^ Ranajit Pal, "An Altar of Alexander Now Standing Near Delhi", vol. 15, pp.78-101 Scholia, 151. ^ Boardman, p141 152. ^ Boardman, p143 153. ^ "Others, dating the work to the first two centuries A.D., after the of Greek autonomy on the Northwest, connect it instead with the Roman waning trade, which was just then getting a foothold at sites like Barbaricum Imperial Karachi) (modern at the Indus-mouth. It has been proposed that one of the embassies from ndian kings to Roman emperors may have brought back a master sculptorto work in the emerging Mahayana Buddhist sensibility (in which the Buddha came to oversee seen as a kind of deity), and that "bands of foreign workmen from the be centers eastern of the Roman Empire" were brought to India" (Mc Evilley "The shape ancient thought", quoting Benjamin Rowland "The art and architecture of of p121 and A.C. Soper "The Roman Style in Gandhara" American Journal of India" 55 (1951) pp301319) Archaeology 154. ^ Boardman, p.115 155. ^ McEvilley, p.388-390 156. ^ Boardman, 109-153 157. ^ "It is noteworthy that the dress of the Gandharan Bodhisattva statues no resemblance whatever to that of the Kushan royal portrait statues, which has many has affiliations with Parthian costume. The finery of the Gandhara images must modeled on the dress of local native nobility, princes of Indian or Indobe race, Greek who had no blood connection with the Scythian rulers. It is also that the evident facial types are unrelated to the features of the Kushans as we know from them their coins and fragmentary portrait statues.", Benjamin Rowland JR, to "The forewordDyasntic art of the Kushan", John Rosenfield, 158. 1967 ^ "Those tiny territories of the Indo-Greek kings must have been lively and

commercially flourishing places", India: The ancient past, Burjor Avari, 159. p.130 ^ "No doubt the Greeks of Bactria and India presided over a economy. This is clearly indicated by their coinage and the monetary exchange flourishing had theyestablished with other currencies." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, 160. p.275 ^ Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", 161. p.27 ^ Rapson, clxxxvi162. ^ Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", 163. p.75 ^ Fussman, JA 1993, p127 and Bopearachchi, "Graeco-Bactrian issues of later the Indo-Greek kings", Num. Chron.1990, pp79 164. 104) ^ "Strabo II.3.4 5 on http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/2Cr.html#3. Eudoxus". 165. ^ "Since the merchants of Alexandria are already sailing with fleets by 4. of theway Nile and of the Persian Gulf as far as India, these regions also become far better known to us of today than to our predecessors. At any rate, have Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far when Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred as twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos for India, whereas formerly, and the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry under traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo on 166. ^ II.5.12 "It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and quiver as a A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been type. previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos used Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?" Senior, Indouse coins, p.xxvii Scythian 167. ^ "Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius". bin/ptext?lookup=Plb. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi168. ^ , circa 90 BC: +10.49. Photographic reference on a coin of mage:MenanderIIQ.jpg Menander 169. ^ "Megasthenes Indica". http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRo Megasthenes-Indika.htm. man/ 170. ^ "Justin XLI". 171. http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/texte41.html. ^ On the size of Hellenistic armies, see accounts of Hellenistic battles Diodorus, books by and XIX 172. ^ "They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place with their XV and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or herds, archer 200,000warriors... The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian Heavenly mountains and Dunhuang, but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu or moved they far away to the west, beyond Dayuan, where they attacked and conquered people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the northern the of the Gui (Oxus) river" ("Records of the Great Historian", Sima Qian, bank Burton trans. Watson, p234) 173. ^ Tarn, p.494 174. ^ "Though the Indo-Greek monarchies seem to have ended in the first BC, the Greek presence in India and Bactria remained strong", McEvilley, century 175. ^ "The use of the Greek months by the Sakas and later rulers points to p.379 conclusion that they employed a system of dating started by their the Narain, "Indo-Greeks" 2003, predecessors." 176. p.190 ^ "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta is to II seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from be of the those Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) Greek the for chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in British Museum. The Andhras etc...", the 177. p.cli ^ McEvilley, "The Shape of Ancient Thought", 178. p503. ^ Under each king, information from Bopearachchi is taken from Grco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonn (1991) or occasionally Monnaies (1998). Senior's chronology is from The Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian SNG9 king

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