Tensile Testing

Plane stress and Plane strain

• Plane stress and Plane strain

• Plane Stress : State of stress in which one or
two of the pairs of faces on an elemental
• cube are free of any stresses. e.g Torsion of thin
wall tube. Expansion of a thin walled
• spherical shell under internal pressure.
• Plane strain: State of tress where one of the
pair of faces on an elemental undergoes
• zero strain. e.g Torsion of thin walled tube. Piece
of material being compressed in a die .
 Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of a material are obtained by

subjecting a specimen to prescribed loads and then
measuring the resulting deformation.

Usually, the test is carried out on a special machine that is

specifically designed for this purpose.

The measurements of the load and of the deformation are

carried out .
Tensile Test Machine (Instron)
Electronic Extensometer
Extensometer
Grip

Specimen

Grip
 Tensile Testing
(stretching or pulling)

Determine the behavior of the engineering material under load

 Tensile Test
-Tensile test determines the strength of the material when
subjected to a simple stretching operation.
-Standard dimension test samples are pulled slowly and at
uniform rate in a testing machin.
-The strain ( the elongation of the sample) is defined as:

 Engineering Strain = ε
ε = (change in length)/(original length) = δ/L0

-The stress ( the applied force divided by the original cross-

sectional area) is defined as:

 Engineering Stress = σ
σ = (applied force)/(original area) =P/A0
Stress-Strain Curve
.
• Elastic Limit: Greatest stress a material is capable of
developing without a permanent set.
• Note; elastic limit for metals do not differ widely from the
values of the proportionality.
• Elastic limit may be taken as that stress at which there is
a permanent set of 0.2%.It is therefore higher than limit
of proportionality. (suggested by some authors)
• Hooke s’ law: Stress is directly proportional to strain in
the elastic range.
• Young s’ Modulus: It is ratio between stress and
reversible strain (stiffness)
• It is in fact a measure of the inter atomic bonding forces.
Yield strength/ Proof stress: usually defined as the stress
which produces a measurable amount of permanent strain
i.e. 0.2% or 0.1%.
Tensile strength - the maximum stress applied to the specimen.
 Failure stress - the stress applied to the specimen at failure
(usually less than the maximum tensile strength because
necking reduces the cross-sectional area)
 Ductility

% Elongation:
% elongation is a measure of ductility, which is given by:

% elongation =100 * (Lo - Lf)/ Lo

where,
Lo = Initial length
Lf = Final Length
 Ductility
% Reduction in Area:
% reduction in area is a measure of ductility, which is given
by:

% reduction in area =100 * (Ao - Af)/ Ao

where,
Ao = Initial area
Af = Final area
 Poisson’s ratio

When pulled in tension (X), a sample gets

longer and thinner, i.e., a contraction in the
width (Y) and breadth (Z)
Poisson’s ratio: when strained in the (X)
direction how much strain occurs in the lateral
directions (Y & Z)
For most metals this value is 0.333
• This is the Poisson effect. Poisson’s ratio, which is the
• negative ratio of the contraction over the extension, is
• also an elastic constant.
• Poisson's Ratio, laterial strain
• longitudinal strain
• ε
• ν
• ε
• =−=−⊥
•
• x unloaded
• y
• z
• loaded
• P
• P
• •Metals: ν = 0.3 – 0.35
• •Ceramics: ν = 0.2 – 0.25
• •Polymers: ν = 0.25 – 0. 5
Modulus of elasticity - the initial slope of the curve, related
directly to the strength of the atomic bonds.
• Resilience: The ability of a material to
absorb energy with in elastic limit.
• Measure by the modulus of resilience.
-Which is strain energy per unit volume.
-Stress the material from zero stress to the
yield stress.
• Energy: Force multiplied by the distance
over which it acts.
Modulus of resilience - the area under the linear part of the
curve, measuring the stored elastic energy.
 Toughness
The ability of a material to absorb energy in
the plastic range.
Toughness - The total area under the curve, which measures
the energy absorbed by the specimen in the process of
breaking.
Stress-Strain Curve
 True Stress and True Strain
• True stress, σ, is the load,P, divided by
the instantaneous area of the specimen,
Ai.
• True Strain: Change in gage length with
respect to the instantaneous gage length
over which the change occurs.
• Up to strain where necking begins,
specimen deforms with a constant
volume in gauge section.
• Constant Volume gives: Ao Lo = Ai Li
 True Stress
P Ao Lo
σ = ; Ai =
Ai Li
PLi
σ= ; Assumes constant volume.
Ao Lo
Valid for all strains up to 
P
S= ; point where necking 
Ao
begins.
Li = Lo + ∆L;
.
Li Lo + ∆L
= = (1 + e)
Lo Lo
σ = S (1 + e)
 True Strain:
• True Strain: Change in gage length with
respect to the instantaneous gage length
over which the change occurs.
True strain, ε, is determined from the
rate of change in gauge length with
respect to the instantaneous gauge
length, Li.
 True Strain

dLi
dε =
Li Assumes constant volume.
Valid for all strains up to
 Li 
ε = ln
L  
point where necking begins.
 o
Li = Lo +∆L;
ε = ln(1 +e)
Engineering Vs. True Stress-Strain
Curves
Stress True Stress ­ Strain 
Curve
Fracture

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Engineering  
Stress ­ Strain  
Curve
Fracture

Strain
 Holloman Petch Relation ship
An empirical relationship was proposed by
Holloman in 1945 to describe the shape of the
stress-strain curve.
σ = Kεn
• σ true stress, ε is true strain, K is strength
coefficient, and n is the strain-hardening
exponent.
• Thus, one can obtain n from a log-log plot of σ
versus ε. K is the true stress at ε = 1.0.
• n = 0 for perfectly plastic solids
• n = 1 for perfectly elastic solids
• n = 0.1 – 0.5 for most metals
• c
• IN Stress-Strain Curves
• Plastic deformation is uniform and
permanent between the elastic limit and
the UTS.
• • Plastic deformation becomes non-
uniform once the UTS is exceeded.
• In tension this non-uniform deformation
manifests itself
• as “necking”
 Criterion for necking
Increase in true stress (due to reduction in
cross-sectional area) as the specimen
elongates is more than to load carrying
capacity due to strain hardening.
Criteria for Instability
Rate of Geometrical Softening and
Rate of Work Hardening
 Holloman Petch Relation ship
An empirical relationship was proposed by
Holloman in 1945 to describe the shape of the
stress-strain curve.
σ = Kεn
• σ true stress, ε is true strain, K is strength
coefficient, and n is the strain-hardening
exponent.
• Thus, one can obtain n from a log-log plot of σ
versus ε. K is the true stress at ε = 1.0.
• n = 0 for perfectly plastic solids
• n = 1 for perfectly elastic solids
• n = 0.1 – 0.5 for most metals
• c
• Uniform Plastic Flow
• • The stress-strain curve (i.e., flow curve) in
• the region of uniform plastic deformation
• does not increase proportionally with
• strain. The material is said to work
• harden (or strain harden).
• • An empirical mathematical relationship
• was advanced by Holloman in 1945 to
• describe the shape of the engineering
• stress-strain curve.
• σ = Kεn,
• where is the σ true stress, ε is true strain,
• K is strength coefficient, and n is the
• strain-hardening exponent. Thus, one
• can obtain n from a log-log plot of σ
• versus ε. K is the true stress at ε = 1.0.
Criteria for Necking
0.2 % Offset Yield StrengthOffset Yield Strength

Defining the yield stress as the point separating elastic

from plastic deformation is easier than determining that
point. The elastic portion of the curve is not perfectly
linear, and microscopic amounts of deformation can
occur. As a matter of practical convenience, the yield
strength is determined by constructing a line parallel to
the initial portion of the stress-strain curve but offset by
0.2% from the origin. The intersection of this line and the
measured stress-strain line is used as an approximation of
the material's yield strength, called the 0.2% offset yield.
• Stress-Strain Curves
• • Plastic deformation is uniform and
• permanent between the elastic limit and
• the UTS.
• • Plastic deformation becomes non-uniform
• once the UTS is exceeded. In tension this
• non-uniform deformation manifests itself
• as “necking”
• Uniform plastic strain Non-uniform plastic strain
• L3
• 2
• Page 47
• Uniform Plastic Flow
• • The stress-strain curve (i.e., flow curve) in
• the region of uniform plastic deformation
• does not increase proportionally with
• strain. The material is said to work
• harden (or strain harden).
• • An empirical mathematical relationship
• was advanced by Holloman in 1945 to
• describe the shape of the engineering
• stress-strain curve.
• σ = Kεn,
• where is the σ true stress, ε is true strain,
• K is strength coefficient, and n is the
• strain-hardening exponent. Thus, one
• can obtain n from a log-log plot of σ
• versus ε. K is the true stress at ε = 1.0.
• Page 48
• True strain, ε, is determined from the rate
of change in gauge length with respect to
the instantaneous gauge length, Li.
• Up to strain where necking begins,
specimen deforms with a constant volume
in gauge section.
• Constant Volume gives:
 True Stress
P Ao Lo
σ = ; Ai = Assumes constant volume.
Ai Li
Valid for all strains up to 
PLi point where necking 
σ= ;
Ao Lo
begins;
P Hence, valid for S < Su.
S= ;
Ao Special Case, 
Li = Lo + ∆L; True Fracture Stress:

Li Lo + ∆L Pf
= = (1 + e) σf=
Lo Lo
Af
σ = S (1 + e)
• Stress: The true stress is defined as the ratio of the applied load to the
instantaneous cross-sectional area;

• True stress: can be related to the engineering stress if we assume that there is
no volume change in the specimen. Under this assumption,
•
which leads to
http://ceeweb.egr.duke.edu/~dolbow/TENSILE/tutorial/img11.png
 True Strain
dLi Assumes constant volume.
dε = Valid for all strains up to
Li point where necking begins;
Hence, valid for S < Su.
 Li 
ε = ln  
 Lo 
Special Case, 
Li = Lo + ∆L;
True Fracture Strain:
ε = ln(1 + e)
 Ao 
ε f = ln 
A 
 f
 True Strain:
• True Strain: Change in gage length with
respect to the instantaneous gage length
over which the change occurs.
• εtrue = ln(1 + εe).
• σtrue = (1 + εe)(σe),
0.2 % Offset Yield Strength