Concrete Durability

AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
TOPICS HIGLIGHTED
DEFINITION
CONCRETE: STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS IN TERMS OF DURABILITY
THE MILLION DOLLARS QUESTIONS
METHODS TO PROLONG THE DURABILITY OF THE CONCRETE
COST OF CONCRETE REHABILITATION
PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE
MIDDLE RING ROAD 2 – KEPONG BRIDGE IS FALLING DOWN
ALLOCATION FOR REPAIR WORKS UNDER NINTH MALAYSIA PLAN
ALLOCATION FOR THE MINISTRY OF WORK UNDER NINETH MALAYSIA

PLAN
CONCLUSION
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
DEFINITION
Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering action,

chemical attack and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering
properties. It normally refers to the duration or life span of trouble-free
performance. Different concretes require different degrees of durability
depending on the exposure environment and properties desired. For example,
concrete exposed to tidal seawater will have different requirements than indoor
concrete. There are 2 key factors affecting durability:
a) Permeability
- high permeability will decrease durability
- water/cement ratio less than 0.45 and continuous curing improve durability
b) Ultimate Compressive Strength

- long term strength important for superior durability
Concrete durability will remain durable if
o the cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability

o under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.
o it is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert
o the ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis,
chlorides, sulphates and silt
It is therefore some requirements need to be paid attention on for a durable

concrete structure
Cement content
Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and bleeding.
If cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced
leading to inadequate compaction. However, if water is added to improve
workability, water/cement ratio increases and resulting in highly permeable
material.
Compaction
The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate

compaction. Usually it is being governed by the compaction equipments used,
type of formworks, and density of the steelwork
Curing
It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention

and to ensure hydration process occur completely
Cover
Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes
Permeability
It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that
higher permeability is usually caused by higher porosity .Therefore, a proper
curing, sufficient cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover could
provide a low permeability concrete
CONCRETE: STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS IN TERMS OF DURABILITY
High Humidity and Wind-Driven Rain
Concrete is resistant to wind-driven rain and moist outdoor air in hot and
humid climates because it is impermeable to air infiltration and wind-driven
rain. Moisture that enters a building must come through joints between concrete
elements. Annual inspection and repair of joints will minimize this potential. More
importantly, if moisture does enter through joints, it will not damage the concrete.
Good practice for all types of wall construction is to have permeable materials
that breathe (are allowed to dry) on at least one surface and to not cover
concrete between two impermeable surfaces. Concrete will dry out if not
covered by impermeable treatments.
Ultraviolet Resistance
The ultraviolet portion of solar radiation does not harm concrete. Using colored
pigments in concrete retains the color in concrete long after paints have faded
due to the sun’s effects.
Inedible
Pests and insects cannot destroy concrete because it is inedible. Some softer
materials are inedible but still provide pathways for insects. Due to its hardness,
pests and insects will not bore through concrete. Gaps in exterior insulation to
expose the concrete can provide access for termite inspectors.
Resistance to Freezing and Thawing
The most destructive weathering factor is freezing

and thawing while the concrete is wet, particularly in the
presence of deicing chemicals. Deterioration is caused
by the freezing of water and subsequent expansion
in the paste, the aggregate particles, or both. With
addition of an air entrainment admixture, concrete is
highly resistant to freezing and thawing. During
freezing, the water displaced by ice formation in the
paste is accommodated so that it is not disruptive; the microscopic air bubbles
in the paste provide chambers for the water to enter and thus relieve the
hydraulic pressure generated. Concrete with a low water-cementitious ratio
(0.40 or lower) is more durable than concrete with a high water-cementitious
ratio (0.50 or higher). Air-entrained concrete with a low water-cementitious ratio
will withstand a great number of cycles of freezing and thawing without distress.
Chemical Resistance
Concrete is resistant to most natural environments and many chemicals.

Concrete is virtually the only material used for the construction of wastewater
transportation and treatment facilities because of its ability to resist
corrosion caused by the highly aggressive contaminants in the wastewater
stream as well as the chemicals added to treat these waste products. However
concrete is sometimes exposed to substances that can attack and cause
deterioration. Concrete in chemical manufacturing and storage facilities is
specially prone to chemical attack. The effect of sulfates and chlorides is of them.
Acids attack concrete by dissolving the cement paste and calcareous
aggregates. Surface treatments can be used to keep aggressive substances
from coming in contact with concrete.
Resistance to Sulfate Attack
Excessive amounts of sulfates in soil or water can

attack a concrete that is not properly designed.
Sulfates (for example calcium sulfate, sodium sulfate,
and magnesium sulfate) can attack concrete by reacting
with hydrated compounds in the hardened cement
paste. These reactions can induce sufficient pressure
to cause disintegration of the concrete. Like natural rock such as limestone,
porous concrete (generally with a high water-cementitious ratio) is susceptible
to weathering caused by salt crystallization. Examples of salts known to
cause weathering of concrete include sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate.
Sulfate attack and salt crystallization are most severe at locations where the
concrete is exposed to wetting and drying cycles, than continuously wet
cycles. For the best defense against external sulfate attack, design concrete with
a low water to cementitious material ratio (around 0.40) and use cements
specially formulated for sulfate environments.
Chloride Resistance and Steel Corrosion
Chloride present in plain concrete that does not contain steel

is generally not a durability concern. Concrete protects
embedded steel from corrosion through its highly alkaline
nature. The high pH environment in concrete (usually greater
than 12.5) causes a passive and non-corroding protective
oxide film to form on steel. However, the presence of
chloride ions from deicer or seawater can destroy the film.
Once the chloride corrosion reached its threshold, an electric
cell is formed along the steel or between steel bars and the electrochemical
process begins.
The resistance of concrete to chloride is good; however, for severe environments

such as bridge decks, it can be increase by using a low water-cementitious
ratio (about 0.40), at least seven days of moist curing, and supplementary
cementitious materials such as silica fume, to reduce permeability.
Increasing the concrete cover over the steel also helps slow down the
migration of chlorides. Other methods of reducing steel corrosion include the use
of corrosion inhibiting admixtures, epoxy-coated reinforcing steel, surface
treatments, concrete overlays, and cathodic protection.
Resistance to Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)
ASR is an expansive reaction between reactive

forms of silica in aggregates and potassium and
sodium alkalis, mostly from cement, but also from
aggregates, pozzolans, admixtures, and mixing water.
The reactivity is potentially harmful only when it
produces significant expansion. Indications of the
presence of alkali-aggregate reactivity may be a network
of cracks, closed or spalling joints, or movement of
portions of a structure. ASR can be controlled through
proper aggregate selection and the use of supplementary cementitious
materials (such as fly ash or slag cement) or blended cements proven by testing
to control the reaction.
Abrasion Resistance
Concrete is resistant to the abrasive affects of ordinary

weather. Examples of severe abrasion and erosion are
particles in rapidly moving water, floating ice, and
vehicle’s tires. Abrasion resistance is directly related to
the strength of the concrete. For areas with severe
abrasion, studies show that concrete with compressive
strengths of 12,000 to 19,000 psi work well.
THE MILLION DOLLARS QUESTIONS
Why does concrete crack?
Concrete, like most materials, will shrink slightly when it dries out. Common
shrinkage is about 1/16 of an inch in a 10-foot length of concrete. The reason
contractors place joints in concrete pavements and floors is to allow the
concrete to crack in a neat, straight line at the joint, where concrete cracks due
to shrinkage are expected to occur. Control or construction joints are also placed
in concrete walls and other structures.
Why do concrete surfaces spall?
Concrete spalling (or flaking) can be prevented. It occurs due to one or more of
the following reasons.
1.) In cold climates subjected to freezing and thawing, concrete surfaces

have the potential to spall if the concrete is not air-entrained.
2.) Too much water in the concrete mix will produce a weaker, more
permeable and less durable concrete. The water-cementitious ratio should
be as low as possible (0.45 or less).
3.) Concrete finishing operations should not begin until the water sheen
on the surface and the excess bleed water on the surface has
evaporated. If this excess water is worked into the concrete because
finishing operations have begun too soon, the concrete on the surface will
have too high of a water content and this surface will be weaker and less
durable.
METHODS TO PROLONG THE DURABILITY OF THE CONCRETE
Surface Repair
Repairing the damaged surfaces of concrete can

restore the structural function, protect the surface
itself or the underlying concrete and reinforcement
from aggressive environments, or restore any lost
performance requirements including drainage and
abrasive resistance. All repairs require initial surface
preparation, which might include abrasive or hydro
blasting, chipping, milling, sanding or chemical
treatments. Systems for repairing surfaces include
overlay, resurfacing, formed repairs, hand-toweled
mortars, cast-in-place repairs, shotcrete and, in some
cases, full section replacement.
Waterproofing
Waterproofing techniques prevent water from entering or exiting structures

through cracks, joints or failed water stops. Systems include replacement joints
and sealants, waterproofing membranes and crack grouting
Waterproofing membranes Sealants
Strengthening
Strengthening is the process of adding or restoring capacity to a member or

structure. Techniques include the addition of steel, FRP composite systems,
concrete or other special materials to existing members providing for additional
strength and capacity of the structure
Strengthening with FRP composites Structural support using steel bracing to reduce the span length
Section enlargement
This method of strengthening

involves placing additional
"bonded" reinforced concrete to
an existing structural member in
the form of an overlay or a jacket.
With section enlargement,
columns, beams, slabs and walls
can be enlarged to increase their
load-carrying capacity or
stiffness. A typical enlargement is
approximately 2 to 3 inches for
slabs and 3 to 5 inches for beams and columns. The figure depicts details of a
section enlargement used to increase the capacity of a main. The girder was re-
evaluated because of a change in the required loading and found to be deficient
in flexure and shear. To correct the deficiency, additional flexural and shear steel
were added. The entire beam was then formed and a 4-inch jacket of concrete
was cast to enlarge the section.
External post-tensioning
The external post-tensioning technique has been effectively used to increase

the flexural and shear capacity of both reinforced and prestressed concrete
members since the 1950s. With this type of upgrading, active external forces are
applied to the structural. Because of the minimal additional weight of the repair
system, this technique is effective and economical, and has been employed
with great success to correct excessive deflections and cracking in beams and
slabs, parking structures and cantilevered members. The post-tensioning forces
are delivered by means of standard prestressing tendons or high-strength
steel rods, usually located outside the original section. The tendons are
connected to the structure at anchor points, typically located at the ends of the
member. End-anchors can be made of steel fixtures bolted to the structural
member, or reinforced concrete blocks that are cast in-situ. The desired uplift
force is provided by deviation blocks, fastened at the high or low points of the
structural element.
Example of structure using external prestressing method
Prior to external prestressing, all existing cracks are epoxy-injected and

spalls are patched to ensure prestressing forces are distributed uniformly
across the section of the member. The option of an external post-tensioning
system was more economical, required less time to complete, and allowed for a
strengthening system that provided active forces and therefore was more
compatible with the existing construction. After all cracks were injected, the sides
of the stems were formed and new concrete was cast to restore the integrity of
the stems. The strengthening system was then installed, and after the concrete
cured the external strands were stressed according to the engineer-specified
forces. This structural-strengthening option was fast and effective, saving the
owner a considerable amount in construction and operation costs.
Protection
Protection techniques are designed to extend the life of the structure by

protecting it from the attack of an aggressive environment. Systems are available
in the form of coatings, sealers, membranes, liners, cathodic-protection and
overlays.
COST OF CONCRETE REHABILITATION
An estimated $100–200 million a year is spent in Australia on concrete repair

work. Much of this money is spent on either re-doing poor quality work or re-
visiting sites where repair work has been poorly conceived. In America, over 100
it is estimated that over 500,000,000 cubic yards (cy) of concrete (almost 2
cy/per person) are installed each year to support the America infrastructure
(Table 1). The volume of in-place concrete is estimated at 9 billion cy (32
cy/person). Most of this concrete is older than 20 years. Concrete, even if
exposed to freeze-thaw cycles, carbonation, chlorides, and other aggressive
chemicals, can have a useful life of 30 or more years.
More recent developments in the use of low permeability concrete mixes, proper
use of air-entrainment, epoxy-coated reinforcement, protective coatings, and
corrosion-reducing admixtures have greatly increased the service life of concrete
structures beyond 30 years. But some concrete structures being built today may
require repairs after as few as five years of service because of improperly use of
repair materials are some of the reasons for short service life of structures. More
efficient designs may have a lower tolerance for workmanship and design errors,
and fast-track construction methods may make it more difficult to incorporate the
quality needed for a long service life. As a result, some new structures, in spite of
durability enhancements, undergo early-age deterioration and require repair
(Figure 1).
Table 1 : Historical of America Ready Mixed Concrete Production
It is estimated that the total cost for repair, rehabilitation, strengthening and
protection (including waterproofing) of the concrete structures in the U.S. is $18-
21 billion/year (See Table 1). Assuming there are 9 billion cy of concrete in
these structures, concrete, the annual cost is between $2.00 and $2.33 per cy of
in-place concrete!
FIGURE 1 : ESTIMATED COST FOR REHABILITATION OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN AMERICA
22%
43%
11%
5%
1%
5% 1% TOTAL : 18.5 BILLION US DOLLAR
5% 3% 2% 2%
PIPE & WHARFS LOCKS & DAMS RESIDENTIAL

INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES WATER TREATMENT BUILDINGS
PIPELINE OTHER STRUCTURES PARKING STRUCTURE
ROADWAYS BRIDGES
PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE
Figure 2: Typical repair cost history diagram
Figure 3: Alternate repair cost diagram

The figures above show the graph of the Cost of Concrete Repair Versus
Time. This figure illustrates the three observed phases describing the natural
evolution of the concrete deterioration process and the influence of maintenance
on this process:
Preventive Maintenance Phase:
In this phase, the owner may spend a fixed annual maintenance cost to install
systems such as protective coatings to slow down the deterioration process.
Money spent in this phase will delay the ingress of aggressive materials, thus
Figure 2: Typical repair cost history diagram delaying the start of active
deterioration
Repair Phase:
In this phase, the concrete deterioration has begun, and the repair cost curve
increases exponentially over time. The reason for the rapid increase in cost is
that once aggressive materials that cause deterioration have sufficiently
permeated into the concrete (a process that may take 20 to 30 years), the
deterioration rate is rapid and irreversible.
Replacement Phase:
In this phase, a "wholesale" deterioration occurs throughout the structure at such

a rapid rate that repair costs may exceed the costs of replacing the entire
structure. However, total replacement of the structure may not be an option
because of interruption to the function of the structure.
Incurring additional costs at early years to ensure well-protected concrete

and addressing deterioration problems as soon as they are observed would delay
excessive deterioration and may increase significantly the service life of the
structure, as shown in Figure 3.
MIDDLE RING ROAD 2 – KEPONG BRIDGE IS FALLING DOWN
Major cracking in the Middle Ring Road 2 highway had cause outburst among the
citizens in Kepong. When this matter was highlighted in newspaper, the case was
brought to Parliament for debate. Soon, the Ministry of Work directed a
consultant, Halcrow from United Kingdom to look into the matter. In their report it
had pinpointed that the cracking occurred on the bridge was caused by error
during the design process which had caused D.E.F. (delayed ettringite
formation) in the concrete. DEF is caused by different temperature occurred
inside the concrete. Halcrow proposed a RM 18 million cost for the repair
works on the cracked pier crosshead. In the same time, the government engaged
another expert from Germany, Leonhardt Andre & Friend.
Transverse cracks appear on the crosshead clearly visible
They too submitted a design for repair work that will be done. The total cost for
their method was RM 49.9 million. After reviewing both methods by the Board of
Engineers, Malaysia, the methods from Leonhardt Andre was adopted. The cost
of rehabilitation work will first be borne by the government and the initial
contractors, Konsortium Sukmim-Bumi Hiway and Kontraktor Bumiputera
Wilayah Persekutuan who responsible for the design error will cover the cost at a
later stage. Even though design error is the main culprit for this problem, one
thing to bear in mind is the fact that how concrete durability is being affected
by man-made mistake, which in this case was in the form of delayed
ettringite formation.
External pre-stressing method is being used to repair the crack crosshead
What is Delayed Ettringite Formation?
Generally DEF is seen as a form of internal sulfate attack. A number of factors

such as concrete composition, curing condition and exposure conditions
influence the potential for DEF. DEF is believed to be a result of improper heat
curing of the concrete where the normal ettringite formation is concealed. The
sulfate concentration in the pore liquid is high for an unusually long period of time
in the hardened concrete. Eventually, the sulfate reacts with calcium and
aluminium containing phases of the cement paste. Thus, the cement paste
expands. Due to this expansion, empty cracks (gaps) are formed around
aggregates. The cracks may remain empty or later be partly or even
completely filled with ettringite.
Microscopic appearance
Gaps around aggregate under

green fluorescent light.
ALLOCATION FOR REPAIR WORKS UNDER NINTH MALAYSIA PLAN

ALLOCATION FOR THE MINISTRY OF WORK UNDER NINETH MALAYSIA

PLAN
CONCLUSION
Much is left to be seen that such allocation will be enough to warrant another
major rehabilitation work of current concrete structure in Malaysia. Even though
there is allocation properly prepared, it will normally exceed the budget
considering the fact the hazard of problematic structure posed to the citizens.
Based on this priority, the checkbook needs to be slashed out to tackle the
problem. From what had been discussed, it is noticeable that concrete
durability issue can be prevented by taking the appropriate measures.
However, there are times where even with precaution measure taken, no one
can boldly predict the durability of the structure. Dato' Seri S. Samy Vellu was
quoted explaining the question on the lesson learnt from the Middle Ring Road 2
debacle. He said that in the world there are at least five or six out of thousand
bridges built that faced problem. Sometimes, even though we provide a good
design, we still encounter other factors that can ruin it. Everybody wants a
design without any problem. But that doesn’t happen always.

Concrete Durability

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Concrete Durability

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AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG

CONCRETE: STRENGTH AND WEAKNESS IN TERMS OF DURABILITY

THE MILLION DOLLARS QUESTIONS

METHODS TO PROLONG THE DURABILITY OF THE CONCRETE

COST OF CONCRETE REHABILITATION

PREVENTION IS BETTER THAN CURE

MIDDLE RING ROAD 2 – KEPONG BRIDGE IS FALLING DOWN

ALLOCATION FOR REPAIR WORKS UNDER NINTH MALAYSIA PLAN

ALLOCATION FOR THE MINISTRY OF WORK UNDER NINETH MALAYSIA

Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering action,

b) Ultimate Compressive Strength