noundary -layer Theory

McGRAW-I4ILL SERIES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JACK

r. IIOT,MAN, Southern Methodist University

Co1tsu1lin.g Editor

Dr. HERMANN SCHLICHTING

Profresor J3rncrit.11~ Llrc ICl~gincrrirrgU ~ ~ i v r r ~ i t~. ~ ~ I I I I R ( .O cIrw ~ l~ ~ l, ~ nt, of ~ ~ ~ c nr Forrner 13ircctor of thc Arrodynnrninclre Vcr~rrclrsnnslnlt (:iittirrgc~~
RARRON
ISC:KERT

. Cryogenic S y s t e m
. hzlroduclion lo Heat and M a r Tran.fer AND DRAKE . Ana1y.ri.r of lien1 and Mos,r 7i-nnsfr.r
- Ifen1 attd A4ass 7ian.fer

ECKERT

E C K E K . ~ AND DRAKE

HAM, CRANE, AND RODERS HARTENRERO AND DENAVIT

rrrNzE

. Mechatlies of Machinery
. Kinen~nlicSynlhesis of I,inkages

. Turbulence
. EtlGqineering Vihralior~~

J A c o n s m AND A Y R E

~ ~ v 1 N A l.. Ettgitleering i

Cot1.1idera1iotl.r n/.Ylrc.~r, .ylrci~,ntzd Slretzgth

Dr. J. KESTIN
I'rofe~sor at ljrown Urlivrmity in Providcr~cc., ltliodc Ialand

KAYS . Co~tveclir~e Heal

LICIIIY

and Mass Trcrtzsfir

. (~'o~nbt~slior~ Ettgine' P r o c e ~ ~ e s

M A R ~ N . I-IIEL.AN PIIELAN

K i l ~ ~ t t ~ aand ~ l i c D!jtian~Lsa/ machine.^

. I)!/~lan~ics Machinery qf
. ~ l l ~ l d f l t l l e l lrfl ~ ln/fecharlim/ I)(rrigtl ~,~

RAVEN

. Arrlotnnlic Corrlrol En.gineerirtg

SOHP,N(:K

. 7'hroric.r ?f Ettgitteeri~lgExpcrir~~enlnlio~l
. Iloundary-Imyer Theory

scrrLlcrr.rrNa si~io~.r:.u . srrlnr.Eu srrtol.eu

Dyttamic Analysir of Machines

. Kinenmlic Attaly.ris o f

iffechai~i.snzs

. Mccltnr~icolEr~~gineerir~ Desigrl

New York
Diisselilorf

s ~ l i o r . ~ : .Sin~rrlnliot~ . ~ nf

Mcchnrriral Sy.clcnl.r S~IT)F(:KI;K . R~/j.igrro/inr~ Air (~ondilioni~~g ntld

New Uelhi

- Pa~iarno . Pnri~l . Siio I'nulo .

M c G R A W - H I L L BOOK COMPANY St. Louis . S a n Francisco Auckland BogotL . Johannesburg . London Madrid . Mexico . Montrenl

Singtrporo

Sydnoy

Tokyo

. . Toronto

Con tents
L i ~of 'Tnblcs t
Forc\vortl Alltllor'n I ' r r f n r r t o I.llr Sovclll 11 (I':II~~~P~I) I':[lil.i~ll l'rnnslntor's 1'1~elncot o t l l c Scvcl~t,ll (l211glisl1)ICtliI ion I'ro111 t l r r AIIIII~IV'S I'rcfncc t,o tho I " i ~ s(t( i r r l n n n ) IC(1it.ir111 Introdurtio~l xiii
XV

nvii xix sxi

A.

I'IBII~~;IIII~III~~ lrtws of n ~ o l i a ~ t a visrnrlr fluid for

rqltntiollrr of 111otio11 ntltl r o l ~ I . i l ~ r nl111lic.rl t o l l l ~ i t flon. ~~ty l n. I'IIII~:IIIII~II~~~ I,. (:vllrrnl nlrrss systclr~i t 1 n d r f n r ~ ~ l n hbotlg lr c. 'J'11r r ; ~ t c nl~irll I l ~ t i t r l r l n n l ~ is n t r n i l ~ r t ill I l o ~ v at ; I l t l rl. Ilrl:~t.i~,n I)rt\\nt.n strrsrr ittirl riitv o f ( l r f o r ~ t ~ a t ~ i o ~ ~ r. Slokm'n I ~ y ~ ) o t l i r s i n f. 131111~ viscosit.y n l l d l l ~ r r ~ ~ ~ o c l1)rrsnrlrr ~ ~ ~ i r y~~a g. 'l'lln N:rvior-Stokrs r l r l n t i o n n Iirfrrrt~c~ra

.,his I ~ o o k I w:rs sr.1 ill 1\111irj11n. 'Tllr r t l i t o r war 1'r:llrlc ,I. Crrrri nllrl (lie p r o t l r l r t i o ~ ~ ~ p r r v i s lvns s~ or
,Jolt11 1.' l l : t r l r . 1 1)rincil)lc of s i ~ ~ ~ i l r i r fro111t l l r N:i\~irr.SI.okrs P~IIII~~IIIIR it,y n. I)orivnlion o f I1rynnltl~'o 1). c. rl. c. Frirtiol~lms flow 11s " n o l r ~ l . i o ~ ~ sf" tlrc N~cvics-Stoltcn q c ~ n l i o ~ ~ s o c 'I'llc Nn\,irr-Sto1cc.s eqt~nt,iol~s illt(\rl)rntrd as vort.irit,y lr1111~1)ort I I : I ~ ~ ~ I I R (.~ '1'11<* l i t ~ l i ( , i ~ ~ g o f vrsy Inrgc visvo8it.y ('cry ulnnll ILcynoltls IIIIIII~I(V') cnsc 'I'llr lillliting rnse o f very UIII~III ~ O I I R f o r ~ ( vnr y 111rg12 I < r y ~ ~ o I tIIIIIIII)~~~) V~S ~ r Is I. h I : ~ l l ~ c ~ ~ ~ i:l~ ~i~ s tlr : ~ lo o n. l ~ c l t cn ifI procrsn o f going to I.llr I i l l l i L R -' m 1Zc:fcrrnrex

lpirsl p ~ t l ~ l i s l l rilll 1111. (:rrlll:~n lollgltngc: 1111~lrr < 1.111: fril,lc

"(:llI':N;SSCIIl(~ll'~-~~II1501<I~" ant1

C'olpyrigltt 1951 1j.v (:. Ijra1111 (vnr111.C . I ~ ~ ~ IiI I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I\.vrIag) 'GIIII)~~, C a s~ si r ~ ~ l ~ c l l ~ f l S C l ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ k c ~ r ~ l 11. l r ~ I First. cllgIis11 c ~ l i I i n 1 1s r r o ~ ~b;fIitir)ll o f t11c b r ~ o k ) ~ l h l i s ~ ~ r ~ l ( ci p ill IS155 Srrotitl I C ~ ~ f i l ikCclilir)r~(1701~rl.lr sl~ 1Cclitio11 f I l r r book) p ~ ~ l ) l i s l i~ r d o n 1960 'I'lrirrl I C ~ ~ f i l i s lr l i t i i , ~(Sixl.11 1Crlilir111 f t l ~ n R~ ~ o Imok) p ~ ~ l ~ l i sill r t l l ~ I!)liS

of CIIAPTEII V. Exnct ~olotiona the Nnvier-Stokes e q ~ ~ a t i o n a a. Parallel flow 1. Parnllel flow t l l r o r ~ g n~straight channel and Couetto flow l 2. T h e Hagen-Poise~~ille~ e o r y flow t h r o ~ ~ g hpipe tl of a 3. The flow between two concentric rotnting cylinders 4. The n ~ ~ d d e n accelerated plane wall; Stokes's first problcm ly 5. I'low fornlat,io~r Couet,tc motion in 0. Flow in n pipe, start,ing f r o ~ nrest 7. 'The flow near a11 oscillating flat plate; Stolccs's second problem 8. A genernl class of non-steady solutions b. Other exact solr~t.ions 9. Stngr~ntion plane flow (FIie~nenz in flo~v) 9a. l'n.0-tiin~ensiondIIOII-steady stngnntion flow 10. Stagnntion in three-dimensional flow 11. Flow near a rotating dink 12. k'lo\v in convergent nnd divergent cl~nnnels 1:). C o n c l ~ ~ d i n e ~ n n r k rg Refrr~nces CIIAYL'ER V I . Very slow rnotion n. The d ~ f i r c n t i s leqr~xtions t,he rase of very slow motion for b. I'nrallel flow pnst n sphere c. The I~ydrodynnrnictheory of I~~bricnt,ion d. The llclc-Sllaupflow Rcfcrolrrs
Fort B.
Lnnninnr L o u ~ ~ d a r y lnyers

r th cl~nnnol 11 Flou in t l ~ inlrt I r ~ ~ g of n strnigl~t i. Tllr r n c t l ~ o ~ l finite diflcrcr~crs or j 13orlndory lnycr of second orcler Rcfrrrnrc~s \ l s nolnt,ion of t,l~e'w o - t l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ n i strncly t on:il, l X. ,\l)proxi~nntr ~ n c t l ~ o t lfor t l ~ r l ) c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c I : ~ r ~ .ql ~ i~ n t i n n s y ycr n. ,\l)!)lii.nt,io~lof t l ~ rI I I O I I I ( . I I ~ I I I I I r q ~ ~ n l t.o~ the flow 11:lnL n fI11t 11llbt,e nt m r o i t~ inc~clcnce b. The appr0xi1nat.c methocl d u e to 'TII. vo11 I<&r~n&n I<. Pol~llraosenfor twoand tli~nensionnlflours c. ('o~npnrison bct,\r.cen the npproxin~nt.e ancl exact uolutior~s 1. Flnt plate a t zero incidence 2. T~vo-rli;nensionsI st.agnation flow 3. Flow past n circr~lnr cylintler d. I't~rtl~er rxiirnplcs e. I , I I I I I ~flow with ntlvcrrrc I>rcssItr(a II~~ grr~cliont;~ r ~ ~ : t r n L i o n Ilc~frrr~~rcs C!FI.ZI"I'IPIl XI. Axially s y t n n ~ r l r i r t ~ l tltree-clit~~cr~sic,nnl ntlcl I,o~~n~l:iry layers n. I5x1rct s o l ~ ~ t i o n s 11xi11lly for ~y111111rlrirl11 I)or~n(lnry lnycrs I. I l o t a t i o ~ ~ tllc gror~ntl II(-:I~ 2. 'Tile cirrnl:u. jct 3. 'I'lle nxially s y n ~ n e t r i c \r-nke 4. Ilor~ndt~ry 1nyc.r ~ I nI body of rrvolr~t,ion I). r\plproxi~nntc e ~ l ~ ~ t i o n snxinlly s y r n ~ ~ ~ o tb oc ~ n d n r y ~ ~ c l - a s for ri ~ 11 I. .\pl)roxin~n(c o l ~ ~ t i o n s 0ountl:iry lagers on t~nclics\vhicll d o not rotate s for 2. lilow i r ~the entrnnrc of n pipe 3. Bo~lndnrylayers o n rotating 1)odics of revolut.io~~ c. Ilrl:~tionbct\veen nxinlly uy~n~nctric:nl two-tlirnc~~sionnl nnd bonodnry Inyers; Milnglrr'3 trnnsforn~ntion el. ' ~ l ~ r e c - ~ l i ~ ~ ~ r ~I)o1111(1nry ~ s i e ) ~ ~ n layers l 1. l ' h r I)o~~ntlnry 1:lycr on a yn\vccl cylinder 2. lior~rltlnrylayers on othcr I~odies I<rfrrrnrrs

CHAPTER V l l . l3011ntlary-lnycr eqr~ntion for tuo-dirnrnaionnl inrompre~sible flon; bor~nd:rrylnyer on n plntc n. Ikrivation of bortnclnry-lnyer equations for two-dimensional flow b. Tile scprr:itio~rof a 1)011ndary layer c. i\ renlnrlc on t,l~e ir~tegrntionof t l ~ c bortntlary-layer eqr~ntions d. Skin frir:tinn e. 'Tl~cI)or~nclnrylnycr nlong a flat. plate I. I%or~nclnry Inyer of I~igirerortlor 11 rfrrcnrrs

a. l)ejw~~(lrncc t,l~e of cl~nrc~ct,rrist.ics n 11o1111cl:~ry of lnycr 011 tltc I l c y ~ ~ o l d s ~ ~ n b e r nr b. "Sinlilnr" so111t~ions tile hornrdnry-layer C ~ I I R L ~ O I I ~ of r. 'l'rnnnforn~nt~ion of t.110 bonntlnry-laycr cqontions into t,ho hcnt-condr~ction
CI~II~~,~OII

(1. 'I'l~e~ n o n ~ c n t , nnd n r ~ ~ cnorgy-int.cgrnl o q ~ ~ a t i o n s t,lre l)or~ndnry for laycr I{.clcrcnt.cn 15unrt solr~tionsof the steady-stnk bountlnry-lnyrr rquations in two' 1 1 1 1 1 I tlirnensinnnl n l o t i o ~ ~
t a. I'lo\r pnst a wrdgr b. Flon in n convergent cl~annel c . F l o ~ v~ ) n u t a nylinclcr; nymmet.rical cnso ( B l n s i ~ ~ s series) (I. J301111tlnry lnyer for t.he potentin1 flow given by U ( x ) = Uo e. Flow in the mn.lte of flat, plate a t zero inridcnce 1 'Tlrc t.mo-tlimr~~sio~~nl . lnn~innr jet g. I'arallrl sl.~cnlnu Inminnr llow in

- axn

Ito lnry . I ' l l < I I . 'I'l~rrt~~til ~ ~ ~ ~ tlnycrs in Inn~innrflow ;I. I)l>riv~ltion I llc cnrrgy rquntion of I). ' I ' r ~ ~ ~ l ) c r :i~~crcasc: ~ t ~ ~ r r tllror~gl~ ndinl)nt.ic c o ~ n p r c s s i o n ~ stngnntion t r ~ n p e r n t ~ ~ r e c. 'I'l~c.ory rrf sitnil:~rityin Ireat trnnsrer rl. 1Ssnct s n l ~ ~ t i o n u t l ~ c for problcrn of t c ~ r ~ p e r n t u rlistribrrtion in n \.iscous flow re I . Cot~c.ttrflow flow r n \vill~flat \vnlla 1. I ' ~ ~ i s c ~ ~ ~ i l l t l ~ r o n g l ~rt1:11111rl c. I l o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l : r r y . l ~ ~ y c r sin~l)lifirnt.ions f. (:rnt%rnl11rol)crtics of thertnal b o i r ~ ~ ~ l n r y lnyers fIo\vs I. Fnrcrcl : I I I ( ~I I ~ I ~ I I I . ~ ~ 2. .\<Iit~l):~tic \v:~ll :j. i \ ~ ~ l ~ I)ct\\rr*n I~(-at loq trt111sfern11(1 slcin frict,ion 4. K1fc.r.t Bf I'r:~ncltl nr~rnber g. ' I ' ~ I I . ~ I I I ~ I ~ 11n~111dary lay(.rs in forced (low plntc at, zero incidence I. I';u.;rllc.l Ilo\v 1):rst a flt~t si il:~r of for I)or~ntinrylnyers L .\clrlilio~~;~l~ ~ ~ sol~ltions the cqr~ntions t l ~ c r n ~ n l :I. 'I'l~(.rn~irl 1)o1111d:1ry layers on isothcr~nalbodies of nrbitrnry shape 1. ' I ' I I ~ ~ I I I I I Ibonn(li~rylnyers on \ra11s \vitlr a n arbitrary tcn~perature distril)~~tion 5 . 'l'l~c~~nirl I>nr~nclnry layers on rotatiotrally s y n ~ ~ n e t r an11 rotating botlirs ic 13. . l l r t r s ~ ~ r c ~on rcylinders nntl o t l ~ c r ~ ~r~~t~ body s l ~ a p c s 7. 1Slti-t:t of frcr-strrnn~ ~ ~ r l ) n l c n c e t 11. 'I'l~crn~i~l 1)01111(1:1ry lnyers in r ~ a t r ~ r n l flow l<~~fl~rl~llrl~s

n.. I'l~ysi(~;ilo ~ ~ s i ~ l r r n t r ions Ii. I?rlntion hrl\\.ccn tllr vclocit.y all11 IIlr t r ~ ~ ~ p r r n f rfirltln rrr I. A(li:il)nfi(: \v:ill 2. t l r : ~ tt. r ~ ~ ~ l s(flnt. pl:itr, clpit1.c 0) fcr v. 'l71r ll:it, liInt,r 1x1,zrro i ~ ~ c i t l r t ~ c e (I. I ! O I I I I { ~ 111ycrwit11 11011-zrroprrssllrc grntlicnt :I~~ 1. Exact. s o l ~ ~ t i o n n I. I . 'l'llc L l l i ~ ~ g \ v o r l I ~ - S t c n . n r l s o I I~ S ~ C I ~ I I I : L ~ . ~ ~ I I ~~:~ I I .2. Srlf-si111i1:ir so111Iin11s 2. Ap11roxi111:1to 111rt11o(lu P. 111lrr:i(.lio11 I~c~l,\vr(*t~ \v;ivr n11rl lio1111[1:1ry sl~o(,lc l:iyrr l~~~ll~l~~lll~os

lityer brhillrl n lnovillg ~lorlnnlsllrivlc ~vnvc: 1. 1lo1111dnry 2. Flnt 11loLe nt, m r o ilrcidel~cewith vnrinblc free-8l.rcn1n vclocit.y ntld slrrface tcll~pcrn.t.t~rc l<<~fcrrlll~(~s Pnrl C. Trnnsiliol~ CITA IJ'rl~;lt X Vl. 0rigi11of I . I I ~ I ) I I I ~ I I ~ ;Io n. S ~ I I I ~ c.xl~rrimt.t~lnl r s l ~ l h L r n t ~ ~ i l ~ o ~ ~ II I II I I I ~ I I I I ~1 0 t . ~ ~ r l ) ~ if llor\ v ~ l . r 011 i~OI ~ I. 'I'r1111sitio11 11ipc flow, in 2. 'l'rn11siIi011 i l l 1110 b o ~ ~ ~ ~ liiy(*r 011 n ~ ~ l i Iio(ly dnry ql I). I'ri~~rililen tllc tlleory of st,aliiliLy o r Inll~innrIlo\vs of 1. Introtl~rc~t,ory rotllarka 2. Foundation of tllc ll~etllotlof ~III:LIItlist~crl~anccs 3. 'I'lle Orr-Som~nrrlrltlrql~ntiolr 4. T l ~ o i g c n \ ~ n l ~ ~ o c prol)loln rfrld 5. (:cnrrol propcrbics (II tllr O r r - S o ~ ) ~ r ~ ~ r crl~lnt~ion r . Itcsr~lls tile theory of ntnl)iliL,y nn tllry n p j ~ l yto tllc ~ D I I I I ( ~ I LI~~ y c tri 1 1 i i 1I:1t of Y plat*? a t zero irlcidenco 1. Sollle oltlrr i~lvcst.igntio~~s st.nl)ilit.y inlo 2. (Inlc:~ilnt,io~~bl~c of clarvr of iln~~t.rnl nl.nl)ilit.y 3. I2csr1ll.s for I.lle l l r ~ t llllitn 11. Co111j)%ris011 t,l~rt l ~ r o r y f sliiliilil y \viI,l~ of o rxprri111r111 I. OI(1rr I I I C : ~ ~ I I ~ C I I of Il I~~r ~ ~ ~ ~ s i t , i o i ~ I~ : l)y 2. \'crificnLion o f the I.llrory of nl.;~l)ilit.y r s l i r r i ~ ~ ~ r i ~ t . o. I':Ifict, of osciilntil~gfrre s t r c * n i ~ ~ t,rnnsitioll on f. C ~ I I T I I I ~ I ~ I I ~ rr11111rk I<cferer~ces CIIIZI"TICII XVI I .
n.

: I

I Z o ~ ~ ~ ~ c l : ~ r y c-o~~trc)l 1n111itl:ir - l : ~ y r r ill (Ion.

n. h l r t l ~ o ~of l)o;i~~~I:~ry-l:iyrr ls col~trol I . hl(it,io~~ tllr solid wnll of 2. ~\<-(~c*lrr:~l r t II(* Iio1111(1ary in11 o Inyvr ( l ) l c ~ \ v i ~ ~ g ) 3. SII(*I in11 4. It~jc.(.l of n clilli.rri~t,gns ir111 6 . I'rrvrt~lin11t ~ trnllsit io11 Ijy I I I C j~rovisint~f s ~ ~ i ( n s ~~ n r ~ rIs,. n ~ ~ ~ i11cr0foi1s f o ll lr t~nr I;. ( ' o t ~ l i ~ ~ g I I wnll of I ~ I). l t o ~ ~ ~ ~ ( l ~ ~ r y I-CI~~~ iOj IcI r RI I . 'l'llc~orvl iw~lrc:s~~lln I. I . I ~ ' I I I I I ~ : I I ~ ~CI O ~ II ~~ ~~ ~ O I I R II I .2. 15xnct S O ~ I I ~ ~ O I I S I.:!. , \ l i [ i r o x i ~ ~ ~.:? n r ~ ~ l i o ~ ~ s ~l l 2. l C x ~ i c ~ r i ~ ~ ~ ( ~ ~ oill :s~~l ~ c t i o ~ ~ rrsttlts ~ 2.1. I llrrrasr ill lift. 2.2. I)vl.rrnsc? i l l clrng 111jrr.tiri11 ;I dilli.rc*l~lg;ln ( I < ~ I I : IlIi.o ~ ~ ~ ~ li~yrrn) of ~ (l:~ry c,. I . 'l'lirorrti(~:~lr s ~ i l t s r I. I . '1.111. ~ I I I I ( I ; I I I I ~ I I I : I rq11:1lio113 I l .2. lCs:~vts r ~ I ~ ~ l i c > t ~ n . I .:t, . \ ~ ~ ~ i r ~ i ss oi l~~~ ~ i:o~~l~ n ~t (~ 2. I ~ ~ I ) ~ ~ ~ I I I v I I rrs111ts I:II
I ? l ~ f f ~ l ~ l ~ l l < ~ l ~ ~

Origin of t.r~rl~~rlr~)r.c IT

5.)

on i 15lTrrt cif [irrsnllre r:rclir~~L I.rnnnit.iot~l l I)ortn(lnry I:ylcr ~ I O I I K ~ I I I ( > I I I I I \v:~lls 11. t ) c t r r i ~ ~ i n n t o o t~t~ p o s i t i o ~ ~ thr. ~ , n i l oft i11s1ak1ilil.y ))rcsc:rilirtl Iiocly s l ~ ; i l ~ c il r or ~ Tor c. EITt:rt of suct,ion OII trnl~sitionin :I bor~t~tl:iry layer tl. I':fTc:ct of I)ocly forc:c*s on trnneitiol~ \vnlls I. I!ountl;iry lnyrr on ~ o l ~ v c x (rrnt.rif~rgnlliircrs) 2. The: flow of ~ ~ o n - l l o ~ ~ flr~i[ls ~ ~ m ~ o g r(strnt,ilic:it,ion) nild c:o~nprrssiI)ilit.y c. 14;ITc:cl.s drrr lo 11rt1t.I,r~~llsTt!r I. 1111 rotl~~ct,or,y rr111:trk 2. 'Clle c k c t of l ~ c a t.rn~lnfc:rit1 i ~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ l j r r s s i l i l e t flow :I. 'I'lle elTrct o r col~~llrmsibilil,y f. St:~l~ilil.y :i I ~ o ~ i ~ ~ rInycr ill tllr p r r n r . ~ l cof I l ~ r r . o - ~ l i r i ~ c ~ n s~ o ~ s I tl ~ ~ ~ l ) ; ~ r ~ ~ ~ c ~ of lary ~ i l i ~n collcrlrl ric rot:~t.il~gy l i ~ ~ ( l c r s ~ I . Iiloa. hct\vrcl~ lnyrrs o n rollcn\rc \r:~llu 2. U o ~ t ~ ~ r l n r y :!. Stnl~ililyof t l ~ r c . r - ( l i ~ ~ ~ n ~~~O s Ii IoI ~ ~~I ;IInyrrs I I ( ~ ~I ~ 'I'llr i ~ ~ f l ~of rr o~t ~ pcl r ~0l 1 s r a i ~ ~ i t . i o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1c t ~ I . 111l o t l ~ ~ r l r ~rrll~nrlz r r.y 2. S i ~ ~ g lryli~~(lric-t~l r, 1~011gl111csn rlr111r111~ 3. l ~ i s l ~ r i l i r ~ t r ~ l r011g1111rss 11. Axially s y ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ r IIIo\vsi l ri?: I?vlrrrl~(vi

"
a. 1). c. d. o.

I XI X

'I'l~rorrt.icnln s s n ~ t ~ p l i o ~ ~Illo cnlcul:~t.ion turbr~lct~t for a of flows

Fr~~rtlnn~cnl~al eq11:11io11u I'rn11tl1.l'~ ~ i x i t ~ g - l r ~ ~ f i l l i n t,l~cnry l'nrt,l~cr nssutnl~lio118 t,l~c fnr tnrl)r~lrnt. sl~c~iring nt.r(;ss \'o~i I(krn~h.n'nsin~ilnrilyI~ypotl~mis ITt~ivr~r-x;il velocity-ditllrib~~tion Inwu 1. Voi~I(hr~r~:in's vclocil~y-distril)~~Lio~~ law 2. I'1.;111t11.l'a vcloei1.y-tlinlrib~~t~ion Inw f . IC~crl ~ r clovclo~)rnc~nl. t,l~t:orct.icnl l r of hyl~ot,l~enes Itrfrrc-~~e,rn I'nrl)ulent flow t.l~ror~gh pipru

4. Qundratr~re t,hc cnlcnlntint~of plant t r ~ r b ~ ~ lboundary layrrs for cnt 6. Apl)lic.ation or tho 111rtllo11 0. 1tc111arks tho I)cl~avionrof t l ~ c on tr~rbnlcl~t bo~rndnrylayers in t,lle prcnencc of n prcsarlre gratlicnt 7. l ' ~ ~ r l ) r ~Iro~~ntl:trg l r ~ ~ t . Inyors wit11 snction nnd il~jcctio~i 8. llortnclnry Inyrra on r r ~ ~ ~ ~ l )\vnlls l rrrt , IVI II r. I I I ~ I ) I I I C I I I I ) ; ) I I I I ~ I L I~I ~I ~ ( ' ~ H0 1 1 r~~.rofoil~;~ X ~ I I I I I I lift (1. 'Ll~rc(;.tIin~e~~ni~~~~alI I ~ JI:~ycrs I)~)III L~,~ 1. l301111tl:~ry Inycrs on botlirn or r c v o l ~ ~ t i o l ~ 2. Boundary Iaycrn on rot,nting I)odies 3. Conv~rgcnt a11t1divcrgrnt honr~dnry layers IZcfcrenccu

C!Ni\J"l'EI<

XXIII.

Turbr~lcntI~onndarylayers in cornjlressible flow

(Ill~\Pl'lCI1 XX.

a. E x p r r i ~ ~ ~ c nresillts for 811100th piprs tnl h. J<elntion hetween law of frict,ioll and voloeity distribution c. IInivcrsnl vclocit,y-di~tribut~ion for very large Reynolds numbers Iti~vs d. Ilv~ivr:rsnlresintallre law for slnootl~ pipes a t very Inrge Rcynoltls n ~ l n ~ b e r s c. IJil)cs of IIOII-circ111nr O R S - ~ ( ? C ~ ~ O ~ ~ CP I. I{ongl~~tipcmnntl cclnivnlc~~t. r o ~ ~ g l ~ ~ ~ e s s . st~ntl g. O l l ~ r r Iyl)cx of r o ~ ~ g l ~ ~ ~ r s e 11. 1"low in r i ~ r v c ~ l pipes and tliffi~scrs i. No11-slrt~rly flow 1t.1ro11gl1 pipc R j. l)r:~g . ~ ( I I I P ~ ~ ( IlI ~ y n~lclit,ion 110ly111t:rs I I t,l~c of I<rfrrcnc,vs (Illt1l'~l'lSlt XXl. ' l ' r ~ r h ~ ~ l rl)on~rclnry layrrn nt zero prcsnnre grntlier~t,;flat plate; nt rotnl.ing clink; r011~11ncss n. 'l'l~cs111oo1l1 plntc flnt I. J<rnista~~re fortn~~ln rlcdncetl f r o r ~ ~ '/7.th-po\vcr velority-Clint,ril)~~tion the law 2. Ilminl.:~nccfor~nr~ln tlodr~cetlfron~the lngorithlnic velocity-tlistribt~tiot, law 3. Iprtr!11rr r e f i n e ~ n c ~ ~ t s 4. 151l'cc~t finilc clin~ensiot~s; of borrnrlnry 1:iyers in rorncrs 5. 1lor111cl:rry Inye:rn \vit,h unct.ion rit~tlI)lowi~~g 1). 'l'hc re~tnl disk ing I. 'I'l~c"free" clink 2. '1'11~ (lid< in a. I~ortsing (,. l ' l ~ rr r ~ ~ r ~llntc gl~ I . l'llr rrsistn~~ce~ r ~ n t ~ l i \a n ~ ~ i f o r t ~rong11 plntc li for ily 2. h l r : ~ s r ~ r . c ~ on sil~glcrongl~ncsn0~rll1c11ts ~~r~~l.n 3. '1'1.n11sit fro111a n l ~ ~ o oto ~i rongl~ I I ~ ~ ~ L C O ion tl t R (I. t1rl111issiI1lc rt~r~gl~ness I<t*frrrc*nr~c.s
I

a. Getlernl rrnlarks 1. Tnrbr~lrntl ~ r a transfrr t 2. The fr~t~dan~elltal equntiotls for coinpressible flow 3. Relation betxreen the exchange coefficient,s for r n o ~ n e n t ~ ~ ~ n and heat b. Relation between velocity a~itl trlnperatnro distrit)ntion 1. The trnnsfcr of l~cnt fro~nn llaL plate 2. T l ~ c tmnsfer of hrnt fro111rough surfnces. 3. 'I'crl~peratured i s t r i b t ~ t i o ~ ~ in rornpressiblc flow c. Inflllence of Mach nunibrr; Iaxrs of friction I. Tllc flat plate a t zero incitlence 2. Variable pressure References CITAPTER XXIV. Free t , ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l e n t jcta ant1 \\,akcs flows;

a. O c ~ ~ e r rcrnnrks al b. Estirnation of the increase in width and of the decrease in velocity r. lcxlll1lples I. The smnothing out of a velocity discontinuity 2. Free jet boundary 3. Txro-tlin~ensio~~d behind n single body wake 4. The wake behind a row of bars 6. The two-di~nrnnional jet 6 . The circnlar jet 7. The two-di~nensional wall jet d. l>iff~~uion temperatrlre in free tnrbulont flow of ltcferencro

('1lAl"l'lClt XXI I. 'I'l~ri n r o n ~ ~ ~ r c n ~ti ~ l~ : h n ll r ~ o n d a i layer !vil.l~preqsurc gratlicnt h rr ~o ~ t .~

'

XXV. T)ctcr~nination profile drag of Ger~rr~il rcn~arlts Tl~e cxperiniontnl rnethotl t111et,o I3etn The experitncnlal niethod d r ~ c .Joneu to Calcr~lntionof profile drag 1,osscu in t.he flow tl~rotlglicascatles 1. General rernarku 2. lnfl~lenceof R.eynolds number 3. Effect of Mach nurr~bor Referc~~cea Bibliography
CHA1'TI':JZ a. b. c. d. c.

a. S o n ~ c ~ x ~ ~ r r i t ~ ~ r n l o l r rrsr~ll,s I). 'I'l~cc.iiIr~~ln of t \yo-tlin~rr~siotrnl~ r l ) ~ ~ l honl~dnry10 yrrs (.ion Ir t*nt I. (:r~~c.r:~l rcn~nrks 2. ' I ' I ~ I I I ~ I ( ( ~ I I I I ~ ~ i111rgr:11111c1l1c~l ~~II.'~ 3. 1l:lsit. (\c1111rl ~ ~ n in

Index of Anthon~
Srtbjcct Index Abbreviatioris List of most colntnonly uucd sy~nbols

'l':~I)lf~: Visrt~siIyvo~lvt.rsir>~l I,I f:~ctors

I( ir ' l : ~ I l c I.2: I)+.t~sify.vis(.osily. IIII~I i t l r ~ ~ l i l t\,is(.osiIj n f
l ) ~ . K l 1lt.P l

\ \ : ~ l f ' t:III(~t i t . . i

ill 1vr111s 01'

1~111-

'I':IIII~ I.:&:I<~III~III:I~ ic, vist,osiIy

,.:IIIIV 2.1 : 'I'l~i(.I(l~vsnf I l o t ~ l l f l i ~ r y o l:~,y(*r,h. I

ill 1):1t.alIt.l III~I>III~~III. lIo\v

:II Ivililil~p ~ I p ( o r Il:ll ~ ) l : l l v xrsro ~ I I ( . ~ U ~ ( ' I I I . ~ ' t ? :I(.

'I'nI)lc

5.1 : F~IIC~~OIIR i n IIIC orr11rri11g 8ol11lio11 f ~I:III~* i : ~ l l y o :III(~ x n ny111111c~lrir~:11 i l l 1 l11)\\ atngnntinl~p o i ~ ~I t l.n ~ l rcnnc fro111 I,. I l o n . : ~ r t l(~ ' 141; : ~ x i : ~ l lf y y l ~ ~ l ~ ~ ( * t r i r ; ~ l i r :ISP fro111 N. l ~ r r ) ( - s s l i ~ ~ g IS]

'I':~l)lo 5.2: \':111t(;s of Ill(:f1111r.1.in11s II(Y>IICII ( I v s r r i p l i o t ~ I I Illo\v of :I (lisl< 1,01:1tit1g for Ill(* of ~ ill :t l l t t i ( l t11 r ~ ~ n l , ~YII(~III:II~II ~\v:III :IIICI :I I I I ~ ~ C * 111, 1 . 1 1 $11 fIis1:111rvft.o111 1111. \ t : ~ l l , :IS ~III~III:II~I I$. hl. Sl~:trro\vIIIIII -1. I,. (:~,(%gg 11y [:I21

'l':~l)lc.

7. 1 : 'l'llr f t t ~ ~ ~ . l /(I/) l f~ ~ t,l~(.l ) o ~ t t ~ f l : ~ r y ill0112n 1I:1l ~ ~ l : ~ l :tI. ./.(TO~II(.~I~I~II(.I-. ic> r l:~y(>r c% r t 4 > ~ III)\\.:I~I II 1 I(;] I,.
it

' I ' : ~ l ~ l c . 10.1: I<(:sII~~s o f t111: (::II('III:II~~oIIIll(> of 1101111f1:1ry l:ly(.r for ritlr~lcv 11:1sf~11 1 nl)l)roxi~ll:~I(* 0 I11r11ry

Il:tt. jil:ll(* ill

~,I,~II

ill-

'I'lrl~l(! 10.2: Altxililrry ~IIII~~~IIIIR for 01t. :II)JII.~X~~II:I~~ (.III(.III:II~OII IIIIII~II:I~ of I)OIIIII~III.~ l:~yf>rn, nl'lrr llr)ls1ci11:LIICI l&ol11(!11 151 'I'nl)lv 10.:): ( l o ~ ~ ~ p : ~ roi fr ? o ~ ~ : t t ~ r l nl)l~roxitt~:tI.c : l l ~ l mo f IIIV I ~ o ~ t ~ ~ c l : ~ r y11:1vx- ( ~ r ~.xnc:l, v -l:~y ~llc.lr.rn for lllr c.:~sco f I ~ \ r o - t l i t ~ ~ c ~ ~ ~Rn iRo tI ~: Ii~ ~ ( I I I110\v ~ ~ I tl

,. 1 1 . 1 : l:iI111:

'1'11~ f t ~ l ~ c l i ofor~ 1,Ilc v(;l~>rity( l i s l r i l ~ ~ ~ for ~ i r;lst- r ~ ro1:1li011OVIT ~ s l i o IIIP f s1:1lio1i:1ry \v:lll, : l l l r r .J. I{.N y f l : ~ l l~ l l t t l H

:I

'l':~l)lc 12. I : I'li,ysir:tl ~~IISI:IIIIS 'I':~l)lc 12.2: l > i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ s c o ~ ~l li r srs o~ t l~c:il,l t . : ~ ~ ~ s f t,il,: I , ( l i ~ ~ t ( ~ : ~ s i oa ( ~ :l ~~)s~ l , i r i o f i ~ f . -r, I I I ~ li r l : s \v:LII IcIII~~-~:I~II~P. ~ I I ~ I ~fro111(>~IIIS. ~ , 1). for n II;LI,: ~ l c111.zrro pl I ( ~ I I V (12.70) :IIICI ( l2.7!i) 'I':IIIIV 12.3: ' l ' l ~ e(-OIISI;IIII,ill t11c C-(~II:I~~OII for Ill(* ,I V;II~~III;II,~~II IIlf-! ( > ~ - f l i ( . io f* ~ ~ l 01' ( ~ lt(::~l, t t , ; ~ ~ ~ sifn rt,l~c~ ~ f ~ i g l ~ l ) n r)f ~ rstng11:1t,io11 o i r ~ l ,:~flc-r I&. c ~ 11 l ~ o o ~ l p 11. SIIII~~(- : { l 1 ll

'I'JIIIIP 12.4: NIIIII(~~~~~:II \YIIII(>Sf l l ~f1111clir>11 4 ) o r If(

'I':tl~lc 12.5: \ ' i l l ~ ~ ro f (,Ire f ~ l t l r t i F ( ~ ) f ~ frl ~rr ~ l ( * ~ ~ l n t in ~ ~ n ~lx : o f n IIIV~III:II o ~ t ~ ~ ( l1i1yr:r I) :~ry OII :L 11o11isoIlivr111:11 \\-:~ll; r r1). 1%. p : ~ l ( I i l ~ g :~fl S 11201 'I'nl~lf! l2.G: Cof;ffivit-~~ls f IIC:II,a ~ ~ s f ( -t ri o l,r n (I;IIII~II:I~), n ( ! r ( ~ r d i ~ ~ g 1.0 rt-k. [!):{,
:t

.I.a l ~ l t ?13. I

l~r:tl(~l ic:~IIII:IIC vcri !)4. [I)!). 121;)

ill

11:tI

IIKII ~ Y ) I I Y1V ~ I ir1 i

: 'I'l~c f ! ~ n r I , i oF'(,Y) ~~

.I.~ i l ~ 14.1: lo

fnr t11c jlrrssllrr ~ l i n l r i l ~ ~ ~ l , i n ~ ~II:II III:IIA~ I,II(: :IIOII~ tt in tlcigl10~111rI1norlf a nliot-lc \ ~ n \ ~ill tt(~~or(1:111(~ N~IIR. (l:!.S!)) :IIIII (l:l.!lO), o (~. \vit,l~ n f l r r N. (:III.IC 1241
t111* l ) i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s)io ~ ~ ~ ~l c l.r sv , v - l ~ rl y ci~~ ~ I 01~ntld ~s11:111(- f:~(.Ior r\l/rlq I r)~~ ( r s . ~ r ~ ~( sn volo(:ity ~)rolil(:aill t.11~ inil.i;ll 1(.11gl.l1on ; Ilnt. p1:ilc. :LO zrrn iltrirlv~~rc. I nil11 rltlifornl sllction, :tlcr It. Iglisr~li [401

~f1~~vc.lrllgt,Il:tnd frrqllcr1c.v P,dr/~l, of 11rlll.rnl ,\(?I rli~111rbnnr:rater111s the ill of I<c:y~~olcln~ r ~ ~ r ~Tor t.iro bo1111c1:rry t R l~rr l:rycr O I I rr Ilnl. ~rlst,c 7 . ~ ~ 0 nt. i~rritlrrlce ( Ill:tniurt ~rrolilc.). 'I'l~rory nflcr W. 'l'oll111ir11 I!)!)]; nr~rn~.ricnl cnlc.~~lnt.iona by I<.. .lorclirino~r1471 n ~ r t l1). It. I l o i ~ s l o ~ ~ . T r pnrnllcl flow. See Figs. I6.LO bot.Ir o allti 16.I 1 'I'i~blr17.1 : I)cl~c~~rclcnrc of rrilirr~lRcyriolcln I I I I I I I ~ I ~of~ vnlocil.y yrofilc~nu.iLI1 n~lotioll : on di~r~c~~~~io~iIcs$ nl~ctioir vo111ri10f : t ( . I ~ r :~.fter E, Ulriclr [24:1J 'T:ll,le 20.1: I<:~t.io Inearl to 1nnxi111u111 of vc10t.it.y i l l pipe lir,w in t,ert~rs tho expotle~~t of n of t,Ilc vclocity cliatribution, according to eqri. (20.fi) l':il)lc 20.2: (:c~rffirient, rmintnnre for ~1110otli of pi1)en i n terms of t,l~r I~eyt~olds rll111111er 'I':tldr 21.1: T<c.sist.nncefornrulri for fl;it p1ot.c corrrpr~ted frotn llrc lognrit,l~mic volority ~wofilc eclns. (21.14) nrrtl (21.15) in 'I':~l>lo 21.2: ~ ~ r l ~ ~ l i ~ s i h l e prot,r~hcrn~~cra height, of i n t.ertiis of lhe Rcy~loltls nr~rnhcr 'l':kl~lr21.3: ICx:~rr~plrs tlrc a ~ l r ~ ~ l : ~ofi o n on l ntlrrri.wiblc ro~rgl~r~cas Fig. 21.16 fro111 'Ti~l~lc : S~~nl~n:try qr~n~~t,it.ies i c l ~ 22.1 of the w l ~ occrtr i r ~ t.hc eqnnt.iona for t.lre cnlcnlnt.ion of I,IIc tlirncnsionlraa rnomrnl,~~nl t.l~irknons, of tlio di~nensionlens Rz, energy t~l~irlrrirrtn, a n d of the nlinpr fnr1,or; sre rqns. (22.1ln. 5 ) Rn, 'rnblr 22.2: Sr11t1111nry n~r~rroricnl nf cotist,a~~ts orcur irr t,l~c Ll~nt explicit cq~lnt,ionn 1,110 Tor cnlnc~lntion r n o ~ n c r ~nr~rl r ~ ~ t,l~icknc*s; cqna. (22.lli), (22.17),nntl of l ~ ~ctlrrgy Rrc (22.I!)) 'I':~lilr23.1 : The constaots 11 nrld b for the c:~,lrr~lntion tho rocfficicnt, of lient trntrafcr of fro111cqn. (23.20) nnct of t l ~ c rcco\,ery. fnct,or fror~~ (2:{.27), nft.cr H. Itcieqn. clinrdt. 1731 and J.C. 1l.ottn 1811 , Inl~lr 24.1: I'oI\-c.r 1i~1r.n for 1.11c. inc:rr:~qcin ~\.idtIi :lntl for t.lie decrenac in tllc cc?~itrc-line vrlorit,y in trrtiln of tlist.nnce 3: for proI)lr~rla frre t~trl)r~lrnt of flow
:

'I'r~lpleI1i.l

Foreword
'1'0
t h e F i r s t E n g l i s h Eclitiotr

13oiriitlnry~lngcrt.ltcory is tho cornerst.onc of our knowledgc of the flow of air :mtl ot,lrt>rfllritls of small viscosit,y under circttn~stancc?~interest in many et)gincrrof ir~g nl)l~lir:~l.ions.l ~ u s T many complex problems in serodynamics have been rlnrifictl by a st.r~tly tllc flow wit,I~in of the bortntlary layer and its effect on the gcncral flow nrou~ttl t,lrc body. Srtch prol)lcn~sinclutle t,llc variations of minimum drag antl maxinlriin lift of airplane wings with Reynolds number, wind-tunnel t,r~r\,~tlener, ; L I I ~ Io(.li~;r pnrnmctcrs. Even in Lho~c cascs wltcrc (I complete mat~hernnt,iralnnnlysis is at. ~wrsc:nt~ i~iipt~arlicrtblc, I~ortrrrlnry-laycr t,lic concrpt, 11as been cxt.morcliri:~rily fr11ilF111 ~ t s r f r ~ l . nt~tl 'rlto tlevclopn~ctlt boundnry-layer tlteory during its first fift,y ycars is a fasof c,i~~nl,ing illt~st,mt,ion t,hc birth of a new concept,, its slow growth for many ycn.rs of in tlrc hntltls of its creator and Itis nssociat.es, its bclated acceptance by otllers, and t,llc sr~I)srq~ict~t, almost expotlctrt.inl rise in the n u ~ n b e r cont.ribut,ors t,o it.% of furtller devclopnrcnt. Tl~c first decade following the classical paper of Pranclt,l in 1904 brougllt forL1r f w c r t.lln.1110 papers by Pmtrtlt,l anti his st~idents,a rate of a b o t ~ t ono pn.pcr per ycn.r. I)r~rit~g pnsL yr:w ovrr 100 p:tpcrs were prtblisltcd on various XSI)CC~,S of Llic bor~rt(l:~.ry-ln~~cr and rcl:~tctl nxpcrirncnl.s. l ? l ~ e t,hcory nn.me of 11. S(.lrlicllt.ing first. nppc:Lrs in 1930 with his iloct,oral t,hesis on tile subject of wake flow. Short,ly thercnft,cr Sclllicht,ing rlcuot,ed major effort t o t,l~c problcm of t h e stability of Intni~lnr I~onntlxry-layer flow.

Rly O I V ~interest it1 !,tic cxpcrinretltal aspcct.~ boundary-layer flow begnn in of laltc l:~l,c t.wcnl,ics. Wiblt t,ltc n.pl)onr;cncc of Scltlicltl,ing's pnpcrs it~f.cnsivc trl,!~r~rr~l~l.s were ~nntle find Lhc amplifictl tlisturbarlccs prctlict,cd by t h e theory. I'or 10 yc:Lrs t.o tJic cxprrirnc!nl.al rcsrllt,s not only failctl t o conlirm t,liin t,ltrory I)ltt s~rj)[~~rI.(!ci 1.Itc idea tllnt t,r:rnsition reslrlt,etl from t,ltc presence of trrrbrtlcncc in the I'rcc air sl.rc::~rn as described in n theory set forlh by G. I. Taylor. Then on a well-rrmctnherctl d a y in Augi~st,1940, thc predicted waves were seen in t h e flow near a flat plnt,c in a wind turlrlcl of very low turbulence, The theory of stability described in t,llc pnpcrs of Tollrnien and Scl~liclrting was soon corrfimedquantitativelyaswellasr~ltalit~~t~iv~~ German periodicals available in the United States after the war refcrred t o a series of lectures by Sctllichting on boundary-layer theory whicli had been p~lblished i n 1942. This document of 279 pages with 116 figures was not available for some time. An English translation was given Limited distribution as NACA Technical Memorandum No. 1217 in 1949. These lectures were completely rewritten t o include material previously classified, confidential, or secret from Germany and other countries.

xvi

I'orcworcI

T l ~ rcs~lltwas t . 1 1 ~ c l)onlr c ~ 483 pages nntl 206 figr~ros r publisl~ctl 1061 in the Gcrrnnrr in Iangrtagn. \Vhcn t,llis boolr bccn.mc Icnowrr t,o rcscarcll workers anti ed~lcntorsit1 t,llc Unit,oti St.ntcs, t.l~cro was nn inunctliat.c request fronl srvc~ral quarters for nn ICnglisl~t.mnslat.ion, sinro no rnrnpar:~blc book was avnilnhlc in t,ltc 1Snglisl1 Iatlg~lngr. 'I'l~ctcc:l~t~ical content. of t,llc? present. I':t~glisIretlit.io~tis dcscril)ctl i n t,l~c r ~ t ~ l ~ o r ' s n prcf:~c.e.'l'l~cc~npl~:lsis 0 1 1 t,l~o is ftlntl;rmc~l~l;rl pllysiral itlr:~srntd~c.r~,II:LII on ~ n n t l ~ c ~ r l : l t . i c . : ~ l rc~finrlnrllt,. RIt:t.l~otlsof t,Ileorc:t,icnl n l ~ : r l ~ s i s sot fort41 along wil.11 s11c:l1 qrc c~xl~~rirnont~al as arc ~tert.in(-tlt (Icfinc 1.11~regions of applic:tbilit,y of 1I1o tln.t,n t,n I~llc~orc:l~icnl rcslllt.s or t.n givr: 1i11ysic:rl it~sifillt, ~ ~ tt011: p11~:11orncnn. i ,o Ac.rot~nrtt.icnl cngirlrc:rs ant1 rcscnrcl~ sc:irr~t.istsowc debt of g r n l i t ~ ~ t lto o 1'1xd'rssor Sc:lilicl~t.ing t,liis t,irnolg review of l.hc 1)rc.scrlt stat,c of I)nr~trtlnry-lnycr for t.lleory. \Vnsl~ingtot~ C., 1)corinl)cr 1064 I). I l u g l ~I,. I ) r y t l r n

Author's Preface to the Seve~itl~ (E~lglish) d i t i o ~ ~ E

'rhe sixth (ISnglisll) r:tlif,ion of t,l~is I)oo:c ct,pl)rnrctl it1 I!)C,8; it tlin'cl~rtlvrvy litl.le from thn fifth (Gcrlnan) ctlition of I!)FB. T l ~ o first) ((!rrmn,rl) rtlit,ion of t01is I~oolcurns pt~l)lishctIin 1051. 111 t.11~ (itne i~tt~crvnl 1)ctwccn l!)BI ant1 l!)fIR nn l<ilgli~l~ t!clit.ion nl ways litllowocl n Gc.r.rrr:~n rclition. 1\11 Lri~t~rrli~Lior~a L)t!(,ri p r c p ~ ~ t ~ x l1 ' 1 ~ o f i ~ s ~ o ~ Itnvc by 1Ccst,ir1in nri n.rcon~plislrctl fnsl~ion. Whcrr J decided in 1075 t o writ,c a new rclit,ion of t.11i.qboolc I cnmc t,o t,llc conclusion t.l~nt, prc!crtli~~g t.l~o st:clncnrc of a (1c.rtnnn rdit,ioll follo\vc:tl I)y nn 1Snglisl1c:clit.iotl was n o longrr ~trn.c:tic:nltlc. rcnsotl for it wn.8 lllc 11cnvilyinc:ronscvl cost, of ~)l.int,ing. 'I'l~c Conscqncntly, I suggrst.c-cl 1.0 the bwo pr~blishing cotnlm~lics,(. llrnrlr~in I<nrlsl~rll~c : and McCrn\v-llill in New York, to protlrlcc n ncw otlit.ion only in tSlrcEnglisl~ Iangrtage. I express my t.llnnks t,o I)ot.l~I'u1)lislrers for their ronscnt,. As in t,l~c ) r c v i o rrtlit,ions, 1 nt.t,onrl)t~rtl tirrle also t.11sclcot for inc*l~~siotr ~ ~~s t.his 1.110 n~ost, ~ n ~ ) o r t ~ co~~t,ril)rrt~ictr~s among t,l~c i :~nt, from nl)r~n~I:tnt~ t,l~n.t, t:rol) n,pl~r:~t.(~(l i l l l,ltc ~ncnnt~iitlc t,llc licltl of bountlnry-layc:r t.l~c,ory, in wit.lror~t., I~owcvcr, nlt.c~.ing. l ~ o t I):lsic st,rrrctnre of nly I)oolr. I 11ol)c t.llat t,hn principal t,l~rnst t,l~e of boolc rcmni~lrtlint.net,, nnmcly t,he int,rnt. t.o rnll~lrnsizeant1 t,o present t,llcorrt,ic*alconsidrrations in a, for111 acccssil)lc t,o c.nginecrs. Tllc sr~btliLisionof tile 1)oolz into fotlr parts ( I ~ ~ l n t i a r n c n t , ~ l of ~tiot,ion n laws of viscous fluid; 1,atninn.r houndnry layers; Trnnsit,ion; 'I'r~rbr~lent Itountlary 1;~yt.r~) lras ltorn ret,airlrrl. Concerning ttlr rcrlrlilio~rsI win11 to mcnt,ion a few. Owing 1.0 t.11~ atlvrnt, c~flarge rlcclronic compr~t,r:rsit. I~ccatriepossil)lc t>otn.clclc Inany ~ ) ~ . o l ) l ~ - t r ~ s t.1lnt wr1.r c:or~sitlerccttrnsolvnble in tho past,. T l ~ c s e inclrttlc rlr~lncric:n.l solr~t~ions 1.111: of Navier-St,okes cqr~at~ions moderately large Reynol(ls numbers (Chap. IV), nnrnofor rical integration of tho boundary-layer eqr~nt~ions laminar nntl turbulrnt flows for (Cl~np.ZX),a8 well RS t , l ~ e expLicit n~unerienl int.rgr:~t.ionof tllc O r r - S o ~ l ~ ~ t ~ ~ l . r ~ l t equation of t.lle theory of stability of laminar bor~ntlarylnyrrs (Cl)ap. XVI). Another sultjcct newly t,nlcrn into nccorlnt nrc cxnct sol~rt~iolls tlle Nnvier-St,olccla of cqu:~t,ions tlrc t~on-st.c;~tly for st,ngr~nlion flow (Cl~np. ~<II(:tltcory of t.111. I : I I I I ~ I I : ~ . ~ V), Itonr1t1nt.ylngcr o f scrontl ortlor (C)hnp. V I I nntl LX). 7'110scc:tions o n l,I~t: (::~lrril:~I 01 io11 two-tlinletlsion:~I,inconiprrssiblc, t,urbrllcnt boundary Inycrs (C1in.p. S X I I), on t l ~ c st,abilit,y of Inn~inarboundary layers wit.11 compressibility anti heat-t,rnnsfc~r c:flccl.s (See. X V l I e ) , :lntl on losses in nnscn.tle llo\r,s (C:l~np. X X\') Ilavc: bee-n c*o!~~l~lrtcly revised.

xviii

Ar~t,l~or's Prefncr

t.o tho

Scvent.ll (Etiglisl~) Er1it.ion

Transliltor's Preface to the Seventh (English) Edition

The present is the fourth edition in the English language of Professor IT. Scliliohting's "Gren7,schiclit-Theorie". Once again, the new edition was prepared in c l o ~ c cooprrnt,ion wit,l~ t,hc Autthor whoni J visit,rtl acvcral t,irnc%s (.hct,t.ingen to finnlizo in tho content,^ and blle wording. I wish t.o t,lrnnlr I'rofcssoi. St:ltIiclit.ing for his I~ospit.nlit.y ant1 M ~ R s ~ R . McGrnw-Ilill for pnrt,inl financial nssistnnc:e in conncxion wit.11t.hc:sc trips. This time there was no German print,ed editmion and t,lre modifications int,rodt~crtl by the author were transmitted directly t o me.

Along with t.liis ncur mat,erinl, I feel t,hat I ought, t o niention the topics which I spcoifioally omit,t,ctl l,o inclrtde. I d o not, rliscrlss t,he effect of chemieal reactions on flow processes in bountlary laycrs a s they occur in the presence of hypersonic flow. The sarnc npplios t.o I)onndnry Inycrs in rna.gncto-fl~~itl-tlytin~~tics, low-dcnsitty flows ant1 Rows of non-Nowt,oni:~n fluids. I still t.Ironght t,liat T ought t o refraiti from giving a.n rxposit,ion of t,lir st,at,ist,icalt,l~eorjr t,ttrl)~~lenrc t,his etlit,ion, as in t,hc prcvio~ls of in OIICR, I ) r r n ~ ~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ tt.11crcarc a\.nilnblc otlrcr, good prcscnt,nt.iorls in I,oolr form. si lnys Once again, t,I~c lists of refcrenccs have bcen expanclcd considcrahly in many rhal~t,crs. tiurnl~cr illust,rations increasctl by about G5, hut 20 oltl ones have been The of omit,t.erl; the number of pages increased hy about 70. I n spite of t,his, I hope t.hat t,he original character of t,liis book has becn retained, and t h a t it, strill can provide the reader wit,l~ bird'.?-e?/eview of t~liisimportant branch of the physics of fluids. a As I worltrd on the new manuscript I once more enjoyctl t,hc vigorous assistance that I rcccivetl from scvrral of my professional collcagues. Professor K. Gersten cont.tihutctl sect,ions on boundary layers of second orrlcr t,o the part on laminar bollndary lnycrs (Seas. VIIf ant1 I X j ) . This is a special field which lie successf~~lly worked out in recent ycnrs. l'rofcssor T. K. Fnnneloep contributed the completely reformulated sc-ct.ion on the numerical inkgration of t,hc boundary-layer erlt~at~ions included in See. I X i . In t.hc part on turbulent boundary layers, Professor E. Truckenbrodt provitlcrl me witall a new version of the largest portion of Chapter X X I I on twodimensional and rotfationally symmetric I~oundarylayers Dr. 1,. M. Mack of the California Institute of Technology was good enough to contribute a new section on t h e stability of boundary layers in supersonic flow, Sec. X V I l e . Dr. J. C. R o t t a tliorougl~ly reviewed P a r t I) on turbulent boundary layers and made many additions to it*.For the Russian litcrxtnre I rccrivstl nlurll help from Professor Milthailov. Tlie translation was once again cnt,rustctl t o Professor J. Kestin's cornpetrent pen I express my sincerc tlinnlts l o all tliose gcnt,lcmen for thcir valuable cooperation.

I owe a debt of gratitude t o Profcssor 11. E. Khalifa for his help in t.he task of proof-reading. My wife, Alicin, prepared the authors' and the subject. inclcxes ant1 compet,ently t,yped tellem under difficult circumstances. My secretary, Mrs. Giarin in Providence, and Mrs. Icreibohm in Gocttingen expertly typcd tlrc manuscript; 1 express t o them my sincere thanks for their paticncc. Both pultlishcrs, Mcssrs. G. Braun of ICarlsruhe and Messrs. McGraw-Hill of New York, spared no trouble, as on past occasions, in meeting our wishcs regnrding the protluction of tlic boolr.
Providence, Rliode Island, Augilst 1078

,J. I<estiri

I sliould also like t o rcpcat my acltnowlcdgemcnt of tlrc hclp I rcceived from scvernl professional friends whcn I worltcd on the fifth (German) edition Nat.urally, their contributions have now bcen rctaincd for the seventh edition. This is the extensive contribution on colnprcssiblc laminar bountlary layers inChapter XIIT written by Dr. F . W . Rirgcls, Professor I<. Grrsten's section on thermal boundary layers in Chapter X I 1 and Dr. J . C . Rotta's text on compressible turbulent boundary layers in Chapter X X I I I .

I rxprcss my thanks to Frau Gerda Wolf, Frau IIilde TCreibohm and Mrs. Leslie Gintin for the careful preparation of the clear copy of the nianuscript; Frau Gerda JVolf was also very llrlpful for me in thc library. Mesgrs. Rotta, Iiummel and Starlre were Irinrl c:nougli to asgist wit11 the reatling of t h e proofs
J,ast,, h r ~ not Irnst, thnnlzs arc rllte to Vcrlag Braun for their willingness t o accede t t o rny'wishrs : ~ n dfor thc pleasing apprarancc of the ltoolr

From Author's Preface to the First (Gern~an) Editiox~

Since :t,I)o~tt, tltc Ocgit~nirtgof tl~t!t:ttrrcnt ct!nt,ttr.y 11iot1t:rn rt!sr:~rt;lt in t , I t t * l i t s l t l of flrlitl clyn:rntics has :~clticvctlgrcat sut:ccsscs ant1 llas l)t:t:n n l ~ l cto ~)rovitlc:I Cllc:. oretiral clarific:tkion of obscrvt:tl ~)ltcr~on~t:na wllicll t,llc! scicncc? of rlnssirnl Ilytlrotlyn:sntics of t,llc ~)rocctlitlgc:cntnry f:tilctl t,o (lo. 1Csscrtli:~lly t.llrt:c br:tnc:ltcs of l l r ~ i t l tlyr~:lrnic,s11:~vc bccomc p:~rticnlarly well clcvelopctl tluritig t,l~c last fift,y years; t,llcy inclr~tlc l~ot~ntlary-layer tl~cory, gas tlyrlarnics, antl acrofoil Lllcory. 7'11~ present t~ook is conccrncd ~vitlttllc branch krtnwn a s 11otrr1tl:~ry-layertllcory. This is the oltlt:st 1)rancll of modern flrritl tlynarnics; it w:is fort~~tlctl 1,. I'mntltl in 1904 wllctt I I ~ : by succcedctl in showing how flows involving fluitls of very s ~ n n l viscosity, in particular l w:tt,cr ant1 air, t,ltc most imporl;:~nt, oncs from t l ~ c point of vicw of applications, c:ln 11cn~:ltlc:~tncnr~blc! rnnt~l~o~nr~t,icnI lo r~nnly.qix. 'l'llis wris r~c:lliovotl11y t.tiltirlg I.11t: t:lli:c:l.s of friction into account only in regions \<.hero they arc rsscnt,i:ll, rtamely in tho thin boltndary layer wllich exists in t,ltc irntnctliatc tlcigt~bottrl~oocl a solitl body. Titis of concopt ~ n a t l c possible to clarify many ~)llcnomona it wliicll occur in flows and a,lliclt Itatl ~n-cvionslybccn incotl~pmllcrtsit)le. Most important of all, it, ltns bcconto possiblr t o sltt)ject problems connecterl with thc occurrcnc:e of tlrag t o a tllcorctical an:tlysis. r , llte scicnco of aeronaat,ical engineering was making rapitl progress ant1 was soor1 &ble t o utilize these t,l~coretical results in pract.ical applications. I t tfitl, ft~rtliertnorc, pose many problcms wl~ichcould be solvctl with t l ~ c of the ncw bonntla.ry-1ayc:r aid theory. Arronautical engineers have long sinco matlc: tllc conccpt of a t)ountlary layer one of cverytlay use and i t is now unt.hir:kable tlo d o without it,. In other fieltls of lnaclline design in wlticl~problcn~sof flow occur, in part,icular in the design of t,url~ornacl~incry, t l ~ c o r yof bottndary layers rnatlc rnt~cllslower progress, I,trt, t,hc in motlern tinies t,ht:sc rlcw conccpt,~ Itavo come t o t,llc fore in s11c:11applic.ztions a s well.

I IIR prt:~ent 1)ooIt I I ~ SI)crn writ,tcn principally for cngir~ecrs.I t is t l ~ c olzt.comt: of a course of Icct,rrrcs which the Author tlclivcrctl in t,llc Winter Scn~cstcr 1941/42 of
7

for I.l~r scinnt,ific worltcrs of tho Aoronatlf.ical Itcscarch Institut,c in I3r:~trnscl1wcig. Tho stll)jt!t:t. mnttcr 112sbcclrt r~tili;r.ctl after tlto war i n nlarly spc(:i:~l1cct11rt:s 11cld a t t . l ~ t ! ICngitleering Univcrsit,y in 13m11nscl1wcigfor sttltlcnb of rnccl~anical engirtccring :Inti pl1ysic.s. 1)r. IT. IIallriclnal~r~ prcparccl a set of loctr~rcnotes :iftcr the first soric:s of lectures \rat1 been given. 'L'lrcsc were rcad mxd amplifier1 by t.hc h~rllior. They wt:rc stll)scq~lcr~t,ly p~rblishetf in mimeograpltctl form by the Office for Scicrltific I)octtrncnt,at.ion (Zontmlc fiir wisscnschaft~licllcs 13cricltt~swc.scn)nntl tlist.rit~nt.ntl 1.0 :t lirnit,crl circle of irrtcrcstctl scicntifir: worltcrs. Several years after t l ~ c war tho antdlor tlecitlcd c o n ~ p ~ c t ~ c l y t,o re-etlit, this oltlcr c:ompilat.ior~and t o p1111lisl1it in the fort11 of a book. 'l'llc t.inie sccrnctl ~~art,icrtlarly propitious becallsc i t appeared ripe for tllc publication of a comprel~crlsivcI)ook, and hocal~sc results of tltc research work carrietl orrl, tlt~ring last trn t.o twcrtt,y t.hc fJlc yrxm ror~nrlctloff trltc wltolc ficld.

xxii

FI,OIII ,\t~llior's t%r.f:~cr I I I C lcirst, (Cit;rnlan)1?tlit,io11

'She book is tlivitlctl i n k four main 1):trts. 'L'hc first, part contair~stwo irltrotluct,ory ch:tpters in which t,l~c fl~ntlamcnli~ls 1)ounclary-layer tl~eory cxpoundctl of arc witlrout, the use of mathematics ant1 then proccccls t o prepare tho matl~ernatical and physical jllstification for the tllcory of lanlinar bortrulary laycrs, and inclutlcs the theory of thormal bor~ndaryIaycrs. The t,llird part is concerned with the pllenomenon of transition from laminar t o t,nrbulent flow (origin of turbulence), arid the fourth pert is devoted t o t n r l ~ u l c n tflows. It is now possible t o take the vicw t h a t the theory of laminar bountlary laycrs is complete in its main outline. Tho physical relations have bcen complctcly clarifictl; the meifhods of catcrtlation have been largely worked out ant1 have, in many cascs, bccn simplified to such a n extent, t h a t they should present no difficulties t o engineers. Jn discussing turbulent flows use has been made e~sent~ially only of t,llc semi-empirical thcorics which derive from Prantit,l'~mixing length. T t is true t h a t according t o present views t.hese theories ~)ossessa number of shortcomings but not,hing superior has so far been tlevised to take their plate, nothing, t h a t is, which is useful to t h e engineer. No accourrt of the slstistical theories of tr~rbr~lcnce has been inclutlcd bccanse they have not yet attainctl a n y pract.ical significance for engineers. As irlt,imat,cd in the t.itle, the emphasis has been lait1 on thc thcorctical treatmcnt of problems. An att,ctnpl, has hccn made t.o hring these consiclcrations into a form whicll can he rasily graspctl by engineers. Only a small n r ~ m l ~ of resrrlts has hccn cr quoted from among t(he vcry volominous oxperimcntal material. They have bccn chosen for their suitability t o give a clear, physical insight. int,o the phenomena and t o provitlc tlircct rcrific:rtion of thc t.lrcory prcsentcd. Some examples have been chosen, namely those a~sociat~ctl with t,url)nlcnt flow, because they constit~ltethe fonntlation of the semi-empirical theory. An attempt, was made t o tlcmonstrat,e t h a t esscnt.ial progress is not, ~ n a d c tlrrol~gll n accumr~lation extensivc exprrirnental a of rcsriltn but ratlrer tl~rougha small n r ~ ~ l t b c r fi~ndamentalcxperiment,~ of backed by theoretical consitlerat,ions. Brar~nschweig, October 1050 IIermanrl Schlichting

Introduction
Towards the end of the 19th ccntury t,he scicncc of fluid mechanics began $0 dcvclop in two tlircctions wlticlr had pmct,ically no points in common. On t,hc onc side therc was tile science of theoretical hydrody~tamicswhich was evolvctl from Euler's equations of motion for a frictionless, non-viscous fluid and which achieved a high degree of completeness. Since, however, t h e results of this so-called classical science of hydrodynamics stood in glaring contradiction t o experimental results - in particular a s regards the very important problem of pressure losses in pipcs and channels, a s well as with regard t o the drag of a body which moves t,hrongIt a mass of fluid - i t had litt,lc practical importance. For this rcason, practical cngincers, prok~lcmsarising from the rnpicl prompted by tlic need t o solve the i ~ n p o r t ~ a n t progress in t,echnology, developed their own highly empirical scicrrce of hydraulic^. The scicncc of hydranlics was basecl on a large number of cxpcrinlent~nltlal,a :~ntl difl'ercd greatly in its mct,lrods ant1 in its objccts from the scicncc of t.llcorct,icnl hydrodynamics. A t the beginning of the present cent.ury L. Prandtl clisti~lguishedhimself by showing how t o unify these two divergent I)ranchcs of fluitl dynamics. H e achieved a high degree of correlation between theory and experiment and paved t h e way t o the remarkably successful development of fluid mechanics which has taken place over tlhe past sevent,y years. It had bcen realized even bcfore l'randtl t h a t the discrepancies between t,he results of classical hydrodynamics and experiment. were, in very many cases, due t o the fact t h a t the theory neglected fluid friclio?~. Moreover, the complete equations of motion for flows with friction (the Navier-Stolres equations) ha.d been known for a long time. However, owing t o t h e great mathematical difficulties connect,ed ~vit,ll the solution of t,llcse equatio~ls(with t h e exception of : L small 11uniber of particular cascs), tho way t o a thcorct,icnl treatment of viscous fluid motion was barred. Furthermore, in the case of the two most important flrlids, 11:~mclywater ant1 air, the viscosity is vcry small and, conseqnerttly, tho forccs due t o viscous friction are, generally speaking, very small compared with t h e remaining forces (gravity and pressure forces). F o r this reason i t was very difficrilt to comprehend t h a t t , l ~ frictional forces omitted from t h c classical theory influenced e thc motion of a fluitl t o so large a n extent. I n a pzpcr on "Fluid Motion with Very Small Friction", read bcfore the Mathcmatica.1 Congress in IIeidelberg in 1004, I,. Prandt,lt showed how i't was possible tJo analyze viscous flows precisely in cascs wlrich had great pmctica.1 importance. Wit,h

Abl~antllnngc~~ rur

II. Schlicl~ling II. and

U6rtlcr. r o l I1 p p ' 1 5 - 5 8 4 .

t h e aid of t,hcorctical corlsidcmt~iotis anti scvcrnl sinrplc oxperimenk, ho provcd t h a t the flow about n solid botly can be dividod into two regions: a very t,llitr lnycr in t,lre neighbourhood of t.11~ body (ho~~r~(la.r?j whcrc friction plays a n essetitinl part, lu.?/cr) and 1,hc remaining region ont.siclc this laycr, where frict,iorl may be ncglcctcd. On tho basis of Lliis Ilypot,l~esisI'mntlt,l sl~ccccdctlin giving a physically pcnrttrat,ing nxl)lnnattion of tlrt: i~ill)ort,n.rrcc viscous flows, achicvitrg a t t*lro of samc titnc n tnxxiinit~n tlegrcc of simplification of tllc attcntlant rnat,ltemntical rliffic~ilties.The t,heorct,ical considerations werc even tJ~cti snpport,cd l)y simplc cxpcrimcntn pcrformc:d in a small water t,onncl whiall Prn.ridL1 built, wit,h his own Ilatids. I l c thus tmok the first step towards a ro~ttiification tl~cory of and pmcticc. This boundary-layer tilcory provctl cxtrcmely frl~it~ful that, i t provitlcd an cKcctive tool for t h e tlevelopmcnt of flnicl in tlynamic~s. Since t h e 1)rgitinirlg of t.ha cnrrcnt century the new theory has been tlcvcloprcl a t n very fast r:lta lrntlcr t,llc atl(lit.ionnl st,im~tlris ol~taincdfrom t,hc reccrrtly fo~lntletl science of aerodynamics. I n a vcry short time i t hecame one of thc fo~~tldat,ion st.onrs of motlern Ilnid clynamics t,ogct,hcr with thct other very inlportant tlevclopment,s -- t . 1 1 ~acrofoil theory nncl thc sciencc of gas dynamics. In more recent t,iliics a goorl (leal of at,t,ent,ion has been devotctl to st,udies of t h e mntlirtnat,irnl just.ification of bounrlary-layer theory. According t o tllcse, hollndarylayer theory provitlcs us wit,h a first approximattion in the framework of a more general t,hcory designed t,o ca1culat.e n,sympt,ot,ic expansions of t,he solutions t o t h e coml)let,e equat,ions of motion. The l ~ r o l ~ l c ~ retlucetl t o it so-called singular perturis n bation which is then solvctl I)y t.hc mct.liod of nrat,cIrcd asymptotic expnnsions. I3ountlary-layer t.hrory t,hus providcs 11s wit,it n cIassic example of the npplication of the met,liotl or s i n g ~ ~ l a r ~)crt,rtrbnt,ion.A general presentation of pert~urbatiori rnct,horls in flnid mechanics was prepared by M. Van Dykt:t. The basis of these rnat,hotls can Ile Itraced t.o 1,. J'raritlt.I's early cot~t~ribut~ions. 'I'lic 1)onntlar.y-layer tlicory finds its applicat,ion in the ~nlcnlxt~ion t,ha skinof friction d m g wllic:h act.s on a body as i t is moved t,hronglr a fluitl: for example t h e rlr:lg cxl)cricncctl a flat p1n.t~ at,xcro itrcitlcnce, t,Ile t1m.g of a ship, of an aeroplane wing, aircraft, t ~ a c r l l ror t,rrrl)ineI)latlc. 13o1111dnry-layer , flow 11:~s peculiar property t,I~c t.ll:tt, i~ntlorccrt.airl conditions t,lle flow in t,lte imnictliat,c ncighbonrhood of a solid laycr t o separate from it,. 1111isis accomwall 1)ccomcs rcvcrsed causing the I~ountlary pnnirtl I,y a morc or lrss prorlourlcctl fonnat,ion of edtlics in tJlc wake of t,hc body. 'J'1111s t.hc prcssnrc (listrih~lt.ionis rltatigcd and differs marlrctlly from t h a t in a frict.iool(\ss strcnm. ?'hc tleviat.ion in prcssurc tlist,ribut,ion from t h e ideal is t h e carise of form drag, ant1 its cnicttlat.ion is t1111.smade possible wit11 the aid of bouriclarylaycr t.lloory. 13ortntlary-ln,ycr t,heory gives a n answer t,o t,he vcry i r n p ~ r t ~ a question nt of' w11n.t shape ~ n n s ta hotly t ~ o , given in orclrr t o avoid t.llis dct.rin~arit~nl scpn.ration. St.pnr:rt.ion c*n.nalso oc.c:ltr i t 1 l.llc i~lt.crt~:tl t.hrorrg11 R (:11nntrcI ant1 is trot, confitlet1 flow t o rst,rrtrnl Ilows past solitl 0otlic:s. I'rol~lrms conrrcct,crl wit11 t . 1 1 ~ How of fluids t.hroilg11 t,hc clrmrncls f(>rnrctl I)y t.hc I)lntlcs of t,urhomachines (rot.ary compressors ant1 t,rlrl)inos)ran also he 1,rrntrtl wit,ll tho n.itl of 11ourrtl:~ry-ln.ycr t,Jlcory. I'r~rt.llcr~nore, ~~llc~lonrcrla wllic:l~ occur at, t,llc point of rnn.xirnnm jift, of nn acrofoil and wllicll arc assoc.int,c:tl wit,ll s t . : ~ l l i t l (:;I.II1)c 11ntlcrst.oot1 only on tJlr 11n.sis of I)on~rtlary-layer ~

theory. I~irlally,problrms of llcat transfer I)ctwc-rn n solitl hody ant1 n fluit1 ( p s ) flowing past i L also bclong t o tllc class of problems in wltic41 bo~~t~tl:try-l:~yc.r 1)11c~nom r n n play n dccisivc pnrL. At, first the bo~rritlary-layer tltcory was devclopotl rnn.inly for f.lle c:~so 1:~nlin:lr of flow in a n incon~prcssil)leflltitl, RR in 1.Ilis c:~sc t . 1 1 ~ ~ ) l ) ~ t ~ o ~ n t : t ~ o I o I~j,~)oI.I~t-sis ~it::l.l for shr:~ringst.rrsscs a1rr:ttly cxist.ctl in t.hc form of Sf.oltc.s'x I:\w. ' l ' l ~ i s t,c,l,ir: W:IS sul)scqucntly tlcvclopctl in a 1:trgc 1111rnl)cr rcsonrclt 1):tpcrs :LII(I rt::1(:11vtl s1tt~11 of a stagc of pcrfoct.ion Ieltat a t prcscrtt tltc problcrn of Intninar llow c:1.11111: consitlt~rctl t o lt:lvc hccn solved in its main ol~llinc.1,:llcr the Llrcory w:ls cxl.ot~clt:tl1.0 int:l~rrl(? turl~nlcnt, incornprcssil)lc bountlary layers which are morc irnport,n.nt from ~.II(: poitlt, of vicw of practical applications. I t is true t h a t in tltc cnsc of t ~ t r l ) ~ ~ lflows .0. Iloyc~it xrolds introduced t h e fundamentnlly important conccpt of nppnrcnt, or virt,~tnl t,ltrl)nlent stresses a s far back as 1880. IIowevcr, ttllis conccpt was in it,sc.lf itisr~ffioirnt tso mn.ke tjltc theoretical analysis of turbulent flows possible. Great progress was acllicvecl wit.11 t,he int,rotlnct,ion of I.'randtl's mixinglcrtgt.l~ thcory (1025) which, t,ogol,hrr wit,li systematic cxperimcnt.s, paved the way for the theorcf,ical ttrcntmcrlt of t u r l ) ~ r I c ~ t t flows wit,lt the aid of boundary-ln.yrr t.hcory. llowcvcr, a rational t,lieory of fcllly developc(l turbnlcnt flows is st,ill rroncxist.cnt,, ant1 in vicw of t,lic cxl,rt;rnc conlplexit,y of sltcll flows i t will remain so for a consiilcmhlc time. Onc cannot even IIC ccrtain t h a t science will cvcr be successfnl i n this t,aslr. Tn modern times tho phcrrornena which occur in t h e boundary laycr of R comprcssiblc flow have becomc the subject of int.ensive investignt.ions, t h e impulse having I ~ r c n provided by the rapid incrcasc in tllc spcctl of flight of motlcrn aircmft,. I n atltlit,ion t o a velocity 1)oitntlary laycr srtc:h flows dcvclop a tllcrrnal bonntlnry 1:~ycr nrtcl its cxist~cnccpln,ys :I.!) irnport.arit part in tllc process of heat t,rartsfcr bctwceri the Iluitl and the solitl body past which i t flows. At vcry ltigh Mach numbers, the surface of Lhc solid wall bccornrs heat,etl t o a high t,cmperature owing t o the protl~~ct.iotl frictional heat ("tllcrrnnl of barrirr"). This phenomenon prcscrits a tliffic:nlt analytic problem whose ~ o l ~ t t i o r ~ is irnport.ant in n.ircmft tlcsign ant1 in t,hc ~~ritlcrsl,ar~dit~g motion or sat,cllites. of the

1 Ilc ~)1tenomenon tmnsit,ion from liltninar t o t,orbnlcnt flow wlticl~ ~ I I I I ~ : L I I I B I I of is t.aI for t,he scicnce of fluid tlynamirs was first investigated a t t,hc entl of t l ~ c I0t.11 cellt,nry, naniely by 0. 12eynoltls. I n 3914 1,. 1'm.ndtl cnrrictl olrt, his famous expcrimrnts with sphcrrs ant1 s ~ ~ c c ~ c d c ( I in showing flllat the llow it1 tlrc 1)orcntlnry1:~ycr also I)c car1 either laminar or turbulent and, furthermore, that, tltc problem of separnt,ion, ant1 hence the problcm of the cal~ulat~ion dmg, is govcrnctl by this t,ransit,ion. Y'hcoretiof rat invest,igations into t,he process of t,ransiLion from laminar t o tnrbulcnt flow are t)asctl on t.110 acceptlance of Iteynoltls's 1 1 y ~ ~ o t I 1l,liat t,hc latt,cr oc:curs ns a cono~is sccluc~rcc a n instability dcvclopcd by I,hc 1nminn.r I)onntlary layer. 1'rnntlt.l ittit.int.ctl of his thcorcl.icn.l ir~vestigntiotiof trnnsit*ion in tllc ycar 1921 ; after marly v:rin cflort.~, succcss came in the ycar 1920 wlicn W. Toll~nicn compntrcl theorct,icnlly t,hc crit,ic:aI Reynolds rrutnbor for transit,ion on a flat plate a t zero incidence. Ilowcvrr, nlorc t.lran ten years werc to pass 1)efore l'ollrnictl's t,heory coialtl ho vcr;ficd t,l~rongl~ t.hc vcry careful experin~cnLs performed by 11. 1,. 1)rytlcn ant1 11;s coworltcrs. Tho st,nl)ility tltcory is capablc of taking into account the cKcct of a ni~rnhcr parnmct,ors (pmssurc of gradient,, suction, Mach nr~mlter,transfcr of heat,) on t,mnsition. This theory has found m ~ t i y import.ant applications, among them i n t l ~ c dosign of scrofoils of' very low drag (1arninn.r ncrofoils).

Modc:rn itlvcstigalions in i d ~ cficld of fluitl dynamics in general, a s well as i n t(11c ficld of bouritlary-ln.ycr rcscarch, are characterized by a vcry close relation bc!twcen theory ant1 cxpcrimcrlt,. l'hc most important steps forwards )lave, in most cases, barn t,nltcn as a rcslllt of a smn.li r ~ u m l ~ ofr fi~ndamcnt~a,l c cxpcrimcrlt,~ bacltetl by t,hcorot,icnl considcrat,ions. A rcvicw of tJlc tlcvclopmcnt of bountlary-layer t.lleory wllich st~rcsscs t.11~ rn~rf~nal cross-fcrt.ilizstiorl bctwccn theory and cxpcrirncnt, is cor~tainctlin s r l n.rliclc writt.c.1111y A. l<ctzT. I?or about, twenty years aft,er its inception I)y T I'randtl in 1904 the bonndnry-la.ycr tllcory was being developed , . nln~ostexcll~sivclyin his own institute in Goettingen. One of t h e reasons for this st.nt,c of nffairs nlay well havc been root,ccl in the circum~t~ancc J'randtl's first that, pnbliont,ion on boundary-layer t~l~eory which appeared in 1904 was very dimcult t o understatltl. This period can be said to have ended with I'randtl's Wilbur Wright Meniorial I,ect,~lre"which was dclivcrctl in 1927 a t a meeting of the Royal Aeronautical Society in 1,ontlon. 111later years, roughly since 1930, other research worlters, partricrrlarly thosc in Grent nrit.air1 and in tllo U.S.A., also took a n active pn,rt in its tlevrlopn~cnt.Toclay, the study of boundary-layer t.heory has spread all over thc world; together with ot,hcr branches, it ~ o n s t i t ~ u t e s of t,he most import,ant pillars one of fluid mechanics.

I'art A. F~~ndamental of motior~for a viscol~s laws fluid

Outline of fluid motion with friction

Tho first survey of this I ~ m n c hof science was given by 1 Tollmien in 1931 % ' . in two s l ~ o r t articles in ~ J I Cl l a r ~ ~ l b n c l ~ lSxpcrirncnt,alpl~ysiIr" S11orl~I.vaftcr" dcr : . wartls (1936), Prnrltltl p~~l)lishcd cotnpml~cr~sivc a prcsentnt,ion it1 "Acro(1ytlamic 'J'hcory" ctlitctl I)y W . I?. Durands. lluring t.11~ intcrvcning four tlccndcs tllc volutrle of rescarch into this subject 11asgrown cnorrnonsly$. According t o a review published by 11. I,. Drydcn in 195.5, t,hc rate of publication of papers on boundary-layer theory reached one hundred per a.nn7r.ma t t h a t time. Now, some twenty years later, tliis rate has more than tripled. Lilte several other fields of research, the t,heory of bo~rntlarylayers has reac:hetl a voll~mcwl~ichis so enormous t h a t a n individual scientist., even one worlring in this ficltl, cannot be expcctetl to master all of its specializctl s~ibtlivisions.I t is, tl~rrcforc,right that, the task of describing it in a nlotlcrr~Ilanclboolt has \)ccn cnt.rustcd t,o several authorst. The hist,orical development, of 1)ountlary-layer theory has recentsly been traced by I. Tani*.

Most t.Ileoret.ica1 invcst,igat,iorls in the ficld of fluid tlynamics arc based on the concrpt of a perfect,, i. c. frictlionlcss ant1 i~~comprcssible, fluid. I n t h e motion of s n c l ~ perfect flnitl, two cont,act.ing layers cxpcritrnrc no tnngcntinl forccs (sl~caring a st,rcsses) b l ~ la c t on caclr ot,llcr wit.11 normal forccs (j)rcssums) only. This is cqr~ivalcnt, , t.o s t a l . i ~ ~ g a pcrfc-ct, fluitl olrcrs no inI.crria1 r ~ ~ i s I . a rt~ t a c tl~nf, o ~ cl~angc S I I : I ~ O .'I'IIc in t.l~cory tlcscribing !,IIc mot,ion of a pcrft:cl. Illlit1 is ~ n a t l ~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ n vcry: farl y t . i c ~ l tlnvclopctl ant1 supplies in many cases a satisfactory tlcscril;t,ion of real motions, sncll a s e. g. tlie motion of surface waves or tlie formation of liquid jets in air. On the ot.her hand t h e theory of perfect fluids fails completely t o account for the drag of a body. I n this connrxion i t leads t o tllc statement t h a t a I~otlywllich moves uniformly t,llrongh a fluit1 which cxt.ends t,o infinity expcrienccv no drag (tl'Alcmbcrt.'s psmtlox). 'Pliis unacceptable result of thc thcory of a pcrfect Iluid can be traced t o tile fact t,hat. t.l~e inner layers of a real fluitl t,rsrls~nitt,angent,ial as well a s normal stresses, this 1:cirlg also t,l~c case ncar n solitl wall wetted by a fluid. Thesc tangcnt#ialor frict,iorl forccs 111 a rrxl Ilnitl arc conncctctl wit,l~a propertry wllich is callctl t,l~c viscosil?/ of t,I~cl111i(l. IZccairsc of tllc al)scnce of t,angct~t,i:~l forccs, on the 1)oundary bctwccn a perfect llnitl : ~ r ~ ta. solitl wnII Lhcrc cxist,s, in gcnt-r:~I,:I. tlilrrrcncc in rt~l:~l.ivc l t,:~ngrnt.i:il vrloc.it.ics, i. c. t.llcro is slip. On t,hc ot.l~cr II:I.II~~,r(::11 Il~ri(ls in t,110 cxist.cr~(:t~ it~t.trrof lnolccular att,ractions callscs t,hc flnitl t o a d l ~ c r c a solitl wall ant1 t,his gives risc t.o l,o slrraring stmsscs. 1,hc exist,cncc of t:rngonlial (slrcarirrg) sl,rcsst:s nr~tll,l~c condiliols 01 ,to lip II(::I.I.

A. I ~ c ~ z , Wogc r ~ r l t ll ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I IrR~ ~ l~~ .dcrv~lr6lnlltlg~for.~cllllng, Ziolo, A . W C ~ t IiI I I r ~ ZciLschr. VDI 91, (1949)2fi3. . .

" 1,. J'rallrlI,l, Tho gor~crnlion vortiron ill fluirlsofatn.zII viscosit,y (15td1\I1ilbrlr Wright Memorial of

Jfir(llr~, 1!J27).J . Jtoy. Aoro. Soc. 31, 721-741 (1!)27). : (!/. tJlr biljliogr.zl~l~y 11. 780. on : I,. l'r:~t~tll,l, I c 111ecl1a.11irsV ~ R C O I I Sfluiils. Arrocly~~an~ii~ (\I1.I?. I)urat~cl, '~I ol' tl1oory rtl.), \'ol. 3, 34 208, l%crIin,1935. 6 11. S1:l1lirh~ing. So111etlrvcloprncn(.sof I~oundnry-layer rcsearci~in the past t,hirty years (The 'l.l~irll L ~ t l c l ~ r ~ l c r Met~lorin.lJ,rcture, I!)T1!)). J . ]toy. Aero. Soc. 64, 03- 80 (l%U). Srr nl?lo: 11. Srlilicl~l Rccrrtt progress in hor~ndn.ry-lnycr ing, rcse:,rch (The 37Lli Wright. Brothers I I I ~ I 1~t 1 1 r 1 ,! 7 ) \ : I . J t t i r i : ~ l 1 427 440 (1!)74). * I . 'I':\t~i. Ilislory of I~o~~r~rlnry-lilyor rmrnrc.11.A n ~ ~ r i Itrv. rrf I z l l ~ i r IMet*hnnirs 87- 11t (1077). nl 9,
-

solitl walls cor~st.itut,e the essential tliffcrcriccs bcl,wccn a perfect and a real fltritl. Cert,ain fluids urlrich arc of great, practicn.l imporl,n~lce, r ~ c as water ant1 air, havc s l~ vcry smnll coefficients of viscosity. I n many instsr~ccs. l ~ c t mottion of s11c11llvcid.~ ol sn~nll viscosity a.grccs vcry well wit.11 t,llat of a pnrfcct Iltritl, bccausc in most cases tile shearing stressc?~ vcry small. For this reason t,hc cxist,cncc of viscosit,y is corrlplctcly arc nrglcct.ed in l,hc t,heory of perfect fluids, ma.inly bcca.11set,llis irltrodnccs a far-reacl~ing ' ext.cnsivc niathesimplificatiott of tllc equations of mot,ion, a s a result of ~naticalt,I~coryI~ecomcspossil~lc.Tt, is, I ~ o ~ v c v ci l m fact t,Ilnt, r ,sp ss the & ,

even in fluitls wit,lt vcry srnall viscosit,ics, unliltc in 1)crfc:ct. fluiels, t.lrc rontlit.iorl of no slip near n, solill I~orlndaryprevails. 'l'l~isc:ot~dil~iorr rlo slip int,rotlrrros in many of (::~sos very I;rrgc tlisc:rcl)arrcics in t,lrc laws of ~noLiorlof perfect an(\ ronl fluitls. 111pnrt.iclrlar, tllc vcry largc tliscrcpnl~cjrI)ctwcc~r Llro valr~o drag it1 a rral ant1 a pnrkct, of' Iltti(1 Ir:rs its 1~lrysit:nlorigin in t,lrc contlil,ion o f no slip nc,:lr :L wall. 'I'lris 11oolct1r:rls wil,lr 1.Irc rnot,ior~ l l r l i t l s of'sm:~II of visrosil,y, I)(-r:~rrsr t.lrc grc:~L of I ~ : ~ c t , i citnport.ance of' tllc problcln. 1)nrirtg 1,llc cotlrsc of tlrc st2rrtlyi t will l~cconlc al clear how this p:trt,ly consistent arltl p:r,rt.ly tlivcrgcnt I)cl~aviour pcrfrct ant1 real of fltritls can l)c cxpl:tinotl.

n propertry of tho fluid and depcntls t o n great exl.t!nt on it,s t r m pcrnt,rlrc. It is n rnoasrrro of tlro i)i.~co.vit~y irI1o Il~ii(l. OF '1'11~ I:LW of' fri(:tior~givrtr by ccltr. ( I .2) is Iznow~r:LS Nrlidotc's 1rr.v~of frictio~t.ICqn. (1.2) cntl bc rrg:rrel(vl :~.s t,llc c1rlinil.iotr of visc:osit.jy. It. is, Ilowevcr, ncc:cssary t o st.ross tflrnt tlrc cxnrnplc cot~sicl(:rc:d irr I'ig. 1.1 (:o~rstitrrt.rs p : ~ r t , i ~ ~ ~ lsinrplc case of flttitl ~not,ion. gnn(~r:lliz:~l,it,r~ :L arly A of this si111111(~ is cotrt~:r.in~:~ISt,olc(:s's I:I\v of frict,ion (cf. (!II:L~.I I ) . 'lq1t(* (1it11c~11sic)ns e:rs(: in I o f visrosi1,y c:all IIC tlotlrrc:c:tl wit,hol~t, diFlicrrll.y from cqn. (1.2)-I-.'1'110 sl~c:nritrgs1,rc~ss is ~ncnsurcdin N/m2 =I J'n nrld tltc vcloc:it,y grr~tlicnt~ tlu/tl?y in ~ o I .c l I ( s ~ r ( ~ ( *

Tlrr rlunntit.y p is

h. Viscosity

'I'II~: I I : L ~ , I I ~ of' v i ~ r o s i t ~ y 11cst I)c visr~nlizcdwith tire nit1 of t,ltc following cxC can l~rrin~nrrt,: Consit1c:r t l ~ c n o t ~ i o n a fltritl l)cl,\vccrt two vrry long pn.rallnl ~)latcs, ~ of one of wlrinlr is at, rrst, tflrc otlrer moving wit,l~ constant velocitry pnrallcl t,o it.self, a s n, sl~o\r,rr Fig. 1 . l . 1,ct t,lro clist.arlcohctwcc~r plates bc h,, tlrc prrssnre l)cing const,nrrt in Olrc

wlrcro tlrc sqlrarc 1~r;~(:Icct~s I I S C ( ~ t,o (lcrrol,~ arc 111ri1.s. '1'11~ :rl)ov~ not. 1,Irc: o ~ ~ l or, is y even the most, witlcly, employctl rlnit of viscosit,y. l'ril~lc? . I lists t,ho vnriorrs trnit,s 1 togctlrcr wit,lr their conversion factors.
.15qn. (1.2) is rcl:rt.ctl t.o IIooltc's law for all csl:ist,ic: solicl I)otly in wl~ic:l~ t,lrc rasc: shearing sCrcss is proport,ional t o tho strain

Icig. I. I. \'rIol~it~yl i s l , r i l > ~ ~ t~. iI oI ~ ~ r :b viscorrn l l r ~ i t ll)c*t~vrrn p;~rallrl I.rve) Ilrrt \vnlls (Co~lrt.t.c flolv)

I l r r c ( tlenotes lhe n~oclnlusof shear, y the clrangc in anglc bct.vrrc.cn tfwo linrs : wlriclt were origirrnlly nt right arlglcs, nntl 6 tlcnotcs tlrc clisplr~ccrncnt, (.Ire tlircc:t.ion in of a1)scissae. Wllcrcas in tlrc cnsc of a n elastic solitl tlrn s1rc:aring s1,rcss is 1)rol)orl.ional t,o the n~ngniturleof the strain,, y , expcricnrc tcaclrcs tlrnt in t l ~ c case of fluitls it is proport,ionnl t.o tllc vale of chnnrlc. of strrr.in tly/tll. If' we prrt

we s1r;~llol)tain, as bcforr,
t

' fl

a11

?I!/

In ortlnr 1.0 s ~ r p p o r tt,lre motmionit is necessary 1.0 apply a I~n~~gcnt,ial t,o t,lrn forcn ttl)prr l)lnf,o, tlro li)rcc 1)eirrg in cc~t~ilibriurn with tlrc f'ri~t~ional forces in t,lrc flrritl. It, is Itnonw from expnrirnont,~ llrnt t,ltis forcc (t.a.l~cn per unit a r m of t,lrc plal,c) is ~)rol)ort.inn:r,I t,hc vc?loc:it,y 1J of tlrc 11l11)er to plat.c, ant1 invcrsrly proport,ion:~l to l h c tlist,:r.trrc~ 'l'llc l'ricl.ion:ll forcc por r~rrit, h. area, tlcnotctl by t (Srict.ional slrcaring sl,rc~ss) t,licreCore, proj)ort.ionnl 1.0 lJ/h, for wlricl~ general we may als? ssulist.itpr~t,c is, ill tlii/tl?/. 'l'ltc: 1)r01)01.t~iotr:rIil.y fnr:l.or I)ct,wcnn t ant1 d71 tly, wlriclr we sllall d c ~ ~ o tI)y , ~ i , ,c tl(:~~ur(Is tho rralfrlrc: of 1.110 ll~ri(l. is srna.ll for. " l , l ~ i r i " fltti(ls, st~clr ival.cr or or1 11, nk :~l(:olrol, ~ t r t I 1:~rgn t,hc case of vcry visco~ls in liql~itls, srtclt a s oil or glyccrinc. 'I'l~lrs t,llc ftl~rtl:rrncnt,alrclnt,ion for flllitl frict.ion i t r t,lte form wc 1r;tvc ol)t,:~inctl

bccal~sc5 = XI. Jlo\vcvcr, t.llis analogy is not, complcf.c, I~ccarlsc t,lrc: st,rc:ssas in :r flt~itltlepcntl on one corrst,atrt., t,lrc viscosit.y ti, \vlrc~rc-:istlrosn i r r :tn isot,rol~ic csI:~sLic: solicl tlnpcntl on two.

du ~ I Y.

>

(1.2)

\Vc sllnll ro~~si.sl.c~~t.lyl l l.l~in I)oolc l.hc grnvil:ll.iri~~:il c'~~gi~lr:cril~g of r ~ ~ ~ ii ltl s : IISC i or sys1c111 ncrord:l~tcowit11 i~ltc:rt~n(io~~nl ngrccrncnt. t.l~c Y I I I I ~ I k1) :11111 I1)C \vill I),: rrst:(l 1 0 ~ ~ ( ~ I ~ J IIP. ~ : R ~ Io rcsj~ectivcrt~titso f lorre; t.lte corrcspor~tli~rg of n~a.rs Ijc tlr.l~ot,rtl t.lrr nl~lircvi;it.ions ~~ttiLs will I,y kg n n t l Ib rrspoct,ivrly. I n some tnhlcs, tllc tnlit~ \\.ill bc tl~osc? 1110 SI S J . R ~ ( ~ I I I . of

I. Ont,line of fluid lnotion wit11 friction

Table 1.l.
n.

c. Compressibility

Visco~ity conversioti factors Aljsol~lteviscosity / I

I
kp ~ e c / m ~ kp hr/ltlZ I'n see kg/m hr J Ibf sec/ft2 Ihf lir/ft2 Ilj/ft scc kg/m hr 3.5316 x 10' 127.1 x log 1 0.1724 x 10" 620.8 x 106 5.358 x 10"

kp scc/mZ 1 3,600 1.0197 x 2.8325 x 4.8824 1.7577 x 1.5175 x

I
/

kp 1ir/m2 2.7778 x 1 2.8325 x 7.8682 x 1.3502 x 4-8824 4.2153 x 10-4 10-5 10-8 10-3 10-5

Pn see 9.8067 3.5404 1 2.7778 4,7880 1.7237 1,4882

x 104

lo-' 1W5

x 10-4

10" 10-I

x 10' x 10"

Numerical values: 111t,lre case of liqnicts t h e v i ~ c o s i t ~/y , is nearly indcpct~clent, t of pressurc a n d tlccreascs a t a high raLc with increasing tcml)crat,urc. 111 tlic case of gascs, t o n first npproximat,iorl, t,hc v i ~ c o s i t ~cnrl b e tnlzcr~t o b e intlcpcntlcnt of y prcmitrc 1)11t,i t irlrrcnscs wil,l~ l,crnllcr:~,l,r~rc. 'I'Iio Itinc?~nal,ic? i ~ c o s i l , ~, , for litll~itl.q v 11 has t,llc s:l,nlt? t.ypc of t,ctnl~er:at.ilro tloj)o~~tlct~c:o/ r , I)ct.n.ttso Oltr tlottsit,y, 0,( - l ~ ~ i t ~ ~ r s as oltly ~ l i g l r t l ywith t c n ~ p o m l , ~ l rIlowcvcr, ill t,ho c a w of gn.scs, for w h i c l ~C, tlcc:ro:~..qc~ c, consitlcrsbly with incrc:~silig tc1npcr:~1,11rc,11 i ~ ~ e r c a s c s r:t.pitlly willit (,cmpcmt.urc. Table 1.2 contains s o m e numerical values of Q, p ant1 v for water a n d air. T a b l e 1.3 contains some additional lisefi~lclat,a.

l'ahle 1.3. ibf 11r/rt~ 5.6893 x 2.0482 x lo-' 5.8015 X lo-'' x 10-8 2.7778 x 1 8.6336 x 10-a

I<inc~nat.ic viscosity Trltipcrnt.nre

1,

] I d sec/fL2

Ib/ft see Liquid 6.5808 2,3723 6.7197 1+3666 3.2174 1.1583 1

x loe
[ m2/el

2.0482 7.3734 2.0885 5.8015 1 3,600 3.1081

x 10-'
x lo2
X

x 10"
X

"C
Glycerine . . . Mercury . . . . Mcrcrtry . . . . 1,nbricnting oil . 1,ubricating oil . J,ubricnt.ing oil .

lo-'

x 10--1-6115

x x 10' x 10"

0. I<incn~nt.ic viscosity v tn21scc m2/sec m2/hr cm2/scc (Stokes) ft2/sec ft2/hr b 1 2.7778 x 1 X lo-" 9.2903 x 2.5806 x 10-5

. . . . . .

tn2/11r

cm2/scc

ftysec

ft2/hr
c. Compressibility

1 x 101 1.0764 x 10' 3,600 2.9900 x 1 2.778 1-0764 x 1 0.36 1 3-3445 X lo2 9 . 2 9 0 3 ~ 1 0 ~ 9.21103 x l o z 2.5800~10 2.7778 x

3.8750 x lo4 1.0764 x 10' 3.8750 3,600 1

Compressibility is a measure of t h e change of volume of a liquitl o r g a s u n d e r t h e action of external forces. I n t h i s connexion we c a n define a moduli~s clnsticily, of R, of volume changc, by t h e equation

viscosity of wnkr utld air in terrns of tolnpcratrlrc e 2 . Dcnnit,y, viscosit.~,nnrl kinc1nnt.i~ Air a t n prensare of 0,099 MPa (14.69G lhf/in2)
-

IIcrc

A V / V o tlcnotcs

t h e rclativc changc in volume br;ougllt a b o u t by n prcssuro in-

Wntcr 'I'cmperntnre
. .

ncnsity e

Viscosity
, Pa 8oc u

"C
-20
-10 0 10 20 .40 60 80 100

kg/m3

1Cincri1nLio Den~it~y Q viscosity v x loe kg/ms r~tz/4ee1

-

Viscosity
'I Pa set

ICinelnatic viscosity l X loe mz/sec 11.2 12.1 13.0 13.9 14.8 17.1 19.2 21.7 24.4

crease Ap. T h c compressibility of liquids is v e r y small :c.g. for w a t e r E = 280,00011)f/in2 which means t,llilt & pressure increase of 1 a t m (14.7 lbf/in2) causes a relativc change : in volume of a b o u t 1/20,000, i.o. 0.006 pcr cent. O t h e r liquids show similar propertics
s o t h a t their compressibility c a n 1x3 neglected in m o s t cases, a n d flows of liquids can bc regarded a s incompressible. J n t h e case of gases, t,t~e modulus of elasticity, E , is e q u a l t o t h e initial pressure

99!3.3 999.3 997.3 991.5 982.6 971.8 959.1

1795 1304 1010 655 474 357 283

1.80 1.30 1.01 0.601 0.482 0.367 0.2!)5

1.39 1.34 , 1.29 1.25 1.21 1.12 1.06 0.99 0.94

,

16.6 16.2 16.8 17.4 17.9 19.1 20.3 21.5 22.9

p,, if t h e changes a r e isothcrmal, a s can easily be deduccd from t h e perfect-gas l a w t For a i r at NTD (st~rnosphcric pressure a n d ice-point t e m p e r a t u r e ) E 14.7 Ibf/in2, which m e a n s t h a t air is a b o u t 20,000 times m o r e compressible t h a n water. Similar

'=

conditions o b t a i n for ot,Iler gascs.

From tlic perfect gas laor it c:ln be tlcdncetl tllnt tlie clialtgc ill vol~ltnc, V, cnusctl tty a cl~nnge A of prcsnnre ilp. sntisfics tlie relatior1 (p,, -1- ;lp) ( Y, C A V) - p, V,. I i o ~ c cl p t - p, A IT/ If,,.

111ortlvr 1,o i~trswrr1,Irc ~ ~ I I C S I ~ ~ofI I\vI~t:i.lrrrit is ncccssiLry 1.0 l.aI<eint,o account O t.lrt?c:otrr~)rt~ssiI)ilit.y nfg:~st,s I 1)rol)lc.m.s f l r l i c l Ilow it is rrccc:ssnry t,o cor~siclcr ~ I of whether I,Irt* t ~ l r : r r ~ i~lcI)rr*ssrll,o l ~s I)rorlgl~t, :LIM)III. I)y 1,Irt: n~ot.iort of'I,lrcgllrtitlcarlse Jargc cllanges i r r v o l ~ ~ n tIt~ r .s l ~ c * of ~eor~sitlt~rir~gI I I I I ~ - S itr is :llso ~)ossiI~Ic e~1~i111~1,echarlgo ~ :~ l VOI to tJrc i r r tlt*t~sil.y, Owilrg 1.0 (.II(. c:otrscrv:tt.io~~ r r r r ~ swo t b ; l r i write: ( V, 0. of ~, /I V) (Po4- = Ae) If,, el,, so t.11:tt. /Ie/.,, --1-A if/ I',,, nlrd ~ Y ~ I I( I, .f,) r:111 be written as

( ~ o n s c ~ t ~ ~ tl.lic~ I ~ I y a g:r.s ~ . : L I I IIC consit1t:rrtl iltaom~,rcssiblc:wlrc?rr tllc relative ~ r Ilow of elrango ~ I Itlrnsity rt:rn:rins very snl:~ll, Ap/e0 1. As know11 from J3erno11lli's otlrtnt.ion p t ?, w Z = i:otlst (irr = . vt:loc:il.y of flow), t l ~ cchange of premure, A p , I)ro~lgIrl, :~l)orlt, t.Ir(: flow is or t,ltc ortlcr of the tlyn:lmic hentl q = 1 p 1112, so t h a t I)? crltt. ( 1 . 6 a ) I)t~t:olrrcs

<

I Ire c l c ~ n o n l . a law of fricLion for a sirrrplc flow wil,lr sllonr tlt:sc~~il)ctl SccLion r~ in I 1) o:tn I)(: ap~)lictlo t,hc ilnl)ortant,. ant1 111orc:general, (:asc of (IOW Ir1rrt>t~g11sl.r:\iglrtl t :L pipe of circular cross-sccl.ion 11aving a corist~ant tlia~nnl.cr ) I 2 R. 'l'lrc vclocil.,~ t a tllc wall is zero, l)eca~rsc atlllrsiort, a t ~ t lrcarl~c:~ tn:txirnl~rnon the axis, I'ig. 1.2. of a Tllc vcloc:iLy remains co~rst,arrt cylintlrical surfaces wlrit:ll arc conccnt.ric wil.11 t,lrc on axis, ant1 1.llc i~ltlivitlnalcylintlricnl i : ~ ~ n i n a o i t l c ~ l ovor tvl.r>ll ol.lior, t.110 vc~lot:il.yl)l.itrg pr~rclyaxinl c:vcrywlrcrc. A rnot,iotl of t,l~is t i t r t l is c:~llt*tl I Irrnri)ttrr. At. :L s~ll'Iic~ir:rrl~ly large (Iist,:trrccfrom t,l~c er~t,r:~r~c;t: si:t:t,iorr l,l~t:vt~locil~~v ~list,ril)r~I~iorr l,l~i:st:t.t ior~ :li:ross l)t:-. cotncs it~tlc~ctltlcnt Llrc coorclirlate :~long1I1c tlirc:c:l,iot~ Ilow. of of

..

cl. Tlre Ilngrn-Poisc~rillee q ~ ~ a t i nof l flow tlirougl~n pipe ~ s

Fig. 1.2. l,:~rni~~nr flo\v t.Iiro~rgll pipe n

If, t.I~t~rc~foro, sllol~ltlI)<: srn:r.Il cornl)am~l /lp/e,, \vil,ll nnitrjr t.lrcn, as seen from cqn. (I .G), wc ~nrtst. :~lso Ilavc q/IC Q I. It Ilas 1.1111s hccn proved t h a t flows of gascs car1 be t,rcat*ed as i r ~ t : o ~ t ~ ~ ~ r o s\\,it11l a , good tlcgrco of approximabiocl, if t.11~ sil~ c clynamic lrratl is stnnll c:orrrp:~rc?tlwit01 ~ J I motlulrrs of cl:~st,icit,y. C

I IIC s:Lrnc rrsrrlt, can Ijc cxprcssctl irr a cliffcrcnt way if the velocit,y of sound is itll.rotlrtc:c~rl ittl,o t,l~a ttqrrat,ion. Accortlilrg t,o 1,aplacc's ccjrl:~t.ior~ velocity of sollrrd 1.11~ is c2 = K/c),,. llt\trrc t.hc c:orrtlit.ion Ae/pO Q 1 from c:qtr. (1.6) can also be written
7

J Ilc ratio of1.11t:vt:locit,y of flnw, 70, t,o 1.hc vcloc:ity of sonl~tl, is lcntrw~l the Mach c, as nr~rnhcr
7

?')re fluid moves under t,11e i l l f \ l ~ ~of l t,l~c l ~ ~ pressure grntliont w11ic:lr act,s in till: directiorl of t,hc axis, w h c r c . ~ scctions whicl~ in are perpondicrllar 1.0 it tlrc prcsstlro may be rcgnrded a s constant. Owing t o friction intlivitlual laycrs act on caoli ot.lrcr witll a shcaring strcss which is proportional t o the vclocit,y gmdicnL (17~/i1?/. lIctloe, a fluid particle is accclcrated by thc pressure gratlicnt anti rclardcd by t h c frictional shearing st,ress. No additional forces arc present, and i r ~ part,icular inertia forccs arc absent, because along every streamline the vclocity remains constant. I n ortlcr t o establish t h e condition of equilibrium wc consider a coaxial fluid cylinder of Jcngt01 1 and radius y, Fig. 1.2. l'he condition of equilibrirlm in t,hc x-djrccl,ion rcqrlirt:~tllat t h e presslire force (pi-p,) n y2 acting on the facrs of t,l~c cylinclcr Oe r.q~l;\l t . 1 1 ~ t.o shear 2 n ?J l . t acting on t,he circ~rnlfcrcnt~i:d area, w l ~ r n r owe olrllain

,I ,IIC ~)r(-rctlingr g ~ ~ r r l cIeatls 1,othe cor1c:lnsion (.hat compressibility car1 bc ncglcetctl a nt~
it1

I,hc l.rt~:~l.rnt:~~l~ flow of gascs if of t,llc

l n accortlancc with the law of fricLion, cqtl. (1.2), we Iravc: i r ~t21re prrscnt case (1.a)

: M2 < 1 <

(approximately itlcornprcssiblc),

i . a. if 1.lrr hlacli ri~rrnl)cr stn;rll comparctl wit,ll is or, in otlrcr wortls, if t,ho flow vt:locil,y is srnall t:ornl)amtl with t l ~ c velocity of sol~ntl.I n t,hc case of air, wit,lr a vrlori1,y of sollntl o f a l ) o r ~c .=. 1100 ft,/scc, tho cllangr irr dcnsit.y is Ap/eo t 1 M2 = - 0.05 for n flow vi.loc:il.y lo --- :!:jO ftilscc. 'rl~js value can be acccpt,rtl as 1,hc orlt,sitlo litnitt wl~t:rr a g:r.srorls flow car1 I)c cotlsidorcrl int:omprcssil)lc.

I t 1 \vl1:1.t, li,llows \v(: slrall ofi,t:t~ assume tthc flr~itlt o I)c incotnprcssil)le, wllicll will rcsl,ric-1, t,l~orcs111t.sL small h l : ~ c l ~ o rulr11l)crs. Ilowcvcr. or1 sevcml occasions, ir~ p:trl it:~~l:irr ( ; I I : I , ~ ~ .X I I , X 1 I I , : t t l t I S S I I 1, onr rrsttI1,s will l)c rxt,ct~tlrcio ir~cl~r(Ic it t c~orr~prc~ssil~l~: Ilrlitls.

'J'lrr const.nn1.of i~rt.cjim.l,inn, is obt.ai11ctl from 1 . 1 1 ~ C, rontlit.iorr of l'hlts 7, - O a t ?I - It, st, t.liat (: r= 112/4, nntl finnlly .

IIO

slip a,(.111t- \v:~ll.

1. Orrl.li~rr: firtit1 motion with rrirtiotr of

e. Iprinciple of ~irnilarit~; Roynolda and Much nurnbern the

13

ILln. (1.1 I ) s t n t ~ s h i ~ t t tbc vo1111ncr;.tc of flow is propnrtiounl to tllc first Ix)wcr the 1)r""Urc (1'0p ppr onit lrngth (pl-p2)/l irnd t o 1.11.: fo~trt,ll powor of tllc ra(jills of the pipe. Lf the mran vclooity over tho cross-scctioa li = 112 is intrr)~llllsrl, eqn. (1.1 1) can bc rrwrittcn ns

"qn ( 1 - 1 1) call ~t,ili~(:(:"t l t ~ 6'. cxperimcnt.nl d c t e r n ~ j n a ' i o i ) f ~ J I C ~ viSCmit,y, Illc n.:l,llo(l corl~isl*in thc mCanarel?~cnt tllc rat,c of flow ilnd of t,llc pressurn (jmp of across a fixell portion of ~1cn(~ill:lryt ~ t b c know11 m l t u r . Thus cIlollg~l of dnt,a rite providrcl t.o dctcrtninc 11 from ecrn. 1 I .11). . (1.10) and (1.1 I ) apply exists i n reality only for --, T ~ Itype of flow to'wlrich cqns. : rclativcly small radii arid flow v~locit~ics. larger vclorities and radii t h e character For of tho mol.iorl changes complctcly: tlrc prcssurc drop ceases t o bc proportional t o t,hc first powcr of thc rncan volocit,y as inrlicstctl by eqlt. (1.12), but becomes approxiacross mately proportionnl t o the second power of zc. The velocity distrib~lt~ion a secbiori hccolncs much more ur~iforln and t.hc well-ordered laminar ]notion is replaced h y a flow in which irregular and fluctuat,ing rarlial and axial velocity compor~cntsarc supcritnposcd on tltc main mot,ion, so t h a t , consequently, irlt,cr)sivc ntixing in a radial djrcction takes placc. I n such cases Newton's law of frict.iorl, eqn. (1.2), ceases t o I)e applicable. This is the case of lzdrbtcle?tt flow, t o l)c tliscnsscd in great cl(:t,ail latcr in C l ~ a p . XX.
v
3
\

,;.

I n the present section we shall endeavour t o answcr a very fundamcntol qllcstiorl, ~ l a m c l ythat, conrcrnrd wibh the contlitions under which flows of diffcrcnt fluids about two gcomct,ricellg similar bodics, and with identical initial How clircct,ions ~lisl,litygcomnt,rically nitnilar strc!atnlincs. Such mol.iorrs which lravc gconrot,rirnlly si~nilarstrrcarnlincs arc cnllctl tb?y,atrm.icttbl?y sirnilrr.r, or .qimilnr /10111~9.Jpor t w o Ilowa nl)ont, grotrrotrici~llyaitnili~r1)otIic~a y . irbont two s ~ ~ l t o r c a ) (!:. wi1.h ~lill'(:~.(:tt(. r i ~ ( I l la, clilli~rclltvcloc:itics r~rltl tiillkrcni;- .iincirr tlirncrtsior~s,t,o bo ~irnilar,it,, is cvidcnLly .... . . Ilccessary i h a t t h e f o..I o ~ v ~ ~ ~ g ~ q ! ~ ~ ~ t ,satislic(l ;.st ?ll.gc,~-me_tr,~~~!y l shoulcl be i ~ n sirni,l.r POillt$ thC . .- . .. acting on a flrtitl psrt.iclc niust !car a fixccl ~ t i o - lcvcry instatlt t . f6FCCS . . df t.iii16, \Vc sItaIl now cdnsicter the irn~~ort,nrrt casc whcn only f'rict,ional and inert,ia forcrs are present,. IClaslic forces wl~iclimay bc d u c t o clrangcs in volrnnc will 1)c cxcllltlcd, i. c. i t will bc assrlmcd t h a t t.hc fluid is incompressible. Gmvit:r.t.iot~:ll forces will also be cxcludccl so th:~t, conscqucntly, frcc surfaces are not adtnittctl, anti in the interior of thc fluid t h e forcc of gravity is assumed t o be bal:~r~cccl 1)y buoyancy. Undcr thcsc nssnmptions the condit,ion of similarity is satisficcl only if a t all points the ratio of incrtia arlcl friction forccs is tlrc satnc. 111 a motlion pnrallel t o t.he x-axis t h c inertia force pcr unit volr~me has t h e magnit,urlc of g l)lr/l)l, whcrc u tlcnotcs tlrc componctlt of vclocity in Olrc x-(1irct:tiorr and I)/1)1 clcnot,cs the sribstantivc dcrivativc. 111tho casc of stcady flow wc can replace it b y e aslax - (lx/,It = e v al~lax,where alllax clcnotcs t,hc r:hangc in vc1ocit.y with position. 'I111us the incrtia forcc per unit, volumc is c q u i ~ l C, u aulax. J'or 1.11~ tjo friction force i t is easy t o deduce a n cxprcssion from Newton's law of friction, cqn. (1.2). Considering a flllid pnrt,iclc for which tho x-direction coinci(1es with t h c rlircct.ion of motion, Fig. 1.3, i t is found t h a t t h e resultant of shcaring forccs is equal t,o = -a~ x d y d ~ . d Hence t h e friction force per unit volumc is equal t o atlay, or by eqn. (1.2), t o p a2u/ay2. Consequently, t h e condition of similarity, i. e. t h e condition t h a t a t all corresponding points t h e ratio of t h e inertia t o t h e friction force must be constant, can be written a s : Inertin fxcc L ! =,on, t . Friction force p a2u/aya
2

a~

1. .

I'rinciplc of si~nilarity;the Reyr~olds

Mac11 n ~ ~ m b c r s

Fig, 1.3. Frictional forces acting on,a flrlid particle

Tltc t y p r of ilui(l n ~ o t ~ i o ~ i cliscussn:(l in thoI preenling Scct,ion w r . very simple b c n a s c evcry flrricl part,icle ninvccl iltr(lcr the irifl~tcnecof friotior~aland pressure S r c a s orrl.y, incrtia b r c r s laing cvcrywl~cre q ~ l riln zero. 111a divergent or convergent c (:hn~trt~(:l fl11i11 ~):~,rticlm n.rt,ocl u1)ort by inert.ia forces in atlclif.io11 t o pressure and arc frirtiorr forrrs.

I t is now necessary t o investigate how these forces are changed when t h e magnitudes which determine t h e flow arc varied. The latter includc t h e density e, t h e viscosit,y p, a representative velocity, e. g. t h e frcc stream velocity V , a n d a characteristic linear dimension of the body, c. g. the diamct,cr d of the sphcrc.

Tlte vcloc+il I L a t some point i11 tlrc velocit,y field is proportionnl t o t.110 free y strrnln velocity IT, l,hc vcloci0y gratlictlt au/ar is proportional 1.0 Vld, ant1 similarly a 2 t r / ~ yis proporlior~alt o V/d2. Ilcricc the ratio 2

1Sq1tat~ing l.Ile cxponen1.s or L, T, and F on hot,li sitlcs of t,llc cxprcssio~rwc ol>t:lin three crqna(.ions: F : )I -40: 0, :

?'herefore, t,llc condil.ion of ~irnilarit~ysat,isfictl if tlie q l ~ a n t i l ~ yV d / p f ~ nthe same is p s flows. The qo:~ntityp V d / / i , wllicll, wit11 11.1~ v , can also 11c wriOt,cn = value in bol,l~ ns V d/11, is a tlimcnsiotlloss ~lnrnl)cr \>cen.tlsci t is t.11~ mt.io of t,l~c t,wo forces. I t is known a s t.110 Ilayitnk1.c ~slr.?t~bar, Tlir~st,wo flo\vs arc similar when t,I~c R. l<t:ynoltls nlltrl her

J.liis sl~o\vs I I I there cxisl,s :L ~ t n i q t l i ~c e ~ ~ s i o r ~ l c s s , ~ L~ ~~ n ct)tnI)it~al,ioti of tics V , d , p ant1 /L, nnmoly t,lte Itcyrtolds n l ~ m b c r R.

t,l~t:

I'ont.

(111:1,1tti-

R=

I'd - I'd~ -. I' v

(1.13)

is c ( l ~ ~ a l hoth. This principle was f rst r n u n c i a t ~ t lby Osbornc Reynolds [I 21 for in ronncxion with his iuvrstigations into the flow through pipes and is known a s Rryr~olcls'sprinciple of sin~ilarity. 'rhr fact t.hat the Rcynol(ls nr~lttlit-ris tlimrnsiorllrss ran \)e a t o n r r verified clirrrlly l)y consitlrril~gt,hr climrnsiorls

e Vd - !C : r --.b2
11

.
f t h v c

.f t . -

rtg

=1

lbf sec

wliich proves t l ~ a ttlic Reynolcls number is, i n fact, cbncnsionless.

Mrtl~oclo f indiccs: Instsntl of tlte corisitlorat.ion of t,hc cotldition of dynamic sitnil:~rit~y, Reynolds's prit~c:il)lccan also bc tlctl~~ccd cnnsitlcring dimcnsioris hy by t.hc tnctllod of intliccs. .In tltis oonncxion ilse is made of t h e observation tellat,all physical laws must be of a for111which is ititlcpcntlcnt of t h e particular syst,erri of ~ l n i t scmplo,yetl. J n t,l~ccase ~rntlrr corlsitlerat.ion I,lle pltysicrtl clunnt,it,ics wllich clel,er~nir~r flow :me: t h e free st.rcam vc:locit,y, V, a rt?prescnt,at,ivo1inra.r tlimc>nthe sion of t.l~chotly, (1. a s wt~llns thc densitmy, and tlic viscosily, IL. e, no\v a.slc whcl.llrr t.l~crecxis1.s a rornl)itl:l.l.ion of t,l~rsc q~~attt,it,ir.s t , l ~ c in form

Din~ctlsint~lcss quaatities: 'I'hn rcasolring followctl in tllo precetlitlg drl.iv:~fitin of the Rcynoltls nulnher can be e ~ t ~ c n t l e o inclndc tlte casc of d i f f c r e ~ ~ t td Itrynolrls numbers in the consitlerat,ion of tlle velocit,y ficltl ant1 forccs (normn.l :~ntl tangont.i:rl) for flows wiLh geornetrica.lly sitnilar bot~nc~arics. ttlr position of :L point in (.lie Let space around t h e gcomctricnlly similar botlics bc intlica1,ctl by tllc coortlin:tI.c~s !/, 1, z; t~llentho rat,ios z/ti, yltl, z/tl arc its tlitncjlsiotlless coortlirt:~l,cs.rl'l~c vc~loc:il.y t:olttponcr~t,s arc lnatlc climensionloss by reli!rriog tllern t o the free-stream vc*loc:il,y V , thus 711 V, 111 V, w / V, and l l ~ ltorrnal and sltcarirlg strosscs, p :~ritl , cart bo mn.clcr tlirnct~c t sionlcss I)y reforring thorn t,o Lllc tlorlbfc of t,llc tlyrtatnic lieatl, i. e. t o p V Zt.hus: p/p 1'" ant1 t / p V2. Tlre previously cn~~nciat,c~d principle of dynnmical sitnilarit,y can I)c c~x1)rt~sset1 in :Ln alternative form by asscr1.ing t,llat for tile two gcomctricnlly sirnilnr sysl,cnls with. equal Reynolds numbers t h e dimcnsior~less qr~ant~it~icsY , . . ., p/p V 2 i~tld 141 t/e V z depend only on t h e dimensionless coortlinatcs x/d, y/d, z/d. If, Ilowcvcr, t,Ile two systems are geomet~ricnlly,b u t not dyrlamically, similar, i. c. if t.lleir Rcynoltls numbers are different, t,llen tltc tlimensionless quantities under cor~siderat~iorl innst, also depend on t.11echamctcristic quantities V, d , Q, 1 of the two ~ y s t c m s . 4 Applying the principle t,llat pl~ysicallaws rnust I)e independent of the syst,cn~ nnit.s, it. fi>llows of t h a t t l ~ etlimensionless qtiarif,it,ies ~ c V, . . ., p / e V2, T/Q VZ can only dcpentl on a / dimcrlsionless combinatlion of V , d , Q, and 11. which is ~ ~ n i q n being tJlo Itcyr~olds c, number R = V d e/,u. Thus we are led t-otile conclusiori t h a t for t01c two gcon~cbric:~lly similar systtcms w11ich have different Rcynolds n u ~ a b c r s ant1 whicll arc bring compared, the dimensionless quantities of the field of flow can only be f~mcl.ions of tlic tthree dimensiorlless space coordinates z/d, y/d, z/d and of t.11~R.cyriolcls number R. Tile ~)rccc(lingdirr~c~isiotral annlysin can bc ~ ~ l i l i z c t l tt~:~ltc n itrlport,:r.ttt, o a asscrt,iorl about the t.obl force excr1,cd l)y a fltlitl strealn on an immcrsotl I)ocly. 7'11c force acting on tlto bocly is tllc surface integral of all normal and ~ l l c a r i n g st,ressc:s acting o n it. If P denotes the component of the resultant force ill a n y given direction, i t is possil~lcto write a tlirncnsionless forro coefficient of t h e form P/c12 Q V2, 11111, instead of tlrc a,re:b d2 i t is cnstomary to clloose a diKcrcnt chnract,crist.ic aro:l, A , of t,he immersed body, e. g. the f r o ~ ~ ta.rea exposed L trIle body t,o tile flow tlircct<ion al y which is, in the casc of a spherc, equal tjo x d 2 / 4 . IIencc tho dirnerisionlcss force coefficient becorncs P / A e V2. J)iniensional n.nalysis lcatls t,o the conclrlsiorl t.llat for geomet.rically similar systems t.his coefficient can dcpencl only on t,lro tlirnensionless grottp formctl wi1.11 V, (1, p, and 11, i. c. on l.11c: ltcynoltln t~rttnl~cr. c-otnlionc-111, 'J'hc

c. I'rinciplc of si~nileril.~; Ilcynoltls nrlti Mach nuin1)crs 1110 of I,ho resultant forcc parallcl t o the ~lnctisturbctlinitial vrlority is referred t o a s t11e drag I), and t h e component perpencliculnr t o t h a t tlircct.ion is callctl lift, 5.Ifencc the dimensionless cocfficicnts for lift and drag become C
,

17

-A -

nnd

C, = -

if (.he tlynatnic: 11cad 4 Q V 2 is S C I C C ~ , C ~ for rcfcrcrlce instcatl of t,hc clunnt,it,y e V2. Thus tho argurncr~tleads t o the conclr~siont h a t the tlirncnsionless lift a,ntl drag coefficients for gcornetrically similar systems, i. c. for geometrically sirnilar bodies which have t l ~ esame orientatmionwith respect to t h e free-8trea.m direction, are ful~ctionsof orie variable only, n s ~ n o l ythe Reynolds nr~rnhcr:

18VSA

I) --- - ,

(I . 1 4 )

c,,=/,(R);

CD=/~(R).

(1.15)

I t is ncccssary to strcss once more t h a t this import.ant conclusion from Reyr~olds's principle of si~nilarit~y valid only if t h e assumptions undcrlying i t are satisfied, is i. c. if the forces acting iri the flow arc due t o friction and inertia only. I n the casc of colnpressible fluids, whcn elastic forccs arc important, and for motions with free sllrfaces, whcn gravitational forccs must be taken into consideration, eqrrs. (1.15) d o not apply. I n such cases i t is ncccssary t o dedrlcc diKerent similarity principles in whiclr the tlin~ensionlessFroudc nurn1)cr F = (for gravity and inertia) and the c1irnensionless Mach number M == V / c (for cornprossible flows) are inclucled.

V'J

v/G~

Fig. 1.4. Drag coefficicnt for circular cylinrlcrn

n, a

fr~nct.ion tlie Jleynoltls nl~nibcr of

T h e importance of the sirnilarit,y principle given in eqns. (1.14) and (1.15) is very great ns far a s the scicrrccs of t h ~ o r c t ~ i ca n d cxpcrirncntal flr~id sl mechanics are concerned. First, the dirncrrsior~lcsscocfficicnts, C,,, C,, arid R are irlclependent of t,hc syst,cm of unilm. Secondly, t,hcir use leads t o a considerable simplification in the cxtcnt of expcrimcntal worlc. In most cases i t is itnpossible t o tlctermit~cthe ft~nc(.ions f,(R) and /,(R) t,l~rorctit:ally,ant1 exporimcr~t,:~i ~nct~lrotls ~ l s tbe 11sot1. m S I I I I P O S tl~ali t is tlcsirccl t o tlrt.crrnino the t l r : ~ ~ ~ I I ~i t:ocfficicr~t ITI, for a spoc,ilit:tl s11:q)cof I)ocly,c. g. a spl~crc, tllcn wiLl~otlt applica1,iorr of 0l1c~ ~ r i n c i pof sirni1:~rit.y t.11~ lc i t wo111tlhc? ncccssary t o carry out drag rncasuremcnt.~ four indepcntler~t for variables, V, d , Q , a n d IL, antl (,his woultl const,itute a trcmondous programme of work. I t follows, however, Lhat t2he drag cocfficicnt for sphcros of diKcrcnt tlinmctjors with cliffcrcnt s1,rcarn vclocitics antl tliffcrcnt flr~iclsclcpcntls solcly on onc v:~ri:~l)lc, t.hc Itcynolds r~nrnl)cr.Fig. 1.4 rcprcscnt,~I,hc d m g coefficient of circular cplintlcrs a s a fr~rrct~ion the Itoynolds number antl shows the exccllcr~tagreement hetwceri of expcrimcr~tant1 Reynolds's principle of similarity. The cxperirnentnl point,s for the drag cocfficicnt, of c i r c ~ ~ l cylinders of widely differing diarnetcrs fall on a single ar curve. 'The sarnc applies t o points ohtnined for the drag cocfficicr~t spheres plotted of against t , l ~ c Iteynoltle ~ n ~ r n b in Fig. 1.5. The s~ltltlcr~ er decrease in t h e value of thc drag coefficient which occurs near R = 5 x lo5 in the case of circular cylinders and the casc of spheres will be discussed, in n ~ o r edetail, later. near R = 3 x 10"n Fig. 1.6 reproduces photographs of t h e stream$nes about circular cylinders in oil talcen b y P. JIornann [7]. They give a good idea of t h e changes in t h e ficld of flow associated with various Reynolds numbers. F o r small Reynolds numbers t h e wake is laminar, b u t a t increming Rcynolds numbers a t first very regular vortex patterns, known as Khrmhn's vortcx &recta, are formed. A t sLill higher Reynolds numbers, not shown here, tho vortex patterns become irregular and turbulent in character.

Fig. 1.5. Drag coefficient for spheres aa n fi~nctionof tho Reynolds nrunbcr Curve (1): Stokcs's theory, eqn. (6.10);curve (2): Oseen'a thcory, eqn. (0.13)

e. Principle of 8irnilnrit.y; t,he Reynolds ntld Mac11 n l ~ ~ r ~ b c r s

19

I'l:~r.l~nlrnrl (I!lR?) O II<IIIII\II ( I I I G I ) 0 NACA (1969)

Fig. 1.6. Firl~i flow of oil n h o ~n cirrl~lnr of ~t c.ylir~tlor t wrying IZrynolcln n~c~r~bnrs Homnnn a nltcr 171: Irnnnition from lnrninnr flow t,o n vortrx ntrrt-t, i l l I:1111innr fln\v. T l ~ r freqr~cnryrnngr for R = 65 t.o R 281 C:III I)c tnltrn Iron1 Fig. 2.9

\V. Jonm, J . J. Cillotta and 12. \V. \Val.

krr

[a]

111Int.er t.inlrs s n c l ~pici.nres for low R,cynoltls 1111rnl)crsu p t.o R 1)sS. 'l'nnetla. 1141.

= .

3 n c r c protll~cctl

I t is sect1 in Fig. 1.4 t,llnt, t,l~c.(IraF! corfficicnt, o f a. cirr~rlarcylitltlcr rrac:lles minirnllm of CD w 0.3 n t n I<,ey~\oltls n111n1,cr brt,wrc>t\R -- 6 x lo5 :%~ltl A rcglrlnr lo6. vortex strect, tloes not exist in this rangr of Itcynoitls ntlnll)ors. A t very high R ~ y n o l t l s nurn\)ers exceeding R w 10" ttllr d r a g coefficient itlorrases a t n considrrnl)lc rat,e, (1.4 seen from Fig. 1.7 which is bnsrd on t,lle mcasnrrmeni~s pc.rformei1 h y A. Itoshko 1131 nnd (:. W. .Jones, J . .I. (>inot,t.anntl I t . W. \.Vnllter (81. A t R = 10' t ' l ~ r tirag n oorffic-irnt, reaches n vnltlr of' Cn 0.56. According 1.0 t.he precedirlg ar~t~llors, rrg111n.rv o r t r x st.rret, c~st.nl)lishrs itself ngnin a(. R > 3.5 x lo6. 1 11e drng of R ~ ) J I P T C R hns rrcrnt,ly also 11ern invrst,ignf,rtl at, very high R.cynolds r~unlbers [I]. I t e r e too, a s wns t h e rase wit,l~h e cylil\clrr, thc tlrng coefficirnt increnses t n.pprecink~ly1)eyond its minirnrtnl at GD w 0.1 n t nbout R = 5 x lObn.t,t>nining CLI 0.2 n t Iteynoltls n l ~ r n b c r s close to R = 107. C:rit,ic,n.lrcvirws of drng mrnnurcnlrr~is n s p h r r r s RS it filn(*t,iorlof tJ1c Rry1101ds o nl~n~\)c,r t.11~ nntl Mn.c!h nnrnhcr wrre prrl)n.rrrl by A . 1%.Ilnilry n.nd ,T. Ilint~i. I n ] ns [ IV(*II a s 1)s A. I$. l$nilry an(1 I<(. I?. S h r r I l l ) ] .
r
7

I l ~ f l ~ ~ eof~rc rn ~ l ~ r r a ~ i l ~ i 'I'l~r ~lrrccvlingn r g l ~ ~ n r\vas tc:or~tlnc-tc><l t ~ r lttIICr i o lity: ~~ . ~t ~ asslllnption t.l~:~.t f l ~ ~ iwas incornl)rcssilrl(:, : ~ n t i t wns fount1 t11:1t,t l ~ d i ~ ~ l c l ~ s i o r ~ l c s s 1.11~ tl l c tlrprntlcnt qrlnnlit,ics w r r r fnr~ct.ions one tlirr~c~rlsionlrssr g u ~ n c ~ ~ t , , Rc*y~~oltls of n t.hc number, only. \V11cn Ll~c H11ic1 ro~nprrssil)lt: is t.hcy tlcj~cr~tl nrl ntltlit.ion;tI tlirnrt~sionon Iclss 11111nl,er,, l ~ filar11 nntnbcr M -- 1'1~ i c ivhicl~ can Ite rcg:~rtlrtl,a s sl1o11.11~.Stv-. 1 r.s , .. in . a s n ~ n r n s n r c t . 1 1 ~co~nl)rrssibilily t l ~ r of ol' llowi~lg n c t l i r ~ l n . IIlc case o f sr1t.11flows, ~ 111 i. c . wllcn con~t~ressibilit~y plays an rsscrllinl pnrl., t l ~ otlirnrnsior~lcss corflicicr~fs clrl)r~iclon l)ot.\~ pnrnmctrr R :l.ntl M. 1Stln:~tion( I ,151 is t11cr1 rc~l)I:~t.ccl I ~ I

C,,

= fl

; (R, M) ; C,) = 1 (R, M) .

(I.l(i)

An r s n m p l r of s r ~ r la. rrlalionsl~ipis givrn in Icig. I .S \vl~ic,hSIIOII~S :L 1110t. (11. t l t P ~ tlrng (~oel'licicnt, of sl)l~c.rc:sin t e r m s of t,lrt%Itrynolrls I I I I I I I I ) ( % R ':-- 1.' I ) / , , :1t1t1 (r, ~ t,lle hl;~clll l l ~ l n b ~ ~ r= V/C. 'J'l~c C U ~ V Cfor M M 0.3 is l~r;i(-ti(~:~ll.y coit~citI(~~lt, 11.itI1 i,liat in Fig. 1.5 for incolnl~rc-ssiblc flow w l ~ i r I)roxrcsf11:1t, 1.0 M == O.:l i , l ~ict l l l ~ ~ c ~ r l c . ~ ! l~ 111) of tile M n c l ~n u m b e r is nrgligible. 011 t ' l ~ c ot.lirr Il:~ntl at. 11igI1rrn l n r l ~~ I I I I I I I ~ ~tIlr~ I. ir~llrlenceis large. I n this conncxion i t is r~ot,r\vorlhy l,lrni, ill t.11r r:Lrlgr of ILc~g~~oltls ~~lrml)c?rs roverrtl by t,llc tlin.gram, i1.s inflc~cncc c t t ~ l r s r 1110r1~ :111tl11101.ca s t,llr Alnrl~ n~lrnl)c~r incrcnsctl. is
~2:

f. Comparison hrtween t,hc tl~eoryof perfcct 11r;itlsanti expcrin~cnt

21

f. Co~~ipnrison belwccn t l ~ ctheory of pcrfcct fluiila nt~cl rxperi~nrttt

In t,he cases of t,hc motion of water ant1 air, wllic11 arc the most i~nport.ant ones in el~girtecrirlgapplicat,ions, the Itcynoltls nurnl)crs arc vcry Inrgc l ) r m l ~ s c t l ~ c of very low viscosil.ics of tl~csc flrtids. 1.t wor~ld,t,llorcforc, apl)c:tr rcasonal)lc t,o c-?c~)ccL very good :tgrecmcnt 1)cLwccn cxperin~cnt,ancl a 1,hcory in w l ~ i c lt~ ~ c l itlllllcncc of viscosity is ncg1cc:tcd alt,ogcthcr, i. c. with the thcory of pcrfcct fluitls. I n any case it secms uscful to begin thc comparison with experiment by rcfcrcnce to t,llcory of perfcct flrlitls, if only on ncconnt of tho large num1)er of cxist,ing cxplicit mathematical solut,ions. I n fact, for ccrt,ain clnsscs of prot~lcms, st~clr wave formation and tidal n~ot.ior~, as excellent results werc obtainctl wit01 t,hc aitl of this theoryt. Most problems to bc rliscusscd in this boolr consist in I,tic st,udy of t,he motion of solid 9odics tjhrough fluids a t rcst, or of llr~itlsflowing through pipes a.nt1 channels. I n such cascs t,hc use of the theory of pcrfcct fluids is limit;cd because it,s solutions do not satisfy thc conI tlihion of no slip a t the solid surface whicll is always the case! with rcal fluids even a t very small viscosities. I n a perfcct tl~litlthcro is slip a t a yall, and this circamst,a~~ce inLrodtlccs, cvcn for slni~llviscosit,ics, sr~cllf~~ntl:~.mc:~t.al tliKcrcnccs tjllat i t I is rather surprising to find in somc cascs (e. g. in the case of vcry slender, stream-line bodies) that thc two solutiorts display a good measr~reof agreement. The greatest tliscrepancy 1)etwccn the theory of a perfcct fluid and experiment exists in the cor~sitlcrationof drag. The perfcct-fluid theory leads t o the conclusior~that when an n.rhit,mry solitl body movcs through a n infinitely extended fluid a t rcst i t expericnccs no forcc acting in t.he clircction of motion, i. e. t h a t its drag is zero (dlAlembcrt's paradox). This rcsult is in glaring cont.radiction t o observed fact, as drag is tncnsurod on all bodics, evcn if i t can bccorne vcry smaU in the case of a streamline botly in stcady flow ~ a r a l l c lto its axis.

Fig. 1.0. Frictionlcss flow about a circular cylinder

Pig. 1.10

- - -R R ..... R

- frlctionlerur 10' flow = 1.9 x

Pig. 1.10. Pre~strre distribution on a circ~tlarcylinder in the auhcrit.icnl and er~pcrcriLict~l rntlgc of 1 Reynolds nnnibers after t,he ~neasuremet~ts 0. Flncl~sbnrt[4] and A. Roahko [13]. qoo T;. e 172 of u is the stagnntion pressure of the oncorning flo\vs

Flacl,s,,nrl

= 8.7 x 10' 8.4 x 10'

) (lg3')
Itonlikn (1001)

we By way of ill~~st.ration now propose t o make some remarks concernirlg tlhe flow about a circular cylinder. Tile arrangcmerlt of st,reamlirles for a perfcct fluid is given in Fig. 1.9. It follows a t once from considerations of symmetry t h a t the resultant forcc in the direction of mot,iorl (drag) is equal t o zero. The pressure clistributiorl according to the theory of frictionless motion is given in Fig. 1.10, togcther with the resnlt,s of measurcmerlts a t three values of the Reynolds number. At the leading edge, all measured pressure distributions agree, to a certain extent, with that for a perfcct fluid. At, the trailing end, the discrepancy between theory and measurement becomcs largc because of the large drag of a circular cylinder. The pressure distributlion at, the lowest, sobcritical Reynolds numbcr R = 1.0 x 105 diffcrs no st from that given by potential theory. The measurements corresponding to the two largest Rcyrtoltls numbers, R = 6.7 x 105 and R = 8.4 x 106, are closer to the potential curve t,han t1hose performed a t t,11c lowest Reynolds number. The large variation of pressure disltril)utrionwit,l~Rcynolcls number will be discussed in detail in the next cl~apt~er. corresponding pressure-distrih~t~ion A curbe around a meridian section of o, spl~cre rcprodl~ccdin Fig. 1.11. I-lere, t,oo, measurements show large differences for is the two Reynolds nrrmbers, and, again, the smaller Reynolds numbcr lies in the range

Fig. 1.11. Pressure distribntion around n sptlere in the auhcritical and supercriticnl range of Reynolda nnmhem, aa measured by 0.Flachsbart [3]

of largc clrng cocfficicnl,~, wl~rrcastho Ir~rgcrvalue lics in l l ~ c rllrlgo of srnnll clrc~g coefficients, Pig. 1.5. 1 1this case tile r t ~ ~ z s n r cprcssltre-cli~t~ributior~ 1 d curve for tho largo Reynolds number approximat,es the theorct~caidi:rvo of frictionless flow very well over the greatest part of the circumfcrcnce. , Considerably better agrcemcnt between the t h ~ o ~ e t ~ iand measured pressure cal distribution is obtained for a streamline body in a flow parallel bo its axis [5], Fig. 1.12. Good agreement exists here over almost the whole length of the body, with the exception of a small region near its trailing end. As will be shown later this circumstance is a consequence of the gradual pressurc increash ill the downstream clirectiotl. Although, generally speaking, the theory of perfect fluids does not lead t o useful results as far as drag calculations are concerned, tllc lift can be calculated from successfully. Fig. 1.13 represent,^ the relation between the lift cocfficicnt ant1 it v ~ r y angle of irlritlcr~cc,as ~neasurctl1)y A. Bct,.~ in t l ~ c [2] caso of a Zhukovsltii :ic~rofoil

22

I. Outlir~c flrticl motion wit11 frict,ion of

Fig. I .Id. ( ! o t ~ ~ ~ ~ n rIICLU~CII isrr~i t.11t: t.hrort*tir:~lnllcl nirnanrrrl jlrrswlrr: r l i x l rill111 inn f11r n Z1111kovskii 11ri)fiIr i~r111nI 111 lifts. :lflvr 11. 1h.1~ (2)

of illfirlitosl)nll : ~ n , lr)rovitlrs n compnrisori \c,il.l~t , l ~ r o r y .111 t.hc rarjgc of inc:itlrnco illlglrs a : ; l o 0 I,(> l o 0 t,llo iigrcc?tncnt is s c c n l,o b e goo11 nntl t h c s m a l l tli~(.rcllces c::Ln bc rxplnjnrrl I)y t,111: irllll~ctlcc frict,ion. 'J'llc ~ n r n s l l r r c l of n1111 cnlrl~lnt.rtl1)rrssIIro tlist.ril)~rt.ion.s ngrcc vct.y wrll too, ns sllown in l'ig. 1.14. l'hc diucrrpnncg b r t , w e r n t . l ~ r o r yn.ntl rncnsrrrclncnt tlisplnyctl in P i p . 1.13 ant1 1 . I 4 is n conscqclcllco of tllc tlisl)lnccmot~t, :~c:t,ion of t h e I)ountlnry I i ~ y c rnntl const.it,~~t,csb o r r ~ ~ t l : ~ r ~ - l nc. f k c t n ycr of liighrr ol,tlt,r. :LS will 11c s h o w n a g a i n in S r c . IXj.

Ilelrrr~~rrn Fig. I .12. Prmsrlre distrihntion nl~ont n ~trenli~-litie body of rcvolntion: cornpnrison bctncol~ tllcory nrlrl mcnsuremc~~t. nftcr F u l ~ r l ~ l a n n ] [5

Fig. 1.13. Lift nnd drag roefficicnt of n Zlnlkovnkii profile in ptnnm flow, n8 ~neanrlred by l%etz 121

[ I J , \ $ c ~ ~ l ~ n r h , E.uj~cl.in~c~~ln flow pnsl. nllllrrrn at, vrry lliRll I t ~ ~ ~ n oI lI~ lI sI I I ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ . 15.: on the I .JI'R1 5.1, 565--575 (1!)72). [In] Il;iilcy, 11. 13.. ntld I-li:~t.L, Spllcrc tlriig cool'licir.nts for11 hrontl rnngr r,f ill:~cl~ I<ryllol~18 .J.: nlrcl n~i~nllers. AIAA ,I. 10, 1426 - 1440 (1!)72). 1 1 111 Ilnilry, A. 13.. anrl Rlnrr, I<.17.: Sllllr.ri: tlr:rg nl trnnnorlic*~pc*crln n11tl l~igllIb:y~~c,lrlsI I I I I I ~ I ~ ~ H . I i1lAt1 .J. 1.4, 1fi:iI (l!)7li). 1 1 liot.~, : UnLcrsuc1111ngri~lcr~ T o l ~ l t o m s k i s'l'rnglliirl~r.ZIPRI 6 , 17:) l7!) ( l ! ) 5). 2 A. rl~~~~ ~ (B] l~lecl~nl~nrl., Ncrlorc U~~terorl'.llur~gc~~ ldUf~\vitlcr~~.n~~rl 0.: iiller dell YOII 1i11~rl11. 1)llys. Z. 28, 461 - - 469 (1027). [4] k'lncl~sbnrt,0 . : LlTincl(lrlr:.ic ~ u C:lsbal~iilt,rr.Itel~ort,n tile ,\\'A in (.:iif.ti~~ge~~, Series. : f of lVf.11 134- 138 (1982). [ 5 ] lPullrlnnnn !:.: Ti~coretisrl~cl l c l c x l ) r r i ~ l ~ r ~ ~U ~ ~ l tl r r s r r ~ l ~ RII ~l5n1101\111otlcI1c~1. rl t ~~ c r~ tge~~ 1)iss Cot,l,il~ 1910: ,]I). k l n ~ r l ~ ~ f l ~ c l ~ i K . S tV~ 6:$--12:s~ ~ ~ 1/12). . e11 ~ ~ ~ l i (l!)l g c ~ 161 T,:I~cII, i?bw rlic l3c:xveg1111g \Vnsscrs i t 1 rngcn z y l i ~ ~ ( l r i s i ; It?i11rc11. g g . AIIII. (2.: clcs l~c~~ h .l(;, 523-442 (IR:19). (71 ITotnn1111,17.: I<i~rfluss grOSSCP Ziil~iglteitI)ei Skriimllng 11111 Zylilltlcr. I"ornclrg. Tllg..\\'on. 7 , 1 - I0 (l!)3($). I R ] Joncs. (. \\'., (!itlottn., .I. ,I., and \\'nllzo, It. W.: Aerocly~rn~~~ir. on n alal.ionnry ntlcl : Srorr.cs onr.ill:rLi~~g circrll:l.r rylindcr nt Iiigh Itey~~oltls ~ll~rnb(:rs. NACA 'Tit Jb-:3OO (I!)(;!)). [!I] Nat~lllnlln,A.: I,~~ft.~vit~crsL:ll~rl Krlgeltl bai hollcn U n t c r ~ r h n . l l g e a c l ~ ~ v i n t l i ~ 1\11.t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . Yon kci PVIII. \Viir.~~~cl.rl:l~~~iIz 2 1 (1953). 4 , 21 7 2 (101 ~ : ~ I I I I I ~I\., I 11,1111 l'(billi:r, 11.: Ubor (lit- ( : ~ C I I Z ~ C I I ~ C I I ~ ~ ~ L ~ ~11.111I I I I I I ~ Ilci 11011011 II II, ~ I Zyli~l(lcr ~cscl~wi~~ctigltcitcl~. ~ I I I in ~ Acroni~t~t,irnl AC~V C R SC~CIICCS V O I I I < ~ ~ I I Iell.) I \101. 3 , ('1'11. ~I , 185.- 206, Londo11, l9li2. [I I] J'oiort~illr, .J. : J~6rl1crcl1cs ~ ~ ~ ~ r i ~ n cstir~lc c~ l~ lI c \ s C I I I Cclcs ,Iii~~~irlcs IPS tt111rs(It: c ~ t I ~ II~ ~I:LIIS t,r+njlct,it.s diarrlc?trcs. Colnl)t,cs R.enclus 11, 901 -967 nrld 1041---1048 (1840); 12, 1 1 2 -115 (1841); in Inore clctitil: M61noirm den Savsnta Etmngrrs 9 (1846). [I21 Il.cynolcls, 0.: An r:x~~cri~~irntnl illvcstign.t,ion of t,lic cirr~rn~st~nt~c~cstli:tcl.lninr. \vl~ctl~r-r n,lliol~ tllc tnol.ion of wntrr nllnll be dircrt, or S ~ I I ~ In.tldIof , Inar of rcsistntrcoi~l ~ I S Lllc l~nrrlllcl t~ll:~.t~t~c-ln. I'liil. 'l'mnn. Roy. Soc. 174, 935-!)82 (188:l) or Scicnt ific PILJ)CPS, 51. If I131 Itoslrlco. A. : ICxpcri~nc~~tatile flow pnst IL circnlnr cylilldcr atvt'ry Iligl~ on Rcy11oIi1s1111111Irrrs. J1'M 10, R45---:!5li (1961): sre nlso: 011 wrorlyna.nlic drag of cylintlcrs .zL l~igll t,lic I<cyrtoltls nlllrrbers. I':~l)er prcsontrtl a t t.11~ .Jnpnn Itrscnrcl~Scn~innr t ~ IJS o 1Yi11tl1,ontls 0 1 1 S I r l ~ rttrps, l Unir. of Il:~\vnii,Ocl. 1!)70. I141 Tnnerln, S.: I<xperirnr~~t,nl it~rcat.igntio~~t,I~o of n-nkco I~cl~irrtl rylinrlct~airrl pln,tos :~t. low Il.oy11olt1s11111n11rrfl. I'l~ys. Soc. ,Jnpnr~11, 302 -.307 (1!)5li). ,I.
~

a. Tllc hollndary-laycr concept

25

plate, with t>hc tlimensiorls across i t considerably cxaggcratctl. I n front of the leading edge of the plate t,hc v r l o ~ i t ~ y clistribrttion is rtnifornl. With increasing distattrc from thc leading edge in t h e downst,rmm direction t h e thiclrness, cf, of t,lle retardetl layor incrrasrs continrlor~aly, nn ilicrrnsing qrtnnlitira of f l l ~ i t l I)oc*onlo t1TTc~t*lrtl. 15vitlcr1tly tho lhiclrnrss or the 1)onntl:~ry Inycr tl(~t*rc*nsc.s O c ~ c r r a s i rvigrosity. wit11 ~~

Outline of boundary-layer theory

a. Thc boundary-layer concept

Fig. 2.2. Sketch of l)orlntlnry layer on a flat plate in pnrallel flow at zero inciclcnce

---

t n tho casc o f fluitl motions for which the measured pressure distribution nearly agrcrs with the perfect-fluid thcory, such a s t h e flow past the streamline body in Fig. 1.12, or the aerofoil in Fig. 1.14, t h e influence of viscosity a t high Reynolds nrlmbers is confinetl t o a very thin layer in t h e immediate neigl~bourhooclof t h e solid wall. I f t,hc condition of no slip were not t o be sat,isfit:d in the casc of a real fluitl there wollltl 1)c no appreciable tliKcrcncc bctwccrl t h e fieltl of flow of tllc real fluitl a s comparcd with t,hnt of a pcrfcct fluitl. The fact thaL a t t,hc wnll thc fluid adlicres t o i t means, howcvcr, that, frictional forces rctarcl the motion of the fluid in a thin laycr near the wall. I n that, thin layer the velocity of tile fluid increases from zero a t thc wall (no slip) t o its full value which corresponds t o external frictionless flow. The layer under consideration is called t h e boundary layer, and the concept is duo t o L. Prantltl 1263.

On t h e other hand, even with very small viscosities (large Reynolds nrtmbcrs) t.hc frictiortal shearing strcsses T = /c au/a!j in the 1)ourldary laycr arc consitlcrnblc bccnusc of tJltc Inrgc vclocily gr~~tliont, across lllo Ilow, wllcrct~s o~tl~sitlo ~ o t l I~ol~~ltlttry layer tiley arc very small. This physical p i c t ~ ~ srtggcst~nt h a t the ficltl of flow in t.11~ rc casc of llnids of small viscosi1.y (:an I)c tlivitlctl, for l,l~o pllrposo or mal,liornnt,icnl annlysis, into two regions: ttlc t.llin bountlary laycr near the wnll, in w11ic:h rriction must be taken into account, ant1 the region outside tllr bountlary layer, whcrc the forces due t o friction are small ant1 may be n c g l ~ c t ~ c d , where, tllcrcforc, the and perfect-fluid theory offers a very good approximation. Such a division of the field of flow, as we shall see in more detail It~tcr, brings about a considerable simplification theory of the motion of fluids of low viscosity. I n fact, t,he of the ~nat,l~ematical t,heoretical study of such motions was only made possible by Prandt.1 wl~erl 11e introclucctl this concept. We now propose t o explain the basic concepts of boundary-layer theory wit11 the aitl of purcly physical ideas antl without the nsc of ~nat~hcmatics. mat,hcrn:~t.iTtle cal bor~ntlary-layer tllcory which forms tile main t.opic of this book will bc tliscr~sscel in t h e following chaptcrs.

Figurc 2.1 rcprodl~ccsa picturc of the motihn of water along a thin flat plate in which the s!,rcamlincs wcrc made visible bjr the sprinkling of particles on t h e sl~rfn.cc tltc water. The traces lcft by the particles arc proportional t o t h e velocity of of flow. Tt is scen t h a t there is a very thin laycr near t h e wall in which the velocity is' considorably smallcr t,han a t a In.rgcr distance from it.. The thickness of this holtrltlary laycr incrc,ascs along thc plate in a downstream direction. Fig. 2.2 repre~nnb tliagrammatically the vclocity distribution in such a boundary layer a t the

Tile decrlcratctl fluid pnrticles it1 thc boundary laycr (lo not, in all cnscs, rrmnirl in the thin lnycr which atlhcrcs to t h r I ~ o d y along thc whole wcttcd lcr~glhof ~ I I ( % wall. I n some cases the boundary layer increases its ttrickness considerably i r ~ t.he downstrcarn tlirection and the flow in tho bountlary laycr beconics revcrscd. 'l'his causes the decclcratcd fluid particles to be forced outwards, wllicll rnmns illat thc boundary 1:tycr is scpnrated from thc wall. Wc tltcn spcalr of boundniy-ltryer sepalation. 'J'his phenomenon is always associatrd wit11 the formatiot~of vortircs ant1 wit11 largc energy losses in the walre of the body. It o_ccur_sprjmarjlyn r a r blunt bodies, such % circular cylinders ~ n c l ~ s p 1 . 1 _ ~ - ~ ~ . such a body thcrc exists a region s Behind of strongly dccrleratrtl flow (so-calletl wake), ill whicll the pressure distribution deviates considerably from t l ~ a in a frictionless fluid, as seen from Figs.l.10 arlcl 1 11 t in the ~ r s p r c t i r e cnscs of a rylindcr and a sphere. The large tlrng of such bodics can be explau~ed the existence of this large deviation in pressure distributiorl, which by is, in turn, a conscq~~ence bonntlary-layer separation. of

2(i

T I . Ol~tlirtr I)ol~nclnry-lny~r of throry

E ~ t i n ~ n I iof~ t o ~ ~ ~ ~ d n r ~ - l n y e r 'rhc t,l~ickness f a boundary layer wltirlt n h tllickllr~s: o llas riot scpnrnlrtl can I)(! casily cst,irnnLrtl it1 t h c following way. Wl~crcasfriction forccs can be ncglcctctl with respect t.o incrt,ia forccs outaide tho bourltlary layer, owing t,o lo\v viscosit,~, h r y arc of a comparable order of magnitrldc insitlc it. 'rhc t inert,ia forcc prr 11nit volu~nc a s cxplninctl in Scct,ion l e, equal to Q 71 ~ T L / ~ For is, X . a pIat,c of lottgl.l~ t,ho gr:ttlintlt arr/a:r is proporl.ional t o ll/l, where I J tlrrlotes tltr 1 velocil,y onLsitlv tltc! I)orlntl:~ryInyrr. Ilctlrc l,hc irlcrl,in forcc is of l.hc ortlt:r I, 1J2/1. On l,hc ot,hcr 11at1tlt h e friction forcc per n r ~ i volurnc is equal t o at/all, wllirll, on the t ass~~rnpt,ion lnrninnr flow, is ccl~lnlt,o 11, a21t/i)?/2.The velocity gratlicnt al~/ay a of in tlirrcLion prrl)rnrlic~llnr t.l~c t,o wall is of t,lm ordcr Ill6 so t h a t th(: friction forcc ])or ~ t i ) i l~ o l l ~ t t l v i)~/&y ~ is lI/02. Proni t,hc cot~tlit.iorlof equality of the frictiorl :lrlcl inertia forcsrs t.ho following rc*l:ltion is ol)t.ained:

wherc s l ~ b s c r i p ~ 0 tlerlotes the value a t tlrc wall, i. e. for y = 0. Witll tllc estimate ( a u / a ~ ) ~ / d we obtain 7 , , U / d anti, inserting the value of d from cqtl. (2.11, U u we have

We cart now for111 a dirncnsionlrss sl,rcss wit,h rcTc.mrlrc l o I, l l z , ns c~xl)l:~ittc~cl in Cltnp. I, ant1 obtain

t4

82

e UZ
1

This rcsult agrees wit.11 Llle tlilncrtsiotrnl an:llysis i t 1 C11;tp. I, wllic,lt I,rc-tlic:t.c.tl~.II:II, the tlimensionless shc:lring strrss r o ~ ~ ltlrpnrld otl tho Itcynol(ls ~l~rllll,c.r tl ortly. .Ihc t4nl drag 1) on t.he p1:~l.cis rq11:11t o hlt0 whrro 11 clcnol,rs (.It(: \\.iclt.lt of 1,110 p1at.c. Ilcrlce, wit.11 t,hc aitl of ccln. (2.3) IVC ol)t,nitl
7

or, solving for t Itr I , o u n t l ; ~ r ~ - l a ytlriclcr~rss rr Ot:

Tlte I~nlnr,ric:nlf:~rt,orwltic:l~ is, so f:~r,st.il1 ~tntlct,crn~inerl will be tleduc:ctl Iatcr (C!l~:lp.VII) from t,lrc exnc:L solut,ior~ givct~by II. 13lasi11s141, and i t will turn out t.llnt i t is ct,rlal 1.0 5 , al)proxinlatcly. llrncc for lnmiarrr flow in t h e bountlary layer we have (2.1 a) 'Yhc tlinlrr~sionlc~ss \,onr\rlnry-lnyer tltirknrss, rcfcrrctf t o tlte length of the plate, 1. t)eronles. -

Tltc lnrnit~:lr frict.ionnl tlrng is t.ltrrs see11 t.o I)c ~)rol)ort,ional I1:Il2 ;t.tl(l /It2. I'rol,o ~)ort.ion:~lil,y I l l Z rnc:Llts l.It:tI. (1o11J~littg 1 ~1)1:1t(: I ~ t t g ( ,(Io(*sl l O t r tl(,t~l)lt*t c ! (lt.:tg, L o 1.1 l~ tl ancl t,llis result (:an he 11tiderst.oor1113' c.ott~idrrit~gl ~ a t.llc d o \ v ~ ~ s t , r c1)nrt. 01' t.11(? f. t :t~~~ plate nxpcricnccs n stnailer drag t,llall t.llc leacling portion hcc:~nsct.ltc I ) o u l t d : ~ r ~ layer is Lhicker towards the tarailingedge. Finally, we can write tlowll arl cxprcssioll for the climetlsionless drag cocfficicr~tin accortlnncc wit-11 cqn. (1.14) in whicl~1 . h ~ rcfcrencc aron A will be rcplnced by t.lro wettctl area 61. llcncc c q l ~ (2.4) givrs tlt:~t, .

Tlte nrlmrric:ll fartor follows from 11 Blasius's c x a r t solution, atttl is I 328, so t l l : ~ ~ , the drag of a ~ ~ l ninr parnllrl 1nmin:~rflow 1)rromc.s t wllorc R, clrrlotcs t,he Itcyrloltls nunlber rclatod t o the Icngth of the plat.c, 1. T t is wen from cqn. (2.1) tallat t<hci~oandary-layerthickness is proportional i n and t,o I . If I is ropla.cetl t)y the variable tlist,ance z from the leading edge of the plate, i t is seen t,ltat d incre:lses pr~portionxt~ely to On tho other hand tho relative boul~(~ary-Iaycr t,I~ickncss ( l e c r e m s with increasing Reytlnlds number as I I ~ R O/i so t h a t in t,ho lirnil~irlgcase of frictior~lessflow, with R -+ oo, tllc boundary-layer t.lrickness vanishes.

4;

ii.

We are now in a position t o estimate the shearing stress zo on t h e wall, and c o n s r q ~ ~ c n t l y , t,ot,ni drag. Accorcling t o Newrton's law of friction (1.2) we have t.hr

Tltc followir~g tlt~~nrricnl rxamplc will serve t,o il11tst~~rt.c: l)rec:c*clingc:st,i~rt:~ : t.hr t.iolt Laminar flow, stSipulntctlhere, is obt:~it~rtl,s is known r'ronl exprritnctlt,, for Itcya nol(1s numbers CJllv not cxceccling :~l)out,6 x 10Ql.o 10% lpor 1nrgc.r I<cyltoltl~ n u n ~ b c r s I~oundnry t.11~ lnycr 1)ccon1cs I,~lrbr~lcnt.. sl~nll \I'c now rnlc111:~t.o I~o~ttltl:~r)~tht: layer t,llickncss for the flow of air (11 = 0.144 x 10-Vt2/sc,c) a t t.lle c.ncl of n plat(: of length 1 = 3 f t a t a velocity U = 48 fklscc. Tltis gives R, == ( I l / v : 10"nnd from eqn. (2.2)
6 1 - 103

.--

= 0.005;

7-

0.18

ill

A lllorr rigororls tlrfiniliott of I)o~lrtclnry-Iayrr thicknrsn in given s t the cnct of lhia section.

Thc drag coefficient froni eqn. (2.6) is C,, . 0.0013 i . (:. cxrcc:tli~tgly srrlall n,Itcrl cornparetl wit11 t h a t for a circular cylindrr, Fig. 1.4, bcc:ausc t,l~c dmg rocffic:icnf, for a cylin(1cr also includes pressure forces.

28

TI. Or11,linoof bor~ndnry-layer thoory

b. Srparation antl vortex fortnn(.ion

20

Dalinition of I~nnndnry-layerthickness: Thc clefinition of tllc bourltlary-laycr t.lriclrncss is t o a ccrt,ain extent arbitrary 1)ccausc transitsion from t,hc velocity in t,llc borlntlary t,o t h a t o~~t.sitlc t,:~.ltcsplncc asympt,obically. This is, I I O W ~ Vof ~ , it C no pract,icn.l import,ancc, I~ccnusc t,hc vclocil~yin thc bor~ntlnry laycr at.t,:iins :I. vnl~lc wl~ic:his vrry c:losc t,o f.ho cxt,crt~n.l vclorit,y n.lrcatly nt, a snrnll tlist.ancc from 1.11~ wnll. It, is Ijossil)ln to tlc:fino Lhc I~oilnd;~~~y-I:~yc:r t~hioltrlcss l . l ~ nrlis1,:~noofrom l l l c : :IS l wnll wllorc: t,hc vclonit,y tlilTcrs I)y I pc:r ct:t~L fro111 t l ~ c oxt,crnn,l vrloci18y. \ V i l . l ~ t.11i.s dcfinit.ion the rtrtlncric:~lf:~.ct.or cqn. (2.2) has the valnc 5. [nst,ead of t,llc bonntlaryin laycr t.lri(:knc~s, nn(>trlrcrqnnnt.ity, thc dinplr~cernentthickness a,, is somct.imcs used, Fig. 2.3. I t , is dcfirletl I)y t.hc cqnnt,ion (2.6)

half frorn D t o E, and decelerated on the downstream half from E t o F. Ifcnce the pressure decreases frorn D t o E antl increases from i t o F. Wltcrl the flow is started ' u p the motion in t h e first insttarit is very nearly frict,ionlcss, ant1 remains so as Iqng as the bonr~tlnry lnycr remains thirl. O~rtsitlc I~onntl:~ry tho lrtycr tllcro is n tprr~l~s~ornlctl.io~ of prcsstrro in00 Itincl.ic energy i~long1 R, 1.110 rc:verso I.nlting pl:tc:o rilottg IC I(', so 1 IJtat IL 1)arliclc n r r i v o ~ 1' wiI,lt 1110H I L I I I ~ >vclociI,y 11s it, I t l i t 1 nl, J). A l I r c i ( l 1):~rI.iclt: 111, 1 wltich lrroves i 11 t,I~cimlnctlinlo vioi~til~y tatlo wtill in t,llc I)o~lntl:r.ry of I:~.yorrc:~rt:iitls under the influence of the same pressure field a s t h a t existing outside, I)crause the external pressure is imprcssctl on the bountlary layer. Owing tlo tlrc large friction forces in the thin boundary layer such a psrtic:lc consumcs so much of its kirtbtic

Fig. 2.4. Doundary-layerscpara-

tion ~indvortex forrnntion on a circular cylin(1er (dingra~n~natir)

S

point nf 8cl1nrnI.lo11

'rhc displnccment tl~icltncss indicates l.llc tlistancc by which t l ~ external strcamc lines arc shift,cd owing to the ionnat,iorr of t,llc I,orlndary Iaycr. I n t.he case of a plate in parallel flow ant1 a t zcro incidcncc tlrc tlisplaccmrnt tVhickrressis about & of the bountlary-layer l,hicltncss 0 givcn in cqn. (2.1 a).

b. Srpamlion ant1 vortcx forrnntion

llte bo11ntln.ry laycr near a fl:~,t plnLc in par:tllcl flow ant1 at, zcro incitlencc is ~jart,icrllarlysirnplc, Ijccausc tltc static prcssurc remains consCnnt in the whole field of Ilow. Sincc orlt,sitlc the ljo1111(1:~ry lnyrr t,hc vclocity rcn~aitrsconst,ar~t t,hc same n,pplics t.0 t.he p r c s s ~ ~ l~ecallscin t l ~ c re frictiorrlcss flow Bcrl~orrlli'scquat.ion remains valitl. F ~ ~ r t h c n n o r c , prcssnrc rcmnitls scnsibly cotrstnr~tover t.hc \vidth of t,hc tlrc \ ) o ~ ~ ~ r r l a r y a t a givcn rlist.ar~rc 1Icncc tlrc I)rossurc over thc widt.11 of the layer x. I~ountlary Iayrr has tlrc snmc mngnittrtlc ns ont.sitle t.hc bor~ndarylaycr a t the sanrc elist.ancc, ant1 t.lrc sarnc applies L cnscs of arbit,mry hotly phn.pcs whcn tJro prcssnrc o o~rt.sitlc l.hc I)o~tn(l:~ry I:~yt:r vnrics along t,lrc wall wit11 t , l ~ c Icngl.h of arc. 'l'llis fnct is cxprcsscd I)y saying t,h:~t, t,lrc cst.crnnl prcssnrr is " i ~ n ~ r c s s c t lon t,hc boundary " Inycr. Ilcncr in t.hc cnsc of tJrc ~not.ionp : ~ s ta plate l,hc prcssnrc rcmairls constant. t l ~ r o l ~ g l r ot,ltr: Lb o ~ ~ n t l n rInycr. ~~ y isi!rtinral~ly 'j'lrr ~hrnonrrnorr I,o~~rrtl:~ry of lnycrsrpnratiot ~nrt~tiot~c~tlprc~viously - - . c,ot~nc-clctlwrtll tlrr prcssurc t1istril)ution in ti16 orintlary layrr I n t,hc bountlary Inycr on a plate rro srpnmLion takrs pl:trr as no back-fldw occurs

..

111ortlcr to e~\plnitrtht. very ilnportntrt pl~rr~ornrrlon t)outrtlary-lnycr s ~ p a r a t i o n of let us rorrritlrr 1 l ~ Ilo\v :~l)orlI Ijlrrnt l)otly, r g abont, a rirrnlar rylirltlrr, a s shown r n i t 1 IClg 2 4 111 ft ic.1 inltlc~ssflow, t l ~ c f1111tlpnrl irlrs nrr : ~ r r r l r m l r t lon tllr npst,ream

energy on its pat.h from D t o E t h a t thc remaintlcr is too s ~ n a l l srlrmo~lntt.hc to "pressure hill" from E t.o F. Such a parLicle cannot move far into t,llc region of' increasing pressurc between lC antl P antl its moLio11 is, evcntnnlly, arrcst,ed. The external pressure callscs it t,lrcrl t,o move in tho opposite clircct,ion. The pllotograpl~s reproduced in Fig. 2.5 illnstrat.e the sequence of cvent.s near the downstrcarn side of a round body when ,z fluid flow is started. The prcssurc increases along t,Ile I,otly contour fronr left t,o right, the flow Ilnving been ma.tlc visil)lc by sprinltlirrg nlrtminirlln rlrrst on tho surface of thc water. Tlrc boundary layer can be casily rccognizetl by rcfcrcncc t o tlte slrorl traces. In Fig. 2.5a, Laltcn shortly aftcr the s t a r t of Lhc rnot,iorl; the rcvcrsc motmion has just bcgtln. 111 Fig. 2 . 5 b the rcvcrsc nrotion lrns pci~-t,r:.tctl a cot~sitlcrahlc distance forward :~ntll , l ~ c bountlnry Iayor lrns tllicltcnctl n.j)prcc:i:tl)ly. Fig. 2 . 5 shows how this rcvcrsc mot,iotr givcs risc t o a vortex, whoso sizc is incrc,iscd ~ still furt,l~cr Fig. 2.6tI. 'l'l~cvorLcx bccorncs scp:~mtctl in sllorlly n f L c r ~ : ~ rn.11c1 ~ I s rnovc!s tlow~~strearn tho fluitl. This circnn~stanccchangcs complctcly blrc fiolcl of flow in in tho waltc, and Lllc prcssnrc clisLrib~l(,ior~ suKcrs a rntlical cltnngc, ns cornparctl with frictio~rlcssIlow. 'L'llc final statc of nrotion can I)c irlrcrrctl from I'ig. 2.6. In t,he eddying region bclrind thc cylinder there is consitlcrable suction, as sccrl fro111 the pressure distribution curve in Fig. 1.10. This suction causes a large prcssurc drag on t.he body. 1 A t a larger distance from the body i t is possible t o discern a rcg111:lr patt,ern of vorticcs which move alternately clockwise and courrt~crclocltwise,and which is known a s a IGirmiin vortex strect [20], Fig. 2.7 (scc also Fig. 1.6). I n Fig. 2.6 a vortex moving in a clockwise direction can be seen t o be about t o detach it,sclf from the body before joining the pattern. I n a fnrtlrer pzpcr, von Icilrmhn [21] proved t h a t such vorticcs are gcncrally nrrst,nblc wit,h rcspcct to small t l i ~ t ~ ~ ~ r b apnrallcl ncrs

30

1I. Outli~rc bo~rndnry-lnyer or tlrcory

Fig 2.6. Jnslntltnnrnr~s~~lrotogrnpll of flow ~ r i t l r ronrplrte holrrlclnry lnyrr nrp:rratinrr i r r I I r r a.:~ltc: of it c.ircul:~r rylilrdcr, ~ ~ f l c r l'r~i~r~lll-'~irt.jrr~s 1271 Fig. 2.7. KhrmQ~i vortex strcct, from
A. Tirnlnc [38]

Fig. 2.8. Strmmlirrm in nvortrx strrrt (hll = 0 28). Thr fllrid i8 nt rest, nt t ~ infinity, a~itl h vortrx street move8 1pi~. . 5 ~ 2
Fig. 2.5n. I,, r , tl.
1271.

Src. nlal,

Ipip.

Fig. 2.5~1 Urvnloptnrnt. o l I)onr,dsry-In,yrrsrgnrntiotr with limr, nft.rr 1'rnrrclt.l-Tict.jcrrn 15.5

t o thr~ns~:lvc:s. 'I'lrc only nrmngnncnt wlridt sllows ncrrt.ral ctloilil,riurn is t,hat wit.11 0.281 ([Cia. 2.8). Tllc vort,ex sl.rcet rnovcs wit.11 n vcloc:it,y I L , which is slnallc\r I , \ ~ : I . I I t.Ilc no\\, vrIorii,y I I in front of t,he I ~ o d y I t cn.n l)c rcg:~rtletl s a highly idcalizctl . a pict,r~rrof t.hc rnot,ion in t.he wake of (,hc bocly. The kinetic energy cortt,ainetl in the vrlocit,y fit:ltl of tlre vort.cx street must be continually created, as the body moves t.llrongh tile fnitl. On the basis of this rcpresentrn.,tion it is possible t,o deduce a n exltrrssion for t.hc (1r:l.g from the perfect-fluid theory. I t s ~nngnit,rrtle nnit lengt,h per of tllr cylir~dric:~l hotly is given hy

Circ~tlur cylittder. 'l'hc frccluency wit,lr wl~ich vor1,irc~s r r shrcl in a I<:i.t,rrl:i~i a vortrx ~ t , r e r1)rhintl a circular cylir~dcr t was l i r ~rxt~cns~vcly t rncns~rrctl 11. Hlnnlc, I). I"ucltx I)y n.nll 1,. 1,icbcrs [ R ] . A rngr~lnr K:i.rrn;irt st.rcct is ol~srrvt~tl orlly 111 t11r mllgc: of J l c ~ ~ ~ n o lltllrnbrrs IT I ) / v f r o ~ nabout 00 1.0 5000. At. lonrrr 1~vyt1oItls \ ~ I I I ~ I ) ~ I . s tls I t-he wnkc is lnminnr nrrd has the form visible in the first two pllot.ogrnplls of lcig. 1 .(;; a t l~iglrerlteyr~oldsn u r ~ ~ b c r s t,herc is c o ~ ~ ~ p l t lt~ r b u l r ~ mixing. Mcn.sllrcb1nrr1t.s c e lt show t,lrat in t,ho regular range given nbovc, the tlirncnsionlcss frcclncr~ny,

n = e U 2 h 2.83 -- -1.12

I ; ,

hlorc rrvrrlt c.xpcvirnr~rt.nl irtvmI.igr~t.iolrs to \W. .I\ Dnrgin nnd ot.llrrs [I31 r.stnblishetl tlrle :III nc.tS1.lrr;lIin~ voltrx sll.vrt, 1 . 1 1 ~rnt io 01 (,ttrlnngil.l~tli~l:rl llir t~nr~svrl-sr to s~raritlg tllc of vorl.icl.~ l l n I l g ~r~o118itlornl)ly. s n rrs~tlt.,lr(- rrgrrlnr nrrntrgrrrrr~rl vort.irm is l.rntlsfornlrclintn t~ ~n A 1 of n t . ~ ~ ~ ~ l )a:rkc. r r l , ~~le ., .
t.ltnt. i t ,

also Izt~owt~ t.llc S ~ , I . O I I tllttl1l)rt. 1371, tlt%l)c.ntls ~ r l yon 1 I 1 ( a I < c ~ ~ . ~ ~I oI lI t Il Is~ , ~ . ~ . . as ~I:I~ o I I 'J.'Iris rrlxt.ionshij) is s h o w ~ l plotted i l l Wig. Z.!) which is btrsc~lott tnc.zsr~rrmc~nt~s 1,crforrnctl hy A. R , ~ s J ~ l r v 132.1; see also [IS]. 'l'hc c~xp~rirncrrtal point,s whic:h wprr 01)t.ai~tctlwil.11 cylir1t1cr.qo f tlilrr?rcnt8tli:~rrlot.cra11 nr~tlrtt tlill'c.rcrlt, voloc:it.ic~s I' ;rr.l.:ttrgc t~~etnsclves well or1 n sir~glccrrrvc. At the higher Rrynoltls nu~nhorst.hr Stror~llnl nurnbcr rernnins a~rproximntelycortst,n.nt.nt S = 0.21. '1'11is vtiluc. of S, ns ~ t ~ c . 1 1 fl.0111 Fig. 2.!), prevails up to a I t c y ~ ~ o l r nambcr R = 2 x 10" t,hnt, is i t 1 t,ho srtl,cr.it~ic~nl ls range (see also Fig. 1.4). A t higher Reyrloltls nnml)rrs, sn.y arolrrrtl R = 106, a, r,gt11nr vort'ex stret:t does not exist,. According to A. Itoslllro 131 1, s i ~ r ln~ rcgl~larstrrct. re-nppc.ars at, ext,rcmcly large Rcyrloltls nurnbrrs (R 1 :1 x 100) ~vhcn1.111. St.1~0111lol

32
030028 -026
-

I I. 011t.linc boundary-leycr theory of

02 L
0 22 020 01 8 016 OIL01 2
~-

V n = 3 ' 10cm Frltnbrrgcr ( I ) D = 2 + 1Rcm I)rcnrl~er 1)- 0 , d + 4 <,I11 Illbncr nticl lCl klnn ( 2 ) 1)s 26 mi
1~11111111

O 1)- 45 ctn Ilrallko (3) 1)- 91 cm

Jones e t

sl.

- -

Fig. 2.9. The Stroi~l~nl n~trnher, , for thc I<Lrni.ittvort.cx st,rcct i n t,hc flow pnst n r i r c ~ ~cylindcr 5 l~r in terms of the Rcyt~olds nr~lnber, Mcnsure~ncnt.s R. performed hy A. Roshko 131. 321.11. S. Ribner, 13. 14;tkitls nnd K . I<.Nelly [30]. E. 1'. llelf end L. F. G. Simmons [28] ns \vcll na (2. M. Jones et 81. ' (181?f (.'l~np.I ) . 111 t,l~c range R 3 X 10Vo 3 k 10"(811pcrcriticnl rogit~~c very Ion. tlrllg. wit,h Fig 1.4) the 1<hrmA11 vortex st.reet,is no loger regular. It is ol~lyat R > 4 x loRt,hat.n reg~~lnr pst.terr1 ~ O T I I I Rngeitl; its St.ro111lnInumber iu now higher at. S = 0.26 t,o 0.30 compnrcd \vit,l~ 5 % 0-20 nt. R - 10Vo 3 x 105

number assumrs values around S = 0.27 I n this connexion the paper by P W Bearmarl 1.7~1 may also be consult,ed. When t,hc diameters of the cylinders are small and the velocities arc moderate, tlic resulting fr~quencies in the acoustic range. For lie example, the farnilinr "aeolian tones" emitetl by telegraph wires are the result of t,liese phcnornena At a velocity of V = 10 mlsec (30.48 ftlsec) and a wire of 2 mm (0.079 in) in tliarneter, t,he frequency becomes n = 0.21 (10/0.002) = 1050 sec-', and the corresponding ltcynolds number R a 1200.
Flnt plnte s t zero incidence. The fact t h a t a regular vortex street est,nblislies itself, among ot,hcrs, behind slender bodies a s well a s in compressible streams has only bren cstal)lishcd recently by 11. J . IIcinemann c t al. [18]. The photograph of I'ig. 2.10 shows S I I C ~a regular vortex street behind a flat plate a t zero incidence for a Mach number M = 0.61. The diagram in Fig. 2.11 contains a plot of the Strouhal number, , S = rrdl I,', formetl wit.11 t.he plate thickness, d, in terms of the Mach number, but only for t h r s111,sonic~ mnpr M = 0.2 to 0.85. T h r dingram proves t,hnt, here too S a 0.2, 11s vais 1111- ri~s(. li)r t 1 1 ~virrulalr eylintlrr in Fig. 2.9. The corres~)ontlingReynolrls rtumbers, rrfcrrcrl to t.11~ length of the platme, in the range R = V l l v = 3 x 105 t o are 8 x 10Vn which t,lle flow is laminar. I

Fig. 2.10. Von I<hrtnltn vort.ox ~troet, l)t:I~itltl a flat plate nt zero incidcncc at n Mncll n n t n ber M = 0.61 nntl a Ttcynolcls nrtn~bcrR = V l / v = 6.5 x 105 after 13. J. Heinctnn~~n ct al. [18]. Lengt,h of plnte 1 = 00 mni, thiclcncns ratio dl1 = 0.05. 11:xpoanrc time approx. 20 nnnonec (20 x 10-"ec)

]Pig. 2.11. Stro~ll~t~l I I I I G ~ : ~ -- vt.d/lJ i l t III S terms of the Mach nrltnbcr for the vortex street bellit~dn flnt plnte nt zero incitlence, after H. J. I[einctnnnn et nl. [I81

a n earlier paper by L. Rosenhead [32a] may also be consulted. The reader may also be int,crested t o look up the text of a remnrlr made b# 1,. Prandtl on the occasion of a lecture by I<. Friedrichs (,,Bemerlrung iiber die ideale Striimung u1n einen Korper bei verscl~windender Zahigkeit" Lectures on aerodynadics and allied subjects, Aachen 1929, Springer, Berlin 1930, pp. 51, 52).
Scpnrntion. The borrndnry-laycr tl~cory suceccds in this nianncr, i.c. wit11 t,ho nit1 of the explanation of thc phenomenon of separation, in td~rowingligllt on t,hc occurrence of prcssurc or form tlrag in ntlt1it.ion to viscor~rrtlrng. Tllc t1nngc.r ol' I)ol~t~(larylayer separation exists always in rcgions with a n adverse pressure gradient antl t h e likelihood of its occurrence increases in t11c case of steep pressure curves, i.e. behind bodies with blunt ends. The preceding argument explains also why t h e expcrinlent,al pressure distribution shown in Fig. 1.11 for t h c case of a sler~der st,rcan:lir~e body differs so little from t h a t predicted for frictionless flow. T h e pressure increase in the downstream direction is 11erc so gradual, t h a t there is no separation. Conseqnently, there is no apprcciablc prcssurc drag and the total drag consists mainly of viscous drag and is, therefore, small. The st,rcarnlincs i r l the bountlary layer rlcar scp:tr:ttion arc show11 tlingram~natically in Pig. 2.12. Owing to the reversal of the flow t,llcrc is a consitlerablc t l ~ i c k c n i ~ ~ g of t.11~ boundary layer, antl associal,ed wit,h it,, thern is a flow of bountlary-layer mat,orial i11t.o the outside region. At tllc point. of srpnr:~.l~io~l st,rramlinc interone

Two p.21)cr~by C. C. Lin. [22] and U . Domm [I 11 concern themselves wit11 the t,l~eory t,llc I<Armhn vort,ex street,. The formation of a vortex pair behind a flat of plnt.6 i l l cross-flow at, right, angles to it has been investigated t,heoret,ically by E. Wederncycr [RUa], \\~herras1'. Sarplraya [3311] conducted t.licorcttical and experimental st11(1i(>s n ~ d n ( nrranprtl nt n I:~rgeangle ol'at,t,aclc (see Fig. 4.2); in t-his ronncxion For r

1). Scl)nralion and vortex iormntion

35

src1.s t,l~c wall a t n tlcfinitc angle, ant1 t,lrc point of s~p:iri~t,ion it,sclf is tl~:tern~irlctl 1)y tllr ro~lrlitinnt h a t t.11~ velocil,y grarlic.111.norlnnl t o the wall var~isl~cts t.htrc:
S

p o i ~ orscpnrnt.ion ~l

T'ig. 2.12. I)ingmnitnnt,ic represellt.nf,ion of flow i l l t,llc 11o1lt)tlnry layer near n point, of ~cl)nrnt.ion

I llc prccisc location of the point of st!pariit.io~lca.11 110 tlctcrr~lit~ctl 0n1y wit.h t.l~c i t l ~ of an cxncl. c:ilo~ll:~l~ion, I)y tlto i n l i ~ g r i ~ t i o r ~1.111: I,o~c~~tl:~ry-I:~.y~:r i. e. of' t:q~l:~t,io~l?i.
7

Scparal.ion, as tlrsc:ril)ntl for l l ~ c r:~sc: o f n t:irc~~liir ttyli~ltlcr,ciin :LISO occur in a tligl~lytlivergerlt rhxnncl, Fig. 2.13. I n f r o r ~ t the l.l~roat. 1 1 ~prcssnre tlccrcnsrs of t it1 thc dirrctiolr of flow, atltl the flow ntlllcrcs conlplclcly t.o tllc walls, a s in a f r i c t ~ i o n l c ~ ~ fll~i(I. Jlowcvcr, bcl~intlt,ho tllront t.lrc tlivcrgcncc of tho cl~nnncl so I:lrgc? t.I~:it. t.11(: is bountlary layer bccolnes scparatetl frorn both wnlls, nrld vort,iccs arc I'ormcd. TIIC stream fills now only n srnall portion of tho cross-scct.ionn1 area of t.11~ clrannc:l. llowever, separation is prevcnted if bonntlnry-layor snctiorr is npplictl n.t t,l~c wall (Ipig~. 2.14 ant1 2.16). Tllr. photogrnphs in Figs. 2.16 nnd 2.17t j)rovc t.hat tllo atlvrrst~ ~ ) I . I , S S I ~ ~ ~ : gr:dicnt t,ogct,llcr will1 fricI.ion near t.lra wall tlctcrlninc tire proccas of sc~):~r:iLiotr wllicll is intlcpontlcnt of sllch o t h r circumstance as c. g. t l ~ c curvnture of tJlc wall. 'Jllic first picture shows the mot,ion of a floitl against n wall nt right angles to i t (plant stsagnnt.ion flow). Along t,hc streatnlinc in t . h ~ - ~ ) l a ofesymmetry whic11 lm,tls ho t,lrc n st,agnat,ion point tllcrc is a cot~sitlcrablc prcssllre incrcnsc i n t,hc clircclion of flow. No sepnration, howcver, occurs, because no wall friction is prcscnt. 'I'herc is no sepnmt,ion near t h e wall, either, because here t,he flow in thc bonntlary laycr taltcs place i n the direction of clecrcasing pressrlre on both sides of t-he plnnc of symmetry. If no\\. a tl~irl wall i~ placed along thc plnnc of syrnmctry a t right anglcs t o thc first, wn.ll, Fig. 2.17, t h e ncw boundary laycr will show a pressure increase in t,hc dircct.ior1 of flow. Conscqrlrnt.Iy, scparat,ior~ now occurs nm,r 1 . 1 1 planc wall. 'L'hc incitlcnce of scpnmt.ion ~ is often rntllcr scnsitivc to srnnll cl~nr~gt?s~ slrnpc of t.he solid botly, part.ic:~~lnrI~. i r the when t h r prcssrrrc tlistribuLio11 is strongly affcct.ct1 by this charrgc in s11al)c. A very instrrrctivc exnrnplc is given in L ~ I C pit:t,l~rcsof Fig. 2.18 whicl~show pl~otogrnpl~s of the flow fioltl alto~rtn n~otlrlof :I tnot.or vefricle (t,hc Volkswa~gcrlclolivcry vnn), 123, 351. Whcn t,l~o nosc was Il:~t, giving i t an angular slrapc (a), the flow past thc: fairly s l ~ n r p corners in front car~scd largo suct,ion followed by : large prossure incrcnsc L along the sidc walls. This led to ronlplcte scpnration and t o tlle formati011 of a wido wake behind the body. T h c drag cocfficietlt of tlre velricle with this angular shape 11ad n valnc: of C , .= 0.76.Thc litrgc: sl~ct,ion ncar t h e front cnd itnd l.11~c ~ ~ : ~ r : ~ l . i o n s along t l ~ c sirlo walls were clinlinat,c:tl WIICII t,hc s11ape wa9 ol~nt~gctl a.rltlirlg 1.I1t: by rollrrrl nose shown a t (I)). Sirnult,ancortsly, tho tlrag cocfticierrl became rna.rltrtlly smaller ant1 had a value of CD = 0.42. Further rcscarch on such vchiclcs have beell performctl by 11'. H. IIucho [In] for the rase of a non-~yrnrnet~ric strcam.

Fig. 2.14. Flow wit.11 1)ortnrlnryIn.yor srlc(.iot~on upper w d l of Irigllly tlivcrgerlt cl1n1111rl

Fig. 2.1.5. Flow wit,l~honndnrylayer nuchion on 110th wall8 of highly divergent channel

Fig. 2.16. nrld 2.17.11nve I)een t,alten from Llle "Stronl~~ngrr~ I)an~pfkossrlnt~lnfcn" in by TI. Foet,t,ingcr,Mittcilltngcn tlcr Vert-inig~~oc! Ilr*.'IUUU:ICrsqelbenit,7.e.r, No. 73, 1,. Ihl (1!)39).

b. Separation and vortcx formation

37

Separatiori is also important for the lifting properties of nn aerofoil. At small incidence arlglcs (up t o about lo0) the flow does not separate on either side anti closely approximates frict8ior~lcss cot~tlit~ions. prcssurc distrih~it~ion slleh a cnsr The for ( " S ~ I I I Iflow, Vig. 2.11)n) WILR givo11 in Vig. 1.14. Will1 inoron~ingi~tcitlo~~cn ~" l,lrc\rc* is tlangcr of srl>arnt,iotion tPhesrlcI,io~~ of tho ncrofoil, I ) c e r ~ ~ ~ s o l ) t ~ e s s ~i~lr. e sitlo t,l~e l crcnxe bccomcs sleepcr. Por n given ai~glc incidenc~, of which is nljout l!jO, p a r a t ~ i o ~ ~ ~c Litinlly occurs. The scp:~ratioll o i ~ is tlocated fairly closely behind the lcadirig cdge. p ~ Tl~c wr-kc, Fig. 2.19b, shows a large "(lead-water" nrca. The friclionless, lift-creating flow patter-n has I)ccornc dislurbcd, ancl thc drag has become very largo. The ,heginning of scpnrat.ion n c ~ r l y coincidcs with t<heoccurrence of maximum lift of the acrofoil. Str~acturaloerodynomics. Flow around land-bnsed bluff bodies, suc11 as structures ant1 b~~ildings,consiclcral~ly is more complex t h a n flow arountl streamlined botlies and aircraft. The principal cause of complication is the presence of the grountl a ~ i t l the shear created in the turbulent wind as a consequence. The interaction between the incitlent shcar flow and the stsruct,ureproduces coexisting static and tlynamic loads [8, 9, 101. Tlie fluctuating forces produced by vortex formation and shedding can induce oscillat,ions in thc structures nt. l.heir natural frcqllencics.

flow with IGg. 2.16. Frrc stagnation flow \vitl~o~~tarpn- Fig. 2.17. 1)rcrlrrated 8Lag11:~tiorl sc~~arntion, pllotogrnphed by Focttingcr ns ration, au pliotogrnphrtl by Fotttingrr

fa1 Anaubr nose

The flow patterns observed on a tlctachcd rectangrllnr building is shown sahrlnalically in Fig. 2.20. I n front of the builtling t,l~ere appears a bound vortrx w11ic.h arises from the interaction of the boundary layer in t,he sheared flow (d V/dz > 0) ant1 the ground. There is, furthermore, strong vortex shedding from the sharp corllcrs of the building and a complex wake is created behind it. So far no theoretical mctliotls have been developed t o cope with this extremely complicated flow pattern. It is, therefore, necessary t o rcsort t o wind-tunnel studies with the aid of adeqrlately scalctl models.

(b) Round nose

I
( I

I
0.92

no separation

IFig. 2.18. I'low n.l,orrl, n ~ n ~ ( lof l a noto or vrl~inlc(Volltsw:i.gc:n t1i:livrry vrm). nftrr 15. Morller c 1231. n) Angulrrr 11oso will1 8rpnrntcd flow nlorlg td~owhole of the aidc wall rind lnrge drag cocfficicr~t(C,, = 0.70); h) 1tor111d iionc wit11 11" ~cpnrntionnntl small clrng cocmcic~lt(CD = 0.42)

bound

Pig. 2.20b

Fig. 2.20. Overall view of flow pat,tern (schematic) around a rcotnl~gular st.rocture [MI. Side view with a) foreward hound vortex in the stagnation zonr and ~cperntod roof l>otlntlnry layer; h ) ~lpwit~tl and fcce vortex ~hcrlt~i~rg tho from t hn willdward rornrr of thr roof

%'o conclude t l ~ i section, we ~vislrt,o tlisc~iss partsicrlla.rlytellitig example of s n enectively it is possible to reduce the drag of a body in n st,rearn wlret~t.lrc sel)arntioll of the boundary layer is cotnpletely elirninatrtl ant1 wherl, in ntltlit,iol~, I ~ o t itsrlf the l~ is given a shape wlrich is contlucivc to low rcsist.nncr. Pig 2.21 illr~strnt.cs c.i~(:rt, tllr R fnvvrnble sllnpe (strenmlinc body) on drag: it syintrteLrlc ncrofoil nlltl a rirc-ltlar c:ylintlcr (thin wire) have brrn drnwr~ hrrc to n relative sc3:~lowllicl~ rtssrtrc:s c:clrlnl t I r n g in sl,rcnms of cclnnl velocit,~. 'l'lre cyliritlcr Iras a tlrag coc>fficicnt(I % 1 wit,lr rc?s~c,ct, :, to it,s fro~lt~nl (scr also Fig. 1.4).0 1 1 t.hc otlicr I~nnrl, (Irag cocfficit:trt,ofI II(, ;I(.I.,,arcn {.I\(: foil, rcfcrrctl to iLs cross-seclionnl nrcn, lras the very low vnlllc* of , - 0.00(;. 'I'll!: : f cxt.rclnrly low tll.ng of tllc ncrofoil is nclricvetl ns n rcscllt, of n c n r t ~ f r ~r.llosc.t~ ll~ ,)l.olil,, wlliclt assures l l ~ a the bor~ndnryInycr rcrnnins lnrnirrar ovcr nlmost t,llc \vllolc of its t wett.ed Irngth (Inlninnr nt:rofoil). Tfit,llis conncxion, Chap. XVf l nt~tl, c!s~)rc.i:tll~, Icig. 17.14, slrorlltl Ije oons~rlt.cd.

Y?\

c.

Turhl~lertt llnw in n pipe arid

ill

n bo~~ritlnry layer

Fig. 2.21. Acrofoil and circular cylinder drawn in such relation to each other as to produce t.he serrle drag in pnrallcl flows (parallel to axis of svrnmetry of a~rofoil)

liig. 2 . 2 2 ~

. . - 1 0 6 to 107, Fig. 17.14. c i r c u h r cr/linder: Drag cocfficirt~tcn = 1.0 s t R d - 104to 109; Fig. 1.4. TIIIIU ttlo ratio of the chord of tho norofoil,1, to tho clin~nctrr. d, t.t~r ryIil~tIt.ris Ild 1 010.006 -- 167

l'ig. 2.22"
I

Iiig. 2.22.

'1'11~ I?,,) ~lolds

hlensnretrrctrt,s sllo\v tl1n.t t.lre t.ypc of tnol,iot~ tl~ro~lglr rirctllnr pipr \vhich \\.as n calc~~lal.cd Section l(1, and in wlricli 1 . 1 1 ~ vclocily tlislril)trt.iotr w:~s ~~:r,rnbolic, in exists only a t low ancl n~odcrnteReynoltls numbers. T l ~ c fact t h a t in tllc laminar motion tinder disoussion fluitl Inminno slide over cach other, and tlri~ttllcrc: aro no rndial vc1ocit.y rori~potrrnt.s, t.hnt I.l~e so prcsstrre ilrop is proportiotr:~l t,o t)lrc firs1 power of t.he rrlcnrt flow vclocit.y, const.it1ntrsnn esscrit.ia1 c:linrnct.rristic: of t,llis ~ . y p c of flow. T l ~ i s clrarnrt.rrist,ic the motion c:nn bc mntlc clearly visil,lo 1)s i n l r o t l r ~ c i ~ ~ g a clyc into the st.rmm anrl by tliscl~nrgingi t tllrorlglr a t , l ~ i r rt,rll)c, Fig. 2.22. ~ l t t,lrc , motlernt,e Rrytiolds ~ i u n ~ h e r s associntc-d wit,l~In~nit~:rr flow t.lre tlyc is visit~lr i l l tfhr form o i a clearly tlefinetl t,l~rcad ext,cnding ovcr the wllolc Irngtlt of t,hc pil~,., Fig. 2.22a. 13y incrcr~singt.lte flow velocity it, is pnssil~lc1.0 r m c l ~ stage .vlretl t.hc a Ruid pnrtic!les cease t o inovc alor~g st,m.iglrt linrs ant1 t.lrc rcgr~lnrityo tlrc mot.ior~ C brrnks do\vn. l'lrc colourcd Lltrencl bcc:o~nc~ rnixecl wit,\) i,lw fll~itl,its s l t a r ~ ) o~rt.li~~c? becotnrs blr~rrcd ant1 cvc-nt.11a.ll.y wlrolc oross-srrlio~l tllc I)c.rotnrs colorlrrtl, Pig. 2.221). On t.lrr n,xinl nlotion t,hcrc are now s l l ~ ~ r ~ . i ~ n j ) o s o t l irrc~gr1l:trratli:ll f l ~ ~ c t . r l : ~ t . i o ~ ~ s wI1irl1 clli.c.t the rnixir~g.Suclr a flow pnt.tern is cnllccl l11,*ule~r!. 'l'lrr t l j ~ e x l ~ c r i ~ l i r n t c was first carried out by 0. R e g r ~ o l ~ l1291, wlro ns~ert~ninctl s tllnt, tire taansitsic.n honl tlrc laminar t o Lllc t~trrhrl!c~lt t,ypc of motion ttaltcs pl:rcc a t a tlcfinit.~ v:t.lnr o f t11,. I<.cynoltls r ~ ~ l m l ) c(crit.ical Itcynoltls 111llnl)rr).7 ' 1 1 ~: ~ c t ~ l nvalr~o of llrc criiic.:~~ r l Tteynolds ~ t u m b c rclrpcntls firrtller on t,lic dct.nils of t , h ~ cxt)crirncrrl,nl :trmngcmr~~t., in p:~rt.ic:~tlar t.hc amollnt of disl.~lrl)n.nr!,s u f i ~ o t lby bllo fluitl Ijcforo c:~rt.c-ri~i~ on t h e pipe. Wit.11 a n nrrangem~rit, wirirh is as f'rcc from dis1rlrl)ancrs as possil,lc rrific.:~i Rcynoltls nr~mbers( i i d / ~ ) , , exceeding 10"nn ,~ I)c att.ainrrl (ii, = dc~iot,cs tJrc meall velocity nverc~gedovcr t l ~ c cross-sectionnl a.rca). M'i(.l~a slrnrp-ctlgctl nrtt.mnc~c1 . 1 1 ~ c:rit,icnl Iteynoltls ~ u ~ m h becomes a.pproximnf.rly cr

t l v ~ ~ x ~ w ~ . t ~ uFlow i l l ent. \v:tbr mnclr vigihlc by t.hr il1jrc.tio11 n (lye, nftrr \Ir. of I ) I I ~ 1R 121; a ) Int~,innrflow. R 1150: 1)) t11rb111r11t !low,

(ct)crll
=

R,,,

2300

(pipr) .
t

,I his v x l t ~ r~ . ; I I I 1)c rcgnrtletl as t,llc lowrr lintit. Ihr 1,11(y

rit.ic:nl 1tc:ynoltls

rir~~l~l)t\l.

R - 2520

I)c.low \vl~irlrever1 st,rotig dist,urbrttrcrs (lo not, rntlsc t,llc flon. to I,c.c,omc* l,~~rl)rtlnrr~..

I n t,hc trtrl~rtlontregion t,hc pressure tlrop becomes approximately p r ~ p o r t ~ i o n a l t,o t,hc sclllarc of tlre ~ n e a nflow velocity. 111 this case a consiclerably larger pressure tliffcrencc is reqrrirctl in ordcr t,o pnss a fixctl quantit,y of fluid t.hrol~gIr the pipc, ns corrlparocl wit.11 Iarninar flow. l'his follows from t,ho fact t h a t t.lro plrcnomcnotl of t.url)~llrrrt tnixing dissil)at,cs a largc qrt:u~lit,y enorgy which c:~rtscs t,hc rcsist,:tnc:c? of' 1.0 Ilow t.o incrt:asc cot~si~lcr:tl)ly. l~rrrl,llcr~norr, I.hc casr? of Lnrl)r~lcrlt, in llow t,llc volodistritlut.ion over the cross-scct,ior~al arca is rnrlch tnoro c v c ~ ~ in 1:lrninnr t,lr:trl flow. 'rhis circnmst,ance is also t,o be explailletl by turbulent mixing which causes a n cxt:hangc of m o m c n t ~ t m bctwccn the layers near t h e axis of the tube and tfhose near t,hc walls. Most pipc flows which are enco~lntererl engineering appliances occur a t in such high Reynoltls numbcrs t h a t turbrllcrlt ~notiorlprevails a s a rule. Thc laws of turbr~lentmotion through pipes will be discrlssed in detail in Chap. XX. 111 a way which is similar t o the motlion through a pipe, the flow in a bor~ndary laycr along a wall also becomes turbulent whet1 the extcrnal velocity is sufficient,ly largc. lSxpcriment,al investigations into the transition from laminar t o turbulent flow in t.he 1,oltntlnry Inyer were first carried out by J . M. Burgers [GI ant1 I3. G . vnll (lcr licgge Zijncrt 1171 as wcll as by M. IIansen [lG]. The t,ransit.iorl from laminar t o turbulent flow in t h e boundary layer becomes most clearly discernible by a sr~tltlcna.nd largc irtcrease in the boundary-layer tl~iclrncssant1 in the shearing st.ress near the wall. According t o eqn. (2.1), with 1 replaced by tohe current coortlinatc s , the dimensionless boundary-layer thickness 6/1/1'27~; becotnes constant for laminar flow, and is, a s seen from eqn. (2.la), approximately c q t ~ atlo 5. Fig. 2.23 oontains a plot of t,llis tlimcrlsiorllcss bountlary-layer thickness agairlst the IZcynoltls number IJ, z / v . At R, > 3-2 x 10" very sharp increase is clearly visil)le, arid

an itlcnt,irnl plrcnomcnon is ol~srrvctlin a plot, of wall slrrari~rgstrcss. 'l'lrr srttltlcr~ incrcast? ill t,llrsc c1r1antit.ics tlcnot,cs t01:lt t.l~cflow Il;ts cl~arlgc.tl fro111 I:lmirl:lr t,o tr~rl)ulctll.. 'I'lrc Ttcynoltls tlrtrn1)cr R, 1):lsctl on t . 1 1 ~ ol~rrcnt,I(rtlgt,lr z is rc.l:tIrtl to t,l~(: ltry~toltls1111tl11)rr -:(I,?,,?/I, 11:1sr(I I I t.l~(, ~ o r ~ ~ t ( I : ~ ~ ~ y~ l : ~ y< ~ IrI ~, O IsI s I I R,, O l tl -i~:l ( ~~ ~ ~ I t,Itt, cvln:Ll.io~~

R,, . -

I/ R*

a s sprn from rqn. (2 1 a). l l r ~ l r c o tltr rriticxl Rrynoltls r~rtrnl~rr t

Fig. 2.23. Bor~ndnry-layer tllickness plobtedr against the Reynoltls number based on'the current lcngth z along a plate in pnrnllel flow a t zero incidence, ~s measrtrccl by llanscn [I61

there corrcspontls R g crlt = 2800. Tllc bor~~ltlary Inyrr or1 :I plate is Inrrlin:cr rrcnr t.l~t: lentling edge nrttl bcconles turbulent f~lrt.llcr tlo~vrlst,rca~n. nbscissn r,,,, of t l ~ t 'I'ltc poirrt of lrnt~sit~ion IICclctcrminctl f r o n ~Llrc k t l o w ~v:~lticof R, can ~ I n t . 1 1 ~caso of n plate, a s in the prcvior~slytliscussctl pipe flow, t.ltc rrrtntcricnl vaI11o of R,,,, dcpcntls t o a ~narkctl tlegrce on tlre arnorlnt of' tlist.~trl~ancc t.110 nxt,crn:tl flow, :1t1t1 in the value R, = 3.2 x 10%slrot1lcl be regartlet1 ns a lower limit,. With oxccpt.iorl:~Ily tlist~trrbnncc-frcc cxt.crnal flow, valrtcs of R, - 10%rlrltl I~igltrr 11:~vc been :~tt.ailrrtl. A 1):~rticul:trly rernarltable phcnorncno~l connccl,ctl with the transit.iotl from laminar t o trlrbrtlt:rrt flow occrtrs i r l t,he casc of blrtnt llotlics, sl~cll s circr~lar a cylintlers or spheres. I t will be seen from Figs. 1.4 arttl 1.5 t,l~aL tlmg coef'ficierlt o f a circrtlar the cylirrtlcr or a sphcre srtffcrs a s~~tltlctr :tot1 consitlcral~ledccrcasc 1lr:rr Itcynoltls rrri~nl~crs I)/v of bout 5 X lo5 or 3 x lo5 rcs~)ccLiv(~l~. fact was first, obscrvrtl 1' . 'I'lris on spttcrcs by G . 1I:iffrl 1141. It. is a conscquerlcc of t,ransition whicl~cnttses t.lle point of separation t o movc clownstacam, l)cca~rsc, t,hc case of a turbulcrrt 1)ountlary in laycr, tJtc accelerating influence of tthc cxt.crn:ll flow oxt,cntls fur1,her due t,o t.t~rbulrrrt. mixing. ~Tcncctile point of separation wllicll lies near the cqnator for a laminar I)o~rr~tlary I:~ycr nlovcs over a corrsitlcml~lotlislnr~ccit1 t,he downstream tlircct.ior~. In t,rlrn, the tlcad arca decreases considcmbly, anti t,ltc pressure dist,ribution becomes more like t,lrat for frict,ionless motion (Fig. 1.11). The decrease in tltc rlcad-wat,cr region consitlcmbly reduces t h e prcssrlrc tlmg, and t h a t shows itself as a jump ill the crtrve G, . f(R). L. T'mnrltl [26] provctl tlre corrcct,~rcssof t,lrc prrcccling = rcasoning 11y nlo~inl~ing I , l ~ i r iwirc ring III; a ~Itort, n (I~Y(~ILII(:C f r o ~ t t I,11occlri:lt,or ill or of a sphere. This car~scs boundary laycr to bccome art,ificially tur1)rtlcrlt a t n lower the Reynolds n l ~ m b c r arrcl the tlccrcasc in t,hc tlrng cocfficicrrt taltes place carlicr Lllatr would otherwise be the case. Figs. 2.24 and 2.26 reproduce photographs of flows which have been made visible by smoke. They reprcsctlt the subcrit,ical pattern with a large value of the drag coefficient and the supercritical pattern with a small (Iced-water arca and a small value of t h e drag coefficient. The sttpercritical pat,tern was achieved with Prandt,l's tripping wire. The preceding cxporimcnt sl~owsin a convincing nlanncr t,hat t h e jrtnlp in the drag curve of a rircular cylintlcr and sphere can only be interprctcd a s a borindary-layer phcnomcnor~.Otlror bodies with a blunt or rounded slcrn. (c. g. elliptic cylil~tlcrs) display :I type of rclat.ionship bctwcen drag coefficient ant1 Rcynolcls nttlnbcr wllicl~is sr~l)sta~~li:illy sinlilnr. \Vit,lt increasing slcntlcrness the jump in tfhc ctlrvc i)ccomcs ~ ' i r o ~ r c s s i vless pronor~nccd. cl~ For a streamline body, such ns tallat shown it1 Fig. 1.12 t.h(:rc is rlo jump, I)nc:~~tsc rto :lpprrci:r.l)lc srp:r.mt,io~roccltrs; t,llr w r y gmtlrt:tl 1;rc-ssrlrc irrc!rr:lso 011 I,l~c I~;lclt

.,,,.

,,

c. T~~rhulent in n pipe nr~d a hourldnry lnycr flow in of s11c.11 1)otlics csan I)e overcome I)y t l ~ c bor~ntla.rylayer w i t , h o ~ separat.ion. AS we ~t sllall also scc Int,cr in grrat,er tlct.ail, t,l~e pressure di~tribut~ion thc ext,ernal flow in t.xrrt,s a clct~isivcinfl~~c:rlce t,hc positmionof t.lle transition point. Thc bountlnry on Ia.yrr is I n t ~ ~ i n a r t.11~ in regiotl of prcssurc deereast, i. e. rollghly from t.110 leading ntlgc? to t.hr p i n t of minimr~tn pressure, ant1 becomes t,rtrhulent, i l l most cases, from t . l ~ : ~ t point on\\,nrrl t . l ~ r i ) ~ l g l ~.o ~ region of prcsslrrc inrrcn.sc. I n this corrnexion t l r t, ~ it is iml~ort,ant statc t,hnt, scparnt,ion can only bc nvoitletl in rcgiorrs of incrensing to prcssnrc nh?n the flotv in t,hc bountlnry layer is turlrulcnt. A laminar 1)ountlary layer,

43

'hhle 2.1. Tllickness of bormdary Inyer, 6, a t t.rniling edge oF flnt plate nt zero inridencc in pnrnllel t.nrb~~lent flow
(, J
= rrcr ntrenlll vrloclty:

I = lrnqtll or pla1.e:

r = kinrn>nl.le risrasily

I
Air
v =

(1,

~ r t / ~ * c l ifi,, 100 200

2 0

1"

=.. .

U 1
10' lo7 lo7
108

rill

"1

:I
:J

150

10-e f t Z / ~ ~ v :

50 760 \VntOr
v = 11

15 25 25
R

2.0 x 4.0 x 2.0 x 8,:s x 1.25 x 2.3 x 1.35 x 3.4 x 2.3 x

0.73
O+i4
2.30

10'

2.!)0
2.68

x lo-' ft2/4cc

5 10 25
r,O

15 150
500

10' lo7
108 100

1.19 2-52 13.1

29.8

I?ig. 2.24. I i l o t v

I I : I S ~n

I ~ I ~ ~ I I n r ~~ \ ~ ~ , \ r n ~

~.~: rroll\

nL spl~rrc: n s ~ ~ h t ! r i I i ~ . : ~ l T'ig. 2.26. Flow past n ~plirre n n~~percrint, t.icnl I<c*ytlolcla r ~ t ~ r ~ ~fromr ; l > n \Virurlnl~c.rgrr \\lic.~rlnl,c.vNrr: \ ~ ( j [3!)]. Tlw nopcrcrit.ical flow pnt,tcrl~ nr.l~irin ved by tlle mounting of n thin wire r i ~ ~ g (I.rippingmire)

a s n.c shall see Int.er, can support, only n very slnnll pressure rise so t,l~at. scpnrat,iorr wonltl occur rven wit.l~ very slcndcr botlics. I n p,qrt.icular, t,his remark also applies t o the flow past nn aerofoil wit,li n pressure dist,rit)ut,iorlsilr~ilnrto t h a t in Fig. 1.14. 111 t.llis cnse scpamt~iotl most liltcly t,o ocrur on t.he sncI,ion side. A smoot,l~ is flow pattern nround n.n ncrotbil, contlr~civc ~ I I C creation of lift, is possihlr only wit.11a t,l~rhnlent t.o botlntla.ry Ia.ycr. Snrnming up it, ma.)i be st.at,rtl that, t.hc small drag of slencler botlies a s wrll &s t . 1 1 ~lift, of acrofoils are rna.tle possible t,l~~.ough cxist,enrc of n t,url)ulent, thc t)ountla,ry Inyer. y the Bour~clnr~-ln~er thickness: ( ~ c r ~ e r a l lspealc~r~g, thicknesq of a tnrbrllcnt 1,011ntlary leycr is larger than t h a t of n laminar boundary layer owing to grratcr energy losses in the former. Nenr a smooth flat plate a t zero incitlcnce the boundary layer incrcascs downstream in proportion to xoR(x = &stance from leading edge) It will 1-I(. R I I ~ W I IInter in Chap. X X I t h a t the boundary-layer tl~ieknrssvariation in (nrt)nlrnt flow is given 1,y the rqnntion
d
1

Methods for the preveatinn of separation: Sopnrnt,ion is most ly nn r~ntlcsir:~.I~lt! ~ ) l ~ r n o m c n bccnusr, it c l l t r ~ ilnrgo onorgy losscs. I'nr (.his rcnson rnc\t.llocls I ~ r ~ v o on l~ 1,(:t:11 tleviscd for the artificial prcvcntion of separation. T l ~ c sirnplest met.hotl, from t,l~c physical point of view, is t o move the wall with the stream in order t o rcdr~cehhc velocity difference between them, and hence t o remove the cause of boundary-layer formation, b u t this is very difficult to nchicvc in engineering practice. Ilowcvcr, I'rnndtl t has shown on n rolaling circ11.1ar cyli?zP.r tllat this metllod is very rfrcct.ivn. On the side where t h e wall and stream move in t h c same direction separnt.ion is cornpletely prevented. Moreover, on the side where t.11~ wall and st.renn~ move in oppositc tlircct,ions, separation is slight so t h a t on the whole i t is possible t o obt.ain a gootl experimental npproximat,ion t.o perfcct flow wit11 circulation ant1 a large lift.. Another very effective metliotl for tlic prcvcnt,iorl of scparation is ~ o ~ L ~ I ~ < I I . ! J Ltycr sudion. III this metl~otlt11c dccclcratccl fluid pnrticlcs in the bonntlary Inyrr are removed through slits in t,he wall into thc interior of the body. Wit,11 srrf'ficic.r~t.ly strong snction, sepxrat.ion can be prevented. Bo~tndnry-layersuct,ion was nsecl on a circular cylintler by L. PrantIt,l in his first. fnntl:~~nrntal invcst.igat,ion in1.o boundary-layer flow. Separation can be almost completely eliminated wit.11 suct,iot~ through a slit a t the back of t-he circ~llnrcylinder. Instrnnccs of t,he cffrct. of snc.I,ion can be seen in Figs. 2.14 and 2.16 on tile exnmplc of flows tlirougll n l~igllly divergent channel. Fig. 2.13 demonstrat,es t h a t witllout suction t.hcrc is strong separation. Fig. 2.14 shows how the flow adheres t o t.hc one sirlc on wlliclt srtction is applied, wherens from Fig. 2.16 i t is seen t h a t the flow complctcly fills the clrannel cross-sect.ionwhen t h e s ~ c t ~slits~ ~ pnt int.0 operation on botli si(Irs. I I I t . 1 1 ~ i o are latter case t,lie strea~r~lines assunlc a pat,t,crn whicl~ very sinlilar t,o l , l ~ ain liiet.j;)rllcss is t flow. In lat.cr gears sr~ct~ion sncccssfr~lly was used irt acroplanc wings to ill(-rcasc. (.11c lift. Owing t,o snc:t.ior~ the: rlppcr s r ~ r f a c : ~ t l ~ c on near t.ra.iling edge, t,l~e flo\\~ ntlllrrrs
.

= 0.37

( )
lJm,l

-'I5

= 0.37 (RI)-'l'

(2.9)

\vl~ic-llc:orrt:sl)ontls 1.0 rcln (2.2) for laminar flow. I'ahlr 2.1 gives vnlnes for tJrc 11o1111~l:r.ry-l:tyt~r i ( ~ k ~ ~ c s s tll~ o:~l(:~~laI.rtI ecln. (Z.!)) for several typical casos of air from : ~ 1 t t 1 watl~r flows.

Prnncltl-Tietjens: Hydro- nnd Aerodynnmics. Vol. 11, Tnl~lrn 11 and 9. 7,

44

11. Outline of boundary-layer theory

References

45

to t h e aerofoil at considerably larger incidence a n g l e s t h a n yonl(1 otllcrwisr b e t l r ~

rase. stalling is clrl:cyetl, nntl m u c h l n r g t r m a x i m u m - l i f t values a r e achieved [3F]. Aft,er )laving g i v e n a s h o r t out,lino of t,he f n n t l a m e n t ~ a lphysical principles of f l ~ ~ i do t i o n s w i t , l ~v e r y snlnll friot.ion, i. c. of t l ~ c o u n d a r y - l a y e r t h e o r y , w c shnll m b proncccj t o clovc!lop n m t i o n a l tllcory of t l ~ c s opl~cnorncrlnf r o l r ~ 0110 o(1111~1.ions 01' m o t i o n of V ~ S C O I I Sfluids. Thf: (icscription will b e arr:~rlgctl in t h e followir~gw a y : Wt: shall begin i n I'art A by deriving Ghc g c n c r a l Navicr-Stjokes c c i ~ ~ a t i o nrso m w h i c l ~ , f i n t u r n , w e s h a l l d e r i v e l'randtl's b o u n d a r y - l a y e r e q u a t i o n s w i t h t h e nick of t h e sirnplificstions which c a n b e inl,rotlucctl a s a cor~seclucnccof tjhe s m a l l v a l r ~ c s visof c o s i t , ~ h i s will b e followed i n T'art I3 by a t l c ~ c r i p t ~ i o n t h e metjhods f o r t h e i n t e g m T of t i o n of t h e s e cqnat.ions f o r t h e caso of l a m i n a r flow. 111 P a r t C w e s h a l l d i s c r ~ s st h e p o b l e m of t h o origin of t,nrbulcnt flow, i . o. w e shall discuss t h o process of t r a n s i t i o n from l a m i n a r t,o t , u r b u l e n t flow, t r e a t i n g it, a s a problern i n t h e stabiliLy of l a m i n a r mot,ion. F i n a l l y , Pn.rt .D will c o n t a i n t h e b o r ~ n t l a r y - l a y c r t h e o r y for complet,ely tlcvclopcrl t ~ ~ r b u l r n to t i o n s . W h e r e a s t h e t h e o r y of l a m i n a r b o u n d a r y l a y e r s c a n m I)c trrat,ctl as n d c t l ~ l c t ~ i v e q u e n c e I ~ a s c t l n t,hc Nnvicr-Stolrrs tlifTerent,i~l s o eqllationx for viscous flrritls, t h o s a r n c is not,, a t prcscnt,, possible for t u r b u l e n t flow, t)ccnusc thc: m c c l ~ a n i s mor t n r h ~ l l c n tflow i s s o c o m p l c x t . l ~ a ti t c a n n o t b e nlastercci by p u r e l y t.l~rorct,icnl mct,hods. F o r t,his reason a t,rc;~iisc n t l n r 1 ~ n l c rflow must, tlraw 11e:~vily o ~t or1 e x p r r i m e r ~ t n l result,s ant1 t,llc s r ~ l ) j c r t n s t Ijc presented i n t,hc f o r m of a s e m i m cmpiriral throry.

References

[I] Acl~enbac:h,E.: J':xperilnent,s on the flow past spheres a t very l ~ i g lIZeynolds nr~lnbers. ~ J F M 54, 505--575 (1972). 121 Ilcrger, J':., ant1 Wille, It.: Perioclic flow p h e l ~ o ~ t ~ cA~ n I I ~ : I ~ l I I . Review of lpluitl hlcch. 4 , 3133--340 (1072). (31 nerger, 15. : Ucut.iln~nrl~~g I ~ y d r o d y n : ~ l ~ ~ (:riissen~einer I < h r ~ ~ ~ h n s r h c n dcr iwl~c ~ \I'irl)rlutransr aun t l ~ t z c l m l ~ t ~ ~ ~ e sbci ~ i g c ~ ~ I<cynolds-Znl~le~~. 12, 41 --59 (1!)64). s u klcirlc~~ ZF\Y 13nl Be:~rn~an, W.: On the vortex shedclit~gfro111n rirrulnr c.ylintler i l l the c*riticnl Reynolds 1'. number range. J1:M 37, 577-585 (l!)(i!)). 141 plnsitrs, H.: Cronzschirl~tenin Flii.qnigkeitcn wit klciner 1lcih1111g. I>ins. (:iiltingen 1!)07; L. Math. u. I'h~.s.Mi, 1-37 (1908); Engl. tri~t~sl. SAC'\ Thl 1250. in 151 Ulenk. H . . I~urlis, a~itl I).. Licbcm, I,.: uber die 3lcssrlr1g van J\'irbelfrequer~zcl~. I,~lftfi~hrtf o r n r l l ~ n ~ l 38--41 (1935). 2, [O] Burgers, J. M.:'The ~ n o t i o ofi n fluid in thr houndnry lnycr nlong n plnr~es n ~ o o t l ~ ~ surface. R o c . First lnternatior~nlCongress for .\pl~liod Mcchnnics, 1)elft. 1131-- 128 (I!)24). 171 (:ll:lt~g, 1'.K.: Sep:~rntionof flow. l'ergnl~~ot~ Press. \Vnsl~ingtonI>.C., 1!)70. [R] C,rrt~~nlr, E.: z\p~~liration fluid n~rchnt~ics \r-intl engir~rcring-- t\ Yrceelnnn Scholnr J. of to Icrture. 'l'rnns. AhhllC Fl~~itln Engineering 97, Ser. I, 9--38 (1!)75): ure nlso: Lal~or:~tory sil~~rllntiol~the :~tlnosl~l~cric~ ~ n d n rInycr. t\l'\,\ .J. 9 . 174(i-1754 (1!171). of ho y 18111 Cerlnnk, .I. E.: ~\crodynnl~~ics of h~lildingn. r\n~~rlal icxv of Yluitl Birch. 8, 75-- I00 (1970). He ,!I] Crnant. J E . . and S ~ ~ C ~ I , . Z .\:\ l i n t ~ . t ~ ~ n i l ~ i t i o n of wincl io:iciitig on str~lctares. IV s n n6 Jlrctinp: I'reprint 1417, r\SCIC Sntiotinl S t r ~ ~ c t t ~1Sngineering Alreting. 13nltit11orr.hfnryral Inr~d,171--2 j .-\pril, 1971. [I01 j)nven[~ort,,\. (;.: 'rhc rclntionship of wind structure to wintl Ionding. Pror. Col~fercnrc on \ \ . i ~ ~ 15llrrts on I311ildi11~u Str~~cstr~res, tl nnd Sntiont~lI'hynirnl I,nhor:~tory. 'Trtldingtol~, Jlid(llrnrx. (:rrnt Itritnin. 26--28 ,111nr I!l(i:l. Ilcr Mnjmty's Stationt~ry0flic.r. I , o ~ ~ t l o l ~ . \'()I. I , 54 -- I I2 ( I !)t\5).
%

>

<

[ l l ] Dotnm, U.: Ein Beitrag ztlr StabilitAtstheorie der Wirbelstmssen u n b r Beriicksicl~t,igu~~g endlieher u r ~ d zeitlich wachsender Wirbelkerndurchmesser. Ing.-Arch. 22, 400 - 410 i 1954) -,. [12] I)1111u,W.: Uber den Einfluss 1aniinn.rcr und tr~rbulcnlcr St.rii~nrtng I I dau R i i l ~ l g ~ l ~ bVOII R ~ ild Wnusor ~rntlNit,rol~cl~zol. Ilclv. 11l1ys act,:^ 12. 100--228 (I!):)!)). iI:3] I111rgit1, W.\\'., nnel I<l~.rlnson, S.I<.F'.: On 1.110 p l ~ c * ~ ~ o r ~ ~ vor1.o~ ~ of n t l r ~ ~sl.rc,c~lI~r(.:~liilon.~~. I'll! 48, 607 -627 (1!)71). 1141 ISiflhl, t i . : S I IIn rA~iut:~nc:c: ~pl~i.rcu I'nir or! I I I O I I V ( ~ I I I O I I ~(:oIII~I~.(:u ~ clc:~ (IIIIIH ,. I~,I.II(IIIH l5!)7 1.55, (1!112). 114:~lI~iirnchi~~g. 11.\V.: Acroc~last.it;cl~r l'rol~lo~~~t: Hoc~l~I~n~llco~~st.r~tlctio~~cn \ \ ' i ~ ~ ( l nn i l l frrirr un~st.riic~~clng. Vt~llcnn-Verla.g, 15sscr1, H n t ~ s der 'l'echnik, I'ilrt 347, 3 -- 18 (1971;). [I51 l'rit~~bcrger, Exparirno~~tclle 11.: Urltcrst~cl~unger~der IChr~nhnschcnWirl~clnt.rnssc. an %If\Y 5 , 355-35!) (1957). [I61 Hnnscn, M.: Die Goscl~wit~digkeik~vcrteilung Gret~zschicht, der I l n g s n t ~ g e s t r i i n ~ t , ~ ~ ~ in dcr an ebencn Plntt,e. ZAMM 8, 185-I!)!) (1028); NACA 'I'M 585 (1!)30). [I71 van (lor IJrggc Zijticn, 13.C.: Mensr~rct~~ccrtst,llo velocil.y clist.ril~~ltion L l ~ c : I ~ o r ~ ~ ~ d i l r g of in lnycr nlong n plane surface. Thcsiu 1)clft 1!J24. [I81 Hrincmann, fl. J . . I,a\var:zeck, O . , nnd 13iitefincI1, 1c.A.: I<hrmBn vortices n ~ ~ t.l~eirfrcrl quenry detcrn~inatiol~ the wakes of profiles in the s31b-and t.ransonic rrgi~nc. V I I I ~ O S ~ I I I ~ in S l'r:r~~snonici~r~~ I I (:iit,t,il~gen, Sept.. 1!)75. Springrr Vcrlng, 1!)7(i, pp. 75 -- 82: s r r s l s o T ~ ( : j \ Itl). Cor~ferrl~co I'roc. No. 177. U~~ulcrtdy I I C I I O I I I C ~ I i~l l ' ~ ' I I ~ ~ I ~ I I I : L C . ~ I ~ I(1!)75). ~' IOT~ [I91 llucl~o,\Ir. H.: l<illfl~~as Vordrrw:~geniorln auf M'idcrsCar~cl.(:icrlno~~~ortl ~ t l Sritc.nder rl krnft von Jin.stcn\r.ngcn. ZFW 20, 341 -- 351 (1972). [20] von l(Lrrnhn, Th.: uber tlen Mcchanis~~~rls Widcrnt.nntlcs, den cir~be\vcgtcr l i i i r ~ ~ inr den r einrr Fliissigltrit erzetlgt. Nechr. Gcs. \Vies. (%thingen, Math. l'hys. I<lnssc RO!) - 517 (I!)] I) and 547--556 (1912); src also CoIl. Works I, 324-3338, (211 VOII I<Armhti.Th.. and J t ~ ~ h a cf1.: Uher den h l c c l ~ n n i s ~ ~ ~ I~liissigkcits- I I I ~1,11ftn-itlrrh, drs ~ l s I st.nndcs. I'hys. Z. 13. 4 9 - ~ 5 9(1!)12); see 111so Coll. Works 1. 313!)- 358. 1221 ],in. C.C.: 0 1 1 11criodic:nlly osrillnli~~g wnkrs in the Oscen o p l ~ r o x i l ~ ~ i ~ t iv . ~ ~ . i \ l ~ ~ ~ i I<. o Rlisc:~ vera:lry V o l u ~ ~St,utlies in h l n t l ~ e ~ ~ ~ nndchtechnnirs. Ao~tlcn~ic ~e, ati s Press, Ncw Yorlt, 1050, 170.- 171;. [23] hliiller. E.: I,uft\viclerst,n~~dsrnessungeli Volks\\~ngcn-1,icfcr~vngrn. u t o ~ ~ i o l ) i I t c r l ~ ~ ~ i s r : l ~ e a111 i2 Z. 5.1. 1 --4 11951). , , 123n] Sovak. 1.: Strouhal nurnl~erof l,o~lic~ their uyut.rt~~s 1!11usinn). Strojr~ii.ky ancl (in f:;~ur~l,is 26, 72---89 (1975). 12.11 U r i f l i ~0. Rl., at~tl ~, Rnmborg, S. E.: Tl~r: vortex-ntrcct wnkc3 of vilrrating ~ylil~(l~:ru. (i6, .Il'.hl 553-576 (1974). [25] i'randtl, L.: h e r I"liissigkeit~be\vcgu11g nelir kleiner I t c i l ~ ~ ~ n g . 3rd Int,c:rl~.Rlnt.l~. hci I'roc:. Cot~gr.Heiclclberg 1904, 484---491. RcpriltL~tlin: Vicr ;\l)l~iindlt~nger~ Ilyelroclgl~ntnik zur rind Acrodynornilc, Giitti~~gen, 1927; see nlso Coll. \\'arks I I . 575--584; Engl. transl. NACA TRl 4TL (1!)28). [26J l'rnn(lIl, I,.: l)cr ~~t~ft.!!~i(~(:rsL:~r~d VOII I<II~C,III. N~tcl~r. (h. \'Vim. (Ii~t,l,i~~got~, I'11,ye. hl:~t.l~. J<lns~(:,l!)l4. 177 I!)O; sire*t~lso(:oil. \Vorlts i l , 5!)7 - fioH. 1271 I'rn~~rltl. and Ilietjet~s,0.: llydro- n ~ ~ d I,., Llcrorl~rcl~al~ilt (b:i~(:eI0 1 1 I'~ILII(~I.~'R~ ~ r c s ) . I~ct Vol. I nncl 11. Ikrlin, 192!) and 16:31; 1Ct1gI. trnnnl. by 1). Ilosrl~l~cnd (Vol. I ) nnrl ,I.IJ. (irci Ilnrt.og (Vol. II), Kow JTork, 19334. 1281 IZclf, 1':. F., nntl Sirnn~ol~s, F. (:.: 'l'lic rrrqrle~~cics cdtlirs gc:~~crnlctl thr 111otionof I,. of by cirrular cyli~~tlrrs t.l~ror~gh fluid. AllC I<M 917. l,or1do11 (1!)24). n [2!+] I<rynolds,0.: An rxpc:ritt~rr~tnl ir~vcstignt.iol~ the rircuc~~st:unccs of \rhich tletertni~~c rvlicthcr the )notion of \vat.rl. shnll be tlircct or s i r ~ i ~ oi111d of thr IR\V of rrsi4tnncc i r ~ ~ ~ n m l l c l ~~n, cltn~~ncls. I'llil. l'rnnu. Iloy. Sor. 171. !):I.',- !)H2 (IXH:!); srr nlsc~Sc.ir~itifirI':~l~c~rs 51. 2, [30] R,il~ner, S., JStltins, B., and Nccly, I<. JC.: Noise research in Cnt~adn:i'l~ysioicl a l ~ t I~ioH. l aco~lstic.Proc. First Int. Congress Acro. Sci. Madrid, Pergnmon press, I,ondon, Vol. I, 393 --441 (1959). [91] Itoshko, 11.:15xperit11enl.s t l ~ c on Ilo\v past n circ.t~lnr ryli~lilrr very high I<eynoltlsI I I I I I I ~ ~ ~ . :II ,JI"R1 10, 345--350 (1901). [32] J<oshko; I\.: 0 1 1 t,l~r tlcvelopl~~r~it of turbulent wnltcs from vorlrx strrc.tu. SL\(:A1trl1. 11!)1 ( l!)54).

[:j2a] I?o~cilhrnel, Thr forn~atior~ vort,icos horn n s ~ ~ r f n c o tliscontin~iitj~. I,.: of of Proc. Itoy. Soc. A 134, 170 (I!)BI). [:iR] Jl,r~bact~, Uher die 1S11t.stehungund Iqortl~c\vcgnt)g \Yirbrlpnnres bei zylinclriscl~on 11.: dcs I<ijrl~cn~. R R .(:iitt.i~lgen 1!)14; V ~ ) ~ - ~ ~ O r ~ l : ~ l l l 185 ~(1916 ) . I)~ llg tlft [:):l~~l S:~rllkayn.'l'.:AII inviscid ~ ~ ~ o tof l ~ r . o - c l i ~ ~ ~ c ~ V O ~iLrP~ i ~ n l lo t ~ u X s11t~lrIi11~ t r n ~ ~ s i c n t for nntl asyl~~l~t,oLi(-nlly sl.cntly Ilow ovor nn incli~~rrl ~)lale. .lFM 68. 1 0 ' 3128 (1!)75). [:MI S:iclcl~,\V.%., at111(!(:~IIIII.~<, r l ' ~ ~ r l ~r.lkc:tI (111 \vnll ~ c .J. I(.: ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ I1rrnnllrr Ilr~c:lr~:~tiot~n.' : I I ~ . .I. I hlcrl~.1)iv. AS(:lC !)#, No. IChI (\, I'ror-, 1'1tprr !)445, IS!) l!)S (1!)72). (351 Sc:l~liclrt.ing.It.: Aerotlynalni~chc U~~tcmrrch~lngc~l nu 1<1~afIf:ihrzorcge11. 'l'rc1111.I ~ o ~ ) I Itcp. sc:hrilo I%~~nr~t~sol~rnc?ig, ( l!)54). I:)0- 1:10 [;I(;] S(.III.OIII<,. : \ ' e r ~ ~ ~ cI~ l ~~A I ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ g ~ l l ,iIiIgIr. ~ I . ItI~..I ~ ~ I ~ R ( ~ I I IrYII, In 27 (I!I:K). 0 I I ~ r .I ~ ~l I III~ i.471 St.ronh:~l.V.: Ubrr tino hononrlrro Art. clnr 'I'o~~crregr~~lg. I'II~R. A1111. 111rc1 (!0~11ii(~, No\v Srricn 5. 21(i - 2 5 1 (1878). [:)R] 'I'irn~~ir, i ) l ~ r rlic ( ; r u c ~ l ~ \ r ~ i ~ ~ t l i g k r i I , q \ ~ \,VirhoIn. lng.-Ar(.l~. 205 -225 (1!)57). A,: r in r ~ r I i : i l ~ ~ ~ ~ 25. [ : $ ~1I I\\'rclr~~~r?;c.r. A I I R ~ ~ cit~cs I I I I ~ 15.: ~ ~ ~W~~IIOIII:L:LI~(~R at1 rlrn I<RII~.CII einer I'laLte. 1ng.-Arrll. .30, 187 ZOO (l!l(;l). [B!)] L\'icsrlsl)rrgrr, C.: 1)cr I,~~ft.\viderst,n~~d I<r~gcln.ZFM 5 , 140--144 (1014). von

1)criv:ltion of t h e cc111:ltions 111otion ol' of a compressi1)le viscous fluid

a. I ~ u n c l a t t t e l ~ lequations of tttolio~tatad e ~ t t l i t t ~npplietl l o f l ~ ~ i flow al ~il~ cl Mrc sh:~ll n o w ~ ) r o n r r t l1.0 tlcrivc: t . 1 1 ~ccjl~:~l,ions mot,ior~of a ro~nl)rr~ssil)lr. of visc:o~~s, Nowt.otiinr~Iluitl. I I I t l ~ c c n c f i ~ lc::~sc? t.111.cc:-tli~nc*t,niot~ill t . i o ~ 1 . ,1 1 ~flon, g of mo ~ firltl is sy)c?cifictl I)y t . 1 1 ~ vrloci(.y v c c t o r

w h e r e 16, 11, w a r c t,hc t l ~ r c c ort11ogon:~l c o n i p o n c n t , ~ 11y Ll~oprossurc p, : t . ~ ~by tllc: , tl clcnsity Q, all conceived as f u n c t i o n s of t h e c o o r d i n a t a s z,?/, z , a n d t.imo t . P o r t h o tleterminnt.ion of t81icse fivc qlln.nt.it.ics t h o r r o x i s t fivc cql~nLions: t.11~c o ~ ~ t , i n u i t , y e q u a t i o n (conservation of m a s s ) , t h o t l ~ r c ee q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n (ronsrrvnt.ion of m o m e n t u m ) a n d t h e t,hermodynarnic c q ~ ~ a l ~ of s t a t e p -- I(@).: ion T h e e q u a t i o n of cont.inl~it,y oxpresscs t , l ~ e fnc:t t l ~ n t for a unit, volllmo t~hcrc:is a b a l a n c e b c t w e e n t h e m a s s e s e n t e r i n g ant1 leaving p e r u n i t time. ant1 t h e c l ~ a n g e in tlrnsity. I n L l ~ c cave of non-,st.cacly flow of a comprcssil)lc llr~iclt h i s contlit.io11 Irntls t o t.i~c ctlrrnt.ion :

w l ~ e r e a sfor a11 incompressible fluid, w i t h p = const*, t,11~ ~ I I : L ~ . ~ ofI Ic o n t i n ~ ~ i t . y D ~ asstimes t h e simplified form cliv I,! = 0 . (3.1 :L)

The symt)ol l)p/I)l d e n o t e s h e r e tlle s u b s t a n t i v e dcrivat.ivo w l ~ i c lconsists of t l ~ e ~ lorxl c o n t r i b u t i o n (in nor] s t e a d y n o w ) .'te/at, ant1 t.ho c o n v e c t i v e cont,ribl~t,ion(dlic t,o branslation), rr..grad p.
-

t l u Ghe Sixth Editior~t h i rhnpter has been rovisrd by t,hr Trnl~sla(.or t,l~o ~ at. Ar~l.hor'ni~~r,it,atior~. : If the e q u a t i o ~ ~ ~fste of cont,ains ternprntr~rc.zs nn wlditional varinhle, a f ~ ~ r t l ecln:rtioi~in ~or
s~lpplietfby the principle of the ronnorvat.ion of cl~crgy 1.11~o r ~ of thr lpirst I,a\v of T ~ I ( , ~ I I I o in l l~ tlynan~inl;c / . Chap. X I I .

48

111. Derivation of the eqrrat,ionn of motion of

compressible viucoou flrrid

b. Getleral stress systen~ in

e,

defor~nable body

49

The eeI~lnl,ions motiot~ore dcrivotl fro111 Nowton's Scconrl Law, wlricl~st,ates of t,hat t h e protluot of mass and accelcrntiorr is cclual t o Lhe sum of the external forces actir~gon t,lrc 1)ody. 111 fl~lid~not.ioni L is necessary t,o consider t,hc followirrg two tire classes of forcrs : forces acl.ing t~l~ror~ghorrt mass of the botly (grsvit,ational forces) antl forces arting on Lhc bor~nrlnry(pmssurc ant1 friction). If F r= Q g denot,rs t l ~ c gravit,;\t,iorl:~l force per unit vcllumo (g vcrtor of accrlcmt,ion due t,o graviLy) ant1 I' denot,es the force on the bountlary per unit volume, tthen t,hc e q ~ ~ a t i o n s motion of can I)c writ.t,on in t,ho following vcct30r form
7.7

I#. General stress syetetn in a deformable body

e I n order t o writo down expressions for the ~ u r f a c forces ncting on the b o ~ ~ n d a r j r , let, 118 imngino n ~ ~ n n l l prtrr~llcpipctl f volulno d V = !lx (I!/ tlz isolrcf,o(l ~ I I U ~ . I L I I ~ , I L I I ~ ~ ~ o from the botly of tlrc fluitl, Fig. 3.1, and let its lower loft-l~nr~tl vcrttcx coincide wit.11 the point x, y, Z. On t l ~ c two faces of nrcn dy . tlz which arc pcrl~cn(licrllar1.0 t . 1 1 ~ z-axis thcre net two resr~lt~nnt stresses (vectors = sr~rfacc forcc per l~rritarca):
1 1 ~

and pl

-4- apz d x rcspcctively ax

wit 11

I' = i X .
~lltl

+j

4-k B

Ijotly force sr~rfi~ce force

(3.3)

1 = i I', -{j P,, '

+ k Pz

(3.4)

'I'lre synrl)ol I)tr-/l)l tlcnot.c,s hcrc t,l~c~ ~ l , s t . a n t i:~ac:clcr:~t,ion s vc whicl~, lilrc tlrc sul)stant,ivc tlrrivat.ivc ol' clot~sit.y,ronsist,~ Lhc local cont,ribr~t,iorr non-stcatly flow) of (in c?tr~/at,nntl tho convrot.ivr cont,ribut.ion (tlr~c o t,ranslntiorr) drtr/dl = (w-gmd) r c ~ t

Fig. 3.1. 1)rrivation of the expressions for the s t r r ~ e tensor of nn inl~or~~ogcneorrn utrcss nystcrn arltl of its syrnnletry in tllc absence of n volurl~ctricdistribution of local rnorncnts

'I'l~nI)otly lijrcrs arc: t,o I)c rcgardctl as give11 extcrt1:~lli,rct,s, bnt, t.lre surfnee forcrs tlr~)c:nclon t,lre rate at, wlriclr t , l ~ r fluirl is strrtined \)y tlrc vrlocit,y field present in it,. l'l~o system of fhrcos dot.crmincs a slrrtc o/ stress, : ~ n t lit is now our task to intlicat,e t,lrc rclat,ionshil, I)ct,\vcen st.rcss and ri~tc!of st.min, noting t . l ~ a it can only be give11 t o~npirically. our presrnt, clcriv:ttion \vosl~:~ll Trr rcst,rict,ntt.ention toisotropic, Newto7iini~ /b?cirls for \vlrirlr it rnny I,r nssu~nedt,Ir:~t. Iris relnl ion is a linear one. All gases ant1 t lnanjr liclr~itls int.crcst it] bountlnry-1n.yrr t.lreory, in pnrt.icnlnr wat.er, belong t,o t.Iris of cl:~ss.A f l u i t l is snitl 1.0 I)(, isot,ropir wl~c:n the r.rlnt.ion 1)ct.wcrn t.he coml)oncnts of st,rcss ant1 t.lrosc: of 1.11~rat,? o l strain is t.11~ sxnrr in all dircctiorrs; i t is said t,o bo Ne\vtr,r~i:ln \vhcr~t,lris rclat.io~l linrnr, t.l1:11. whcn t,hc Ilrrid obrys Strokes's law of is is f.rict,ion. 111 t , l ~ r cnsc of isotropic, cl;~stirsolitl I~otlirs,cxpcri~nentt,racl~esI,llnt t,lrc st.nt.c of strt-ss (lt~11cnds tJrr rnngnit~~~tlc on of sttrain il.sclf, most engineering n~at.erinls obeying Jlooltc's lincnr Inw whic:l~is so~no\vlrntannlogons.l.o Stokes's law. \Vhcrens t,he rcl:~tionl,nt,\vccrr st,rcss nnrl st.r:~itr a n isotropic elastic solid involves t,wo confor st.nnt,swhic:l~cl~nrncte~.izc1 1 ~~)ropcrt,ins a given matrerial (e. g. elirst,ic rnotlnl~~s:kntl 1. of I'O~SSOII'S rat,io), t,l~e rc,l;rt,ion bct\vccri st,rrss and rat.c of s h i n in nn isot,ropic f l ~ ~ i t l irrvolvcs n, singlr ronst,:~r~t.. 1 1 ~viscosity, [ A ) ns long :LS rel:~xat.io~r (1 pl~cnornenad o not occ5rlr wit,l~irr ns we sl~:lllsro in Scr. I l l ( > . it..

(Subscript x denotes t h a t t h e stress vector acts on a n elementary plane whicll is perpendicular t o the x-direction.) Similar terms are obtained for t h e faces d z . tlz and ilx . dy whir11 are perpentlicular to the y- antl z-axes respectivrly. Ilencc tire t l ~ r e e net components of t?lresurface forre are:

ant1 t01e rc~s~llt~ant srlrfacc forrc P per unit volume is, tl~crcforc, given I)y

1 111 ortlrr to rxprcss thr vrrtor (u.gr:~cl)rr* i l l :III nrl)ilrnry s,vsl.rlrro f roorrlir~ntm,l ~ c t follolving gf*i~(>rnl r(,l:~t~ic~r~ 111; trsr(l sl1ot111I (rt,.gr:~el) - grntl I, r v 2 - 11, x r11i-I rrV, 11, 1v11rr~ -- 11, . 11, . rrv2

The quantities p,, p,, p, are vectors wl~iclrcan I)e rrsolvcd into components perpendicular t o each face, i. e., into normal stressos denotetl by a with a srlitable subscript indicating the tlirection, and into components parallel t o eacll facc, i. o. slrcsscs denoted by t.Tlrc symbol for n s l ~ t . n r i ~ ~ g will I)o ~)rovielrd stress into ~ l i c a r i n g

50

111. l)crivnt,iot~ thc cq~tntion~ moI.ior~ n cornprrcmihlo viscous fluid of of of

b. Gencrnl stress ~ y s t e ~ rn~ dcforlnnblc botly i n

51

with two snbscripta: t h e first slibscript indicates the axis t,o which the face is perpentlicular, and t h e secontl inclicat8cs the direction t o which t h e shearing stress is parallrl. Wit,l~ this notation we have
1 , = i uz 1 :

The surface force per unit volume can be cnlcrllabd from eqns. (3.G), (3.7), ant1 (3.10) and becomes

+j + k
t,,

1 , = i t,, -1- j a,, 1 k tyz 1 , = i tzr4- try k 0, . 1 j f

tn

Thn stxrss syst,on~ soen t o req~lire in nine scalar qun.nt,itics for its clcscript,iol~. ?'heso nine quantit.irs forrn a alresa tensor. The s e l of nine componer~tsof the stress t.rl~sor somct,imrs callrtl t,he st-rcss matrix : is

--fnce
(JZ

fncc
zz

fnce
ry

I ~ ~ t r o d r ~ c the expression (3.10a) irrt-o t l ~ e ing equation of motion (3.2), nrlcl resolving into components we have: 'I'llo st.ress t,nnsor and tho corresporrding matrix are symmetric, which means t.llat two shearirrg stresses with subscript8 which differ only in their order are equal. This can be tlcmonstrated with reference t,o tfhc equations of motion of a n elemcrlt of fluid. Tn gcncml, itasmotion can be sepnrntetl into a n instantaneous translation and a n inst,znt,anoor~s rotat.ion, and only t , l ~1att.or needs t o he consideretl for our purpose. c Denoting t,hc irlst,ant.aneous angular ncccleratiorl of t.11~ eloment by &(ti),, ci),, h,), we c:ln writ,c for t,l~o rot.ation nljout. t,11o y-axis t h a t
tr),

(1 1, = (t,, tl7J dz) d x - (t,, tix d7J)(1.2 = (T,, - T,,) (1 V

where t l l y is t,hc elernent,ary momcnt of inertia about, the y-axis. Now the momcnt of inertia, d I , is proportiorla1 t o the fifth power of the linear cli~nensionsof the par ~ l l e l r ~ i p ewhereas its volr~mc, l', is proportional t o their third power. On contractd, tl ing ttllc clcmont t,o a point, we notice t h a t t.hr Inft-hand sitln of t<he preceding equation vanishcs faster t,l~an rigirt,-11n.rltl tho sitlc. Ilcncc, ~~lt.irnnt.cly,

I f t h e fluid is "frictionless" all shearing stresses vanish; only the normal stresses remain in the equation, and thcy are, moreover, equal. Their negativc is clcfined a s t,he pressure a t t,he point s,y, z in the fluid:
Tzv

= Tz., = Tv* =

uz = u y = u ,

---p.

if c;,, is not, to 1,rconrc infinit~elyIargc. t \ r r ~ l o g o ~ ~ s cq~iations can be writ,t.cn for t,lre remair~ing t,wo axns, arid ~ h syrnmct.ry of t.11~ c st,rcss tensor can thus hc demorlst.ratod. TI, is rlcnr from t.ho a r g n m m t tdlnt, t,hc st.rcss tensor ivor~hlrcnsc to bc symrncl,ric if t.hc lll~itltlcvclopntl a local moment which wan propor1,ional t,o it.s voll~me,rlV. T h e In.l,t,cr mag occur, for example, in an nlcct,rost.at~icfiel(l. Owing t.o t.l,c fact t,hat,

t.110 st,rcss mnl.rix (3.8) corltains only six tliffcrcntfst,rcss componrnt,~ ant1 I)ccorncs symmct,rical wit11 rrspnct t o t,lrc principal tliagonaf:

I n such a hydrostatic stress syalem, the fluitl I)ressurc is cql~nlt.o t,hc xrit.l~rnc:tic:~l mean of the normal stresses taken with a negative sign. Sincn mcasnren~ents\r.llich lead to tho establishment of the thermodynamic eqrtation of s t a t e arc ~)erfor~neti urlder such conditions, t h e fluid being a t rest, this pressure is idcr~t~ical with the t,hermodynnrnin pressure in the eqriat.ior1 of slate. I t is corrvenicr~tto ir~trorlucc the arithmetical mean of the three normal stresses - their sum being called the trace of the stress tensor - as a iiscfi~l ~ll~rncri(:nl qu~ttrt.ikiyin tho C ~ S Oof n 7~i.~(.otis /hid in a state of mot.ion also. It is still called the pressure, but its r e l a t i o ~t,o t,l~c! ~ tl~ermoctynamic pressure requires further investigation. Altlro~~glr t11cr1 ceases t.o it, be equal t o a particular stress which is normal to the snrface, it has the propcrty of heing invariant with respect t o tfrnnsfornrat,ions of the systcrn of coordinnt.es, as i t is a n invariant of the stress tensor, being tlcfincd as

5 (az -1 a,

4- a,)

= -p

(3.12)

We shall see in See. ITIe tll~atit remains c q r ~ a lt o t l ~ c ttlrcrmotlynamic press~~rc, in t,he absence of relaxation.

c. The rntc nt \r,hich a fluid elomcnt is strninctl in flow

53

system of the I.11rcw cqrt:~t,ions 1 ) aotrt.air~s the six st,rrsscs a,, a,, a,, (3.1 Tho next t,nslc is t80 tlct,crlnir~ethe relation hetjwccn tllern and the T , t, s,,. ,, , , strairls so RS t o c11n1)Ic11st,n it~trodricc vrlocity components u ,v, w into eqn. (3.1 1). 1.11~ Before giving this rclat,ion it1 See. 111tl wo sl~nllir~vcstigat.~ syst,om of st,mins t,l~c in great,cr detail. '1'110
c. The rntc nt which a fluid ele~ncnt strnir~ed flow i~ in

It, is ronvrnirnt t o rVnrrangc the cxprcssiotls for the rcslativr veloc.ily r o ~ n p o r ~ t ~ t ~ t . :

du, dv, (110 from rclrt. (3.13) t o tllo form

(111,

(i,tlx I- i , -{- irz -1, (I?/ (12)

-

(91

,lz

--

[ (I!,)

tlv = (i,, tl:c -1- i,, tl!/ -1- i,, tlz) - 1 ( i

tl11'

t (lz)
- 1 7

-- (i,, tlx

1- h,, (I?/ -1 k, rlz) -1 - ([ tl!/

I
I

(3.14)

(1%) ,

Whrn a cont,ir~l~o~ls of fllritl is rnntlc t,o flow, every rlcmcnt in it is, gcncrally 1)odq. sl)t'n.lting, clis~,ln.cctlt.o a new posit,ion i r ~t,t~ecollrsc of time. 1)uring t.his motior~ r l c m ~ n t s flrlitl l)ccon~c of st,minctl, ant1 since t J ~ cmot,ion of t.11e flrricl is cornplet-ely tIet.rrn~inrtl l ~ r n w t,he vclocit,y vect,or rrr is given as a funct,ior~ t,ime and positpion, of tr, = ru(z,?/,z,t), them cxist Itincrnat,ic rrlnt,ions l)et,wcen the componcl~tsof t,hc r:~.tcof st.mir~ ant1 t,ltis function. 'Vile rntc n t which a n clement or flllitl is strnir~ctl tlcprn(ls on t.11~~ 1 . l b z .n~otionof t,\vo poin1.s wit.hin it. We, t,hercfore, consitlor the ~ t: t,wo ~reigl~l)onring points A nntl B whirl1 nro st~owrl Fig. 3.2. Owing to the preserlcc in of t,l~o vrlorit,y ficlcl, point A will be tlisplncctl to A' in t,ilne dl by a distat~ce = r dt ; s o sinrr, I~o\vevor,tho vclocity a t B, imngincd a t a dist,ance d r from A, is different, point H will move t,o B' displ:~rcdfrom 1%by s -1- (1.9 = (ui -1-tlrri) dt. More explicitly, r if t , l ~ compone11t.sof vrlocity !lave tho valucs IL, v, 10 a t A, then, a t the ncigl~bonring l)oint, I<, t,hc vcloc:ity componcr~t~s be givcn t80 first order by the Tnylor-series will

it Itring rasy t o verify t,hat t,l~e new symbols hnvc tllr li)llowing

I I ~ ~ Y ~ I I ~ I I ~ S

and

(3.15a)

I t is rlotrtl 1,lla.t the matrix i,j is syn~nictric.,so t h a t

Fur

--

E,,

F,,

= F,,

Ezy

Eyz

(3.15~)

rurl u~

(3.15tl)

1l:ach of tile new tortns can be giver1 a lcir~cn~nt~ic it~t,crprctxtior~, we now l~roceetl ant1 t o obt,ain it,.

'~'IIIIs, 1110 rt4;~bive motion of point. l3 witill rrspect to A is tlescribetl by t,hr following
~ n a t r i xof nine pnrt,ial d e r i v t ~ t i v eof t,he local vclocit,y field ~

Since we c:or~centmt.cour ntt,cntio~l t,llc inirncdiat,c ncigl~borlrl~ootl point, A, on of ant1 since intmest is cent.red on the motlion of R relative l,o A, wc sllall plnco point. A at tl~c origin, :~!ltl interpret dz, tly, dz as the coortlinat.cs of point 1%i r l a (::~rt,c:si;~n syst,cn~of coortlinal(:s. Tn i>hisnl:tnnrr, the cxprcssiot~s nclns. (3.14) will tlnlinr in n ficltl of rrlat,ivc velocities in which t.11~ componcn1,s tlrr, clv, tli~) lirlc?n.r I~nc:(.ions arc of I,IIc s[):~(!t: not~rtlit~nl~es.orclor L ~ri~~It~rsl~:tt~cl In o tnt~:~t~ingt,l~o of' (IiIli*rt~t~l~ icrtns in tJre ~ n a t ~ r i x . l 5 a ) ant1 in cclns. (:1.151)), wo proccetl t,o interpret t,l~c%n~ by onc. (3 onc 'I'l~e diagram in Fig. 3.3 represent,^ t,lrc field of relat.ive ve1ocit.ics when all ternis except r3?r/az val~islr on the assnn~pt~ionh a t 2u/ax > 0. Tllc rclat,ive velocity ol' t a n y point B wit11 respect t,o A is now

ant1 tho field consisLs of plancs x =- const which displace thc~nsclvcsnniforrnly wit,ll a velocit,y which is proportional L the clist,ancc tlx away from the plane x = 0. o An elementary parallelepiped with A anti R : ~ its vertices placed in stlch a vclocity t field will be distorted in extension, its face BC receding from A11 wil.11 nn inorcasing

Fig. 3.3. Tmcnl clintor1,ion of f l ~ l i t l rlenlc.111 wllcn &r/i?x > 0 wil.11 nll ol.t~crlrrnin being eqnnl to zrro; rrniforrn rxlcnnion in tlrc zdirection

ex

IGg. 3.4. 1,ocnl tlislorliorl o f llr~rtlclrnrr~~t whcn au/ay > 0 wit11 a 1 oll~rr 1 terrns bring cq11n1 to zcro; r t t ~ i l t r r t s ~ ~ o ~ ~ r ~l dcfort~~:llio~~.

vr1ocait.y. Tltr~s r e p r c s c n t ~ 2, t.he rate of rhn,galion in t.hc x-dircct,ion sr~flkrctlby tlto clctnctit,. Similarly, the atlclit,ivc terms C, = a11/'11/ant1 C, = aio/i)z drscri1)o t,hc rxt.o of rlorig:rl.io~l i r ~t,lic 11- xntl z-tlircctions, rcspcct.ively.
11, is nowr tt:l~yt o visl~nliactlrc clist.ort.ion impn.rt,etl t o a fluid clemcnl by the sititlrlt.nllt~t~tl~ lt.t*t.io~~ ,111 t , I i r t ~ of tIin,gon:~.l I t - n i c ~ ~ tmatrices (3.132) or (3.15s). ~ of , ~ '1'111. t ~ l t w i c * ~~~~l ,S ~ I I I . Ii Il l~ ~ H l.lirt:t* tlirot:t.io~~rr, tile (:Iiai~goin t . 1 1 ~Icngt,h of its 11.l1 11.11t1 t,l~rtst*i t l t s f l l~rotI~~tx:s : I I : L inI ~ ~ ~ IL ~ I vo1111nca t a rt;l:~tivc rat,e

( ~ Ir
e -

az

lrI ,

dy

{t a "

dy < ~ t )

kz :
4

r1.z dl)
--

- C I X dy P A

di

t I r dy ;iz (it-

Fig. 3.5. Local rlintortion of f l l l i ( 1 clc:~t~crt~, when E,, = E,, = ((&lay) -t ( a t ~ l a ~ ) )o > with nll otl~erterms bcing c q ~ ~ n l zrro; to distortion i n ul~npe. (Tl~c diagrntn has bern drnwn for &1/8y = au/a.r )

1.0 iirsL ortlcr in t . 1 1 ~tlrrivxt.ivcs. 1)llring t,llis tlist.ort,iorl, liowcvcr, tdre s \ l x ~ ) c 1.11~ of rlrmcnt~, clcscril)cd by t,he angles a t its vertices, remains ~lrlchengcti,sitrcc all right nrlglrs cont,inue t o I)e t.hat, way. T11us k tl~scribcsthe Ioc~rl,i n s t a n t , a ~ ~ o o ~O s I L ~ I C I Y ~ C ~I ~ I rlilrr(ntio?~of a fIui(1 elenlent. Whcn t,he fluid is incompressible, d = 0,a s must be e ~ p c c l ~ c tIn a co~nprrssil)lc l. fluid tllc cont.inuit.y equation (3.1) shows t l ~ a t

t,Ilat, is L11:1t, t.llr voll~nirt,ric tlil.il,xt,ion, t.lic rcla.t.ive cliangc in volllme, is rq11a1 tto 1,llr nrg:lt.ivc of t0ic rc:l:~Livc ra.1.c of cliangc in tho local density. ; Tho rcl;ll,ivc vc1oc:ity ficlcl presents n tljlfcmnt appearance when ono of the olr-diagonal t,erms of n~at.rix(3.13a), for example au/ay, has a niin-vanishing, say pasiCivc, valrlc. The corrt-spontling ficltl, skctchcd in Fig. 3.4, is one of pure shear stmin. A rect,anglllar clemcnt of fluid ccntrctl on 1 now distorts into a parallelogram 1 a s indicnt,ccl in the diagram. l'hc original right angle a t A changes a t a rate measured Ity tlie angle y,, = [(ai~lay) tll]/tly, t l ~ a tis a t a r a t s &lay. When both au/ay d!/

Fig. 3.6. Taral distortion of flnid el~mrnt when

5 = t ((hlaz)- ( w a y ) ) + o ;
instnntnticous rigid-body rotation

56

11 I . 1)t.rivntion of t.110rquntionrr of n ~ o l i n i iof

rotnprcasibln viscous tlnitl

c. The!

rate ~t wllir11 a Ilr~id elcnlrnt is ~Lrainctl flow in

57

aritl r?n/8z Iiavc posit,ive nonvanisliing vnlnrs, tthe right, angle a t A will distort owing t,o t,lie slipcrposit,ion of t.\ro mot,ioris, t,llc st.:~tc affairs bcing ilIrrst,ral,etl in Fig. 3.5. of 1 L is clr:ir tlint, 1.hr right n.tiglr at. A now tlist.orts a t t,wiae the mt8c

(a) A pure tmnslatiorr t1escril)ctl by the vclocit.y components I L , v, 1il of rr r. (b) A dgitl-body rotatiori describctl by t,hc components 5, 7, 5' of curl ir c. (e) A volrrrrlctric tlilatation tlcscril)eci by e tliv in, the iinmr dil:it,:~tions in the tlircct,iori or tllc axes bcing describcxd I)y d,, i, : L I I ~ E,, r(~s~)e(:t.ivoly. ((I) A tlist,ort.ion in s l i a ~ ) c drscribctl by t . l ~ rc o r n p o r ~ c ~ ~ t . (,I,(: wit11 rnixt:tl i,,~ it~clicrs.

--

tlcscril,t~tl I)y I wo of the orf-tliagollnl t,cr~ns matrix (3.15%). In general, t,hc three of . . ~ f f - ~ l i i ~ g o n ~ lEx!, - F,/,, F,, = d,,, :LII(I E,, = Fyr tlcsr.ribc t h e rate of dist,ort,ion t.rrlns of a right, nnglt: locatrd iti ;L plaric ~iornmnlt,o t,he axis the index of which does not nppt'ar ns n srll)script.. 'l'hr tlistort.ion is volume-preserving and affects only the shape of t,lic clcmcnt . (lirrr~mst,:lnrrsnro ilgain tli!fcrcrit in t,lic pzrticlrlxr case when au/ay = - av/az illrrst.r;ct,ctl in I'ig. 3.6. k'roni t . 1 1 ~prccctling considcrat,ions and from t h e fact that. tlow 2,, t) \\.e ran infsr n.t oncc t,liat, tJrc right angle a t A remains undistorted. 'I'his is also rlrar from t.hr diagram wliicll sliows t h a t t h e fluid element rotates wit,lr rcsprrt, t,o t.llr rcfkrencr A . I n , ~ l a ~ r t n n e o ~ ~this , r o t d o n occurs witjllout sly dist.ortion ant1 call I,c dcsoril)rtl as a rigitl-l)otly rot,ntion. Tlic instant,arlcons nngulnr vrlorit,y of t.l~isrot,at,ion in

Only tho last, two motions protluce a n ir~t~rinsic tlefor~nat~ion n l l r ~ i t lolcme~lt, of sr~rrourltlirig rrfc:rcncc point A , lllc first two cnusirlg a rncrc, gelicral, tlisplacerncnt, tho of its location. T1ic e l ~ m e n t ~ s nratrix (3.15a) ~onstit~rrtc componcnt.~of ;t symrllet~ric of tllc tensor known :IS t,he rale-of-slmitt lensor; it,s mat.liematjical properties arc? analogous t o tliosc of the cqlrally symmct.ric st,ress t,cnsor. It is known from tJie tlicory of elasticit$y 13, 71 or from general c:onsidcrations of t,cnsor algebra [I I ] t,lr;it wit,li every symmetric tensor it is possil)lc t.o associate tlrrco rnrlt.rrally orthogon:rl pritt,cipnl axes wlrich tlctormine tlrrce mut,nnlly ortllogorial I)rincipnl plar~cs t,Ii:~tis a privilcgctl Cartesian syst,crn of coordinat,cn. In t.llin syst,cln of coortlinatlcs, t,he stlrcss vrrt,or or t,llc inxtnt~t.t~ncor~s nrolion in tiny ono of t,Iic prinoip:~lp l n ~ ~ c s nornr:~ll,o it., tlial, is is, pnrallel t,o one of the axes. IVlrcn sr~clia special system of c ~ o r d i n a t ~ c s used, is (3.10) or (3.15a) rct.ain their diagonal t,cmis onlg. DcnoLirrg the valrrcs the n~at~rices of the respcct,ivc coniponerit.~ syrnl)ols with I);irs, \ST woultl I)e tlrnlirig wit.ll tile I)y mat,riaes

1 I t , is now rasy t.o see t h a t the component. of crlrl 17 from cqn. (3.15b), known a s t,llc vort.irit,yof't.11~ vclocit,y firlcl, reproscnt,~ angular velocity of this inst-ant.ntleo~~s t.lw rigitl-1)otlj~ rrfi:.:t ion, and t.hat,

<

lllr rnorc t-oml)lrx ease whrri (afl/a:r) $- - (au/a!y), t.lie element of fluit1 rot;it,rs nticl it.s sli:rpc? is tlist,ort,rd sin~~rlt~nnc.ously. can st,ill interpret the t,ernl We
111

I t slrould, finally, bc remembered t,hat, sucli :L t,rnrrsli)r~i~:~liot~ of c.oortlir~:~t.c.s tloc*s not affect, the sum of the diagonal terms, so t h a t

desrril)ing t 111- r ; to ~ r.ot.:~t.iori.

:I(,

wllic:l~ t . l ~ rrlt.mrtit, of Illlid part.iripatrs in

I

it

rigid-body

'I'II(: linc:irit,y of rclns. (3.13) or of the c*~~t.irclg cq~rivalnrrtc q t ~ s . (3.14) signifies t,h;it,t,I~t* most gc:noml c:ase nrisos by :I s ~ ~ l ) t ~ r ~ ) o s01' ,tllc~simple cases just tlcscribed. it io r
'I'liercli~tr, if :i.t,t.r~nt.ioli lisecl oli t,wo nrighbouring points A and B in a body of is Illtitl \vlrirh slistnins n rontinr~orrs ve1orit.y field ur(z,?y,z), Clrc motion of a n element ~ s t,wo ~)oint,s I)c ~lriiqrlnlytlccomposetl int.o four compot.nn of fltlirl s ~ ~ r r o r t n t ltilr~ e~ c nent. motions :
Iz'ig. 3.7. i'rir~cil)ialaxes for st.rrss ;iriil rat.(: of sI.r:~in

(1. ltclntiotl hetwecrl R ~ ~ C S S rntc of delornlal.ion and

59

of flltitl is strcsscd in t,llrcc nlrltually pcrpcndicrrlar tlire~t~ions, and its faccs arc displnactl instarrtarleortslg also in tlrrec niut.rtally perpentlicrllsr direotions, a s s~~ggestccl by Pigs. 3.7a ant1 I). 'l'his clocs not., of course, moan tllnt bllcre exist 110 shearing st.rrssrs in ot.Ilrr 1rl:~nrs t,llnt. t,llo sllapc of t.11~ or clcmrnt rcmr~ins~lntlistortrd. 11. Rclntion between stress and rote of deforrnatiot~ I t s110111(1, 1)crlla[rs, 1)c st.rcsscd once more t h a t t,hc cql~at,ions whicll relate tho surface forccs t.o tllc flow ficld must, be ol)tainetl 1)y a pcrccptlivc interpretation of' experimental resrtlB and t h a t our i~rt~crcst restricted to isotropic and Newtonian is flr~itls. l'hc consitlcmt,ions of tlle precctling section provided 11s with a 11scfu1mathcmatical franlcwork wlriclr allows us now to statc t,hc rcq~tircmcnt~s srtggcstcd by experimcnt.~in a sotncwhat, lnorc prerisc form. Wllcn t.11~ flr~itl is a t rcst, it dcvclops a uniform ficld of I~ydroslaticst,rcss (tlrgat.ivc prrssllrc - p) whicll is idcnt.ica1 witli the t.hermodynanric pressure. equation of s t a t c st.ill tlcternlines a pressure at, When the fluid is in mot.ion, t , l ~ c ovcry point ("princilrlc of lorn1 st,atc" 141), and it is rnnvcnicnt t o consider t,he tlcviat,oric normal strcssrs
ax1: or ( p ; =

of whirl1 conicitles with i t and on the sum of tlio three, each with a different factor Thus we rccortl, ~lircct~ly terms of t.hc spacc-clcrivat,ives, t,l~at, in of ~mo~)ortionalit,y.

a,,':-a,

I- p ;

a' -a, ,

I- p ;

(3.20)

togrtllcr wit,lt the rlnc:lrnngntl shearing strosscs. Tllc six q ~ ~ a n t . i t i r s obtjainccl so cor~st,itrct,c sytlrnlct,ri(: st,rcss tensor tllc cxist.cnrc of which is tluc t o the tnotiorl a hccnusc a t rcst. :ill it.s componcnls vanis11 irlcnt.irally. l'rom what Ilns bcen snit1 l)rfnrc it follows t.11at Ollc componcnts or this tlcviat,oric t.cnsor arc creatctl solely by t,hc compottcnls of t,11c ra1.c-or-shin t,cnsor, t.11at is t o tllc exclusion of the cornponcnt.~ , 17, m of vc.1oc:it.y as wc:ll as of the componcnts (, ?], [ of vort,icit,y. 'l'his v is rclnivnletlt. to s:r\,ing t,l~:rt . 1 1 ~inst.ntlt.:lncolts t.r:trlslat.ion [component motion (a)] t a s wrll a s tho it~st,:~.rtt,anco~l rigitl-l)otly rot,:~tion Icornl)or~c~lt motion (I))] of' :tn c,lrtnrnt of llrtitl protlrtcc no slrrfaco fnrrcs on it in atltlit.ion to the e x i ~ t ~ i ncott~g 1w~w1it.s l~ytlrost.:tl~ic of prrsstlm. 'l'hc procrtlitlg st.atct~~ctrt,, cvidcr~l.ly, rnrrrly rcprcs c l ~ tx, ~ prr(:iso 1oc::tl fortnrtlnt.ion of wltat we cxl)oct L observe whcn :I Gnitc I)otly o of Ilt~id performs n gctrcral nlot,ion wl~icll is ir~tlist~ing~rishablc from tllnt of a11 ~:q,r~ivnlnst rigill I)n(ly. We tllus cr)n(;l~l(lr t,ll:it t11c erprrssions for tho aompononts a , 0 ' . . ., T ~ , of blrc tlcviatoric st.rcss t.c,nsor can ront,airr in lhcm only the velocit,y , ,. gratlictlt,~ aulax, . . ., allllaz in a p p r ~ p r i n t ~(:ombinations which we now procccd t,o c cl~t~crniit~e. rclntiotls are l)ostnlnt.ctl t,o Oc lincar; t,hcy must rcmain unchangccl 'I'ltcsr: by :I rotatiorr of the syst.crn of coortlirlalns or by a n intcrct~ange nxcs 1.0 ensure of isot,rolry. Isotaopy also rocluirc-s t h a t a t ovcry point, in t,hc continuum, tfhc principal n.xcs of t,llo strrss t,rr~sor mrlst roinrido with the prirrcipal axes of t h e ratc-of-strait1 t,crisor, for, ot.I~(~r\visr, prrfcrr(x1 dirort,ion wolll(1 1)c int,ro~lrrccd.rlll~csimplest :I. WRY to nrllicvc otlr ninl is t,o srlect a n arlrilmrf point, in 1.1re cont,inunrn ant1 t,o itn:~girinLlr:~.t, t.lte locnl syst.crn of roordir~at~cs ?7,'2 ?, has been provisionnlly so clloscn n s t.o coincitlc \vit,ll t,hc t,llrcc common princ:ipal axes of tltc two trcnsor~. 'l'hc cornI)ot~i.ttl.s t , l ~ ( tvo1ocit.v lic*ltl in t,his syst,c:m of coordinntcs are dcnototl by ?(., ii, 111. of
s(,I.,.ss~~s ,r (Ti,

'l'!.,?rl"".llt,it,i?s ?I,,0 , : ~ n ( l r], C d o not appcnr in t i ~ c s c 4, cxprcssiorts for t . 1 1 ~~.r:l.sotls jttst explained. In each expression, the lnst term represents tllc appropriate rate of lincar dilatat,ion. t h a t is, in essence, n change in allape, ancl tho first, terrn rcllres c n b the vollrmetric clilatfation, Ulat is the rate of change in volume, in csscnct., a change in density. Thc factors 2 kl the last terms are not essential, beirrg mcrely c:onvenicnt t o facilit,ate thc interpretation, a s we shall see 1at.er. Tlrc fact<ors of ~)roport,ionality, and 1,two in all, must bc the same in cach of the three pmccding p cqnations t o sccllre isotropy. It. is easy to scc t h a t a n intcrchangc bctwecl~ any two axes, t h a t is an intercltange of any of tfhc thrce pairs of qrtant,it,ics:( I Z , : ~ )(,d , g ) , (I?,?) leaves the set of miations invariant, a s they nlitst be in a n isot.ropic mcdilltn. Moreover, t,llc prcrrding is the only ~ o r n h i n a t ~ i o l ~ ~pntin.1gmdirr~t,s wl~icll possrsscs tllc of rcquirt!tl propcrt.ies. 1f t.11~ rcatlcr cannot see t.l~isd i r ~ c t ~ l IIC may cotlsltlf. a more y, rigorous proof in n treatise on tensor algchra (or c. g. [11] p. 89).
l , o rclat.ions in cqns. (3.21) cart bc re-written t o apply ill at1 arl)itrary syst,cm h of c:oorcLinat.es b ~ r a general rotation wit11 ttrc aid of t,ltc appropriate g linear t.mnsfornlation formr~lac.We shall refrairl from p r ~ t t ~ i ndown t,hc tlrt:~.ilrtl ut,cps k~ccausc,t.Iio~tgl~ tctlions if pcrformetl tlircct.ly, tltoy arc qltitc sLr.zigllt,for\vnr~I, 'C'tlcy becomc sitnple if tcrlsor calcl~lr~s used. T l ~ e is approriate direct fortnlrlac tnay I)e follt~tlin refs. [R, 6 , 71, whereas their tonsorial cotrnt.crpn.rt.s arc givc.11 i l l rrf. 1 1 1 I. Suc*h a tl(:rivat.iorl woltltl sltow t h a t
a,' = 1tliv ,u

2 p av -ax

u"'

1cliv , 4-2 p av , ,
-f

ail

a,' - 1 < l l v r a
T, ,

2 , ~ - ;

a 1 1 1

az

= -cur = 1 -"

z.

I t is tto\\- (.1~:1rt.I~:\t isot.ropy rnri 1r1, snc:rlrrtl only if r::tcl~onr of t.hc t,llrt=c normitl ;,, (ri is IIIIIIII- llo tl(!p(:~t~lI t , l ~ ( s(:otrrpon~~nb ~:I.(,I! of' st,l.itill t.lt(! (li~.(.(:tio~r OI of'

-." -.(;;
~z

(:: ;p;)
+

);
1;

r.1

-I"(&

a 1

f. T311lkviscoait,y nnnd tlieri~iod,y~~nrnia l,resn~lro

61

where div irt has been used for hrrvity. 'J'l~crcatlcr may notpicethe regularit,y with w l ~ i r hthe indices x , y, z, t h e componrntn n, v , in, ant1 t l ~ rcoortlinntrs x , y, z arc permutcdt. Applying t,l~ese equations t,o the si~nl)lc case rcprescnt.ctl in Fig. I . I , we rccovcr eqn. (1.2) and so confirn~ t h a t t,lic precctling more gcnrrnl rrlat,ion rcctr~ces to Newt,on's law of friction in t01r casc of simple shear ant1 tlocs, t,l~orcforo, const.it,~lt,c? it,s proper genornlization. At the samr timr, we identify tt.ie factor /I. witJt the viscosity in justify the factor 2 previously of the fluid, amply discl~ssetl Scc 1h, and, incid~nt~ally, inserted ir~t,o eqns. (3.21). The physical sigr~ificnnceof the second factor, 1,requires f~lrt.Iicr tlisc~~saion,u t we 11ot.c t-l~at, plays 110 part in a n incompressible fluid when b it, div 1 1 9 = 0 ; i t then disappears From the equat,ions n.lt.oget,hcr, ant1 so is seen t o be in~port.ant for r~ompressible Ruitls only. e. Stokes's hypothesis Althongl~the problem t , l ~ a t arc about t o cliseuss has arise11 more than a we ccnt.ury and a half ago, the physical intcrpretatiort of the sccontl fact,or, 1, in eclns. (3.21) or (3.22a, b) a n d for flows in which tliv I I J does not vanish identically, is still being disputed, even t,hough tohe v a b e which should be given t o i t i n the ic,orkirtg e q t u ~ f i o ? ~not. 'I'l~is numerical VRIIIC is determined with the aid of a. hypois ~ t,l~csis :~tlvancodby G . G . St,oltcs in 1845 11.71. Without,, for Lhe niomcnt,, concerriing o~~rsclvcs wit,h the physical reasons which just.ify Stokes's h?yl/path~s~:s, first st.ate we t.liat according t.o it,, it is nerrssary to assume

t l ~ c h r n r i n gstresties rernairlir~gurirl~angrtl.Malting usr of eqrln. (3.20), wr 011tni11 ~ t l ~ rso-ralled conrtitutioe eqlantion for a11 isotropic-, Newtonian fluid

i r ~ final form, ~ ~ o t , i trh ag p reprcser~t.~ local t,l~orrnotlynarnic: it,s ~ t the [)rrns~lrrl-

Regartletl as a pure hypotl~esis,or ever1 guess, eqn. (3.23) can cortai~lly I)e :~cce~)tctl t.11~ on ground t h a t the worltir~g eclr~at.ions which result from the s ~ ~ b s t i t n t . i o ~ l of cqns. (3.26a,b) into (3.11) have been si~bject~cd an u ~ ~ u s u a l l1;~rgenumber t,o y of cxpcri~rlentnlverifications, ever1 ~ ~ n t l c r quite cxt,remc conditions, a s t,Ile reader will cor~crtlcafter having stutlicd this book. Thus, even if it shorrld not rrprescnt, t h r state of affairs exact.ly, i t certainly constiti~t.csan rxcellent approximat,iol~. Since t,hc deviatoric components are the only ones which arise in motion, t,l~cy rcprrscrit those components of sttress whiclr protluce tlissipation in all isot~hertnnl flow, t,l~crc~ c i l ~ g I further dissipatior~in a t,cmperature field t l ~ l c thermal corltl~lct,ion, t,o ( ~ I I : L ~ I XI I . F~~rt.hcrmore, . since t,hc S:~cbor1 occurs only in tilo normal c o r n p o ~ ~ r n t , ~ cr,', u,', a,' w11ic:h also c o ~ ~ t ~1.11~ i ~ it~l~crnm~lynaniicr c s s ~cqrls., (3.20), it I)ccomcs n ~~ ~rc t,It-nr t , l ~ n t .t,l~c pl~ysic:~l significnncc of 1 is connectctl wil.11 t . 1 1 ~~ n c c l ~ a n i s m tlissiof p:\t,ion \ v l ~ c ~.i1 1 ~v o l ~ ~ r n c t,hc fluid clcrncrit is cliangqd a t a finit.c rat,c as well :as t of \\.it,l~ 1 . 1 1 ~ rrl:~t.ior~ I)rl,wrrr~the tot.al st.rcss t,orlsor :tntl t.lrt:rnmotlynatnic: I I ~ ~ : H S I I I . O .

This rclat,es Ore v a l ~ ~ c the fnrtor 1 t o the visrosity, 14, of thc romprc.ssible fluid of and redt~rest h r n l ~ m b e rof propertics which rhamct~erizethe fieltl of stresscs in a flowing romprcssiblc fluid from two to onr, t h a t is t o tlir same numl)cr a s is r r q ~ ~ i r c for rcn i~icomprrssihlr fl11it1 tl S~rbst,it.nting t,l~is v:~lncir~t,o eqrls. (3.22s), we ol~t,airithe normal corni)o~icr~t,s of tlevia.t.orio st,ress :

f. Bulk viscosity nr~cltl~errnodynamicpressure

uzf = -

/L div

IIJ

2 , az , u
\ al~tlit of Stokrs's hgpotlicsis, but, confine it to the casc wllerl no shearing st.r~ssrs y :Lrr irivolvctl, 11cmusc their physical sigriifiranre arld origin is rlcar Conseql~r~itly,
6

aw

Tllc :~boycc of six erlnnl.ionacan be oontrac:tc(l to a single one it1 Cnrtrsian-hnsor riotation nL ( w i t . l ~Einflkin's .snlnmnt,ion rot~vention):

I n tlre compact tcnaorial notation wr wollld write

u'IIc~(. tllr l<ronrrkrr tlrlta
dl, -

0 for i

+ j nr~tldij

I for i --

\vo cot~sitlrra fll~itl syststn, say the s p l ~ c r c sI1ow11 irl Fig. R.8a w11iol1 is snbjectcd t o a r~~~iforrri rlorrnal stress, 3, it.6 I~ortnclary. n t ~ l ~ e a l ~ ~ofnmot,iorl Z is nI)vio~~sIy 011 I c ec c r t ~ l aallti ol)lx)sil,c!i r ~s i g ~ ll o ~,II(: I.l~rr~noclynnmic l prcssrlrc, 11. 'l':~l<itlgIrllc S I I ~ I I of t,hc t.hrrc cclt~nlions(3.21) :11111 ~rl~ilizil~g~ I I(3.20), wc: f i r t t l I~11:tl. (-( s.

at, ;I fit1it.c mt.c. 'l'lln I~rrlkvisc:ositsy w o ~ l l ~. 1 1 1 1 ~ rwnstitl~tcn scc~o~ltl t l III.o~)I,I.~.J' of :t ronllwt~ssiblc, isotropic, NcwLoniatl f l ~ r i r ltirc.(l(~tl clol.ctrn~i~lr corlst.itl l ( i v v c s < l r l : ~ i(c t l l 1,o i1.s :I.II(I ~vonltl11:tvc lo l ) t ~ I I I ~ - : I S I I ~ ( -i~ l ;~tltlil,ioti 1 4 . 11, is ( * v i ~ l t , I,II;II, l ~~l 1' : 0 inlplirs 1) - - . n
1'
,I Ilitts 1 . 1 1 ~ nc-c:cy)l.anrc of

1 0

inll)li(*s

1)

F ,
1.11t~:rss11111~1tio11 l11:11.

Sl.oltrs's Ilyl)oIl~c-sis ctlt~ivnlrt\l7o is l

nlltl ~ l ~ t . i111;~t,ollr ccluat.ior~nrrflc-c:t, t.llis f:ict, a s aIrc:i(I~poillt,c(I (1111 earlier. Now, cr t,llc clllcst,iotl I~OSCR itself its 1.0 wllat, this rc\:tt,iol~ s11oc11(1 hc in a gctlcrnl flow ficl(l.

1:i~ 3.8. Qltnsintzt.ia cottlprrssion and orroill:rlory nlobion of

n upllorical

maas o l fluid

Wllcri t-he syst.om is c o n ~ ~ r c s s eqrl;tsist~ntinally and reversibly, we again mcovtv d

t . 1 1 ~prcvions casc becauso 1.11cn ciiv rrt -> 0 : ~ s ~ m ~ ~ t o l . i Wol lnote Ll~ntin suc:h ca ~. cascs t,ho rate a t which work is performed in a t.hcrn~otlyn:trnicdlyrcvcrsihle process
per 11r1i1, vc~lt~me hccomc:~ which is t , l ~ r same a s

rP

ptliv rrr p
tl v
-- dl

(3.2Ga)

Jk

(3.26b)

in t.lie not,at.ion cr~sl,omaryin t.hermodynnmics. When div rrv is firiitc, ant1 the fluitl is compressed, cxpar~tled made t o oscillat.a,' or and -- P pcmist-9 o t ~ l yif tho coefficirrlt : ~ t ,n fuita mt,c, equalily hotwesn
11'
"

1 I :3 lL

(3.27)

valrishm itlcntically (Stokes's I ~ ~ ~ ~ o L ~ o tr ~ o r isc it docs not. If p' - l = O , L ~ I C ~ lsis); oscillatory rnot,ion of a spl~ericatsystem, Pig. .8b, would prodrlce dissipation, oven if t l ~ ctcnipcmt,ure remained constant throughout the bulk of the gas. The snrnp would be true in t,lie casc of cxpnnsion or compression a t a finite rate. Por t.his reason, tlw coefficient 14' is citllcrl t.he bulk viscosity of the fluid: i t represenh tllnt. properl,y, like t,ltc shear visconit,y IL for deformation in sllape, which is responsihlc for energy clisaipntion i r ~ flrlitl of l~rliformtcmporntr~roduring 8 cllnngc in volumo a

131~c, l ~ t ~ r t ~ i o ~ l1)rt>ssur(:~ ~ it:qt1:11l , l ~ t t y ~ ~ ; i ~ is e on(:-t~I~ir(l tl~(: of ii~v:~,ri:t~~I,01' I I O ~ I I I ; ~ ~ st1111 st,rcss(:s cvc-11 in CWPS \vI~t*ti~ : o ~ n ~ ~ r ( ~ s sc!xp:l~nsiot~l)rort:(:tls 111. :L I i t t i l v r : ~ l e , or i o t ~ 17~~~-l.llrrmorc, also c q n i v a l r ~ ~ t t.110 nssclmptiot~t.11:l.l~ o s r i l l a l ~ o~nof,iot~ it, is to t01o ~ ~ ~ ~ 01' n Inrgc sr~ht:rinal system ~ v o ~ ~IICt lrc:vcrsil~lo if it, wc.rt: i ~ o t ~ l ~ r r mRlol.c* c l t b t : \ i l t - ( I l nl. t~onsitlrral.ionsin 1.r-rtns of I8llo cot~ccpl.s l.llcrtnotlyt~:lnlic:!: s it. n l~l~litxs i ~ ~ r . t ~ r t ~ r of a 1,o siblo proccssrs in cont.incroils systcrns r:In I)o foi)(~r~tl I.II(! \ v o r k ~o1.J. X ' l ~ ~ i x ~ ~ t ~ ~ . in 181, I . I'rigoginc 1121 ant1 S. R.. tlr (:root, nntl 1'. Mn.7.11r (11. In ortlrr 00 tlet.rrminc rlntlrr wl~at, c:orltlit,iotls t.11~ \)c~lk visrosil y of;^ r:otnl,rc~ssil)l(. llltitl v:lnisl~es,ill is ncross:Lry 1.0 11:ivc: rccwilrsc to (*xj~t:rit~ltv~I~ 1.11~;~ t ~ c l ~ l t01' t l ~ or o st~at.ist~in:~.ll ~ n r m o t l y r ~ a ~ t ~ i t ~ spcrrnil 11st,o c::ilct~lntct,r;trlsport t~oc~l'firic~tlt.~ I~ wllicll I~.OIII firsL princ-il~l(:s.'I'lic tlirc:ctp mcasurclnrnt of 1)111l< viscosit.y is very tlifl'ic:t~lI. lwr1.0 f'ornl, : L I I ( ~ 110 dcfi~iit~ivc rcsr~lt~s in ~xist.encc.St,:~t.ist,icnl arc n~ct~hotls tlcnso gases for or liqlritls lmvc not yet, been tlcvclopctl 1-0 it point w l ~ i c lwonltl nllt~w11s to ~nnltca ~ romp1ct.r s t ~ n t c m r t ~ t tfhe srll~ject. It, :ippcnrs. Ilowrvcr, t,l~ntt,lle br~llr \.iscosit.y on vnnislics irlent,ic:n.lly in gases of low tlensit.y, t.llnt is nntlrr c:ontlit.iorls u.11c.n ortlg binary collisio~~s molecules noctl t o I)c t,nkcrl into account,. 111t l c ~ ~ s e ~ s r s tlrr of g; , lir~rncricalvalue of brrlk viscositp.y nn.ppc:Lrs to be very small. 'rllis nle:ins t,llnt, c:clt~s. (:<.2(ia,t))cont,ilnre t o tlcscribc tllc work in a continuous s y s t c n ~ t l ~ :~bscnco sl1cn.r in c of l,o a n c x c ~ l l c n ttlrgrce of n,pproximat.io~~ t h a t tlissipnt,ion a t constant. t.t>nll)rraancl trrre, cven i n the general case, occitrfi only t,l~ror~glll ~ intervention of 1.l1rtlrviat, r torin st.resses. 'L'Ilr~s,once again, we :trc lot1 L St.okr~'fihypot.llcsis nntl so 1.0 I'OII. o (3.26). 'l'liis conclr~sion(Ions not, cst.rrltl l,o fluids wllicll :trc c:il)nl)ln or rltl~lrrgoit~g rclaxat,io~lprocc-sses I)j: virtnc of a 1oc:nl ilcpnrturc fro111 n st,nt,e of t~hcmic:nlctlnilil)ri11111 .a]. Such rclaxntiorl processes occur, for cxanlplc, wllcrl n cllc:rnic:rl rcnctio~c (1 van titlre place, or, in gascs of corni~lcxstr~rntnre, ~vllen:L c~rnpnrnt~ively I,r:~nsli.r slow o f energy betsweeri the translntionnl nntl rotat,iorlnl tlcgrcrs of frcotlom on t.hc onc: Ilantl, nnrl t.11~ vil>ratio~lal tlegrcrs of I'rccdom on thc ot,hc:r, btcornes possil~lr. 'I'IIIIS wllen rel:txat,ioti 1)roeesses are possible, t,hc t,l~crmotlynnrnic pressure is no longer c c j ~ ~ a l one-third of tlie trace of tJle st,ress tensor. t,o I t is somrt.irnas orgrlctl Gllnt 1 . h ~ n.tlol)tio~lof Sl,olrt.s's Ilyl)ol.llc~sis. 1.l1:l.tis l . l i t \ s~zpposit,iont,Ilnt t l ~ cI~lrllrviscosit+y of Ncwt,onian Ilnitl vnr~isl~cu, tloc:s r~ol, :lrc:ortl wit,h our irlt81~it,ivc ft:c!litlg tllnt, n spl~crc:of fliritl wl~osctI~ollntlr~ry s t : i l l : ~NO t~ ~I ~( . ~ l ~ .I ;I t.l~c~rc:L ryclic? scquencc of compression s.rltl expansion, Lpig. 3.8L, wotrltl tlissi1):~l,o is no erlergy. This woulrl, intleetl, be t8he case, its is easily sccn f r o n ~t,l~cprcccditlg . argllmrnt, bccaclsc the tlissipativc part of tlic stress fieltl vanishrs 111ldcrsrtcll corltfitions. I t must, however, not be forgotjI,cn t.11at such a conclusion is valitl only if t.lre tjc~npcrat~uro the spllere of gas were to be kept const,nnt- during tlie oscillat.ion of t,l~rougl~out wllole volume. Norrnnlly t-his is impossible. Co~~sequontly, t.he an oscillat.irlg splterc of gns will soon develop n temperatarc field n.nd eriprgy will be tlissipnt,etl tlown t,l~c cxist,irlg t,cmpem.l.r~re grntlicrit,~161.

g. 7'11~ Nnvier-Stokes equatiotls

65

g. The Nnvier-Stokes equations

I t is necessary t o inclrlde here the equation of continuity which, ns scetl frorn ctytl. (:j.]), assumes t,ho following form for cornprcssible flo~v:

\Vitll t h r aid of rqns ( 3 20) the non-viscor~spressrtrr ternls can I)r srparatcd in tltc ctll~atiotlof ntotion ( 3 11) so illat they l)crolnc 'I'lle :tltovc ctl~lat,ions no1 givc n cornplcln tlt:script,iorl of t.110 ~rio(.io~r :I, cwntlo ol' ;rcssiblc llr~itl bcca.usc changcs in pressure ant1 dcnsit.y clfcct tcrnpcrature varint,ions, ant1 principles of tl~crmodynamicsmust, t,Ilt:reforr:, oncc morc ent,cr into the consit1cr:~tions.Fronl thermotlynarnics we obtain, in the first, placc, the cllaractcristio eclt~nt~ion (eqrtation of state) which combines pressure, clcrlsit.y, :inti t,err~pemt,r~rc, :lntl wllich for a perfect gas I ~ a sttlle form Jntrodrlcing t,he ronst,itntive relatioil from cqns. (3.24) we o1)tain the resultant surface force in ternis of thc velocity components, c. g , for the 2-clirertiorl we obtain wit11 the aid of eqn. (3.10a):

wit11 12 d r r ~ o t i n gh e gas constarlt arltl 7' denoting t>he t al)soltrt,c t3cmpcmt,urc.Srcontlly, if the process is not isot,hcmial, i t is fnrtllcr necessary t,o tnaltc IISC of tho cnrrgy rc111at.ionwllich draws u p a Oalancc l)c:t,wcc:n Itcat, ant1 mccl~ar~ic::tl cncrgy (First 1,:lw of'I'l~cr~notlynamir.s), wllicll furnishes a dilTerenLial ccluat,ion for t h e ten~ltcmtrtro and tlistSril)nt.ion.Tlle energy equation will be tliscussctl it1 greater tlctail in C ~ I : L XI .I . ~) Tllc final equatio~lof the system is given by the empirical viscosity law p ( Z 7 ) it.8 , tlepentlencc o n pressure being, normally, neglected. In all, if the forces X, J', Z are consitlered given, thcrc are seven eqrlatiorls for the seven v:~riablcsu, v , 7 0 , p, p , T , 11. For isothermal proccssos tltcsc rctlr~cct o five cqltatior~s(3.29a,b,c), (3.30) nntl (3.31) for tohe five rtnknowns u, v , W, p, p. Ir~com~ressible flow: The above syst.cm of equations beconles further si~nplifietl in tile case of incompressible fluids ( e = const) even if the temperature is not const,ant. First, as already shown i n cqn. (3.la), we have tliv iu r 0. Secondly, : variations are, generally speaking, small in this case, the viscosity since tVcmpcr:~ture may be taken t o be const,antt. The equation of state as wcll as the energy equation brcome superfluous as far a8 t he calculat,ioo of the fielcl of flow is concernetl. The Reltl of flow can now be considered intleprntlt*ntly horn t l ~ ccqrtntions of tllcrmorlynnniirs Tllc cquations of tnotion ( 3 29n,l),c) ant1 ( 3 30) can be slmplilietl and, if tlic accclcration terms arc w r ~ t t c n o a t fully, tllcy assume t h e following form:

and correspontlitlg exprcssior~s tlle ?Ifor and z-cornponent,~. the general case of 111 a compressiblc flow, the viscosity /A n l r ~ s tbe regarded as dependent on t,l~c spacc coordinates, bccause p varies considerably wit11 temperature (Tables 1.2 and 12.1), a n d the cllangcs in velocit,y and pressure t,oget.ller with the heat due t o friction bring about considerable tetnpcrat,urc variations. T h e temperatllre dependence of viscosiLy p('r) must. be ol)t,ai~letlfrom experiments ( c f . See. XTIla).

If thcse expressions nrc int.rotlucrtl into t h e funtlamelltal ecluxliol~s(R.11), we oljtain

Tl~pscvery wcll Icnown tliffcrential equations forin t,l~eItasis of tllr wl~olescience of fluid mechanics. They are usu:~llyreferrcd td a s t h e Navier-Stokes equations.

Ir! indicinl notation:

66

111. 1)~rivntion the eqnntions of mot,ion of a conlprr~siblo of vi3roi1~ fluid

g. Thr Nnvirr-Stokes equations

MTit11 known body forcrs there arc four ccluations for the four unknowns u., v , t u , p. I f vect,or not,atiorl is nsrtl t,hc simplifird Navicr-Stolcrs cq~iations incompresfor ~iblc flow, cqns. (3.32n,b.c), can bc sllort~cncdt o

+ vr

.:' :+ .
V,

Trrv+-

+ vz

whc-re t h e sym1)ol V 2 denotes t,he J,nplncc oprrator, V 2 -- a2/i)x2-4- a2/a?y2-1- a 2 / a z 2 . Tho nl~ovcNavier-Stokrs r q l i n t i o ~ ~ s diKer from Euler's equations of motion by t,he viscous terms / I V 2(11. 'r'hc solirtions of the above equations herome fully clrterminrtl pllysically w11cn 111 t,he case of visco~isfll~iclsthe c.ontlition of no slip on s o l d boundaries must, be satisfird, i. e., o n a wall both tlie normal ant1 tangential components of the velocitfy must, vanish:
t Iir 1)onrltlary ancl initial rontlitions arc sprcifietl

e($,

"4

av,

+vr

+ Bd ,

all

+VZ

:)=
(3.3fi.i
1 av,
r

ar v -+'+-a r

a+ +'=o. az

av

(3.3Gd)

.l ,h c equations i~nrlcrdiscnssion wcrr first tferivcd by M. Navier [9] in 1827 and

v ,

-- 0 ,

v, = 0 on solid walls

(3.35)

The stress components assume the form

I)y S. 1). I'nisson [lo] in 1831, on tthe basis of a n argument which involved the r o ~ ~ s i d r m t i oof int,ermoleci~lar forces. J,at,cr the same equations were derived n without t h e use of a n y such hypotheses by 13. de Saint Verlant [14] in 1843 and by G . G. Stoltcs [13] in 1845. 'l'heir tlcrirations were based on t h e same assumption as made here, rlamrly t h a t the normal and shearing stresses are linear functions of the rate of deformation, in conformitry with the older law of friction, due t o Newton, and t h a t t h e thermodynamic pressure is equal t o one-third of t h e sum of the normal stresses taken with a n opposite sign. Since t h e hypotliesis of linearity is evidently completely arbitrary, i t is not a priori cert,ain t h n t t h e Navier-Stokes equations give a true description of t h e r n o t i o ~of n fluitl. J t is, therefore, necessary t o verify them, and t h a t can only be ~ arhicvecl by experiment,. I n t.l~is connrxion i t should, in a n y case, be noted t h a t the enormous ma.tI~ernatical tlifficulties encountered when solving the Navier-Stokes cq~iations have so far prevented us from oI)toaining single ~ n a l y t i solution in which t h e a c ao~ivcrtivo t,crn~s int,eract in a gcrleral way wit11 t h e friction terms. However, known solnt.ions, snch RS Inminnr flow throngh a circular pipe, a s well a s boundary-layer t flows, t o bc discussed later, a.gree so well wit,ll experi~nent h a t tlie general validity of t,lic Navior-St.olrcs cqnations car1 Iiarclly 1,e doubted. Cylilic1ricnl coorclinntcs: We shall now transform the Navier-Stolces equations t,o cylindrical coordirlatcs for future reference. Jf r, +, z donot,e the radial, azimuthal, and axial coordinates, respectively, of n three-tlimc~lsionalsystem of c~ortlinat~es, ant1 v,, v,, v, d c ~ l o t et h e velocit.y components in the respective tlirect-ions, then the t,ransfor~nnt,ionof varinbles [3, 111 for t h e rase of incompressible Huid flow, eclns, (3.33) and (3.34), leads t o t.he following system of equat.ions: ~ Curvilinear coordinatee: Tt is often risrfr~l t o employ a o ~ ~ r v i l i n r a ry s i c mof coordinates which is adapted t o the shape of the body. In t,hr rnsc of two-dirr~ensior~nl flow along a curved wall, it is possiblr to srlect a coordinate syst,cm whose abscissa, x, is measured along the wnl;, the ortlinate, y, being rncn,snrrrl a t right angles to it, ld'ig. 3.9. Thus the curvilinear net consistsof c u r v ~ s wllicl~ parallel t o tlrr wall are

honrltlary layer along n c~trvetlwall Fig. 3.!). TIW-tlinlennionnl

and of stmight, lines perpendicular to t,hem. The corresponding velocit,y compol~er~ts are denotcd by 7~ and v, respectively. The radius of curvature a t positmionR: is derlotetl by R ( x ) ;it is positive for walls which are convex outwartls, ant1 nrgat,ivc whon t.hc wall is concave. Tho appropriate form of t,he comp1et.e Navicr-Stokes equation~1 has been clerivetl Ity W. Tollmien [lFi]. They arc:

111. l ) c r i v n t i o ~ ~ 1,Iir eqllntio~ls C motion of a rornprcssiblo vincoun fluid of o [!I] [I01 [Ill 1121 [I:)] Nnvicr. 174.: hI6rlloirc srlr Ics loin tlu ~ ~ i o r t v e ~ ~closn tflr~itlcs.kli.111, clo I'Aci1rl. tlc Sri. 6, lo 380---410 (1827). I'oisson, S.ll.: hl6111oiro sur les 6qrlntionn g6rl6rnlrn clr I1(.qnilibrc r t d r ~ rilr>~~vetiic:~lt, (Ips c~or1)molitlos 6l11ntiq11os t tics Iluiclcs. $1. (10 I'l':colo ~lol,y(yc~l~~l. c 1.1. I3!1-- l8li (IH:!l). I'rclgrr, CV.: J~~t,rotlltc(.iot~ I I C O ~ I I L I I ~ COF c o l ~ t , i t ~ t ~ n . RI. C~O.,I!)(;]. 1.0 I R C:illlJ l'rigogi~~c,. : I < t , ~ t ( l ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I I O ~ tlcn pl1611o11iA11ca ~ I I ~ I L ~ ~ ~ I I ~ I ~ I ~ C irr~~vt!rsil)lc;u, ) I I I I O ~ I . I ~ I ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ , I I!bl7. Stolct~~, (:.(:.: On 1110 t11c.oric.s o r itllsrl~nl frit:tior~ o r I l ~ ~ i ill ~ t l tllnLioll. 'I'I.:LIIH. ( : : I I I I ~ I ~ . I'l~il.Soc. X , 287-305 (1845). d e St,. \'erl:ttit,, 1%. Note ii jointlre 1111 mdtnoire sllr la rlynnltliqur dcs fluitlen. Coln1)trv I<cntlrrs : 17, 1240- 1244 (1843). 'I'oll~llicn,\\I.: Crcnzscl~icl~ttl,coric. 1TnntlI)nt:h clcr1Cxper.-l'l~ysik, VoI. I V, I':~rl,.1, 241 - 287 (l!J:tl).
3

[I41
[IT,]

R -- au
1,

at,

! /

ar

-I-

I -7&

l h e stless components are

1

[ I ] tlr (:root, S.lt., nnd M w u r , T.: Noli-cqnilibriuni t,hermotlynnniics. Nort,l~-llolla~ltl J'ubl. Co.. 19ii2. (21 I'iil)pl, A , : \'orleslingcr~ iiber kchniscllc hleol~nnilc.\'ol. 5, 'J7cul)r~er. Lcipzig, 1922. 1.11 H o l ~ f I,.: ZIllr I"1iinniglceilcri. Cont,riblll,ioll to: lln11tl1111cl1 P l ~ y s i k Vol. V I I ( H . Geiger , tlcr , :lrlcl J(. St.llrrl, rd.), lirrlin, 1027. ~ n~ , t'~. [4] I(estit1, J . : A C O I I I . ~ill t . l ~ c r t ~ i o d y ~ ~VoI.~ I~ iJ3lniplell, 19(M. [T,] I!cs(.il~, , J . : Il:(~rtlo tllcr~nodynanliqr~cr s 1)116no111i~1lev d ~rrdversihlcs.Ilnp. No. 66---7, Lab. (l A'rtit.l~t-r~~~iqr~c, hlcutlo~\,\!I(\(;. I(;] I,:LIII~). 11. : I l y t l r o d y r ~ ~ ~ ~6thi ( . ~ . (Inn~l~ridgc. ~ l ntl., I!lT,7; also ])over, 1045. ( 7 1 I,otrt.. A . 1':. I I . : 'l'lle ~ ~ ~ n t , l ~ e ~ ~t,Ilcory iofnctl:isticity. 41.11 cd.. C:l~ilhridge Uliiv. Press, ~:~t, c I 1052. [HI hlc.iurlrr. .I.. r~rltlTlrik. 11. (:.: 7 ~ l i c ~ r n ~ o t l y ~ ~ n n irrc?vrrsil~lrn tlrr ~ i l c I'rozessc. Co~iI,rih~lt.iorl to I ~ : I I I ( I I , I I c I I (11.1. I'I~y~ilc. Vol. 111/2 (S. I+'liiggr, ctl.), Springrr, I!)5D, 11p. 413 -523.

(lie Rry~ioItIsI I I I ~ I ~ J Cmnst be rclrtnl (lirynolcls's p r i ~ ~ ~ i ~ofl csirnil:~rit.y).'I'llis ~S ) b roncllrsion was tlrawrl by astimatirtg t.hc forces in the st,rcanrn; wr now propose to tlctlr~cei t again directly from the Navicr-Stolrcs eqltatiorls. 'rlrc Navicr-Stokes cqr1a1,ions express tSl1o coltclit.ion of c t l t ~ i l i l > r i ~ ~I~I lI t I, C I ~ I : I t h a t for c a c l ~pa.rticle t,llerc is cqrrilibrir~rnbetwccn l~oclyforcrs (woigI~(.), I I ~ ~ ; L C ~ S f o r ~ c s ~ t tjncl-ti:t. forcrs. 'J'hc sr~rf:bc!c forc:c:s co11sist.of prc?ssurr fort'cs ( I I O ~ ~ I IIi)r(:t:s) a l : ~ ~ ant1 frictiotl forrcs (sl1ea.r forccs). TZotljr forccs n.rc in~l)ort,nt~t, only i r l c::t.sc>s ~ I I C : I I tlicro is a free s~lrftlccor wllcrl l,lto tlrtlsily clisl.ril~trl.iotlis itll~orno~c:~~c:o~ts. 111 111,: ( : x s ~of a hornogcnrol~sfl~titlin tltc :l.hsenc:t? oS n Srrc s\tr(i~t!c t,Itrr(: i s c:tl~tiIiI)t.i~tt~~ I ) C ~ I V ~ ( : I I 1,110~vcigltbof'c:at:l~ p;l.r(.ivIo:LIEII it,u l~.yrlr<)d~:~tiv . ~ I I I I ~ :l'orc;~!, t11(!S:I,IIIC I)IIO ~ in w : ~ y a t rost,. Ilc:nco i l l 1.11~ 3.8 rnot,iorl of :L I~o~nogcncons Illtitl, i r ~ thc :~t~sct~t:c I'rc-(2 of:^ snrf:icc, 1)ocly forces can 11r cat~rcllctlif I)rcssttrc! is t,o.It~n IIIC:II~ tlio (Iillcr~~ncc to Octwccrt t h a t in nlot,ion a.r~tl t rcst. I n t,llc followirlg arpttnc~tt, shall rc.st,ric:t. our a wc at,tclrtion t o cases for wl~ic:l~ assttn~ptionis trtrc bccalisc t11r.y :we: t,ltc: t>rost inlt,llis port,ant oncs in n.pplicntions. Tltrls bltc Nnvicr-Stoltcs rqnations will now c:ortt,air~ only forces clue t o pressure, viscosity, and inertia. Unclor thesc asst~mptionsant1 ronvcntions i.hc Nitvier-St,olccs rcln:ttions for :In inromprcssiblc flr~itl,rcstrick:tl 10 s t c i ~ d y[low nncl in vcclor ftjrttt, si1111~lil:y o t

CHAPTER I V

General properties of the Navier-Stakes equations

Reforc p:lssing on t,o thc int,rgrat,inn of t h e Navicr-St.okrs cq~rnl.ionsin t.11~ following ch:lpt,ers, it now sncms pcrtincnt, t o discnss sornc of their general properties. In tloing so wc shsll restrict ollrsclvcs to irrcornprcssiblc viscous fluitls.

R.

J)c.rivntion nf Reynolds's principle of sin~ilnrityfrom the Nnvicr-Stokes cquntiorla

TJr~tilt,Ilc prrscnt clay no gcnc,r:~la.~tn.lyt,ic n~rt,l~otl.s I~rcotnc 11:tvr availnltlc for tlle intc-gmtion of t,hc Nnvirr-Sl.okcs~clt~at,ions. u r t l ~ c r t n o rsolrtlion~ I~ c, wl~inlla1.r vnlitl for all values of viscosity are Irnown only for sonle particular cases, c. g. for Poiseuille flow tl\rorlgh a circular pipe, or for Couctte flow bet,ween two parallcl walls, onc of which is a t mst,, the other moving along its own plane with a constant vcloc:ity (set: Fig. 1.1). For this reason t l ~ c problcm of calculatir~gthe motion of a viscous fluitl was attaclrctl by first tackling limiting cases, t h a t is, by solving prohlcrns for very large viscosit,ics, on t h e one hand, and for very small viscosities on t,hc other, I)cmrlsr in t,ltis manner t.hc matllcmatical problem is considerably simpliActl. liowevrr, tlro casr of modcrat,c viscosit,ics cannot 1)c irlt,erpolat,cd I~ct~ween 1l:ven the limit,ing cases of vcry largc ant1 very small viscosities present great mathematical tlifficulties so t h a t rescarcll into viscolls fluid motion proceedetl t o a largc cxtcnt. by experiment. I n this conncxion t,l~c Navier-Stnlrcs equations ftrrnish vcry uscSttl 11int,s wtiicl~point t o a considerable rcduct,ion in the qnantity of cxpcrimcnt.al worlr required. I t is oft,cn possible t o carry out. expcrimcnts on models, which means t h a t in t h e e ~ p e r i m c n t ~ arrangement a geometrically similar al motlcl of t,hc not11a1 body, b u t reduced in scale, is investigated in a wirttl tunnel, or ol.hcr slritahlc arrangement. This always raises the question of t h e dynamic sim,ilnril?y of flclitl mot.ions which is, evidcnt.ly, intimately connect,cd with t h e quesobt,a.inod wit,l~ motlcls can Jlc nbilizcd for t h e prediction of tion of Itow far rcsult.~ tho I>t:haviollr of t h e FIIII-scaleI)ody.
I

'J'llis clifl'crer~tinl cql~ationmust l ~ c indrpcnclent d the clloicc of t . 1 1 ~t~tli(.s t.lrc for various physical quantities, s11c:h as velocity, prcssnrc, clc., which appe:lr in it.

We now consider flows about two gcomctrically similar boclics of diKcrcrlt lincar tlimcnsions in streams of different velocitics, c. g., flows past two sptlcms in wllictl t h e densitics a n d viscosities may also bc different. Wc shall invcstigatc tllc corltlition for dynamic similaritfly with the aid of tho Navier-Sbokcs cqoat,iot~s.Evidently, dynamic similarity will prevail if wit11 a suitablc choice of t l ~ units of Icngf.h, c tirnc, ant1 force, the Navicr-Stoltes cqn. (4.1) is so t,mnsforn~ctl t h a t it, I)cco~ncs iclent.ica1 for the two flows with geomctric:ally similar botirltlarics. Now, it is [~ossil)lc: t o free oneself from (.he fortuitously selechcl r ~ n i t sif clirncnsiorllcss tlllntltitics n.rc introducetl into cqn. (4.1). This is acllievccl by snlcct.irlg ccrt,:~in sr~itnhl(: c:llar:rc:taristic mxgnitr~dcsi r l tllc flow a s our ~rrtil,s, ant1 I)y rcfcrring all othc:rs t,o t.11c:nr. ..Ll~its g., the frcc-slrcan~ , c. vcloci1,y anrltl tllc tlianlcI.cr of (,I111 spl~rrc:c:alt IJ~: st-l(:c:l.c:tl a s t h e rcspcctivc 11nit.sof vcloc:it.y nrltl Icrlgth. 1~r.tV, 1, and pl tlcnotc t l ~ c s ccltaractcristic rcfcrcnco magt:itrltlrs. II' we now introtltlcc into thc Navicr-Sl.olzcs eqn. (4.1) thc tlirrrrr~wionlrss ri~i.ios

As a1rr:ttIy oxpl~incrlin Chap. I, two fluitl nibtions are dynamically similar if, with gc?ornct,rit:allysirnilnr k)ot~ndn,ries, t.he velocity ficltls are geometrically similar, i. e., .if 1,ltc.v have gromct,ricnlly similar st~rcnrnlincs.

pressure

P = -p

PI '

This qucstiot~wits atlswcrrd in Chap. 1 for t h r case in which only inertia and visrntts fnrt*rs t:~Itc1)itrI.in tile proc,css. I t was found tllere t h a t for t h e two motions

72

I\'. C:rncr:tl prol,e~lirs tlrc Navier-Stokrs ecluat.ions of

c. The Navicr-Stoltes eqnations interproled as vortirit,~ t.rnnsporL e q r ~ n t i o ~ ~ s

73

1 ) or, c l i \ f i t l i ~ ~)g~ c)

172/18

(4.2) / ,I l ~ oIll~icl I r ~ o t , i o ~li~ n t l v rc-o~isitlcr:~t.io~l I,rt.omc similnr o i ~ l yif t l l ~ o s (,;in solntions t.xlr':Ss'.,I i l l {,(:rnls O[ (,II(: rcrsl~oclivc: t l i ~ n c ~ ~ ~ s i o ~v:iriiik~lcs nro itlc~~l,icnl. ricss 'Vliis rccltlily:s (,I1:Lt, I,ot,l~nlol,io~ls , l ~ rc,sl~c:c:t,ivc:t l i ~ n c n s i o l ~ ~ Nnvior-St,olrcs cc]r~:~.t.ions SO^ t c ess tlilTrr o ~ ~ \)y n fac't.or common t o all t.crms. 'l'l~c qnnntit,y p,/e V 2 rcprescnls tllc ly r:~t,ioof prc?ssltrc t.o 1.11c tlo~lblcof t.hc tlynanlic l ~ c a dant1 is u n i m p ~ r t ~ a n t t h e for tlynnrnic si~nilarit,yor t,hc t,wo motions I ) c c n ~ ~ s c i n c o n l ~ ~ r c s s i b lflow a clrnngc in c in 1)rcssIlrc cnrisrs n o c:h:irigc i l l v o l l ~ m c .l'hc sccond factor e V I / / L is, liowcver, vory irnl,ort,:inl, :ind m n s t nsslllne t,Ile s a m e valrlc for bot.11 motions if t h e y a r c t o I)e tlyr~n.n~ic::iIIy similar. Ilencc tlynnmic sil~lilarityis assured if for t h c t w o nlotions

(I1:gratl) ll

- I" grad P I?,

-t e " l V

"2

11'.

T l ~ r ~ s frictional terms in eqn. (4.1) vanish identically for potential flows, but ge~~erally the speaking both boundary conditione (3.36) for the velocity cannot tlrcn be satisfied sin~ulta~reor~sly. If the normal con~ponentmust ccsu~tn~u prencribed vnlucs along n bonntinry, t l ~ r n , potential in flow, 1.l1o t,iw ont.inl oon~pono~lt tl~orobyclolorr~~i~rnd I,llr\t l,l~n nlip oo~~cliI.io~~~ I I tO I ~ i~ no 110 I,III I 0 sdislicd nt Lf~oR I ~ I I I O l,i~no.Jd'or Ll~isrt!ason clno cnnnok regnril p>hnLinl ilowe a" p l ~ y s i t ; ~ d l ~ moatringfill nol~~tiona 1.110 Nnvicr-Stokon cqr~ntionn,bocnrrno tl~oy not nnt.inry tlic ~)r~:scril)rd of (lo boundary conditions. l'lrcro exist^, howcver, an i~nportantcxccption to t l ~ oprccccli~~g ~t.xtcmcnt wl~iclroccurn wl~ontho solid wall is in rnotion and when this condition tlocs not apply. The sin~plest parlicular case is that of flow ~mnta rotating cylinder wl~cnthe potential ROIIItion tloes constit,utc a meaningfnl solution to the Navicr-Stokcs cquntior~s,as explainctf i l l grcatcr detail on p. 80. The rcadcr tnny rcfor t,o two papers, one by G . 1InnieI [ 4 ] n~rdonc by. J. Aclteret [I], for fnrt.ller details. The following sect,ions will be rest,ricted to the consideration of plane (two-din\rnsional) flows because for such caocs only is it possible t,o inclicato son~e gcncral properties of Lhc NavicrStokes equations, and, on Mia oClrcr hand, plane flows roostituh by fir tho lnrgrst clans of prohlcrns of practical i~nportance.

c. The Navier-Stokes equations interpreted a s vorticity transport equatinns I n t,he case of two-tlimensional nori-stcatly flow in t.hc x,y - p l a ~ l c t,l~o vcloc:it.y vector b c c o ~ n c s

'J'his princil)lo was tlisc:ovrrctl I)y Osbornc Iteynoltls when ho i~lvrst,igxt.etlfluitl 1rlol.io1lt , l i r o ~ ~~'ipcsnn(I is, t IrrrcSorc, lznown ns t h e Reynolds prilrripla o/ si??rilnrib?/. gl~ 'I'hc r l i ~ n r t ~ s i o ~ ~ l r s s ral.io

e."
Cc

vz
v

a n d l h c s y s t e m of rquat,ions (3.32) a n d (3.33) t r n n s f o r ~ n s n t o i

(4.3)

is cnllctl t h e Itoynoltls rlrl~ii\)cr.JTere t h o ratio of t h e d y n a m i c viscosit,y 11, t o t h e clcr~si(,y tlcr~otctlb y e, = ,I./@, is t h e Itir~cmaticviscosity of t h e f l ~ ~ i tint.rotl~lccd l, cn,rlicr. S ~ ~ n i m i nn p we can s t a t e that, flows n h o u t g e o n ~ c t ~ r i r a l lsirrlilnr 1)odics g y a r e tly~~n.miaally similar whcn t h e Rcynoltls n u m b e r s f o r t11c flows a r c e q ~ l a l . T h u s Itcynoltls's similarity principle h a s been d e d ~ ~ c c once nlorc, t,his t,imc tl f r o ~ nt,he Navicr-Strokes c q ~ l a t i o n s ,having I ~ c c nprcvionsly dcrivcd first from a n c:st.irnnt,ion o r Sorccs :in(] sccontlly from dimensional analysis.

wl~iclifurnishes three equations for

u, v, artd p.

curl r r ~ , \rrl~icl~ rctlr~ccst o t.hc o n e W e now introduce t h e vector of v ~ r t i c i t ~ y , component a b o u t t , l z-axis for two-diniensional flow: ~

1,. I.'riclior~ienn flow a s LL801t~1io~~n" h e Navicr-Stokes equations of t not,i~~g, ~)arcnt.Irrt.ically, that, the .solutions for incomprcssil~lc/riclionless I t nay bo n.ort,l~ flown may also bc regarded as exact solutionn of 1.h~ Nnvier-Stokes cq~~nt,ionn, bcca~~sc s u c l ~ in rases t.ho frictional tcrnrs vanish itlont.icnlly. In t,llc case of incomprcssiblc, fricl.ion~csn flows tho vrloc.il.y vector can he rrprrscntn?tl an t,hc grntlicr~t f a potcnt.ial: o
=

I~rict,ionlessmotions a r e irrotat.ionn1 s o t h a t curl minating prcssurc from eqns. (4.4a, b ) we o b t a i n

cct

= 0 in s ~ l c l lcascs. Eli-

grad di

whrrr t.he potcnt,ial @ R R ~ ~ S ~ t,hc L:lplacc cqllat.ion IOS

,'
=0 .

or, in short,hand form

V2@=0.
We t.11~11 l ~ o n have grad

(V2 @)

-V

2 (grad @)

0, that is, V 2 w

See foot.nota on 1,. 48.

This equation is referred t o a s t h e vorlicity transport, or transfer, equatzor~ I t stat(.s t h a t t h e subshantive variation of vorticity, wl~iclt consists of tllc l o r d a r ~ t r o t ~ v r c t , ~ c c ~ l

74

TV. Gencrol proprtic~ tho Novior-Stoke8 eqrlnlionrr of

C. The Nnvirr-Stoke3 rqrrol.ionfi intcrprrtccl W vorlicit,~ I Lrnnsport rqtlnt ion3

76

terms, is cqrtal t,o tlrc rate of clissipntion of vorticity t,lrro~~glr friction. Eqn. (4.6), togclher with tlrc equat,ion of contiiruit,y (4.4c), form n system of two equations y for t,hc two v ~ l o r i t ~components ?I, anti o. Finally, it, is possible to transform t.hcsc two cqriat.ions wit,lr two ~rnknowns ir1t.o one eq~iat.iorrwit4h one ~ ~ n k n o wby introtlrtcing tJhe st,rcam fnnc,tior~t(r(x.y). n Pltt,l.it~p

I n this form the vorticit,y t r n n s p o ~ tcquntiorr contains only one unknown, 11). 'Clre left-harrd side of cqn. (4.10) contains, as was the casc with the Navicr-Stokcs equations, the inertin tormu, whcrcas t2ho right-lrhrld siclo cont,aitts tho frirtionnl tcrms. I t is a fourtll-order 1tarti:ll dilfercrrtial cquatiorl in tile strcarr~f~irrctiorr '7, I t s solution in gcneral terms is, agnin, vcry clifficult, owing ho its bcirig iron-lirrr;rr.
V. G1. Jcrrsorr 1 1 fount1 a s o l ~ ~ t i otn the vorticity transport cclllatio~~ 5 o (4.10) for the case of a sphere by numcricnl integration. The resulting pat,trcrns of s(.rcainlines for different Reynolds numbers arc seen plotted in Fig. 4.1 which also contnirls clingrnms of the distribution of vort,icit.y in t h r flow fioltl. Tltc smnllost. Itc:ynol(l~ number irrclrldcd, R = 5 in Figa. 4.1s anti 4.1~1,corresponds to thc casc w11c11tlrc viscous forces by far outweigh the inertia forccs and the resulting flow can bc described nu crecping motion, Scc. I V d ar~tl(~11nptr.r hr this casc the wholc flow fit-It1 VI. is rotatiorral and tho pattcrns of strcnmlirlcs forward and aft are nenrly ident.ic:nl. As thc ltcynolds number is incrcnscd the sphere dcvclops on its rcar a scparatcd region with back-flow and the irttensity of vorticity is progressively more concentrated near the downstream portion of the sphere, wherca.. in thc forward portioir tlrc flow becomes nearly irrot,ationnl. The flow patterns undcr consideration which have been dcdr~ccdfrorn the Nnvier-Stokes equation, allow us to rccognizc thc clrnractcristic changes which take place in the stream as the Reynolds number is made to increase, even i f a t t,he highest Reynolds number rcachcd, R =. 40 in Figa. 4.1 c and 4.1 f, tile boundary layer pattern has not yet had a chance to develop fully.

we see t,llaLtho cor~t,innil.~~ oclltation is s:tt,islictl aut~om:rt.irally. n ncltlit,ion l.lle vorLici1,y I from eclrl. (4.5) 1)c:conrcs w=+v2y,t (4.9)

Very extensive experimental inveutigations of the wake behind a circular cylinder in the range of Reynolds numbers 5 < R < 40 nre described in two papers by M. Coutanceau nnd R. Bouard [lc, ld] who coveretl both steady and unsteady flows. The development of very efficient elc~t~ronic computers in modern times has made i t possible to solve the Navicr-Stokes equations for flow past geometrically sirrrple bodies by purely numerical methods. In order to do this, tlrc differential equations are replnccd by difference equations. The numerical techniqucs used for this purpose will be explained in Sec. 1x1. Without discussing this matter here irr any ilcpt,h, we quote one irrteresting result. Figure 4.2 shows tlre flow past a rect,angular plate placed a t right anglcs t o the stream calculated by J. E. Fromrn and 1;". H. IIarlow 131. At the back of the plate there forms a vort,cx street similar to that bchintl a circular cylinder shown in Figs. 1.6 and 2.7. Figure 4.2ashowsan expcrirnentnlly detcrmined p n t t ~ r n slreamlincs, where*! Fig. 4.2b rcprcscrrts thc calculatcd ficld, both for n of Reynoltls number Vdlv = 6000. Thc agrconctrt bctwccn tflrc two patt,crrrs is rcmilrkably good, in spitc of thc fact that in this rnngo of 1tcyrroldanrtml~crsl.l1c aecluircs flow an oscillat,ory character, Fig. 1.6. Tltc earliest attcml)ts t,o ol)tain UIICII nl~rncrical sol~rt,iol~s t,lrn N:~virr-St,okc,s t,o c~clt~:ltions can I)c t.rnt:c,tl 1.0 A. 'l'ltotr~ 101 ~ 1 1 1 , ~ , c r formed such cslc~ilat.ions a circular cylindcr nt the low Rcyrrolds n~rrnl)crs -- 10 for R to 20. I,ater, the calculations wcre carried to R = 100 [ ] As the R.c:ynoltls numl)rr 2. increases, the degree of difficulty of such numcrical int.egrat,ions increases st,ccply. I n this conncxtion i t is worth consulLiiig the comprchensivc sr~mmnryby A. l'lrom and C. ,I. Apclt [7], as well the work of C. J . Apclt [I n] and I). N. tlc (2. Allerr and R. V. So~it~l~wcll nnd of If. B. ICcllcr nnt1 11. Takami L5nl. [ I I))

liiR. 4.1

R
n,

I':r.ltrrns or rlro(.iorr i r r :b visrorls llo\v 17ns11 n ~1111orc 11illi:rrtrt. 11c~y11old~I I I I I ~ O ~ S at II IT1)/v tlrrivc<l froln l . 1 1 ~vorbicily Lrnrrsport rrlrtntiorr (4.10) hy V. (:. ,lrrrson [5].

I,, r, I'nt,trrrrn of nl.rmtnlit~c:s; t i , r, f, I)ist.ril~rrt~ion $ort,ic-it,y(t,II/I' of (:onst a, cl R G , . = 8.0 no sopnmt.ion ". scpnrntion at 6 17 1 " CD 2.!1 , R 20 , I,, r . f R - 40 , TI,( 1.9 , sc.pnr:~t,iorl 4 -= 148' at,

(:,,

76

1V. (2enrrnl proprrtir~of tlir Nnvirr-Stokm rqustio~~n

r. 'I'llr litr~iti~~g of vrry small visoo~ts r r r ~ c.nw h

77

Fig. 4.2n Fig. 4.2. T'nt,tcrn of st,rcnlnlinra t)clii~~tl a rect.nt~gr~lnr pl:ito (lf/rt = 1.6) ~~liictrtl flat. nt. rigl~t, nnglr t.o thr flow at. n Itry~iolils t111111l)rr = I' ![/I) = 6000, n f k r J . I<. R Frolnrn nlld 1'. H . IIarlow [B]. (11 Iioigllt of plate. d = thickncnn of plate) tlckr~ninerlcspcrin) utroanlline ~)nttcrl~ n~ent.nlly, h) st.rrntillit~rpnltcrrl rxlr~llntrtlby t i l t nioricnl integrat,ion of tllc Nn\-ier-Stokos eqltntion for T = I lr/II 2.78 (I t.irtle froln stnrt of rnotiol~). Nun~rricnlintrgrati011 pcrforrncd 011 nn 1Ril.I 7090 rol~ll)r~ter

omission of t,llo illcrt.in t o m s is l)c-rrnissiblc li-orn tlre ~ n a t ~ l l ~ r n : ~ tpoil~t. viow . i c d of I~rcartset.l~e orrlcr of tile ccl~lnt.io~~ is not t,llercl)y rrtlnrcd, so tJla1 with t01c siml)liIictl tlilTt:rent,ial cqn. (4.11) it. is possil)lt? to sat,isf.y a s marly L~ourltlnry(:o~~tlit,iot~,q 1 s \ v i t , I ~t l ~ c 1 f111l(~111. (4.10). (:r(:cl)i~~g tnot,i<~t~s :~lso I)I- t~~~g:~rtI(xl C:III 11s uoIt~l,ions01' t,Ilo N:~vi(~r-Stol<t~x c t l ~ ~ : i t i oi l~ ~t,l~cli~ttbliw~/ l s rnss o/ vcry smnll IIc?/NoW/P II?I.?~I./)P~.Y 0). I ) ~ ~ . : L I I S ( : ( R .t.l~o ltcynoltls I I U I I I ~ ~rrprt.scnls 1.l1cr;~l.io irlcr(.ia t.o f'riction li3rec:s. C~ of Sol\~t,ions oqn. (4.1 1) for t.hc c:rc-cping rnotiotl of ;L visco~lsflrticl \rrc-rt!li)1111tl of by (:. (>. Sloltcs in the rksc of a spllorc artcl by tJ. I,arr~l)in t.ltc case of ;L circ~rl;tf cyliritlcr. Stokcs's solr~tiori (:an hc npl)liccl t o the falling of pnrt,iclrs of mist in air, o r t o t.lw rliot,io~l srnall sphCrcs i l l a vcry viscous oil, \i,lten thc \.elocit,ics arc so of s~nnllIllat incrt,in forccs can he ncglcctrtl wit11 p o t 1 accuracy. l?~lrtllcrrnore,t l ~ c h ~ ~ t l r o y r n theor?/ o/ hrhricn~iorr,i. c. t,llc 1,llrory of t,ho mot,ion or lr~l~ri(:a.l,i~~g ic oil i t , t,l~c:vcry narrow cllatl~lclI)ct\\~ccr~ jol1rr1:~1 t.lic ant1 bearing usrs t.l~is silnplilicd rtlrl:~t.ionof tnot,iorl as its st,art.ing point,. 111 I.11oIal,t,cr case it will Iro ol)scrvotl 1,11:1t, if t l ~ o vclocitics arc not very small, I,llc vnry small cle:~r:~nco lloigl~ts,n~ltll.11(: ro1:il.ivcljr I:~rgrv i s r o ~ i t ~ y t.110 oil, ~ I I S I I ~I.l~at, visco~lsforccs arc rn~rcll1:irgc.r ~.II:III of ~ : t.llc Ill(! ~ I I ( ~ I , ~ ,for(:cs. llo\vc\~(!r, ~IL nl);irI, fro111t,l~o t.licory of lul~ricittiot~,l ~ c t , (i(:ltl of :~pl)lic*:ll,ionof t , l ~ c t.llcory of creeping ~not,ion fairly insignificant. is

e.

Tllc limiting cnee of vcry srnnll viscoue forces (very lnrge Reynolds nurnbers)

cl. TIIC lilni~illgenee of very lnrge viscosity (very s r ~ ~ eRryllolds tlumber) ll

I I I VCTJ sIo\v rnotiot~sor i l l rnot.iotls \vil.I~ vcry large viscosil.y the viscorrs forccs :ire ror~sirlrml)l,y greator t.l1a11t.hc incrti:t f'vrccs beonttse the lalt,er arc of t,lle order of tllc vc!loc:ity s q ~ ~ a r r d , wllcrc:is tllc I'orrnrr are linear wit11 ~ c l o c i t ~ y . a first 'ro ar)l)roximnl.iol~ is possil)lc t,o nrglcct tllc i~rcrt,ia it, t,crms wit.11 respect t.o the viscous Irrtns SO tllat from cclrl. (4.10) we ol)t.ain
I

I'rotn itlie point of view ol' pmct,icnl applirnLior~s t * l ~ secollct c x t , r r ~ n c e cl:Lse, nan~cl,vt.llntr of very small viscous forccs i l l rqn. (4.10) compnrctl wit,h tllc inrrl.ia forcc.s, is of far greater import,ar~cc. Sincc l.llc t,wo most irnport.ant flui(ls, narncly water a.r~tlair, have vcry small visco.rit,ics, the rase 11ndcr corlsiderat,ion ocanrs, generally sprnlcing, already a t modcmtcl~vhigh ~elocit~ics. 'Cllis is the limitirrg crrss o/ I)er?/ /rrr{/c Itcynolds ~z?lm./~cr.~ m). 111 this case the [lroccss of m;~t,h(~lrl:~l,ic::~I (R -> sin~~rlificnt.ion tllc tliKcrc~~t,ial (4.10) reqr~ircsn consitlcrablc anlount of rart:. of cqn. I t is not 1)crtnissiblc simply t,o olnit (,lie viscorls t,crrns, i. c., t,lle riglrt,-h:~ntl sitlc of (:(in. (4.10). T l ~ i s woultl rntlnco the ortlcr of t,llc o q u : ~ t , i o ~ ~ four to two, :LII(I t.110 from s o l ~ ~ t i o n t,l~c of simplifictl c q u a t . i o ~ ~ coultl not be mndc to salisfy t,l~e frill bountl:lry corldit.iol~s t.11~ of originn.1c q ~ ~ n t . i o n . problem wl~icllwas ontlirlcd in t l ~ c The prccctlir~g scr~t~criccs hclollgs esscntinlly t o t l ~ e rc;~lrnof hou~cdnr?/-kr!/erlheory. We rlow proposc: to t l i s c ~ ~ s s briefly the gent-ral st.at,r~nc~lt,s wllich can t)c made nbout the solrrtions of Olle Nnvicr-St,oltes cqnal,ions for t,hc special mse of small viscous forccs a s cornpared \ifit.ll t,hc incrt,in forccs, t.l~:~t in t,11c limiting case of very Inrgr: 1tt:ynoltls is t111m1)crs. 7:lle following analogy rnny scrvc to ilh~st,ratetl16 c:llsr:~cter of tile solr~t.ior~s of t,hc Navier-Stokcs c q ~ r a t ~ i o fors t,l~c r~ litnit.ing c;~seor vt:ry small viscosil,y, i. c., tcrnperatrlrcb of vrry small friction terms, as comparetl with t,llc inertia terms T l ~ e distril)ut,ion O(r,y) abo111, a hot, I)otly in n flriid strrarr~is clcscri1)c~tl L ~ I C follow1)y ing tlilTer'rrrntial rqrlation, Cltap. XI 1 .

:I, lit~c-arc c ~ ~ l a t , i o ~ ~ is c~ol~sitlcrnbly \rrl~ic:lr Inore amcnablc t.o rnnt,l~etnatirnl t,rcaI,lnc-nt t,l~xnt,llo eor~~plrt,c ccln. (4.10). I'lows dcscril~rdI)y cqn. (4.1 1) ~~roct.t,tl wil.ll vrry srn:ill vc.loc.it,irs ant1 nro somc:t,itncs cnllctl crecpir~gmotior~.~. '1;llo

Illis is, now.

c.

'rho limiting caw nf vory ~nlnllV ~ R C O I I R l i ~ r t . ~ ~

79

Il(:rr v , c , :tntl k tlrnol,c 1.I1t: tlr~lsit.y,sl>cc:ilic Itt::rt, : ~ n dcontl~tcl,ivit.y Itl~c of llr~itl r c ! s ~ ~ ~ - l i v r0 y ; t.llc! tlilli~rcnt:c?I)ct,wco~~ loo:rl t,t:llll)onrt,r~rc: l in t.110 nntl t,llat a t :t vory 1;rrgc: tlist.:~t~(:r fro111 t 1 1 ~ I)otly, wl~orc:I,llc: l.c:tn11cr:~l,11rc:, is c:onsl,ant nntl cr(~l:rllso 7', ' / , i. c . 0 - - '/ - '/I,,,. 'I'llt: vcl06iI.~ lic:ltl w(z, 11) :rt1!1 ~ ( z11) it1 oclt~. , (4.12) is ;~.xst~rnctl 1.0 I)c k t l o w ~ ~ . t,ernpnrat~~rc: 'L'hc dixtribr~l~ion t h e I~our~tlarics Lhc botly tlcfir~etl on of b ? ~ 3 7', is prrsc:ril)ctl nrttl in l,hc sirnplcst cnsc it is constant wit11 rcspcct L '/I,, o sl)a(:t: ant1 t.imc 1)111., gcncrnlly speaking, it varies wit11 both. I'rom the pllysioal poinl. of view cclrl. (4.12) roprosents the 11c:rt 1):~lanc:c an clcn~cnt,ary v o l u t ~ ~'l'hc IcfOIhr e. Ilnntl sitlc represents t . 1 1 ~qu:~nt,it,yo f Ilrnt, c:xcl~:~~~gotl I)y c:or~vcc:tiorl, wht:reas the rigl~t-ll:rrl<l side is tJ1c ~ ~ ~ ; ~ r l of i11r:lt t : x t : I ~ : ~ t ~11yd (. t.v ~ c con(I~t(:t.ion. l ~ cfrit:I.ion:~lllcatl 'r gcneratcd in tile fluid is ncglcctctl. T 7 , > T,,t,llc: prol)lom is t h a t of dctcrrnining f ', 1.ltc tcmperatl~rcfield around a hot body which is cooled. 13y inspection it is scrn t h a t cqn. (4.12) is of the same form a s eqn. (4.6) for the vorticity w . I n fact tJicy hccomc itle~ltiral the vorticity is replaced by thc tcmpcraturc tliffercncc and t.llc if k i ~ c r n a t ~viscosity v by t,hc ratio k i p c known a s thc thcrmnl diff~~sivity. bourltlary ic 'l'hc conclit,ion 0 0 a t a large dist.ancc from thc body correspontls t o trhe condition tr, = 0 for t.hc undisturbed p,nrnllcl st.rcam also a t a large dist,nnce from t h e body. llcncc we rrlay expect t h a t thc solutions of the two equations, i. e. t.hc dist,ribntion of vorticity ant1 t h a t of t f c m p c r a t ~ ~ r c around t h e body will be similar in chnrnctcr.

remains, practically speaking, free from vortioity (scc IPig. 4.1). It, is, t.l~ercforc, to be cxpected t l ~ a in the limiting case of very small viscons forces, i. e. nt I;rrgc: t Itcynolds numbers, the solutions of the Nevicr-S(.okcs Q ( I I I : L ~ ~ ~ O I arc SO ('otlst.it.~tt.rtl IS ns 1.0 permit n s~ll~tlivision the fioltl of flow itll,o a n cxt.crn:~Irrgion \vlti(*ll is I'I.CO of frorn vort.icity, and a thin layer near Id~cI)otly togcthcr with a wakc I)(:llit~tlit.. I11 1.11~: first, region t.110 flow Inny I)o oxl>nct.ctl 1.0 s~r(,isfy I I O ~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ r t , i o n x ~ of I'ri(:t,iot~lt.:i?( flow, the potc~lt~ial llow theory bcing uscd for i h cvnlnaI,ion, wl~crcnsin tllc sc~c-otr(l region vorticity is inherent, and, t.hcrcfore, the Navicr-Stoltcs cq~int.iorlsm ~ ~ shn t. ~ l s e dfor its cvnluntion. Viscous forccs are import,ar~t~, c. of 1.11~ santc ortlcr 91' i. mngt~itt~tlc inertin forces, only in t l ~ c n 9 . scc:ontl region known :is t,hc bo~~.~~~lrtr?y Irr?yrr. This concept of a boundary layer was introduced into the scicrlcc of fll~irlmechanics by L. Prantit,l a t the beginning of thc present ccntury: it has provecl t,o hc very fruitful. The subdivision of the field of flow into tho frict,ionlcss oxtcrnnl flow i~ntl the cssentinlly viscous boundary-lnycr flow p c r m i t k d thc retluction of the mnt,llcmaticnl difficnlties inllcrent in the Nnvicr-Stokes cqnntior~s o sllcl~at1 c x t r ~ l tt, f l ~ n t t it, l)ccnme possible to integrals them for a large numbcr of cnscs. Tllc tloscril)t.ion of t,l~csc methods of integration forms t.hc subjcat of the boundary-laycr t.hcory prcscntctl in the following chapters. From n nt~mcrical analysis of the available solr~t~ions the Nnvicr-St,okc~s of cq~~at.ioris is also poasiblo t o show directly t h a t in tho limiting case of very lnrgc it Reynolds numbers there exists a thin boundary laycr in which t h e influcncc of viscosit,y is conccnt,ratcd. We shall rcvcrt to this topic in Cllnp. V. The previously discussed limiting case i n which viscous forcrs heavily outweigh inertia force3 ((creeping motion, i. e., very small Reynolds number) results in a considerable mathematical simplification of the Navier-Stokes equations. B y omitting the inertia terms their order is not rcduced, b u t they become linear. 'J'hc second limiting case, when inertia forces outweigh viscous forces (boundary layer, i e. very large Reynolds nrrmbew) present8 greatrr matl~rmaticaldifficulties than creeping motion For, if we simply substitute v = 0 in t h e Navior-Stokcs equations (3.32), or in the stream-function equation (4.10), wc thereby suppress the derivatives of Lltr highest order and with the simpler equation of lowcr order i t is i~npossiblct o satisfy sirr~ultancously all botlndary conditions of the cornplrto tliKrrcntial eclont~ous. However, this does not signify t h a t the solutions of sucll nn equation, sin~l)lificd by t.he elimination of viscous terms, lose their physical meaning. Moreover, it is posxil~lc t o prove t h a t this solut,ion agrees with the &mplete solutionof the full ~ s v i c ~ : - ~ t o k e ~ cq11nt.ions nlmost. everywhere in t,he limiting case of vrry large Reynoltls n r t n ~ b ~ r s . Tho exception is confincd t,o n 1.hin lnycr ncnr the wall - t.hc bountlnry 1n.yc.r. l ' h ~ l s , t h r complete nolution of t.hc Nnvicr-Stmkcs c ~ t r a l i o n s c:nn I)e t.llorrgl~l, nrc t:o~~rcist,ing of of two soirrt~ions,thc so-cnllctl "outcr" solution which is ohtninctl wit11 t11c ;lid of Eulor's ccluctions of motion, and a so-callcd "inner" or bonndnry-1n.yc.r solnt.ion which is valid only in the thin layer adjacent to the wall. The "inner" solut,ion satisfies t h c so-called boundary-layer e q ~ ~ a t i o n s which are dctlncctl from t,l~c NavicrStokes equations by ~oortlinat~e stretching nnti pwqsagc t o tho limit R + m, n.s will be shown in Chap. VII. The o ~ l t c and inncr solutions must he malchcd t,o each other r by exploiting the condition t h a t thcrc must, exist nn overlapping rrgion in which bbth solutions are valid.

Now, tllc t~cmpcratlrre dist,ril)l~tion nronncl the body may I)c pcrccivcd i n t ~ ~ i t ~ i v r l y , 1.0 n ccrtnin cxlcnt. 111l,hc limiting ca.sc of zero velocity (fluid a t rosl) the infll~cncc of tile I~ratccl11otly will extend ~ ~ n i f o r r n l y all ~ i t i c s . on With very small velocit,ics t h e fluit1 a r o ~ ~ r lttlc hotly will still he affectfed by i t in all directions. With irlcrcnsing tl vclocit,y of flow, howcvcr, i t is clcarly seen t h a t the rcgion affected by the higher tempcreturc of t h e body shrinks more and more into a narrow zone i n t h e immetlint,c vicini1.y of the body, ant1 into n tail of hcntcd fluid bchind it., 1Pig. 4.3.

. -

Fig. 4.3. Annlogy bet,weetl trnlperntuw and vorticity di~tributionill the neighb o ~ ~ r of~R dbody plnml in a strerrrn l of fl\lid a), b) I.lndCq of rrgion or it,crrhsrd trmprrsture
flow

-.__--

n) n l lvclucitlrs - - _ _- - - - - - - - - _ _ . . _ _ for ~ r n _ _ uf Ir) fur _ vrlucitirn _ Inrge

'rllc so111t.iotl rqn. (4.1 2) nilrst-, n.s mcnt,ionkd, be of a chn.ra.cter sirnilar t.o t h a t of for vort,icit,y. At snlall velocities (viscous forces h r g e compared with inertia forces) (.here is vorticity in 1,tlc whole region of llow around the botly. On the other hnntl for' large vclocit,ics (V~SCOIIS forccs smnll compnrctl wibh ir~ctl~in forccs), we may rxprc*t,i firltl of flow in which ~ o r t ~ i c i is confined to a small Inycr along t h e surfacc ty of the I)otly and in a wake behind thc boily, whereas thc rest of the fcld of flow

80

I\'. C r n r t n l p r o p r r t i r s of the Nnvier Stolic~sr q r ~ n t i o n s

f. Mnt,lre~iinticnlillt~st,ration the procens of going t.o the l i m i t R of

-t

81

f.

M n t l t c ~ t ~ n t i c nl l c t n t r n t i o n o f t l t c process o f g o i r l g t o the l i n t i t i

R 4 oo t

P 7

Let

IU

rotinitlrr t.lie tlnmpr(l vihrntiorls of

nr-

ti

point-mass t l m r r i l ~ n t h y t,llc t l i f i r r n l i n l c r ( ~ ~ n t , i o n l

t1=x 11 12

4 k-

111.

tll

I- c,:r

I l ~ v n l l ~ c const.nnt. A z folloaw froin t.110 tnrrl.t:l~i~ip;o t11c " o ~ ~ l r rn"o I ~ ~ l , i orc111. (4.17). 111 1111 c of t ~r, o v r r l n p l ~ i n grnngr, t,lrnt. is for ~noclcr:i(cv n l t ~ r n t i l n r , t . l ~ ~ :o l ~ ~ l i on~nclnn. (4.17) : ~ n ( l(4.21) of n i ~n ni~~nl. ngrc!c*. 'l'lit~s\I.(; tnr~sl,I~nvc. lii11 zr(t*) = l i t n r o (1)
I*

I).

-.

-.

H e r c i r r donolrn the vihrnlirtg ntnsn, c (.lie spring c:or~ntntlt., k I.l)c. tl:~nil)ing f:~c.lo~.. t.I~t:Irng(.ll r roordinnt.~ ntct~mcrcclfrom t , l ~ jiosit,io~l r i l ~ ~ i l i l ) r i i r nnrl I ~.III.i ~ n r '. '11c. i n i t i a l ron(lilions arc r of ~n. t 1 ILRRIIII~~C~ t,o be r - O at 1 - 0 . (4.14)
In ~ l i n l o g y wit11 (.tie Nnvier-Stnlzo~ eqr~ntions for t.lie cnse \rlicn t l ~ lrr i t ~ r n i n t i c visronity, I*, very is sninll, we conflitlcr h c r r t l ~ litnitsingrnsc of v r r y stnnll mnss nr, h r r n ~ ~ this l o o rnrlnrs 1.11~e r m r nr l of t l ~ c Iiigllest or(1r.r it1 cqn. (4.13) t o brromt! very small. l'lir c o m p l r t r solrition of cqn. (4.13) u ~ ~ h j c t~ r the i n i t i n l c~orrclit.ion n t (4.14) lins I l ~form r

or, i n worcln: 'l'llc "or~t,nr" l i m i t of t.lic "innor" s o l r r t i o ~II ~ I~ , R " o ~ ~ t e rsolnlion. (:ondition (4.2:)) Icntls nt, oncc to "

1)r C~IIIRI"itrnt:r" l o the

l i n ~ i 01 tJ11' l

ntltl no t o the i n n r r solrltion .rr(t*) = A ( 1 - c x p (-- k t * ) } . (4.25)

x = A {c%xp (

--

c x p ( - k 11iri)): irr

-t

0,
1 1

(4.15) s r r o i ~ (initinl cottl

'I'l~csnnle form r n n be obt.ninrtl from I,llr r.ot111)lclr40111t icm fro111r q n . (4.15) I I r * x ~ ~ : ~ n ( l(It(. g ~ in tirut t,rrni for s ~ n a l v n l ~ t r s I ntid r c t n i ~ ~ ithegfi~.nLtcr111 only, 1Iirit is I I1111t,ling l of ~l ~

w h r r r A in n f r r e [:onstrrnt \vl~osc~111110 n n I)(,l r t r r n ~ i t i r t \villi r r f c r c t ~ c r o r c l t tlit,iott. I f we put, i n 0 i n eqti. (4.13), we nrc l r t l t o I.lw si~nplifiedrqrltrt.ion

dx ktlt w i i i r l i is of first orclcr, nnrl \rliosc solrclio~iis

e:r =0,

7'11~ t\rfo iic!11tio11~, l i c onter s o l t ~ t i o nfrotn eqn. (4.17) nrirl L l ~ c t itillcr ~ o l t i t i o nIron1 r.qt~. (4.26). togct,l~er lorrn the ,:o!!iplcte s o l ~ t t i o n n contlition t l i n t c n r l i is 1 1 8 r t l i t 1 its p r o j ~ r I.III~~C of vnli(lity. o r ht finite 1, cqn. (4.15) tends ( c tlie outer solut~ionfor 711 + 0. whcrens a t constant t* eqn. (4.15) t o t ~ t t,o tlie inner nolutiolt. 'l'lle pnrtinl solilt,io~is l~ give Illc cori~plrtc,co111posit.cn o l ~ ~ t . i o n \\.l~iclris vnlitl it, t l ~ c cnl,ire rnnge o f v n i ~ c s f t 1)y :l(lditig t h r n l t o g r t l ~ r r , c m e t n h r r i ~ i g o r t,l~ntI h r ronlli)on tcr111from eqn (4.23) ~ n n s the included only orrre, tlint, in sul~t,r:r<:lrrlfrom tile RIII . nr,c,orrli~igt o tlio prt:srription x(1) = ~ " ( 1 )

o r d choice This solrrtion is idcnt,irnl wit,h the first term of t lie a o ~ n ~ ~ lsc tl c~ t i o n l ~ tro the f e l i r i t o r ~ s of t.lw ndjrtntnble co~lutnr~b. However. this solution r n n n o t he tnntlc t.o satisfy t,lie init,iol coridit.ion (4.14); i t ~IIIIR rcprc~cntR ~ o l ~ ~ t ,for n a i o 1n.rge values o l t h r time, t ( L c o ~ ~ so111t.ion).'l'I1~8oIntion L~r" for smnll vnlrtcs of t i m e ("inner" s o l t ~ t i o n ) snlisfies n.not,hrr diflercntinl e q ~ i n t i o n\rliirlt <:an also 1 t be dnrivtxl l r o n i eqn. (4.13). 1 1 o r d r r l o nchicvc+ this, t.hr i n f l o p c r l t l r t ~ vnrinl~lr:t is "stret.cltcd" in t,hnt a now "inner" vnrinhle t* = t/irt (4.18) iv itit,rodr~ccd. this manner, cqn. (4.13) is Lra~lsformetl 111 t,o d2r (11. -- 4-k - I
tll*2
111

+ r t ( t * ) - I*

lit11

-.

x: ( l * ) =
m

TO

(t) I r t ( t * )

-- lirn .rn(l).
1

-.

t J

(4.27)

A gmpllicnl roprencntation of the complete .soIr~t,ion from eqn. (4.15) i~nhown i n F i g . 4.4 for the cnse \vhen A > 0. Curve (a) corrcspontls t o t , l ~ e oliter s o l l ~ t i n t(4.17). Cnrvcs (I)), ( r ) nntl ~ (d) reprrsent solutiotis of t l i c c o t n p l o t , ~ l i f i r r l t t i n l equation (4.13) n.itlt ?tr c l r r r m s i t ~ g t from ( h ) t o (11). I f wc now cor111):irc this r x n m p l o x\~itlrtllr Navier-St,okcs crl~~at,ions, COIICIU~O \ve l.liat. 1,Iie r . o ~ i ~ p l ccrlrt:rt ion (4.1:)) is n n : ~ I o g o ~ ~ n tc 1.0 t.lir Nnvicr-Stol;cs cq11a1.ionsfor n v i ~ o o n n Il~~icl. I\-ltrrms IIIC sirr~plili(,(l t*q~z:tt,io~~ (4.1(;), ~ : o r r c s ~ ~ o10 i ~ l s ~ 1C11Irr's r q ~ t n t i o r ~for 1111 i(lc.nl l l ~ t i d .'1'111. i11iti:lI s

rlt*

e l

0.

I n I.ho lirnit. i r r = 0, \rrc (lc:tlnc.r tlic t l i r k r c ~ ~ t iecll~irLiot~ nl t12r

l~

"
d:r (it*
-

'

0
Fig. 4.4. So111lio11s f l l ~ viOr:iIio~r cq11:1li(111 o r ( t . I:!). (a) Sol111io11 f t l ~ e i ~ i ~ ~ ) l i f irr111:~t,ir111 o s c*tl (s!. 14). 111 -- 0 : (11). (c), ((I) rr[)rrsetrt s o l ~ ~ t i u t i s o f 1 1c.o111111rt(: 1r tlil'li~rrntin1 cqtlntion (4.13) \I it11 v n r i o ~ ~ s V:I~III*~ o f i ~ r . JVhctr i r l is w r y s ~ ~ i n l st>I111io11 :1r(111irrnl~o~~n(l:tr,yl. ((I) layer 1.11:rrnrtrr

\vliicl~ gi)vrrnu II I "innr-r" ~oI111,ion. soI111io11 i o is r ~ ~ 'I'III! ~ ~

I
1.1

(I*) = A , r x p (

kt*) 1 A,.

1 n l n i ~ ~ ~ l c l ~1.0 c ~ ( l f . Profrssor I<lnns Grrnten for (I1c rosisrtl vrrnion of t,liin section.

1. I'r~l.t~cIt.l, ~ ~ s r l ~ n r ~ l 1t11t1 r t ~ r l z l i r h c , A i c l i e~ hlnt,hemntik. I,rrt,l~res d r l i v r r r d nl. (;oe(,t.ingrn U n i vrrnil.y ill t.hr \Yint.rr-Srmrnt,rr of 1!):11/:12.

conclif.ion (4.14) plnyn a part wl~ichia ~ i n ~ i l n r 1 . 1 1 ~no-slip condit.ion of a real fluid. 'Chc latter tn cnn be saLislir*tl by Ll~csolutions of 1.11~Nnvicr-Stokcs e q ~ ~ a t i o n ~ r r tnot by those of Euler'a Is c q ~ t a t i o ~ 'l'l~c aloady-varying solnt,ion is trnnlnp;rr~~n tile frictionlcsn sol~~t,ion t r n t i n l flow) ~s. In) (p wllicl~f:rils to satisfy the no-slip contlil.ion. 7 ' 1 1 ~ f~rst-vnryinp; solntion rc~trcscnt.sLhe cour~lr?rpart of t l ~ c bonntlnry-laycr ROIIIL~VII whicl~ia delcrn~incdby t.110 prcscnm of viscosit.y; i t clin'cn fron~ zero only ill a narrow zone near tho wall (borlndary layer). I t is to bo n o k d tliat the second bonndary c o ~ ~ d i t i o n slip a t tho wall) can only be sal,inficcl if t.hin bonntlary-layer solution is (no a.~lclr.tl, t,l111nmnking t.ho whole soll~biorlp l ~ y ~ i ~ areal. lly This nirnple rxarnplc cxl~ihit,sthc sarnc mat.l~rmaticalAatures M t.l~oscctisor~sscd in 1,110 prcrcding cl~u.plcr.I t is, nrrrnrly, not pcrn~iasil~lci ~ n In onlit t l ~ cV ~ R C O I I R tern18 i l l t110 s rly Navicr-Stokm c q ~ ~ a t i o n s wl~onperforming the process or going over to t.110 litnit Tor very s~nall visconit.y (vrry I;irge llcynolrln n ~ ~ r n b r r'l'his r:rn only bc: clone in tile intrgrnl solnl.ion it-~olr. ). W e sha.ll t l c n i o n s t r a t c lat,cr in grcal.cr c1cl:iil t l ~ a if, is n o t t1cc:c:ssary t.o retain l,hc t Cull Navirr-St.olrcs eqrrat,ions f o r tilo process of lintling t h e l i m i t for R -+m. F o r ll~c salte of n ~ n t h r m a t , i c a l simplilicat.ior~i l will p r o v c possible t o o m i t c e r t a i n t . r r ~ i i ~ in i t , pnrticnlarly c e r t a i n stnxll viscous tcrnls. It is, h o w e v e r , i m p o r t f a n t t o n o t e that, riot a l l viscous t r r m a c a n b c ncglrctrtl. ns t h i s worll(1 depress tfllc o r d r r of t h o NavierStolrrs rqnntiotis

C H A P T E R V

Exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations

I n g r n r r a l , t h e problcm o f finding c x a c t s o l u t i o n s o f t.he Navier-Sl.okrs rclllationa prcscnta i r ~ s u r m o u n t a b l cm n t l ~ o m a t ~ i c diflicolLic~. 'I'his is, primarily, a conal srclucncc of l h e i r being non-linear, s o t.11at trhc a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e principle o f s u p c r position, which s e r v e s so well i n t h e cnsc of frict,ionlcuu p o t e n t i a l motionu, i~ axcludctl. Ncvcrthclrzla, it, iu p o u ~ i h l o lint1 cx~rnt. O ~ I I ~ , ~ O I in rt.rI,t~in r ~ l ~ r t , i ( ! t t(:IIH(~II, O I I ~ . ~ ~ H IH l~~r I I I wlicn t h e q u a d r n t i c convccLivc f o r m s vaniuh i n a nat.ural way. Jn thin c:l~al)t.c:r wo shall d c v o t e o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t,hc cliscuu..ion of s c v e w l e x a c t solutions. I n c i d c n L ~ l l y , it, will bc, s h o w n t h a t i n t h c cnsc of smnll viscosity m a n y of tllo c x a c t solulioris havc: a boundary-layer structure which m e a n s t h a t t,he influence o f viscosity i s confined to a t h i n l a y e r itcar t h e wall.

[l] Ackcrct, J . : Ubcr exakte J5sungen dcr Stokes-Navi~rGlcicl~ungen inkomprr~nihler 1Pliis~igkciton bci vcriin~lorbn(:rr~~r,l~c~li~~~rtngc?~~. 259--271 (1952). %1\;\11' 3, [In] Apeelt. C. ,i.: 'l'hc ~ t r n t l yl r t i v of a viscous finid p.mt a circular cylindcr a t Reynolds numbers I 40 and 44. I3ritial1 AltC ItM 3175 (IWil). (Lh] Allen, D.N. 1)e G . , m ~ t iSo~~t.hwcll, 1t.V.: ltclaxation methods applied to d e t e r l i n e the n~ot,ion,in t,wo d i ~ n m ~ i o nof, a visconn flnid pnat n Bxetl cyli~ldor.Q~mrt.J . Mech. Appl. a MnLIl. 8 , 12!)-145 (1!)55). [lo] Coutnnccau, M., nnd Uo~lnrcl,R.: 15xpcrirno1tnl dckr~ninnt.ion t.lw main fent,~~rrs the of of vinro~~n in. t., ~~ flow . l wnkn of a circular cvlinder in 1111ifor111 tra~~nlation. Par1 I. Steady now. . JFM 78, 231 -256 (1977j. [Itl] ( h ~ c t a ~ ~ c e M.,. ,LIIVI au I%or~ard, Rxl~rritnrnLal It.: detcnninat,ion of thc main fcnC~~ren thc of viscol~r l r ~ will tbe w:tkc of a circulilr cylinder in rrniforin translation. Part 2. Unsbndy flow. f .1I7L\i 79, 257- 272 (15377). [2] Ihnnis, S.C.K.. and GRII-ZII C11ang: N11111criea1 o I ~ ~ t , i tfor ~ s s ) ~ stcarly flt>\v past a r i r c ~ ~ l n r oylit~tlcrat, I<cy~~olclsu m h r r s p to 100. JJ'M 42, 471 -485) (1070). ~i o [3] Yro~nln. .l.lS., nnd Il:rrlow, I'.II.: Nn~ncrionlnol~itionn of the prolrlom of vortex ntrcct d r v c l o p ~ ~ ~ cI'ltyn. of kglllids6 , !375--9RLt (l!)(iR); sw also: h i /\A $e\oclrcl Ih:printn, (:ompll~rt.. t.;rt.ionnl Fl~~icl v r ~ n ~ r ~(C.sI<. CIIII, cd.). R2 - R9 (i!)(iR) nr~cl AGIIRI) I,ccttr~re Series 34 l) ic (t071). [4] ~ ~ a l l l oG.: t)t)er die Pob~~f.i:~lst,riirrl~~ng I'liinsigltoitcn. ZAMRI 21. 12!J I:!) (1941). l. xilhcr 151 J ~ I I R O I ~ , Viscor~sflow ror~ndR RI)II(TP. nt, 1e1w ILcynoI(Is tlr~nil)t:rs( < 40). I ' r ~ c .Jloy. V.G.: Soc. 1,orltlon A 249. 346 --:!C,C, (19551). [An] l<cllcr, 11. IS., nt~cl'I':lk:u~ri, 11.: Nutr~cricsl ~t,rlclies sk;rdy visco\~sflow ahor~t, of cyli~lclrrn. N~~nlcric:nlO I I I ~ ~ O ~ I S 01. no~i-li~~c::rr R difTcrcr~t,ialerl~rnt.ions.l'roc. Atlv. S y r ~ ~ p . liniv. of nt \Vinr-onsi~~, Mntliso~~, I!)lifi (I). (:rw.~,slt:r~~, cd.), J . \Vilr.y RG Sons, New York. I!)(;(\, pp. 115 - 140. I (61 'l'llon~, A , : I'low pwt. rirc.l~lnr ryli~~clrrn~ tlow spcecls. Proc. Roy. SOD. : . 1,011tlo11 i\ I'll, 651 - I;(;!) (1!):%3). 171 'J'lmrn, A., a11tl Altrlt. (;I. .I.: 1"irld co~np~~t.ationrc~~ginrcring pl~ysic*.v a n Noin ant1 nl.rnr~tl, I,ontlot~, I!Jlil.
~

A compreliensive review o f s o l u t i o n s of the N a v i c r - S t o k e s e q r ~ a t i o n sh a s b e e n givcn b y I t . B e r k c r (41.

a. Parallel flow
Parallel flows c o n s t i t u t e a p a r t i c u l a r l y s i m p l e c l a m of motions. A flow is called parallel if o n l y o n e velocity c o m p o n e n t ie diKercnt, f r o m zero, a l l fluid parliclcu m o v ing i n o n c direction. F o r e x a m p l e : if t h e con1poner1t.s e a n d 10 a r c zero cvcrywhcrc, i t follows at o n c e from t h e c q u a t i o n of c o n t i n u i t y t h a t i)u/az 0. which me:tns t.hat, t h o c o m p o n e n t u c a n n o t tlepend o n x. Thus f o r parallel flow w c h s v c

F u r t h e r , i t also follow^ i m n ~ c c i i a t a l yf r o m thc N a v i c r - S t o k c s cc111;~tions(3.32) f o r t.11~ ant1 z - d i r c c t ~ o ~ l s ythat. ap/r?y = 0, a n d i)p/8z 0, s o t l ~ a ttl i c p r r ~ s u r r c j w n d s d only on r. I n aclclilion, i n t h c c-clunl,ion for t h r 2-tlircc.lion all c:onvc.c.t.ivc- t,c~rtns vi~nish l l r n r r

.. -

--.

In the following a r g ~ ~ m ct.110 term "prcmnre" clcnotm UICdifimncc ~ ~ W M 1.11~ nt I I l~>t;iI I)rrxqlrrc and tlio hydrostaLic prcastlre (pnxwt~m rest). This mnma t . 1 body forccn t o ( Y L I I ~LS I thry at, ~ P , are in cqnilibriurn wit11 t,he I~ydrostnticpmmurc.

84

V . Exact. sol111,ions t.he Nnvirr-Stokrs eqt~nl,io~rs of

1. Parallel flow t l t r o ~ ~ ga straight channel nnd Col~eltcflow. A very sirrlple h solut,ion of eclnat,ion (5.2) is obtained for t,lrc case of st,oatly flow in ;I channel with t,wo parallel flat,walls, lpig. 5.1. 1,et. t,hc tlist.at~cc bctwcen the :valls be denoted by 2 h , so t.liat cqrl. (5.2) can I)c writ9tcrl
tlp -clx
/4

tI2u

aplily = O the jlrcsslrre gra\rit.ll t , l ~ c I~ol~rttlnry c:ontlition : 11, -= O for :- rk1). S i t ~ r c tlictt~t r ~ tlircclior~ flow is rorlsin.nt,. :IS scot1 froin cqn. (5.3). 'l'111rstlpltlz = const i tlrn of' :111t1 t.l1(!solt~t,ion is

, I . llc

r c s u l t i r ~vc~lot~ity ~ profile, I'ig. 5.1, is 1):~rabolic.

Anotl~er simple solution of e q n (5.3) is obtained for tho so-mlled Collett-e flow l)ctweer~ t,wo pnrnllcl flat walls, one of which is a t rest, tlre ot,her moving in its own plan? wit11 ;I velocity Fig. 6 2 \Vit11 the boundary conditions

rJ,

y=O:

u=O;

y=h:

u=U

over a porkion of tlre clr:~tlnclwitltl~ can I~ccolnc rrcgnt.ivo, t,lrat is, back-/lo117 ]nay occur near the wall wllicl~is a t rest, and it is seen f r o n ~ Fig. 6.2 t,l~ntt,his Irappens ~ ~ l l c t ~ I' < - 1. Tn this case the dragging act.ion of t8hcfast,cr layers exertetl on fluit1 1)nrt,iclcs in the ncigl~bourlrootlof the wall is insufficient t o ovcrcomc t.11~ intltrence of t,hc adverse pressure gradient. This type of Coucttc flow with a Irrcssurc gratlictrt has some importance in the hgtlrodynamic theory of l ~ h r i c a t ~ i o'J'llc flow in tltc ~t. nnrrow clcnrar~ce bctwcen journal and llenrirlg is, by a.nd large, identical wvit,lr Cor~ct~tc flow wit11 a pressure gradient ( c / . Sec. VTc).
2. The IIngrn-Poiseuille tl1eory or flow tl~rorrgha pipe. Tlre flow t.llrougl~a st,migltt, t l ~ b c ciroular nross-scc:t.ion is t,l~c of case wit,ll rol.:~t,ionn.l sylnlnct.ry wllic*h r o r r ( ~ ~ ~ ) o no l tho prcc:otlil~gcasc: of t.wo-tli~rlcnsior~:~l t.lrrol~gh:I oll:~.r~rrt!l. tt s flow 1,~t. tlro z-axis be solcct.c:tl alorlg t,lln axis oL't,lrn pipe, Pig. 1.2, : L I I ~ ?/t1onot.o 1,llo I.IL,I~:LI Ir:t, eoortlirratc nicnsl~rcd from tllc axis outwards. T l ~ cvclocit,y com1)oncnt.s irl t.llc tnrlgt?nl,inl and rntlinl directions arc zero; the velocity component pnrallcl t.o t81rc axis, denoted 11y 11, depcntls on alone, a,ncl the pressure is const#antirr every crosssect.ion. Of t h e tllrcc Navicr-St,olres equations in cylint1ricn.l coortlinatcs, cclns. (:1.:16), only t,he one for the axial tlircct,iort remains, nntl it, simplifies t o

\vhic-ll is shown in Fig. 5.2. Tn I~arLicularfor a vanishing pressure gratlicrlt we )lave

'I'his p:lrt.inllnr case is lrnowr~ns simple Couct,tc flow, or siml,lc+ sllcar flow. Tlre gcrlrral casc of (:ouct,t,c flow is isupcrposit,io~~ t.lris simple casc over the flow of bet.wec~rrtwo fl:lt, wn.IIs. 'I'l~c sllapc of t.Irc vclocit.y~profilcis tlctcm~incdby t,hc dirrroltsionlrss I)rcssurc p~.:~tlicr~t, I

For 7' > 0, i . e., for n prrssrlrc tlccreasing in t01c tiircctior~of mot,ion, the velocity is posit.ivc over tlre whole witlt,ll of tlro channel. For ncget.ive values of P tho velocity

tlro boundary condition being u = 0 for y = R. The solut,io~~ cqn. (5.6) gives the of velocity distribution
IL

(y) = - -1 dp - - 411 d z

(R2-y2)

t,o wlroro - -tlp/tlz : - (p, p a ) / l ! = ~ ( J I I S L is t.lic pressure gr:~clie~rt,, be rognrclctl a s given. Solut,ion (5.7), wlricli was obtdincd hcre a s a n oxact solution of tlrc NavicrSt,okns ecli~at,ions, agrees with t,hc soli~tionin ccln. (1.10) wliiclr was oht,;~iricdin on c-l(:~ncnt,ary w:~y.'l'lic vc?loc:it,y ovor tlic c!ross-secl,ion is tlist,rihutctl in t.hc form of a l~nr:tI~oloitl rovolr~t.ion. of 'I'lic mnxirnr~rn~c:loc:il.~ t.hn n.xis is on

1 lie nirnli vc.loc.il.y 17.

--

v,,, t h a t is,

: ~ r ~ c l vol~r~nc. of flow I~cc:omcs t.lio r:~tn

Fig. 5.3. Im~nirinr flqw t,l~ro~rgli i p ; p resi~t.nnrc cocfficicnt, A, plottcd ngninst Itcynold~number (rncasured by Hngcn), fro~n Prnntltl-l'ictjrns

R
'I'ho lariiiriar flow elc~scribcrtl t,ho al~ovc? 11y solr~l.ionoccurs in praotic:~ only ,n~ long a s t.he 1b:ynoltls 1111rnlirr .-- .id / v ((1 =- pipe cliatiic?tfc:r)has a v n l ~ ~ c R l which is less t h a n t.hc so-c:allccl critici~lJtcyrioltls n i ~ m l ~ rin, spite of t,hc f:~ctt h a t t,l~c r above formr~lac corist.it.uta : l r i cx:tct sollltion of tlrc Nnvic:r-Stn)kcs ctlu:tt,ions for arbitrary values of cIp/cln:, R, :~rrtl or Iicnc:~,of IT, R, and f r . Acsorclit~g cxpcrirncnta p, Lo

(id
1 '

( ' p )
Cril

Rcri,

= 2300

approximately. For R > R,,,

the flow pntdcrn is entirely tliPFcrcnl, and bccomca l i ~ r hulc~tt.Wc shall d i s c ~ ~ t.liis type of flow in greater detail i n Chap. XX. ss 'I'hc rcl:rtion bchwecn t,hc pressure graclicnt and thc mean velocity of flow is ~ l o r ~ n a lraI~roscntcc3 cnginccring applicat,ions by introducing a resistanc~ ly in coe//icient o/ pipr /lola, l . 'l'liis coc:fticicrit is clofincd I)y setting tho prc5stlrc gr:ulicnt proportional t,o l.lin clyn:l.mic Iit:atl, i. n., 1.0 ldic sqirarc of tlic inonri vcloc:itsy of flow, aocorclit~g o t.hc t c:tluat,io~i t

Jlcro R tlcnotes Lhc Roynolds numl)cr c a l c ~ ~ l a t cfor thc pipe d i n m c b r arid Incan d vclocity of flow. The laminar eqr~ntionfor prewilro loss in pipcs, cqri. (5.1 I ) , is in excellcnt ~ g r c c m c r l twith experimental r c s ~ ~ l for t h c laminar range, a s SCCII ts from Fig. 6.3 which rcj)rotfr~ccs cxpcrimcntnl [~oinLqm o a s ~ ~ r cby (2. 1I:i.gc:n [I()]. d From this i t is possible to infer t h a t t h e Ilagcn-I'oiscuillc parabolic vclocity distribution represents a solution of t h e Navicr-Stokes cqrrations which is in agrcemcnt with experimental results [22]. I t is also possiblc t o indicatc a n exact solt~tiori of the Navier-Stokes equations for thc case of a pipe with a circular annular crosssection 1201. T h e problem of laminar and turbulent flow through pipcs with cxccnt,ric annular crow-scctions was discusscd theoretically in ref. [38] whiclr also contains experimental results.
3. The flow between two concentric rotating cylinders. A f ~ ~ r t ~ l i c r cxamplc wliirli leads t o a simple exact solution of t h e Navier-Stokes cqr~ationsis affortlcd by thc flow bet,ween two concentric rotating cylinders, bot,11 of which nlovc a t tlifTt~cnt but steady rotational spccds. Wc shall dcnotc thc inner and outcr radii by r , , and r2 rrspcctivcly, arril similarly, t h e two angular velocities 11y w , , and w,. TIic Navicrt Stokes equations (3.36) for plane polar coordinates r e d t ~ r e o

lr~t,rotlr~eirig cxprcssion for dp/(lz from cqn. (5.9) we ol)t:~ir~ tho

wit.lr

R r

gild
11

Ed
I

- .

This qimdrnt,ic?Inw which nnsllrnra dp/dz 12% fitn t.urbulcnt flow vcry well. It is r e b i n d fin Irmiinnr flow, nlt.horlgh in Lhnt rnngo clp/dz 12. Thus lor leniirrar flow A ~ ~ I C Wto bo a mnnbnt.

- - -

with dcnobing the circi~nrfcrcntial vc1oc:it.y. The 1)oundary contlit,ions arc: u - r l r 1 1 ~ for r = rl a n d u = r, (0, for r = r2. The solution of (5.14) which satisfies tticse rrqr~irements is

- -

Eq~~ntion (6.13) doterminos tho rndinl lircwriro distril)~rl.ioti rcsrllf.i~~g fro111 tho rnot.inri.

88

V. Rxnct uolutions of tile Nnvinr-Stokcs rqr~ntions

n. Pnrallrl flow

H) !

'rho rnsr WIICII I,IIP it111rrc:ylintl(*r is tttl rrsl.. wllilr t,l~r orlt,cr rylintlcr rotnt,rs, h a s sotno pmot.in:~lsignificnt~c.c.111 this itlst,:~rlrrt,hr torql~c: t.mnsmit,t.etl by 1,Ilr orlt,er t:ylintlcr t,o t,llc flr~itll ) r c o n ~ c s

\ v l ~ r r o is t , I ~ t bheight of t h e (:.yIit~(lcr.'The ~ n o l n r r ~ t , wit,ll \vhit:h t,Ilo flrlitl a c t s o n IL fill ~.IIc! inncr cylintlcr II;IS t h r snmc mngr~it.r~tlr. n r r a t i g c ~ n c ~ ~ t ~ consitlcr:~t.iorr 'I'ht? untlcr 11:~s I~c(:tl11sct1 o ( ~ ~ n ~ i n n :for l 1 . h ~ ~ l y (lct.crnlinnt,ior~ viscoxi1.y. '1'11~a ~ i g n l n r of vclocit,y of t h e rxt.ernol cylinclcr :l,ntl t,hc r n o n ~ c t ~ t , nc.t.ing o n tho inner nylintfer a r e menslrrotl, so t,lrnt t.he viscosit,y cnn 1)r cvalnnt,ed wit,l~ t.11~ of r q n . (5.lG). :lit1 \Ve now proposr t.o int1icnt.c I.hc vrlot:it,y dist~.il)r~tions t , l ~ c in nnnl~lrlsOctwtcn t,he t.wo cylirltlnrs for t,wo pn.rticular cnsrs. I r i Cnsr I , t,he inncr rylindrr rotn,l,es wit.11 t,he orlter otlr a t 1.t,st,; in Casc 1 I , llir irl11c.rc.ylintlrr tlocs not. rrlovr, but. t h c out,er o n r rot.ntcs. I<otll flows nrr cnllrtl C!orlrt,l.c flonr. 1)rtlol.ing 1,l)r r:~tio of t.11~ t.wo rntlii b y x rl/rz, t,l~c \vitll,h of tllc n n n r ~ l r ~ s s = r z - - r l , nntl t,llc cllrrcnt rclnt.ivc m t l i i ~ s y l)y b x = r / r 2 , Fig. 5.4, wc fiticl

x r-r, - -- 5 5

--

XI

-r - r , .
5

Fig. 5.4. Vclorily (list,rib~ttint~ the nlln~~lr~n it1 l)c~t\r.c~r~~ t,\\.o,c-o~lc.c.~~tri~.. ~.ot;ttilr~~ J l i l l ~ Iln ~ ~~; lrl s ~ l l ~ > ~ l I:tlrtl with t l ~ c of cqt~s. 5 . l 5 n , b). :tit1 ( n) Cnsc I : iril~rr cyli~ltler rot.nt.ing;orct,rr cylitlticr at, rest, r o 2 - 0 h ) Case I I : i t ~ l ~cylitlclrr a t rcst, (01 = 0 ; o~tt,rr er cylitlclrr rotatirig r, - r;t11i11sor ir1111.r1.~1i11dcr. = r:t<Iiu$ o I ' , u ~ l ~cyIin,lpr r, ,r
,J ?

--.I.

2nr

r .

Ilcrc, 111 = r1(,,1 is t h r ~)cripllernlvclc>ril,y of l . l ~ c n n r r rylintlcr, nntl 112 = rzroz is i t,h:t1. for I.II(- o111c.r cylintlr~..Fig111.r5.4 ~ . r p ~ ~ r s cl~ n l two velocily ~ l i s I r i l ~ ~ ~ t .ino n s hc s i tcrrns of t h e tlinlcr1siotllrss tlist~anc(; fro1111 lie i n n r r cylintlcr

It, is sccn, therefore, tIllnt, t,he case of fric:l.iot~lrss flow i l l t,hc r~eiglll)or~rhootl a of vort,cx line constitput.cs a. solut,iorl of t.hc Navirr-Stokes cquntiorls (c/. Scc. I V b ) . In t,llis connexion i t ]nay be i n s t n ~ c t ~ i vt,o n~cnt,iotl cxnrnple of a n cxnct no)Le a11 slendy solnt.ion of t h e Nnvier-Stokcs cclrlnt,iotls, rlnmcly t h n t which tlescribcs t h e process of t1cca.y of n vortex t,hrougIr bhc act,iorl of viscosity. T h e distribr~t~ioll t . l ~ e of t,angctlt~ialvrlority component 7~ wit,lr r c s l ~ e c tto t . l ~ erntlinl tlistn~lce ant1 tirnc t r is give11 by

I1 is 11ol.t.wo1~1hy t , l ~ vclocit.,y vnrirs strotlgl~rwil.l~ IIlnt, r t,hc rnt,io x rl/rz of t,hc 1 2 ~ 0 rntlii i l l Cnsr I , \\~lierrxs ( h s r I1 it is nlrnosl i n t l c p r n c l c ~of' it. MThcnx = rl/rz + 1 , for ~t I>trl.l~ c~tscvitcl~tl t,o t h e linrnr vrlocity tlistril)l~t.ion (!oucstt.(, flo\sr, a s it, oceurrctl of 1)cI.wc~c~n flat l)lat,cs in t h r rnsc rrprc~srr~tctl Pig. 1.1 . T h e cc~nnt~ion Cnsr J l,\vo in of' yicltls tho sntilc, lin~if fi)r r1 -- 0, i. C. fn1. x = O \v11c11110 i ~ l ~ l rylintlcl is p r r s c ~ l t . n cr I (.Itis c,nsr, I,II(, Ilr~itl~.o(;tlt>s insitlt: IIlc out,cr rylintlrr a s n rigit1 I)otiy. Ilcncc il. is seen 1Iln.t ('nso I1 yicsltls n lineal vcloril~y tlislril)~~t,iotl llir t,\\'o sy1111)1.ot.ic ~ S C x -- 0 POI. C S n11t1x -- 1. 'l'l~isI ) r h n v i o ~ r ~ a l t cts rn.sy t o rintIrrst,e.r~tl ~ i why t,llc vclocit,y tIist.ribut,iol~s for 1Ilr. ot.l~er, inl.crn~etliatc vnlllrs of x tlilTc,r so lit.t,lc from n st,rniplit line. oS :I singlr (-ylintlrr rot:~t~ing a11 infinit,e fluid (r? -+ m, in ( Q ,- - - 0) t:tln. (5.15) givcs i r = r12 (ol/r. ;lntl 1.11~ t.ort111ct.rn.11~11lit~trt1 t ~ c fluid t o t.he t ) h c:ylit~tl~t~. I)c.c:on~rs A l l -- 4 rr 11 11 r I 2 ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ vc~lorit,y tlist,ril)r~I.io~~t h e flr~itlis t h o in s:lntc :IS t.11;1(. :1ror111(1 lint> v o ~ . t t ~ x S ~ I . I ~ I I ~. I- J2I n: r,",), i l l f'rialio~~lrss :I ~S Ill Ilow, o r
111 t , I ~ t ; pnrticr~I:tr(:;isr

Pig. 5.5. Vclocit.y distrib~ltio~lt vaaryir~g a times in fllo ncigl~bo~~rl~oodn vortex of filament cnl~srtlby tho action of viscosity
1; circulnlinn or l l ~ c vortox nnrncttl nt 11 nio 1 w1:c.n vircoslly Itrylnr lo ncl: -i . t I ; / ? n r.

= .

90

V. ICxnct sol~tl~iot~~ Nnvior-StOkcs c q i ~ : ~ l i o t ~ ~ of tho

a. Parallcl flow

9I

a s derived by C. W. Osecn [21] and G. 1Ia1nel [I]]. This velocity distribution is represonbd graphioally in Pig. 5.5 Here 16 dcnotcs t,he c i r c ~ ~ l a t i oof the vortex n filamolt, a t time 1 0, i. c. a t t l ~ o morncr~twhcn vi~cosit~y nssun~edt.o I)cgit~it* is . ~ c t i o ~An cxpcrimenLal investigation of this procoss was 11ntlcrt,nlta11 A . Tirnmo l. 11y [40]. K. Kirdc 1171 mndc an nnnlytio s t ~ ~ tofythe caso when the valooity distribution f in t,l~o vortcx tlilT(:r~from I.hnt irnposctl hy pot,cnt,inl t.hcory.
= 1

t.hc compleme~dczry error /u?tdion, erfc q, 11.w been t,abulatedt. The velocity distribution is rcpresontcd in Pig. 6.0, and it may bo notctl t h a t tho vclocity profilcs for varying tinies arc 'si1nilar', i. e., they car1 bc rctl~lccd the sanlo cllrvc by changing t,lrc to scalc ttlong the axis of ordinates. TIIC cornplcmcntary error f ~ ~ r ~ c twhicl~ i o r ~ appcnrs i r eqn. (5.22) has a valuo of about 0.01 at 7 -- 2.0. %.killg into accorir~t l ~ o ~ t tlcfir~ition of t,l~c: t~ltic:ltnossof the: I ~ o t ~ n t l ~Inyor, 0 , wc: ol)t.r~ir~ try 6 = 2 q a J Z x 4

4. The sudder~ly necclernted plane wall; Stokes's first problem. We r ~ o wprocccd t o calculntc somo non-steady par;rllcl flows. Sirlee the convcctivc acccleratior~terms vanis11itlcr~tic:ally,t,l~c frictior~ forcos int,rmct with t,ho local nccelcrnt.iori. Tho si~nplcst flows of this clam occur when motlion is stnrtcd i r n p r ~ l s i v a lfrom rest.. We s l ~ a l l ~ begin with t h e c,wc of t h c flow near a flat plntc which is s ~ ~ t l d c n accelcr:~t.cdfrom ly rost and n ~ o v c s it,s own plnno with a const,:~ntvclocitty [lo. in This is onc of the proI~lcmswhioli wcro solvctl by (2. St,okos in his colcbr:rtccl memoir or1 p e r ~ t l ~ ~ l u r r ~ s [3ri]t. Seloct8ing t.ho z-axis along the wall i r ~the direction of U,, we obt,air~trhc simplifiotl Navicr-SOnlccs oqt~nt.ion

JZ.

(5.23)

I t is seen t o be proportional t o the sqnnrc root of tho ~)rotIl~ot, kir~ornnLiovisc:osiOy of silt1 time. This problem was generalized by E. Decker [3] t o ir~clr~dc: more genrml rat.rs of nccclnraI.ior~a s well a s the cqses involvii~gsrict~iorior blowing or tho c f i c t of compressil)ility.

'rho prrssuro in tho wI101o space is constant,, and Ll~e bol~nclirry conclit,iol~s arc:

Tho cliIT(:rcnt.iel ccl~~at.ion (5.17) is ictcr~t.icalwith the equntior~of h e s t contlaction which clcscribcs tllc p r ~ p n g n t ~ i n r ~ of Itoat, irl tho space y > 0, whcn a t time 1 = 0 t h e wall y = 0 i s sr1dt1c11l.yI~catcd o a t,cmpcr;~t,nre t which oxccecls t h a t i n the surroundings. 'l'l~e pnrl,i:~ltliffcrcnt.ia1 oq~iat,ion(5.17) can be retlucctl t.o a n ortlinary diTcrt:irt<ialcql~:~t.ior~ t,ho sul)st.il,nt.ion 11s Y (5.19) 2 1/ If wn, i i ~ r t ~ l ~ c r , n.ssrlmc ~t = U o j ( r ] ) , (5.20)

"--3'

Fig. 5.6. Vclocity dist,ribution above a artddenly accelerated wall

wc o11I.air1t h e followi~~g onlinary tliITorcnt,ial cc.jnntion for

/ (q):
5. Flow forn~ntioni n Cmuette motion. The s11bsti111l.ion (5.10) which Icncls t,o eqn. (5.21) d m not, in general, lend to a sol~ttio~r 1.hc so-ct~llcd of lwnt condt~ctioncqttnt~ion (5.17) i r lnorc cotnplicntotl boundnry contlilions aro irn/~osccI, Sitla>cqn. (6.17) i~ linear, soll~tion~ il, (:IIII (i)r be obtained by the use or t l ~ c 1,nplncc t,mnsfor~nal,ion nntl by tnoro direct nlcl.ho~ls clcvclopc:tl in conncxion with tho study of the conclr~ctionof hcnt i n solids. Mnny r c ~ ~ l obtni~~ccl, g., kt c. for the tcmperaturc vnriation in nn infinite or semi-infinite solid, cnn be tlircctly transposed and uacd for the ~oIut,iot~ problems in viscons flow. T ~ I Ithe prcccding problem in which the of R formation of tho 1)oundary layer noar a suddenly accclcrakl wall has bwn invwtigntrcf can also be nolvcd for tllc CDSC when the wall movur in a direction parallel to ar~otlrorflat w:ill at. mt and a t a distantx, h from it. This is the problcm of flow forn~ation Couettc motion, i. c., in

71.

=.I!,, rrfc

r]

wl~c-ro

t Soe
to

Somo a11t,110m rcfrr

l.l~is prohlc.tn h q tllc 'ltnylcigh problem'; there is no jrtstificntion for t , \ ~ ti I~ w i K ~ ~ : t t i c )IICC:IIIIRP 01c: ~)robIc:tr~ 11t; 1o111t0~ ~ ldinc:~~u~c.tl ~ o l v t ~ ict 1l rcf. I:lr)]. c t~ C:LII f ly 1111tl

c. g. Shoppard. "The Probability Tnbgrnl", Rritish Atwoe. Adv. Sci.: Matln. Tsblea vol. vii (3039) and Works Project Administration "Tables of the Probability Function", New York, 1041.

a. I';irnllrl flow of how the velocity profilc varion with tirne tonding nsyn~ptotically to t l ~ e linear the diutribtrtion nlrown in Fig. 1.1. The diITcrcntinl cqriation is the same en before, cqn. (5.17), ltllt with rnotlifietl I)o~~r~clary conditions which now are:
1 t

93

< 0;

- 0:
-

11
71

lnyor ncnr tho wall. 'Tl~cinflrrcnco of vi~cosityrcnchcs the pipe ccr~t.rro ~ ~ il ry~tlle 1:rt.c.r st,:~grn of no ti of^, ant1 tho velocity profile tonds asy~~~~~LoLically pt1rol)olic tlisl.ribt~l.io~~ ste:rtly to tho for flow. The correspontling solut,ior~ an nnn~tlar for circc~l~rr cross-section was given 113. W. M ~ ~ r l l1201. er

- i I , , for

for all 11, if 0 <?I< h ; - \I . - 0 ; 71 = 0 for

'rllr s o l u t i o ~ ~ eqn. (5.17) \vhicl~ sntinfien tho bor~ndary :tnd initial r o ~ ~ c l i t i ~ r ~ sI)o of ran n t ~ t . : ~ i nin~t.llc form of a ucrio~ c o n ~ p I ~ ! n ~ c ~ ~ t n r yftln~l~ions ( ~l of error

11

'y'

x erfc

r2 n

4-

711

('0

,,-I,

,, -.I3

x crfc [ 2
7x1

(71

-1 I ) ?I# -

?I]

(5.24)
--

rrfc

rrfc (2 q1 - tl) crfc: (2 -1-

-1- 71) - rrfc (4 11,

11) 1- rrfc (4 71, .1-

71) -

. . . 4- . . .

,1,IIC n c c r l c r ~ ~ t ofi o1 I111i(l ~ 1~ ~ ovrr ~ , I I c X V I I ~ I CI C I I ~ I , I I of pipe tli~(:~~sst%(lI I I I I H ~ , ~~41rcsrlllly l~c*rc (iiu~,ir~g~~inl~ctl acrcIernt.io~~ n f111itlin t l ~ c fro111t.lic of illlet j ~ o r t i o ~ ~ a pipe in ~ I J * : L ~ I , IIOW. or a ~ ,I'II(: reclangnlar ve1ocit.y profile \ral~icl~ exists in t.hc entrance ucct.iol~is grncl~lnlly t r a n s f o r ~ ~ ~ e d as t.he fluid progresses through the pipe with x increasing, ant1 tends, ~ ~ n dt,hc influence of viscosity, cr a : to nssnnle the Hagen-l'oisc~~illcparabolic dinl.ribntion. Since I~c?rc ~ / a z t 0 tho flo\rs is not onc-rli~ncnsiond, nncl the v~locitydepends on x , nu \vrll ns on t.llo rndi~rs.Thin prof,lo~n wak rlisrusric(l by 11. Srl~licl~l.ing [DO), who gave t,llo solrlliolr for L\vo-tlin~c~~sio~~nltl1ro11~11 Ilo\v n st.r:ligl~t.h a n ~ ~ e l , by I,. Srhiller 1291, ;111dB. 1'1111nin r ant1 1241 for nxinlly symrr~rt.rir,nl flow ( r i r c ~ ~ l a r pipr): s r r nlno Seos. IX i nnd X 111.

wllerc 71, := h,/2 1/ F i (lot~~t.cn cli~nenniol~lcsn t,l~c tlistancc between t,l~ctwo wnlllr. 'Tho solut,io~~ is represellted in Iiig. 6.7. 'rllr corly profiles nre dill aplwoxi~nntelysimilar ant1 rc~nairlso, an long nn t,llr bolllldary layer l ~ n s sprcad to the stationary wall. Tllc s~lcceeding not vcloc:ity r)rofilcn :).re no l o ~ ~ g "similer" rr n11tl t c ~ ~ nsymptotirnIly to t,lre linrar distribrrt~ionof tile s k n d y st,ak. cl

Fig. 5.8. Vclocit,y profilc in n rircrrlnr pipe d ~ ~ r i ~ ~ g ncc*rlrrat,ion,art give11 by 1'. Szytnn~lski [87]; T . v //I12 -

E x a c t solrtt,ions for r ~ o n - s t r a t l y Coric.l.t,c flow werc rlcrivcd I)g .I. S t . r i n l ~ c r i r (331 r 111~: (:;t,sr ~ I I I ~ O III V ol' 1,110 \vn,lls is I L ~ , ~.(kst, ;I, s l , ( ~ ~ t l ~ I I , I I ( ~ is 111v11 I in llo\v srttI(1r11i~~ t~c.c:~>lv~.at.c:cl R gi\,c.tl, c:ot~sta~it, to vcloc:it,,y. '1'0 (lo t , l ~ i s , is Iicbvc:ssal,y 1.0 solve! t ' ( l 1 1 . il, (5.17), \vI~ic~li itlcnt,ical w i t h t h o onc-dirrlrnsior~nl Iicat conrlr~cl.ion cqrlat,ion, l)y is lncnrls of n l7otiric.r srrirs. A spccic'll CR,SC i t , t.llis class o r solr~f.iotlsis t.hal w h r n t ' l 1 ~ rno'iing wnll is srrtltlrnly st.oppctl s o t , l ~ a li,t rcprt:sct~t,st l ~ o tlecay of (h\rot,t.c flow.
1'01.

7. T h e flow n e a r at1 o s c i l l a t i ~ ~ ~ plnte; Stokes's s c c n ~ ~problenl. In t h i s src.t.ior~ Rat rl wo i ) r o p s e t,o discuss t h e flow a b o u t a n inliriito flat wall wllic:lr c x c r n t r s lincar I ~ n r ~ n o n i coscill:~t,ions para.llel t o itself ant1 whicll w a s first t r e n t r d 1)sG. SLolres (351 : ~ n t l lntcr b y 1,ortl 1i.nyleigI1 [ 2 5 ] . T,ct 1 dcnot,c t l ~ ccoortlilint,~ p n m l l r l t,o t , l ~ e (lirert.iot~ n~ot,ioti of atid 1 1.11~ o o r ( l i r l n l ~ c 1 ~ 1)erpcnclicnlnr tjo t,hc wall. O w i n g t.o t,he c~ontlit,ior~ tin slip :I(, 1,llr wnll, 1 . 1 1 ~f l ~ t i t l vrlncil.y : r t i t rnrtsl. 1,r i-t111:1110 t.11:tI.of t.lt,? of w;~Il. S I I I I I ~ ~1,11111, I lI l~ i sI I I ~ I , ~ ~i~I I givo11 1 1 ~ S~ , ~

wr l i ~ ~1 (I ll i ~ LlI11c fluid v~lo(:iLyi ~ ( ? y , is l . 1 1 s o l i ~ t ~ i oo f ccjli. (6.17), togcl,llcr \vil.lt t , l ~ o , l) ~ tl

Oor~rltlaryc:otrLLit.ion ( 5 . 2 6 ) , w l ~ i c l ~ , n l r e ; ~ d yrner~l.iot~cd, k n o w n J'roln t,lrr tlic:ory ns is of Ilc~1.trntltl~rc:t,ion. F o r 1.11~ mst? rrntlrr corrsitlcmt,io~~

6. Flow in a pipe, filarling rrolll rcst. 'Tllr nrrclcr:~l.ionof :t l l ~ ~ iinl n pipe is closrly rrlnlrtl t t,o the prccrtlir~gcxalnplcs. Snppose th:it t.11~ lllrirl in ;in, infinit,cly long pipe or c.ircr~l;~r crosnsr~c~tion nt, rcsL for t < 0. At the it~sl,ant - 0 n prcssllrc graclicnt d p i t l ~ , l ~ i c ~ l ~ is t w is ronsCant. i r l time, 1)rgins t act along it. The fluid will I~cginto rnovo r ~ n ~ l t,hr i r ~ l l ~ ~ cof vi.scouo ant1 n rr r~cc illc.rti:~.forcrs, nntl t.lx vrlorit,y profilc will al)proxcl~asyn~l)tot.irally tllr 1):rr:~l)olir distrihr11.ion in Ilag~~l~.l'~,isc~~iIlc Iloa. 'l'lrc soll~t,ionof thin prol)lr~l~ \r.l~irllIra(Is t.o n tlillrrrnti:ll rqr~ation i ~ l v o l v i ~IIrsst.1 f ~ l l ~ ( * t , i o ~ ~g i v r ~Ily I?. S%,y~nnnski ~g W:IS s ~ 1371. 'J'l~r v(-IociIly prolilr is tIri~\r.nill Fig. 5.8 lnr v:~rint~s ~IISL:LIIIS. is I I C > I . , ~ ' I \ , O ~ I , IIII:LI,in I,IIc: o:~rl,ysl,:~grsI,llc vcln,.il,y nr:ir 1I1r It I,~ axis is ;rl~lwoxin~:rtcly ro11sl.:i111, ovrr 1.h~ i ~ l i n11(1I,l~nl, r ~~s visrosily ~nnkc:sil.nelf f(bIl. in :I nnrrow

94

V. Exnct sol~ltiono t,ho Nnvicr-Slnltc.q oqr~nt,ions ol'

b. Other oxnct s o l u l i o ~ ~ s

95

If we now prescribe a c n r ~ u h r vclocity v, < 0 a t thc wall (suct.ion), wo notice that cqn. ( 5 . 2 7 ~ ) ~t is satisfied in~rnediatelyhy a flow for whicl~ = v, and t l ~ n the prc.nsttro p bcaorncs indcpnndcnt, o t of sirnnltrmco~~sly. Accorclingly, we put - (l/e) (aplaz) = tI(J/cll,, whom 11(t) donotes bile frwstrrnln vrlocity n t jr very largc dishnc:o fro111t.11~ w:rll, nncl I~cncc l ) t u i ~ ~ followir~g o 1l1c ~lilTc~rcl~l.itrl cqtlatio~lfor u ( y , 1):

Tho velocity profile u (!y,t) t l ~ u s has tilt form of a dampccl harmonic oscillaLion, thc

au 3t

l,,,

- .

amplitude of whir11 is

in whirli a fluid layer a t s distance y has a phase lag y l/;t% with respect to the motion of the wall. Fig. 5.9 rcprcscnts - - mot,ion this . for scvcral instants of 1,ime. Two fluid layers, a clistance 2 n / k = 2 n d 2 v/n apart, oscillate in p l i ~ c This distancc car1 be regarded. as a kind of wave length of the . motion: i t is somctimcs calletl the depth o/ penetration of tho viscous wave. The layer which is carried b y tho wall has a t,hidrncss of t11c order d Jqand dccrcasos for decreasing kinematic viscosity and increasing frequcncyt.
I/, c w i ? ; ,

ag

d[l. - . 1 dl

azu ay2

'

(5.28)

According to .I. 'r. Stuart m2] thorecxista an oxnct sol111,ion ofccln. (5.28) for tllo arl)iLr:iry oxlc-rr~al vclocity 'lll~isso1116ionis whcro

Sllh~titllLing l ~ c t I.wt t h r w c q ~ l ~ t i o nn k cqn. ( 5 2 9 , we a m led ID n psrtinl diffcrrntial oq11st.ion is for the unknown f~rnctiong(!/. 1 ) = g(7. 1); thin hnn 1110 forrn

and 1.l1cI)o~~n(lary roncli1,iorls arc:

Tllc following non-di~ncnsionnl varinhlcs hnvo bcer~i r l t r o d u d in the prccocling: I'ie. 5.9. Vrlocit,y elistrihut,ion in t.he neighbourhood of an oscilleting wall (Stokes's second problem)

*,

X(-IL~ .
v '

7 = 4 ,

I v,' v

Solutions of (5.32) hnve hccr~ohtaincd by J. W n h n (411 who crnploycri Lnplaoo transfe)rrnat.ions and who restricted hirnuclf to severnl apecinl forms of the furlctior~/(1). (:cncrally speaking, the following cxternnl flows, U(1). hnve been incIudw1: a ) cI:rmlwd nnrl undamywd oscillations,

h) stop-likc chnngc from one vnlr~o vcloci1.y to xnot.l~cr, of

c) linear irlcre.nuc from ono vnltlc to anoll~cr. of non-steady solutions. A general cl:iss of no11-stcnely soll~lionsof the Nnvinr-Stnltw ,scq~latiolls whir11 possean bor~ndary-lcycro11arnctr:r is ol~tainrdin the sr)ccinl m8e when t.ho velocity com~~oncnta indopcndcnt of Lho longitudin:~l arc coordinnl,c, a. ' r l ~ cs y s t c n ~ of rrlr~nt.ions(8.02). writln-n for 1)lnno flow. nasun)cs 1.11~ forrn
8. A
rlnss

In the upncial c.wc whcn the exlcrnnl flow is indcpcn(lcnt, of tin~c, /(t) - 0, cq11ation (5.32) I-~ds t the uirnple sol~ltion'(7, 7 ) = 0. This CDIIRP* tho voJoc~i1.yprolilo from oqn. (5.30) to o ' I~orornc iclot~t.ic:ril wiI.11 Ll~c nuyrnptoLic s11clio11 prolilo givc.11 I I L I A ? i~l l ~ Y I I I . (14.l;).

a!,
--. -.-

aa ---

'1

The preccding examples on one-tlimcnsional flows were very simplc, I)cca~~se tho convective acceleration which renders thc equations non-linear vnnisl~cdidontically everywhere. WG shall now proc:ccd to examine sorno exact solutiorls in wllich thcsc terms are retained, so t h a t non-linear equations will havo to t)o considcrcd. We shall, however, restrict oursclves to steady flows.
9. Stagnation in plane flow (Hiemenz flow). Tho first simple examplc of this t,ype of flow, represented in Fig. 6.10, is that lending 1x1 a sh.gnc~tion point ill plane,

Tltc ROIIIL~OII i l l ccln (5.2fin) roprcscr~t.s also t,l~c tcn~porat~lrn clintril)~ltionin Ll~c a r t l ~ r which is rn~lwel l.ilc fwri(~tlio by Iltlc*t.r~at.ion I.ho k ~ ~ l p c r a t uon t11r sclrfncc, my,fro111clay 14) d:ly o r over of rc t,l~c scnfu~ns a yf::Lr. in

1,. 0t.llrr exact volr~tiol~n

-2

97

'I'lrc bo~rnrlal~y rontlit~ions / and F arc obt,irinecl frorn 11 for v -- 0 at. t l ~ e wall, \vIrrrc> ?/ =-. 0, n.tltl 2) : po :tt the st,ngnntion point, a s \vrll a s froin 11. ==(J = n. x a t n Inrgt: : tlisl,anc-c: Sroni t,lro wall. 'l'l~rrs

l4;tl~is. (5.:!t;);~ntI(5.37) :rrc 1,110 I,\vo cliIli~t.c:t~t,i;~l c.(lr~;ttiot~s t , l ~ c IOr I'IIII(.~,~OIIS/(!I) : L I I ~ I b'(?y) \vl~icl~ tlotcrmine the velooity ant1 prcssnrc distril)rltion. Sincc F ( y ) does ~ ~ o t , :tppcar in t J ~ c first cquntiorr, it is 1)ossil)la to Ijcgin by cloLcr~nining /(?I):tn(I t,l1(!11 to proc:cctI t.o firrtl Y(y) froni t,lrr sccontl cqrr;tt.ion. 'l'l~e norr-lincnr tlifTcrcnt,inl c:qrr:tt.io~l (5.3;) c:rnnot be solved in closed terms. In ortler l,o solve it. nulnrricnll,y it. is c.011vc*nicnt. to rcniovc t.he const,nnt,s rr2 anc1 IJ by pllt.t.in~

wl~c.rct , l ~ c , ~rrin~c, w clc!lrotrs tlilkrcnl.i:~t.iot~ rosprcl, t,o 8 1 . 'l'l~ot:oc.l'lic~ic*~~lsI I ~ . no wit,l~ 01. t t*clu:~t~ion 1)cc:otnc. all itlrnl,ically cqunl 1.0 1111it.y \YC ~ I I ( , if i . c., t.wo-dirnrnsior~dIlo\r~.'I'llc: vcloc:il,y clist.ril)~~l,ion frict~io~rlcss) o l c ~ l ~ l ~ i : ~ l in ~ flow in t,11e ~ ~ r i g l ~ l ) o ~ ~ o l ~t,lrc tsl.ngnnt,ion point nt 2 rf oo l : 1 -= 0 is given by 1
-7

whcrc n tlcno1,r.s ;L cotrst,nrrl. This is a n cxa.~r~plc a. plane polent,ial flow wlricl~arof rives from thc !I-nxis ant1 impinges on a flat wall placed a t y = 0, dividrs into two strenlns on the wall and Lenvcs in bot,h directions. The viscor~s flow mnst ndlrere tjo t,he wall, wl~crcnsthe potc11tia1flow slides along it. I n pot.ent(ia.1 flow the pressure is T given by Rernolllli's cqr~nt.ion. f pa, dcnotcs the stagnnt,iorr pressure, and p is t.11~ 1wcss11rc nt. a.n arl)itr;li-y point., wc? Ilavc in pot,cnt.inl flow wit 11 111c l)o~lr~(l:iry c~nclitions

I'or viscor~s Ilow, wc: now ninkc t,hc n s s ~ l m p t ~ i o t ~ ~

?I

=x

/' (71)
=

?I

1(?I) ,
'I'llc solution of' tl~c? diITerrnt,ial c q ~ ~ n t i o n (5.3!)) w:ts first givcn in a thcsis I)y I<. i l i r rncn7, [I21 nntl latcr improved I)y 1.. Itowart11 [14]. T t is shown in Fig. 5.1 1 ( s c ~ :LISO 'l':~l~lc 5.1). 'rlrc crrrvc: d'(7) brgir~sto increase linrnrly a t k 0 nntl t.cr~tls :r,sy~nptot,icallyt o r~nit~y. approxin~at~cly = 2.4 we Ilavc (b' = 0.00, i . o. t,llc At 1 1 final va,ltle is reached there ~vit~ll accuracy of 1 per cent,. 1f we corlsitler t.11~ an correspoucling dist.ance from tShr\\fall, tlcnotjetl by y = 8, as t.11c: bonntlnry Inycr, Irc 11:lve

Po - p

Q (L ":r2

-1- F (y)1 .

111 this way t , l ~ c cqrlat,ion of cont,inrrit,y ( 4 . 4 ~ is snt,isfietl i(lc!nt,icnlly, :1r1t1 thc t.wo ) Navicr-Slnltcs cqr~at.ions plane flow (4.4n,l)) n.re snfliciont t o dctrcrminc l l ~ c of fr~nc{.ions i ( y ) and F ( y ) Substituting cqns. (5.34) an(\ (5.35) i1it.o eqtl. (4.4a.,b) \vc 01)tain t,wo o r d i n 9 . r ~ tlifTercnt.inl eqant.ions for / arrtl F:
i'z
-

i j,'
I (Z ,

cf,2

1-

3,

j"'

(5 3 6 )

aqtl

/ /'

= <

F' - 1, /" .

(5.37)

b. Otlirr cxnct no~lltiolln Table 5.1. Fenctiorra occrtrrirlg it1 thr noltrtion of plnnc nnd axinlly ~ymm~t.rionI flow with atngnntion point. Plnrre caqc from L. Hownrtl~1141; nxinlly symmetrical cnnc frorn N. Fr~eR~litlg 181 plnne
-- - .~~ . .

99

Tllo nnn-steady flow p a t t e r n wlticli results ~ q w u h o sl~pcrposit.ion of :rn nrbit

trary, timc-dependent transverso m o t i o r ~ t h c pl:~ncwas sl,~ldicdb y .l. W : ~ k o t l1.121 of 'Chc spcrial cnac of a h a n n o n i c t r a n ~ v r r s c i o t i o r ~ n was solved carlicr 1)y M. 1%.(:l:rt~rrt (1143 in Cllap. XV).
9.. Two-dimensional noo-steady ntngnation flow. The cnuc of non-stnndy, t3~vo-tlinirnsionnt flow sturlicd by N. ltott 128.1 conut.it~ltc~ n gcncr~rli~atiot~ prcc~:tIi~rg of 1110 cnnc:. We\ r:o~~niclc~r I l~c: c u e of two-di~r~cnsionnl shgnntion flow dopictat in l'ig. 5.10 nrrcl hour~tladby n wall nt 1, 70. We m u m e tllrnt tho velocity nt rr Inrgo clint.anro frc~rnl.ltc wnll i~ clit-c.c:trrl towitrcln l.hc. \r.itll, rultl thnt the wnll ilaclf pcrfortns n hnrmonic motiot~in ila own plnrto. In tho resr11t.irlgflow pnt,tc~rrr, the velocity rcmnina stcncly nt n lnrgcdiutnnce ( y +m), wl,crrnn ncnr t.ha wall it nnq~~irrannna atondy pnttcrrr of t.bc name kintl ns thnt nanr tltc oscillnt.irrg wrrll of I'ig. 5.!) (Slnkrn'~ scvnt~cl problem). According to ( 2 8 ~ 1i, ia pom~ihlnt irtt,cgrnt.c the ~rorrolcntlyNnvirr-Stokc%n L o ar~ttnt.ic,tt (4.4~1,h, a) hy m ~ ~ m i n g

nxinlly uyrnrnat,rical
. . . . . . -. .
~-~

ia
0 0.0233 0.0881 0.1867 0.3124 0.4592 0.6220 0.7967 0.9798 1.1689 1.3620 16578 1.7553 1.9538 2.1530 2,3526 25523 2.7522 2.9521 3.1521 3.3521 3.5521 3.7521 3.9521 0 0.2266 0.4145 0.6663 0.6859 0.7779 0.8467 0.8968 0.9323 0.9568 0.9732 0.9839 0.9905 0.9946 0.9970 0.9984 0.9992 0.9906 0.9998 0.9999 1~0000 1.0000 1.0000 1~0000 1.2326 1.0345 0.8463 0.6752 0.5251 0,3980 0.2938 0.21 10 0.1474 0.1000 0.0658 0.0420 0.0200 0.0156 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.O 1.2 1.4 1-6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4 .0 4.2 4.4 4-6 0 0.0127 0.0487 0.1054 0-1799 0.2695 0.3717 0-4841 0-6046 0.7313 0.8627 0.9974 1.1346 1.2733 1.4131 1.5536 1-6944 1.8356 1-9769 2.1182 2-2596 2.4010 2.5423 26837 0 0.1755 0.3311 0-4669 0.5833 0,681 1 0-7614 0-8258 0.8761 0.9142 0.9422 0.9622 0.9760 0.9853 0.9912 0.9949 0.9972 0.9985 0.9992 0.9996 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 1~0000 1.3120 1.1705 1.0298 0.8910 0.7563 0.6283 0,5097 0.4031 0.3100 0.2315 0.1676 0.1175 0.0798 0.0523 0.0331 0.0202 0-0120 0.0088 0.0037 0.0020 0.0010 0.0006 0.0003 0~001

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1-0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3-4 3.6 3-8 4-0 4.2 4.4 4.6

?I(!,)

(CI

v)

+ (,I),

in t.11~snmo

88

w~ done in eqn. (6.34). As fnr as t l ~ o prDRS111.C i~ o~rrrart~(~tl, 1,11t.

0.0090
0,0051 0.0028 0.0014 0.0007 0.0004 0.002 0.0001 0.0000 0~0000

IIerc, q = y(n/v)'l2 denotes tho dirncnsionlrua tlint,nnoe frorn t.11~ wnll iron, cclrr. (5.38), b .i tllr constnnt. nmplit,rtrln of t.hc wnll oscillntir~g itsl own plnt~c, in rrt~cl in t . 1 1 ~airc:~tlnr (11 frc?qtir.l~c:y t.l~ip of oscillation. The preceding n ~ ~ u m p t i o n s (5.40n, 11, c) nrc it~t.rod~~ccd I.ho Nnvier-Stokrn oqtrnt.iorrs into (4.4a. h, c), and the problem is reduced to uolving (.he following R Y R L C ~ I Iof e(llt~t.ionn:

ITence again, a s I,cfore, tlic laycr which is inflr~enmclby viscosity is small a t low kinematic visrositit:~a n d proportiorla1 to l'lic pressure gradient ap/ay becomes proportional to Q n i i a a n d is also very s m a l l f o r s m a l l k i n e m a t i c viscosities.

Here k = win clenotw the dimensionlrm froq~tottog t l ~ a of wnll o~c:illnt.ion. l ~ o T rlifirrr~t.inl oqltntionu (540c1) nnd (5.40~) result fmm 1110 norl-stcntly Nnvior-St<>kracqttnt,ion in t.ltc r-tlirrc:l.iorr, cqn. (4.4~). when 1110velocity cornlmnent # in roprascn(r?d i t.ho ntlm of n ~tnndy m Lc:r~n,pr ', nncl an unstendy term, g, wm done in cqn. (5.40~). I I o filncl.iorr +(7,) nntisfies the I,otrntl:rry conrli'~ tions

9 (0) = 0'(0) -- 0

nnd

4 '(m) = 1 .

I t is, further, wort.11 noting t h a t t h o dimcnsionlcns velocity distribntion u/fJ a n d t,hc b o ~ ~ n c l a r ~ - l thicltncss f r o n ~ a~cr cqn. (5.40) a r c indepcntlent of x, i. e., t h e y tlo n o t v a r y along t h e wnll.
I

A eompnriwn hcl.wecn cqns. (5.39) nncl (5.40~1)sltow~thnt 1,llin f1111~t.iot1i c l c ~ r ~ t , i e ~will1 I,(I(. i~ r~l well-ktrown solution of t.ho stcndy-nlnL0 prOlll~Ir1 ellto to Hiomcrrz. 'j'lto ft~rtc:t.iorr ( r l ) Hllt,iRfiCR (,IIi. g boundnry coniIit.iono g(0) = 1 nnd g(m) = 0.

'rho t,ypc of flow rrnder considcrat.ion does n b t occur n e a r a plane wall only, b u t also in two-climcnsional flow p:rst arty cylincirical i)ocly, provideti t h a t i t h a s a b l u n t noso near 1.11~ stagnabion point. I n SIICII cnsrs t h e s o l l ~ t i o l ~ valid for a mall neighis bourliootf of t h o s t s g ~ i n t ~ i point, if t , l ~ portion of t h e curved surface can h c replacctl o~l c b y it4 t a n g c r ~ tplanc n c a r t11t: sL:~gn:~t,ion ~ point.

It is w , n from eqns. (5.40d) and (5.400) that in 'his cnso the strndy component, is i r ~ d r p ~ n d ~ ~ ~ t of the st~pcrimpoaednon-stcndy component. The dihrcnt.inl aq~rnt.ion(5.40~) t.lrc r r ~ r r - ~ l ~ ~ d ~ for contribution g of tho z-component of tho velocity can he cnsily ~olvccl,I ~ r c n \ t a ~ f t ~ n r l . i ~ ~ ~ t,l~c + ( v ) , Tnblc? 6.1, is known. Igurt,l~er details conccn~ingthin problrnr call bc fot~tld (2nn]. The it1 rcnder mny also consult the papers by M. Glauert, 1141 in Clrnp. XV, and J. Wnhon, (651 in (:Ilnp.

xv.

10. Stagststinn in three-dimensional flow. I n :I similar way it is possible t o o l ~ t a i n an cx:~c:t, sol~~t.iorr the Navicr-Stoltcs cqnations for the three-clirncnsiorlal case of of flow wit.11 st,a.gnat,ion, i. c., for t.hc axisy~nmct~rical casc. A fll~ids t r c a n ~ irr~l)i~rges 011 a wall at, right, nllglcs t,o it and flows away mdially in all tlircct-ions. Srrch :I casc occrirs i l l t . 1 1 ~~ ~ r i ~ l ~ l ) o r ~ r l ~ os t c a g ~ ~ : ~ t . i o ~ ~ f a 1)otly of revolr~t.ionin :I flow of a o . l l>oi~il. o I)arnllrI to it,s :[xis.

wl~orc is a consta.nt. Tt is scnn a.t on(:c t,I~ntSIICII a s0111t.io11 s:ttisfi(~st.II(' ( ~ ( ~ I I : I ~ of ~ I ~ o ront.inrrit y. 1)enot.ing once nlorc t l ~ c st,:~gnnt.ior~ I)rc.ssllrc: I)y I , ( , , wo l i ~ l ( lt I)(: ~)rc.ssllrp in itlcal flow : Po - 7J -4p(1J2 1- IQ2) -- 4 @ n 2 ( r 21 4 z 2 ) .

--

111 1 . 1 1 ~ r:lsc of visc.orls flow we assllmc: t . 1 1 ~following li)r111of t.11c. s o l ~ ~ t Sor o ~ ~ ~ ~ i (.IlP vrloc.i(.,v nnd prcssllrc clist~ril)ut.ions

It, can be easily verifird t h a t :L solr~tionof Ll~cform (5.4:1)s:itisfic~stllc: c q ~ ~ a t i o ~ l of c-onti~~uity idcnticnlly, wl~crcast.lic cclr~atior~s niot,ion I t t : ~ r l 1.0 t.l~nfi>llowing t\ro of rclt~ntionsfor / ( z ) ant1 F ( z ) :
]pig. 5 11

\'rlorily tlistribrltionof planr nr~ti rotnt,ionalIysyrnri~rtrical flow nt n ~tag11nLio11 point

j'2-

2jJ"
2jJ'

= .2+

"Jl1l1
"J".
:111tl

= )a2Pf-

(5.45) (5.46)
arc

'l'l~cI)o~ln(lary condit.ions for / ( z ) ant1 F ( z ) fi~llo\rfro111rcln. ( 5 . 4 1 a).

2 = 0 :
7'0 solve tile problenl we shall use cylindrical coordinates r , 4, z, and we s l ~ a l l assunrc tlrat, t.hc wall is a t z = 0, the stagnatiorl point is a t the origin and t h a t t h e flow is in tlre direct,ion of the negative z-axis. We shall denote t h e radial ancl axial cornpo~lentsin frictionless flow by IJ ancl 11' respectively, whereas those in viscous flow will be tlcnc~tedby u := v ( r , z ) , anrl 7u = w ( r , z ) .I n accordance wit11 eqn. ( 3 . 3 6 ) . t,hc N:~virr-St,okcs rclrrntion for rotnt,ional symmetry can be written as

/--/'=:O,

F==();

z=--m:

/'::,&.

As I)cd'nrr, t.lw first of the t,\vo cql~ations / ant1 F c:ln l)o frc:ctl ol' I l l ( - c:o~~st.;r~~t.s for rr" and 11 l).v a sirnilarit,y transforrnat.ion, wl1ic.11 is idrr~tical\!,it11 tl~:rt. r ~ i t,hr I I I : I I I ~ . (.;IS(', t l~ns

'1'lrf: tiilfcrrntial rqnat.ion for

d(() sin~l)lificsto +"' -1. 2 4 - 4 ' 2 - 1

,#,'I

:- () :

asit11 t 11c: I ~ o ~ ~ n t l n r y ions corrdit

5-0:

4--+I=();

i.=oU.

d'-

1.

'J'lic solution of cqn. ( 5 . 4 7 ) was first given by F. 1lorn;~nrl 1131 i r ~ II(% Sorm o f :t I)o\r.c,r t srrics. 'I'lrc plot, of 4' = 71,/1! is givrri in Fig. 6.11 t,ogct,l~c.r wit11 t.l~(. l n ~ ~ r : ~ r ~ t l p c.:~sc.. t11r v:1111e:s 4' giv(*t~ '1':iI)lr 5.1 11:lvr I>(Y>,I (:,I<(,II fro111 1):11,e,r0~ K , l ~ ~ ~ o ~ [S]. l i ~ ~ g for in :t ~ss

.,ho no-slip condition a t the wall gives t h e following bountlary conditions: I

11. Flow taenr n rotntirag disk. A furlhor cx:~tnl)loor : t t ~ cxant solnLiorl of the Navicr-St,okcs cqrt:~t,ionsis fitrnishctl I)y t.llc: flow arortnd a flat clisl; wllich rotatcs a t ~ o ~arl, axis pcrpct~tlicrtlar o it,s plant: wit11 a nnifi,rm : t n g ~ ~ lvclocit.y, cr), in a fluid lt t ar ot.hcrwise at, rest. Tltc: I:~ynr rle:Lr tllc disk is carried by i t througll frict.ion a n d is thrown outwa.rds owing to tllc :xction of ccnt,rif~~gnl forces. This is comprtlsakd by part,iclcs whinh flow in a n axial direction taowarrls t h e disk to Le in turn carried and c:joetrcl ncr~t~rif~tgally. tho cast: is seen t o I)o ono of f111ly three-ciimcnsionsl 'I'tt~ls flow, i. c., t l ~ o r eoxist volocit,y components in tllc racli:ll dircction, r, t h e ciro~rmrrrrtttial clircct,ion, 4, anti the axial direction, z, which we shall denote rcspcctively 1 ) s 7s. 7). and tt,. An axorlornct,ric: rcprcsent.:~t.ion nT this flow field is shown in I'ig. A. 12. At. first. t . 1 calcnl:xt,ion will 1)c perlometi for thc case o f :tn infinite r o t . a t i r ~ ~ a ~ ~ c . ~ pl 11, will t,11e11 easy t o extend t l ~ e ~ r c s ~o linc:lndc :t disk or finit.o cli:trnct.cr I1 -- 2 11, I)o tt t on contlition thatf tfhe ctlge rlTcc:t is ncglcctctl.
\vr

h. Ot,hrr rxnct nc,l~~t,io~ls

103

z=O:
z=w:

u=O ,
11=0,

u=rw,

w=O,

v-0.

1 I

(6.49)

'raking int,o accorlnt rotational symmetry a s wcll : ~ s tiot.at,ion for i.ho prol)lcnl t.t~c car1 write down the Navicr-Stokes cq~lations (3.36) a s :

We shall begin I)y cst.im:~tirtgtho ttlic:knc:ss, A, or (.)lo 1%-ycrof f l l r i t l 'c::l.rrit:tl' l)y 1 . 1 1 ~ disk 1,231. It, is clear t h a t Lhc t1ticknt:ss of the Iaycr of flnitl whicll rot;btras wit,l~th(: tlislc owing to friction tlncrcaqrs with ttltc: viscosilg r~rtdthis view is c:or~firtrtc.tl wl~c:t~ (:om pared with the m s n l b of the prccoding c x a m ~ ~ l cl'ttc ecrl tri fugnl li)rc:c per 11 ",it s. volrtmo which a o b on a fluit1 p:~rticlcin tho rolatirlg Inyor a t a tlisf.anco r l o n ~ (.It(: axis is cq11:~1 p r (3. t,o lrencc for a volt~mc : m a clr . tls arltl I~cight,, t.11~ of (1, rcntrifllgnl forcc I)ocomr,s: p r cuz 6 tlr c1.v. The same olcrnc:t~tof f l ~ t i ( l is act.ctl I I ~ ) O I I I)y :I sl1c:tring stress t, pointing in thc dircction in which the flrtitl is slipping, and forming , a n angle, say 0, with the circumfcrcnt.ial velocity. T h e radial comportent of t,ltc sl~carirtgstress must now be cqual t o thc centrifugal forco, ant1 hrncc
T~

sin 0 d r (1.7 = p r
T,

co2

6 d r (1s

or sin 0

-- e r (oZfi .

On the other hand tho circumfemrttial componcnt of t h e sltcarir~gstress must I)c p r o p ~ r t ~ i o nto thc vclocit,y gradicnt o r tho circrlrnfcrct~tialvc1ocit.y a t tltc wall. This al condition givos T, eos 0 N (14 r co/O . Rlinlinating
twfrom

these two eqnat,ions we obtain

I f i t is assumed t h a t t h c dircction of slip in the flow near tllc wall is indcpenclent of tJtc rndius, tho thickness of tllc layer carried by the disk bccomcs

which is idcnticiil with tho rrsult obt,iinctl in tltc case of tho oscillating wall on 1). 94. l'rtrt,her, we ran write for the s h a r i n g stros.9 a t the wall
t,-eru~~d-erw

fvw.

Fig. 5.12. Flow in I,ho nnigllbolrrh o d of s disk rotating in s fluid s t rest Velocity c o m p o n ~ n k :u-radial, s-rircllrnlereilinl, ro-axial. A lngar nf flllirl in rarricd h y the disk nwing L the ncliun of o viscnlla lorcrs. Tho eenlrilupal lorccs in 111C t h i n layer givs ria. lo ~cconrtnry flow wllicll i s dircelcd rndinlly oalw*rrl

'rho l,orquc, whicll is equal to thc prcnlucl of shearing strcss a t tllc ~1111, arva :LIIO arm 1)ccomcs

R dcnot,ing t h e rnclius of t h e disk.

(5.48) i t is convcnicnt t o introtlrlco I n order to integrate t h e system of eqr~ntions a dimensionlrm distance from t h e wall, 5 z/d, thus putting

b. Othrr rxnct, solutions

I05

I'rrrtl~er, t h e follo\\rilig assun~ptions arc rnntle for t , l ~ r vrloc:ity romporrents nntl prcs-

Tnlilc 5.2. Vnloos of t8hefunctions nerdetl for the drsc*riptionor tllr flow of n clisk rotntirlg in n Il~lictnt rest, cnlc~rlatrrl tlrc wnll ant1 rrt n Inrgc rlistn~~cv Ilrr ~ v n l l ,11s rnlcl~ln(ctl 15. A]. nt. fro111 IIJ' Sl)nrroa nnd .I. I,. Grcgg 1321

Itlscrting tllcse cq~laLior~s eqns. (5.48) we obtnir~n syst,rln of four sinir~ltanrous into ordinary difTerrnttial eq~lat~ions t h e f~lnotionsF, G, 11, ant1 P: for

'I'l~eboundary rontlit.iotis earl be calculat,rtl from cqn. (5.49) ant1 are:

I t is sccti I'rom Fig. 6.13 t , l ~ ntho tli~tntic:~ t>lrn t lioln w:ill ovcr wl1ic.11 . 1 1 ~ t ~)c'ril~l~c.r:rl \,elocit.y is rctlucecl t.o half tJlc rlislr vclocity is do., = d&/(o . I t is t o I)c r~ot-cd I'I.OIII t.l~e solrltion t h a t when h = J v / i j is sm:lll, t-lie velocit,y components 11, ant1 v l ~ n v c ;~.pprecint)lc values only in a t(11inlayer of t , h i ( : k ~ l rl/;/0) . 7'11~ ~ l o c i co~n[)otl(:t~t1 , s~ v t~~ 1~ norlntil t.o t.11~ i s l c is, nl. :illy ral,r, srnnll a1111or the or(1cr 1/1~I ) . 'l'11(: i t ~ ( ! I i r ~ r ~ t . i o ~ ~ tl , of l,l~c rc%lat.ivc st.rc:rmlincs rlc:lr the wnll \rril.llrcspcct tto Ll~c circutnlcrc~~t.i:\l clirc.c:(.iott, if t l ~ c \\,all is imnginctl :it rest. nntl t8hc fluid is Inlten t,o rot,nt.e at, a I : l r ~ c tlist:~t~c,c: frotn t , l ~ s \\,all, berolnes

1Ilr first solution of t,hc systerli of eqns. (5.53) by a n approxi~nnt~c methotl was given I ) J ~ a m c t l ~ o d numerical intcgmtiont. They are plotted in Fig. 5.13. The starting of values of t,he solut,iori indicated in Table 5.2 were given by E. RZ. Sparrow and J. 1, Gregg 1321.
7

Alt.l~o~tpl~ calcnlat~ion is, strictly spcalting, npl)lic.able t.o a n infi nitc disk o r ~ l y , the R is largo cotnl>arccl wil.l~the thiclrness Y of t,hc layer carried wit11 ttlc disk. We sllall now t evnlnnlo t,llc turning momelit of such a disk. The corlt.ribnt.ior1 of a n annular disk c l c n ~ r t ~ t . widt,h d r on mdius r is d M = - 2 n r tlr r t,+,arid llcncc the moment of for a dislr wet,t.ed on one side becon~es
I v r nlay ut.ilize t,l-~c same rcsults fbr a finit.e tlislc, provitled tllat, its ratfirls

Fig. 5.13. VolociLy t l i n l r i l ) ~ ~ l i o n nvar n disk rot.nt,irlgin n fluid at rrsl, l l c r r tr+ / ~ ( a v / a z ) tlcr~otcsthe rircumfercntial comporlrt~t t l ~ n , of shqarir~gstress Iirom rcln ( 5 5 2 ) we obtain

111t,hn cnsc nntlnr discussior~,just ns iti td\c exn.mple involvir~gR stlagtlatrion [)oinl,, t,lte vclocit,y Geld is t,hc first, t,o I)o evnlllatcd frorn tho cqnnt.ioli of corll,inr~it~y ant1 tlhe ccluat,ions of motion parallel t o the wnll. 'J'lfc prcssurc distribution is for~nd s ~ ~ l ) s r r ~ ~ t efromy the equat.ion of motion perpendicular t.o the wall. nt.l
. -

I l ( ~ t ~ n o mornonl. for t,l~c

:\

tlislc wellt.ctl or1 I)oI.ll sitlrs I ) C C ~ I I I ~ S

'1.llis ~oltlt,ion ohlninvd in t,ho form of n power series near 1 = 0 and nn anymplotic uories wns for largo values of C which were then joined toget,her for moderato values of 1.

106
This gives

V. JCxact solutions of Ll~e Navicr-Stokm cq~~ntiona

b. Othrr exact, solr~tiona

107

,I Ihe

q11nnf.ity of flnitl flowing towartls l.hc dislr in the axial dircct,iorl is of cqrlsl

or, tlcfining a Reynolds nllmbcr based or1 thc radius ancl tip vclocity,

R = -R'o nnrl int.ro~lttcingt h c nnmerical vnlllc - 2 zG'(0) = 3.87, wc obtain finally

~napnitutlc. t is, filrther, wortlly or no(,(> J t,ltat t,hc pressure tlini:rrt~ccovcr t,hn 1:~yrr cnrrietl by the (lislr is of the orrior e r1 a), i. c., vcry srnt~11 s ~ u n l l i ~ c o ~ i l ~ i' c sI. c for v ~I prcssnm (Jist,ril)~~t~ion ~ c n t only o n l,ho clist,nrlc:o F r o t ~t,11c1 wnll, i i r ~ r l (.I~(~rt, r ~ o tlc~ ls ~ is rittli:r,l ~~rcssrtrc grntlicwt,.

A generalisctl fnrnl of t l ~ e prccetling prok~lcmhas becn stutlictl 11y M.G , Itogers ancl G . N . Lance [28] who a s s ~ ~ m e d a t the f l ~ ~ moves wit11 an nnnllIar Vl,IO(*i(,V th id

Fig. 6.14 shows n plot of this equat,ion, curve (I), a n d compares i t with mcasuremcnta 1391. For RcYnolcls numbcrs u p t o about R = 3 x LOS there is cxcellcnt agreement hnt,vecn tltoory nnd exporimcnt. A t highor Raynolds numbers the flow bccorncs torbulent, an11 tho respective casc i s considered in Chap. XXI. Curves (2) nncl (1)i n Fig. 6.14 arc ohttainnl from t h c turbulent flow thcory. Olllcr mcasuremcnts, carried o u t hy G. Kernpf [lG] and W. Schmidb [31], show tolerable ugrrwnrt~t rvitll tlirorctirnl resalts. Prior t n Lrsr a o l ~ t ~ i o nI). Riahoachinsky [2Gj. s, 1271 estal~lial~cd cmpiricnl fonnulac for the turnir~gm o ~ t ~ c oft mtnting disks wllich e werc hmcd on vcry carcful mcasurrments. Those formslae showed very good sorrcmcnt with the t h ~ o r c t ~ i c a l equations discovcred suhscqucntly. -0Tl~e quantity of liquid which is p ~ l m p c d ~ t w a r d s a result of t11c centrifuging o N nctdon o n tho one sidc of a disk of rarlins R is

C(m) = s

~ ~ n thc sccontl boilntlnry contlit,ion for tho function G(() mttat, Ito rrplnc-ctl t)y tl . In this conncxion a comparison should hc mndo with the, cast! ofrotnting flow ovrr n fixrd tlislr given in Scc. XTn. Nnmcrical ~ o l r ~ t , i o n s roLntio11 ilk t.11~ for s:nnc srnsc (s > 0) can be found in [20]. Wllcn the rotations arc in oppositc scnsps (s< 0). physically tncnningfi~l solr~tions can bc obtained for s < - 0 2 only iT1tnifc)rrn sr~ctiotl:it right, :LII~ICS to lII1e dislr is n(ltnitLc(1. The prol~lemof a rotnting disk i r ~a ho~lsingis discr~sscdit1 Chap. X X l .

Fig. 5.14. Ttlrning moment on a rohting clink; crlrvc (1) from eqn. (T,.T,f,), h m i m r ; ellrvea (2) and (3) from eqns. (21.30) and (21.33). 1 ~
bulenl

It, is part,ic:~~larly tlotcwor(,hy l3hat,the solutior~for tlrc rotatir~g dislr a s wcll a s 1.llc solutions obtainctl for the flow with stngnntion are, in the first plnco, exact solr~l~ior~s the Navicr-Stolces cquations a~rtl,in t h e sccontl, t h a t t,llcy are of n of houi~drcry-la?/rr L?yps, in f.hc scnsc discrlssrd in t11c prccctlirlg chapter. 111 t,l~c i ~ r ~ i t i r ~ g l c.:l.se of vcry small viscosity t,hese solnt.ions show t h a t tho irrflnencc of viscosit.y rxl.rt~tls over n vcry small lnycr in tile ~ ~ c i g h l ) o t ~ r l ~ o oLhc solitl wnll, 1r.11c.t.c::~~ of. t l i l l 1,llc wl~olcof 1.l1c rcmnilling region t.hc flow is, j)rnct,ic;llly spcnlting, i(lrt~t.ic~:ll t v i t , l ~ (.he corrcspontling itlcnl (pot,crlti:~I)casc. ' ~ h c s ccxarr~plcsshow I11.Lhor l . l ~ ; ~ t the b~~nnilnry In.yer has a thickness of the ortler . Tl~c one-dirncnsiot~al examplcs of flow discussed previonsly display tho samc l~onntlnry-layercharact,cr. In this conr~cx-ior~ rcatlcr mny wish to c o n a ~ ~a t pnpcr by G . I<. 13ntcltclor 121 whii:l~ the l tliscnssrs the solution of t.11~ Navier-St,olrcs cqltations for t,lrc cast of two ro-axial, rol,nt.irrg tlislrs placrtl at, n certain clistancc apart, ns well a s n paper by I<. Sl.cwnrt,sor~ 1.741. A n cxt8ension oS the preceding solutsion to tllc cnsc ol' urtiforn~s r ~ c t , i o ~ tlnc is ~ t,o J. T. Stttart. ([02] in Clln.11.X I V ) ant1 to 1; M . S11nrr.o~ .J. I,. (:t.cbgI: st^^^ 1). 3 4 . nr~tl in p 2 ] ) . 'rhe lallt8ercont.ains also an ani~lysis t,llo c:tlsc \rii,l~ of Ilon~ogcr,c:o~~s I)lowil~g. ,I hi: litnit,i~~g of vrry vigorons I~lowingIVILS ( ~ ~ S C I I S S C ~ I 11. I(. I < I I ~ ~ < CIlHj. cnsc 1)y II

iv

12. Flow in colivcrgcllt nrld divergent cl~nn~lrls. f~rrlhrr A class of rxrrct solut.iot~s l . 1 1 ~ of Nnvicr-Stolrca eqrla1ion.s ran be ol~tni~leell the ie>Ilo\\.il~g ~ J ~ :LC(.it IPC R S R I I I I I C : ~ ~, I ~ i ~ t tilie il \ V t , fitltlily of stri~ipl~t. pnasil~g lilies tllroclgl~n point, i n n l)l:i~)c connt,it.~ltt.l ~ st.rt:n~~~li~~rs I r o f : Ilo~r.. L Let, the vc1orit.y tlifrcr rro111lir~e line, wl~icl~ tn tnrntls l.llnt it, is nsstll~~c~(lI)c ;I ft111(.t.i011 ,)f t,lle to polar anglee. Tl~e rngs along wllic-11 Lllo vc1ncil.y vvaislica call t,l~rr~c * rcg;irtlctl ns tilt: soli(l l~ walls of n cor~vcrgerlt a. tlivcrgrnt rlinnt~rl. cot~tir~rtity l ~ l n t i o l~.:III I)c~:~l,i~fiecl I S S I I I I I ~ ~ ~ or 'I'hc ~t rs k)y : t.l~:rt v c l ~ r i along rvrr.~ is inversely ])ropnrl.ion:~l 1 . 1 1 ~ l i a l : ~ l ~ ~ . o t,l~r 1.llr t~~ rLy t,o c fro111 origin. Ilc.tlrt. 1.11~ rnt1i:rl vrlority 11, 1111s for111u tlm F'(g)/r,or, i f I: i 1.0 I)(* ~lii~rc~~~siot~lrnn, . q

b. Other exact s o l ~ ~ t i o n s

I on

The periphcrnl vclocit,y vanishes everywhcrc. Int,rodr~ring(his forn~ into the Navier-St,oltes cqllntiolls ~vrit.lnl~ I~oln,r ill rc~ortlinnlcs,cqn. (:!.:Mi), nntl r l i n ~ i n ; ~ l . prrnsllrc from 1 . 1 1 ~ i~~g cql~nt,iollu ill t,llo r nlltl $ clirrrtions, we obtain t.hc following ortlinnry tlilhrrnl.i:ll cq11a1.io11 I('(4): for In1rgrnt.it~g onrc, \re are Ictl to 1 . h rtlr~nt,ioll ~

F2 .t 4 F I F" -1. ( /

0.

'I'lle co~~st,:rnt, clrnotrs the rnclinl prrsstlrc gr:~.clic.nt,;tl, I.he \\,ails, Ii =- --(I/@)(i)l~/ar) I( (r"v2), where \ve llave 17 0 n nrltl+ - a . ns wc:ll ns E" 0 ford) 0. Tile so111lio11 ofrq11. (5.58) ,,.as givrn by (. lInlncl [ll],'l'lle f111lrtio11 ran I)c cxprrssrtl cxplicit.ly ns an ellil)l.ic fnnct,ion of$. ; 1.'
-7

fore-

In the paper referred to above, (:. Nanlel has set hin~selfthe problcrn of cnlcnlatir~gall three-dimensionnl flows whose strean~lincsare identical with those of a potcntinl flow. The solution consisted of ~treamlinesin the shnpe of logarithmic spirnln. Tho case of mciinl flow ronsitlercd I~err, nnd the cnae of pol.cnIinl vorlnx-flow, tlisoussc~rli l l Srr. V 3, c.onsl.it.nlr ~ n r l i . rnlrrr cxa~nplos t . l ~ gcrlcrnl sol~~tion. of i~ ,, prcccding oxnrr~plo nn oxnrl, solnlion oxl~il)il.n I he of onre n~orr? I,~~~rrrrlrrr!,-br!~rr 1.l1o cl,n,rrr/rr of 1,110 llo\v. 111 l)r~rl,i(!nl~~r, erin(! vf 11 c~onver~(:111, in t11c (:I~nnnt!l,1,110 I ~ x ~ ~ of 11 l11i11 IInyvr I~I V : L ~ L ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ 1.Iln wnll is conlir~nctl kogcthrr wit.11 the fact thnt t,hc inllncnrc of viscosity is conccnlr:ltr(l in it. Further, the calculation confirn~sthat the boundary-layer t,hickness incrcasrs as 11r.re too. Tho divergent case exhibik an additionnl pl~enomcnor~, that of bnck-flow, and, r r s l ~ l t , i ~ ~ g frorn it, sc[~nrntiol~. in nn cn*cnt,inlpropcrty of all boundnry-layer flowu and we shall tlisr~~ss' This it Intar in grcnler tlctnil on the hasis of t.11~ cqn:~l.ionnof houndnry-layer flo\v. I t s cxistrncr in fnlly confir~ned expcri~ncnt. by

4;

\Vc sllnll now briefly sltrt,ch 1.I1crh:~rnrt.cr, the soll~tionrefrailling from cliscussi11g tllc of (let,nils of t.lre derivation. The grn.ph in Fig. 5.15 shows n fntnily of vclocit,y profiles for a collvcrgc111, ancl a clivrrgcnt chnnnrl for dilTerer~t.IZ.cynoltls nnn~bersl)lot,tcd on the Imsis of the Il~~r~lerinaI raIor~l:itions pcrrorrncd by I<. Millsaps anti I<. I'oI~lI~nl~scn 'l'hc velocity tIistrit)rttion [ 191. for t.llc convcrgcnl, ancl for the clivcrgcnt chnnnel tliKcr ~ ~ ~ : ~ r l t e r l ln ~ f t o y cacl~ ot,her. I n the latt,er rnac, t l ~ e y also c1ifli.r n ~ n r l r c d for different lteynolds nn~rlbrrs. a cont~crgentchannel tho velocity l~ 111 tlist.ril)llt:ion for the I~ighrstllrynoltls 11111nher( R = 5000) r e n i a i ~ ~ s 11car1y const,ant over a large c e n t . r c - ~ ~ o r tand ~ i o ~ dccrenscs steeply L zrro near the walls; thus it exhibib in this case a clear o
"

The cases of two-di~nensionnl and axi-syn~mct.rical flow t,l~rorlgh channels wit.11 un~i~ll ~ g l r s n~ of tlivergcnce have been investigated earlier by H. Blasius [T,] frorn first princil)les, i. c., wit,h the aid of the Navier-Stokes equations. In this connexion i t was shown that laminar flow cnn snpport only a very ~ ~ r l nprOR.SIIT0 increase wit.hoot tho inridcncc of scpnrntion. The condition ll tc) for the avo~dnnccof back-flow a t the wall in a divergent tnbe of r a d i u ~R ( z ) was fo1111t1 be dR/dx < 12/R. (condition for sepnration), where R 4 d/r tlcnotes the Itcynolds nr~~nl>(:r referred 1.0 the nlcan velocity of flow through the chnrlncl antl to its dinrnctcr. In more n~odrrn t.in~csM. Abmmowitz [ l ] cxtended these cnlcnlations for divcrgcnt clmnncls, nnd (lisrovrrr(1 that the point of sepnration rnoves downst,renn) from tho char~nclentprnnco as t,hc Itcynoltls numlter is increased ant1 as the angle of divergence is dccremed.

Ill a di71CrgP711 a ~ ~t~ ~ shape of t.11~~ r l o ( . i l . ~ rll l c l c \ profilm is tn:~rkrtll~ nffrct.c~(l I lie l<r5.~1o1t1s I>y rn~mber.F:nclr of t,l~esc velocity dist.rih~~tions Inore or~rvccl:tt t.11~ is cenlcrline t.l~nn 1,llr pnrnl~oln t,llnt, rllnract~crizm flow through a channel wit11 parallel walls. The velocity rlist.~ibrttion the for lnrgrst Iteynolds nr~mbcr, curve 7, is disting~tisl~rd t,lle fact that it shows two rrgiolls of bnckby flow. '~lllls, tllc velocity vanishes n t fotrr points. Sinro t.llc wnll could plr~rcitsell nt any one of tllese poinb, it, is to envisnge 1,his vclori1.y distrib~~tion nrl inrlnded angle of 10 wit)) at, two syrnmntric regions of bnck-flow or a t nn inclndetl nngle of 6.9" but, u.it,h a single, nsymnletric rcvion of I~ark-flow. Snch anyrnn~et~ric ve1oc:it.y tlint.rit~r~t~ionn act.~~nlly nre observed, nnd the bnrk-

13. Concluding remark. T h i s e x a m p l e r o n c l ~ ~ d t,he tlisc~lssiono f c x a c t s o l u t , i o ~oi f cs 1.Ile Navier-St,okes e q n a t i o n s ant1 t h e n c x t t o p i c will d e a l wif,lt approximate s o l n t i o ~ r s . 111 t h e previous tlescript,ion a n e x a c t solution m e a n t a solution of t h e Nnvicr-Stokes e q u a t i o n s i n w h i c h a l l its t e r m s were tn.ken i r ~ t oa c c o u n t , providetl t.11at t h e y tlitl n o t vanis11 identically f o r t h c problem. I n t h e following c h a p t e r w e s l ~ a lconccrn l o ~ l r s e l v e s i t h a p p r o x i m a t e solutions of t h e N a v i e r - S t o k r s e q u a t i o n s , t,hat, is, wit11 w solut.ions which a r c obtainetl w h e n s m a l l terrns a r e r ~ e g l c c l c d n t h e differerlti:~.letlrl:~,i t,ions ttre~nselves. A s a l r e a d y mentionccl i n Chap. I V , t h e t w o limit.itrg cases of v c r y large a n d v e r y s m a l l viscosit,y a r c o r p a r t i c u l a r ixnportance. I n v c r y slow, o r socalled creeping m o t i o n , viscous forces a r e v e r y large cotnparctl w i t h inrrt.ia force-s, ant1 i l l I ) o ~ ~ n t l a r y - l n y c r rnot,ion t.hcy a r e v c r y small. Wllcrcas ill t,llc lirsl, c:~sc: i t is pc*rmissil)lc t o onlit tl~c: i r ~ e r l i at c r m s cornplcl,cly, n o s u c h siniplifia:~t.io~l 11ossiblo is i t 1 b o r ~ n t l n r y - l a y e rt h e o r y , b e c a t ~ s rif t,hc viscous t e r m s arc: s i m p l y tlisrrg:lrtltxl 1 . 1 1 ~ ~)l~ysic*nll,y rssen1,in.l rontliI.ion of' n o slip ILI.~.II(: ~ o l i t l1)ollncl:lr~yr n . ~ ~ r ~ o l , r ~ t * I . . I)(- r
I<. W. Mnnglor[OJ davelopoda genernl theory for t,hesolution of the Navier-Stokes equations laminar flow a t very high Reynolds numbers, t h a t is for flows in for the case of two-d~mensionnl which t,heeffcct of visc:osity iu included, and whir11 pousess bonndnry-lnyrr chornrtrr. In I'rnntltl's 1)onndnry-layer theory (ace a l ~ o Chnp. V11 for tlcl,nila) the contor~r (.he adid body in the U I I ~ I I I I I of is pre~cribodn ~ thedelrect. of v i ~ r o ~ i isynccon~~t,ed only in the thin lnyer ntljoining 1.11~ ~ t for wnll. I5y cont,raat, t,he new procednre is a n indirect one. Instend of the cor11,ortrof t.lle rcnl hody, lhc theory prescribes an appropriate form for tho so-called displncrmrnt, contor~rwhich s~~rronncls the body. The displncement contonr makes nn allownnre for the tlisplacemcnt rKec1, cxrrtrd on the cxLernal flow nnd on the wake. This pern~ita to detfirmine the ext,ernal, frictionlrss flow us 8b011t the displnce~nent contour; the next s t ~ consists in the c o m p ~ ~ t a t i ofr t.he flow ficltl in t,he p o ~ frictional lnyer with the aid of an asymptotic trent>mentof t,hc Navier-Stakes eqr~ntionsfor vcry large Iteynolds number8 which yields, finnlly, the real uhn.pe of the l)ocly. T l ~ r~tnnrltnble e frnt,nrc of thiu new procedure consists in the fact thnt t.hc hon~ltlnry-lnycr mlrnlntion rnll hc rnrric>tl I)eyo~~tl point. of scpnration. Thiu is in r o n t , r a ~with I'rantlt,lS~ t.11~ t ho~~ntlnry-lnyrr t.l~rvry \vl~ivl~

in : r i g . 5.15. \:rlocily cIist,ril1111io11 L convergonl antl a clivrrgr~~t rhnnnrl aft,rr (. Il:~nlrl [ l l ] nntl I<. Millsnps : nntl I<. I ' o l ~ l l ~ n n s e ~ ~ [19] Iscl,~,ir~i C I C 2 a 1 8 R~ 11~).nold~ nurnbrr R 71. r i l , Convrrprnt cl,:~~lncl I l i v e r ~ e n t cllxnnrl , (:IITVP A = 5000 1: C I I T V:~ = 684 5 R (:,,TvP: R = 1342 2 C ~ l r v e R = 1312 6:

--

c~~~~~R 3.
(:11rvr4

~ 8 1

C N I ~7: R = 5000 YC

rrrrrs In R c l a ~ n n witln p ~ r ~ l l~ v a l l s ~l rl ( P , > i s ~ ~ ~ i l l p a%o I ) o l i ~ % ~ r l n r i l v l i ~ l r i l ~ ~ ~ l i n ~ l , c' r c ? I . Fig. 5.I )

cnll bo npplirtl nt mont, nn fnr RS 1.l1rpoint, of nrpnrnt.ion otrly. F~~rt.hormore, now t.hcory Rilet.hc ccodn in nome canen evrn \vil,Ir tihe cvnI~~nt.itur t,ho cotnplox flow pntterns wlric11 exist. in t h e of rngior~of hnck-flow behintl t.l~r point, of srlmrntiotr ng woll RR t,l~nt the r r g i o ~ ~ re-ntl.arl~~netlt. in of

111 Al,rnn~owitz,M.: 0 1 1 Iirirliflo\v of :I, v i s r n ~ ~ n~ ~ iinl n tlivrrgi~~g l ~ n ~ ~ n r lM;IIII. I'iiyn. 28, ll t c, .J. . I--21 (l!l4!)). 121 I3ntolrclor, (:.I<.: Note on n clnrts or aolnt,iona of thr Nnvirr-Stokrs rqllnl.ionn rr])rmci~t,ing atandy ~~on.rotat,ionr~lly sy nllnet,rir: Ilo\v. (aut~rt,. . k11:r:h. Appl. h11blir. 4, 2!) -- 41 (1!)51 ). J I31 l3t:rkor. 15.: Eine einf~icllcVrmllgenlritiorut~gder Hnylriglr.(:rc~rzscI~i~!l~t. ZAMP 11. 148 -152 ( ~ ! i ~ o ) . 141 I!orker, It.: IntCgrntion tlcs i.qnntionn r111 ~nouvcrnent(1'1111 f l ~ ~ i d e S ~ I I I C I IiX~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ p r r s s i h l ~ . V~ (,ontribution to: Hnndbuclr dcr Plrysilc (8.I'liigge, ed.) 1'11//2, 1-384, Rcrlin, 1!)C,:). [51 Rlani~iu,11. : I,nrni~rnro St.riimr~nji K~l.nA\en in wecl~nelnr\erI5reile. Z. Mnth. 11. I'l~ysili 6 8 , . . 226 (1!)10). (61 (:nt,lrernII, I)., nntl hltinglrr, l<. W.: The intrgration oft.lio two-di~ne~r~iocrd n i ~hor~ntlnryIn~ ~nr layer oqnntionn pas( f.l~e point. of vnninlri~~g skin friction. .JFhl 26, 10:1-182 (I!)IiO). 171 ~ c l r m nW . ( : 'l'lrc flow due to a rotnI.ing rlisk. I'roc. (:n~rrl)r.l'hil. Sor. .YO.306- 375 (1934). , : . 1701 1llorc11t,,1'. n ~ r dl'r111)r. .I. I,.: l ? r ~ o ~ ~ l c nIn.n~innirctl'rr~~ ln~~t fl~iitlovinq~lrnxit~ro~nprcnsihle r ~ ~ t , rtlrr~xrlincl~~rn c, I)orrrtx ,I. Rli.t,n~iicl~~r 433fi 459 (1!)75). 14. [HI Yriianling, N.: Verrlrtn~t,ung, \Yiir~iiaiibert~rngu~~g (;earlrwit~digkeit,svort~ilung zweinnd hni r....t. ~ n n n i o ~ ~ t ~ l c r l i .~ . ~. uncl rot,nt~ioussvn~~r~c~~~isr~l~er C(Irc~~zscl~irllt.st~riin~~~~~g. I:i~ninnrer Lunds. Utiiv. Araskr. N. I'. Afrl. 2, 6 5 , N: 4 (1940). ; [9l Gerbcm, W.: Znr ir~nLnLioriiiren, Inminnrrn Strom~ing cinor inlcon~prmsiblrnziilirn Fliissigkeit in krci~zylindrircho~r ltoliron. Z. strye\v. I'hysik 3, 267 -27 1 (1951). 1101 Hnpen, G . : Uber dio I3cncgr1np rlrs \\'nsncrn in erlgcli zylindrischeti Rohron. Pngy. Ann. 46,
9

~orcinigllng 25, 34- (i0 (1916). [12] Elienletlz. I(.: [lie (:rcnznr.hicht, nn oinern in dcirr glnicl~fiirlnigen I~liinsipkritnst.ro~n rillgot n ~ ~ r l ~ gcrndc~i tcrl TCroi~zylindcr.'I'lrccria ( i i i t t i n g e ~I~t I I . I)ingI. J'olyt.rr11. J.,726,:l2l (1111 1 ) . I 1131 l l n ~ ~ ~ n t l n ,Her JCiatlnns grower Ziilligkoit Imi [lor Slrvnrnng urn (1c11Zyli~rrlrruntl IIIII (lie F.: K ~ ~ g eXAMhl 16, 153- l(i4 (1S:Jf); I'orsclig. T1rg.-Wes. 7 , 1 -- 10 (19:50). l. r141 I[ownrth. I,.: On tlro calcitltltio~~ the stailtlp flow in the houndnry lnyer near tho surfnce of of n cylinrlor in n a t r r a n ~ .AltC lthl 1032 (1!)35). i151 von I<brmfirr. 'rh.: 0l)cr Inniinnrc ur~rlL ~ ~ r l ~ r ~ l o n t o Rrihi~ng.ZAMM I. 238-252 (1921); , NACA 'I'M l0!)2 (1940); nee also: (h11. \Yorks 11, 70 -97. (101 I<on~pf, G.: Ubor Itcil~~~ngswitlcrst~~i~~ltl roI.irrc~i(ler Scht:il)c~~. Vort,riigr I L I I dr111 (:r:I)iot. d r r ~ Hvclro- 11r1r1Aerodvr~n~nik, Innsl)rrlr:k (.!ot~gr. 1!)22; IJerlin. 1!)24, I(;!!. 1171 ~ i r d o ,I<.: ~ntern;1clrr1n~o11 dio znil.lirhe M'c:itcrent~n~irklr~ngi ~ ~ e a i r b c l ~init voriibor e W gcgobrr~erAnfn~lgnverlailung.Ing.-Art:\\. .?1,:185 - 404 (\!)W). [l8n] hfkllor, C. L.. Clinpl)le, P. J . nnd Stokcn, V. K.: On Lllo flow botwecn n r o t , n t i ~ ~ g d a an stntionnry dicrk. JI'M 31, 95-112 (1968). I181 Kuikon. H. I<.: I ' l ~ eo f i c t of nornrnl h l o n . i ~ ~ g t,ho Row rlcnr n rotnt.ing dink of illfinite on extrnt,. Jl'hl 47, 789--798 (1971). hlillnnpn, I<., nnrl I'ol~ll~nnaen. I<.: Thrrri~nldislril~~ttiorr .Teffrey-llnn~clflows I)ntn.eol~ in nonl~~rnllel plano wnIIn. ,lAS 20, 187- I!lli (195.7). hliiller, \Y.: Zunr I'rol,lo~n d r r A r r l a u f s l r i i r ~ ~ u ~ ~ I'liisuigkr-it im gerntle~i cir~or~ R,ohr rnit. ICrcinring- untl I<roinqr~rrnel~~~it,t~. 16, 227-238 (1!)3(i). ZAhlhl Oncr,~), (:.\V.: /Irk. f. Mnt,l~. ~at,roll. c l ~ Vys. 7 (l!)ll); l l y r l r o ~ i ~ r c ~ Jjripzig. l!l27. p. 82. o . ~n~~il~, l1t>i3t*~~iIlt-. l<~rt!l~rvcl~rn~ ~ f i r i ~ ~ ~sixr ~ t IcI ~~iI iI ~ ~ I s I C(Jt:u ~ Iiqnirlon tl~innIra 111I)enrlr ,I.: cx r ~ lc I V ~ I II 11.i.n ~wt,i!.q l i a ~ ~ ~ i . t(,'t)~ril)lsx ~ .rrs. Hcntl~t!,I I , !)ti1 --OC,7 nntl 1U4i - 104%(IX40); 12, 112 (1841 ); i l l 111orrdrlr~il: Mr~noircs tlcs Snvnnls IClrnngorn B (1840).
L ,

. .

[23] Prn~rdt~l, : Fiil~rer I,. tl~~rclr Striin~i~t~p;nlcl~rr. (lie 6 t,ll ed.. ROO, 1966; ICngl. trnt~nl.Illnrkir nntl Son, I,ondon, 1!)52. [241 I'i~nnin,13.: Zur l l r r e c l ~ t r l ~ ~ ~ Innritrnrrn Ei~~ln.ufst,riirnt~t~g tler j i iln Kolrr. 1)iss. (:ijt.t.i~rgr~~ 1!l47. 12.51 Itnylciglr, Lord: OII t.lir ~notiotl eolitl horlira t,Irror~gli of viscor~nliqitid. I'hil. Rlng. 21, li!)7-7 I I (I!){ I ) ; also Sci, 1'11pern L71, 2!t. 1261 Rial~orrclri~rsl~y. 15ull. d r I'lr~nt.itutArrodyn. rlc l ~ o r ~ t n h i n5,~6 -34 M o n r ~ o ~ I).: r . (1!)14); sro nlno .I. Iloy. Acro. Sor:. .79, :l40- :!I8 nl~tl377- :17!) (I!):l6). 1.271 Il~inl)oirrl~i~lflIzy, Sur In r6sistanre tlo froLt.olno~~t. ~ l i s q ~ t~ o ~ ~ r n n ~:I.IIR 1111 Ill~idcCL 11.: rlrs ,rs nt Icn 6qnnl.iona iril~cgrnlcen]q)liqn6es b co prohli.tne. (?o~r~l~t,rn , ~ ~ t2.75. s!!!I!) - !)OI (I!)6I). Il.c l~~ r27nl Itol)crta, S. M. ant1 Shipmnn, J. 8.: Computing of tho flow boLwcc~r a rot.ntiirji nud n sl~nl,io~~nr:y .ll'M 73, 53 -63 1!)70). tlink. ,281 I t ~ g t : ~ . M.(:.. nnil Innn.. (:.N.: rulrtl~iuni~lly ny~n~nnlrir: nf n r i r r , o ~ lli~irlin (I\: IIotv ~r prcnrnra r)f rill illfinite rot,nting disk. .JFM 7 , 017--fi3I (1960). [ZHx] ILot.t, N.: Unnt.mtly V ~ R C O I I Rflow in t.11~vii'init,y of n s~,ngn~it.iot~ poil~t.qtlnrt.. A p ~ h l i ~ t l ~ . l 13, 444--461 (I!lB6/6C,). I291 Sclliller, I,.: Unterniich~ingcniiher Inn~innre11nd t~lrbuleriteSt,riirn~~ng. VI>I-l'ornrlu~~~gs[left 248 (1922). [2!):r] Srl~obriri, M.T.: N i i l ~ r r n t ~ g ~ l i i e n n g c ~ ~ ~ l r Nnvicr-Stoltr~'acl~o~~ r 1)ifl'crc11l.ir1.lgIt:ir~l11111g I'iir cbi~~o zaeitlirnensionnlc st,ntionii.re IJa~riinarstrii~nur,go n u t n ~ ~ t eViakoniLiit in konvaxcn 111111 k r koriknvrn J)iff~~noren 11nd 1)iisen. ZAMP 27, 9-21 (1976). [30] Scl~lichtitlg,11.: 1,nmirrnre lCnnalci1rlni1~qt~r61nung. ZAMM 14. 368-373 (1934). [31] Srlimirlt. W.: Ein cir~fnrl~cs Mcenvnrf~~liro~r I ) r o l r ~ n o ~ n o ~X. t n . G5, 441 ---444 (1!)21). fiir ~ VJII [32] Sparrow. E.M., nnd Crcgg, .J.L.: Mms transfer, flow and heat transfer nhoiit, a rotat.irrg d i ~ k Tra~rnact~io~rn E, J. Hent 'rmrrsfrr 82, 294-302 (I!)(;O). . ASM [33] S b i n h e ~ t e r .,I . : Kine cxnkte J,iisnng tlrr instat,ion:iron Co~~ot,t,e-St,riinr~~~~g. Proo. Srirnt.ilio h e . of Ilrn~~nnrl~rvcig'l lh4-164 (l!l(ih). X Il, [34] Stewnrtaon, K.: 011 the flow bet,rveen taro rotating conxinl diskn. Proc. CnInbr. Plril. Sot. 49, 333-341 (1!)53). ~, 1351 Stokes, G. G . : On the e h r t of the interrial friction of fluids on t,he r~lotionof j)endr~lurn~. Cambr. Phil. Trene. I X , 8 (1861); Mntll. and Pliye. Papers, Cambridge, 111. 1-141 (1901). [38] St,rlart, J.T.: A uolut,ion of the Navier-St,okes nnd energy oqr~ntions illustrnting t l ~ e respotlso of akin fricbion nnd temperature of a n infinite plnte thortnon~cter t o f l ~ ~ c t r ~ a t i o ln st l ~ e i l stream velocity. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 231. 116-1x1 lIQ55I . -,-.'.'- . [37] Szytnnnski, F.: ~ u e l ~ u e ~ o l u t i o n a cxnctes den Qqrrations do l'h;drodynntniquc de f l ~ ~ i t l e visqi~euxdnns le ens d'un tube cylindriq~ie.J. d e ~ n o t h .puree ot appliqu0e8, Serirn 9, 11, 67 (11132); nee nlso Proc. Intern. Congr. Ap )I Mecli. Rtockholm 1, 240 (1930). 1381 Tao, L.N., end Donovati, W.P.: T11rougl1-lloiv in concet~tricand excent,ric anrrr~liof fill0 clenrnnre wit11 arid withont relat,ive motion of t l ~ o boundaries. 'I'rnns. AShfR 77, 12!)1-- 1301 iIOFiK\. - - ,[39] Theodorsen, TI)., ant1 Regier, A.: Experiment8 on drag of revolving diacs, cylinders, nnd streamline rods nt high speeds. NACA Rep. 793 (1044). (401 Timine, A.: Uber die Ue~cl~windigkeitRvcrteili~n~: in Wirholn. Trig.-Arcli. 2.5, 208-226(1%7). [41] W I ~ ~ R O I I ,A solution of t l l ~ J.: Navier-Stokes equntior~e illtintrntinp the roaponao of n Inlninttr bonnrinry layer to n given cl~ango tlio extcr~rnlalrcanr velocit.y. Ounrt. J . Mool~.Ap11l. in Mat,l~. 3302-325 (1958). If, ~, [42] Wnteon, J.: Tho two-dimc~isionnl larni~rnr flow rlenr tlie utngnntio~~ oint of n r y l i ~ ~ t l\rhicll rr I r u nn nrbitrnry trnnaverno n ~ o l i o s .~ I I I L ~. . .MooL. App1. ~ f 1 1 1 ~ 1 . 11, 176.- llHl ( IIfiII). I ~
\

b. I'arallcl flow I),w(,a slll~ere

I 13

This systern of eqrlatiotis must be supplemcntcd with the same bo~rrltlary cotltlit,io,ls :IS the fill1 Navier-Strokes equations, namely those exprcssirlg the abscr~cc of slip i r ~ the fluit1 a t the walls, i. e. the vanishing of t l ~ e normal ant1 t a n g ~ n t ~ i a l n ~ p o n c n t , ~ co of velocity : ll,, = 0 , ,? ! = -- 0 :I t< \v:1 I I . s (6.5) Art irnportnrlt c:l~n.ractcrist,ic crccpitlg motion can bc ol~tairtctla t once f'ro~~t( I I I . of ~: (6.1), when the divergence of both sidcs is formet1 and when i t is ~ ~ o t ~ i ct,lrat t,lle ctl oper:tt8ions tliv and V 2 011 t,110 right-l~n.r~(l may 1jc pc:rforr~irtlin t,hc rcvt5rso ortl(%t;. side ,.l~tts,wit,Ir cqn. (0.2) we have I

Very slow motion

a . The clifirential equntiono for the case of very elow motion

l I l {,lliq 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ 1 1 jvl. , l, l~r~, l ~ l l ~ ~ 1list*11ss 1 ~ 10 p SOIII(- :1~1~~roxit11:11.(? so111I.ions f t , l ~ ( , o xavierr i l ~ , l t a O I ~ I I I L I , I O I I H \ v I I I ~ I I I t~rtj\ * t t I i t i 111 1,111, ~~ li111lt.111g I S O \ ~ I I C I I 1.111, \,~S~:OIIS ~:I furccs re

consiclerably grcatcr tl~n,n incrtia forrps. Since tltr incrt,ia forces arc proportional the t o tho square of the velocity whercas thc viscot~s forces are only proportio~ialto its first power, i t is easy t o appreciat,e t h a t a flow for which viscorts forcrs arc dominant. tttorr g c ~ l c n ~ l\VIIPII , trhtr l~~ is obtained when t,ltc vclocit.y is very stnnll, or, sl~rnlring Reyrtolds number is very small. Wllcn t,hc inertia terms are simply omitted from the equations of motion the resulting solut,ions are valid approximately for R 6 1. This fact can also be deduced from the dimensionless form of t.11~ Navier-Stoltes equations, eqns. (4.2). whcrc the inertia terms arc secn t o be mtrlt,iplied by a factor R = e V 1/p compared with the viscous terms. I n t,liis connexion we may rcmarlr t h a t in each pnrtictilar case i t is necessary t o examine in detail the quantities with wt~ichthis Reynolds number is t o be formed. However, apart from some special cases, motions a t very low Reynolds nllmbers, sometrimes also called oeepittg motiotl,.~,(lo not occur too often in practical applicationsi I t is seen from eqns. (3 34) t h a t when the inert,ia terms are ncglrrtctl tile incompressible Navirr-St,oltrs equations assume the form

.,lle strratn f~lnct,iot~ plar~ccreeping rnot.ion is t,hus a bipot,rnt.inl (Ijil~nrlllollic,) I of

fttnction. In t,lic remaining scct,ions of this eltapt,er we propose t,o discuss tllrcc ex:~tn~)lcs of creeping motion: 1 . Parallel flow past a sphere; 2. 'I'l~e l~ydrotlynnmict,lleory of I~tt~rirnt,ion; Thc Iiele-Shaw flow. 3.

'I'llc pressure fioltl in crccping motion s:~tisfics pot,o~t,ial the cqrlatior~: t r l t l the 1)rcssurc p(x,?/,z) is a poLent.ia1 function. 'rhc equations for two-dimensionc~l crceping motion become parl,ic~tIn.rly sirn~jlc in form urit,ll the introtlnction of t h e stream f~tnction 71) tlnfirictl Ity ?L = ar/~/if!/ at111 ?I = - ay~/r3x. As cxplair~ctlin Cl1n.p. I V, :trttl as sccrl from cqns. ((i.:%), wllcr~Ijrt,sstlt.c: is t:Ii~ninl~I~t!~I ~ tl~l ~ t ?lil.sl, I,\vo o t l t ~ t ~ t ~ i o t l ~ ,stret~111' I I I I c I . ~III,IS(, s:~l.isl:~ l'ro , 1,111? J ~~~ (.It(! rcluation V",l = 0 . 1

b. I'arnllel flow past a spl~ere --- - . -.

-

div or, in cxtnrttlrd fortn

111

=0

(6.2)

az

'I'hc oltlcst known solrlLion for a creeping nrot.io11 was given by (:. (. St.olrcs : who in~csl~igatctl case of pamllol flow past, a splrcre [17]. Wc shall tlo\v tl(~sc-ril)t~ l,hc? t,hc rcsnlt of his calrltlations witl~otltgoing into t<lre~n:~l,llcrnat~icnI tlct,:~.ils01' t.lto tl1cor.y. Wc shall I)nsc our tlcscription nn l.hnt given Ijy 1,. 1'rrtntlt.l (121. '1'11t. sol~~t.ion of ( ~ [ I I H . (6.3) ~ , I I ( I(0.4) f111, 1.110 (.II.XI> 01' $1, sl)ltvr~! rtl,(Iit~s( , t , l ~ ( : ( , I % I I ~ , ~ 01' i v I ~ i t , l lt . 0 . 01' I (* inc:itlcs wit11 tltc origin, ant1 w11icl1is 11l:~cctll l a pamllcl st.ro;r~n ~tnili)t.rt~ I O C ~ L ~ i of VC I/,, Fig. 6.1, alortg the 3:-axis can t)c rcprcsrntctl by t,ltc following rqrlat ions for t,llc. pressttre arlcl vcloc:it,y cornl)orrcnl,s:

In t.110 cnnc o R ~pltcrefalling in air ( v C 160 x 10 ft2/soc)wc obtaitl C. g. R = l i d / v -- 1, when t.11~ dinlnetet d 0.04 in :( 0.00333 ft.) and t8hevelocity V = 0.048 ft/sec.
1-

114

VI. Vcry slow motion

b. Parallel flow pnst

spl~rrc

116

where r2 = z2 y2 4- z2 has been introdr~ccrlfor the sake of brcvit,y. Tt, is easy t o verify t,hnt these expressions satisfy eqns. (6.3) and (6.4) and t h a t t.ho velocity vanin11esa t all pointa on the surfnco of t,ho sphere. The pressure on t,he s11rfnc.ebecomes

'rho mnximrl~nant1 n ~ i n i m r ~ r n prrssrlrc occurs nt points P, nntl I'2, respectively, of thrir valnrs bring 3 11 uw (G 7 1)) 1)1.2- pcn - -1--ji
-

A coniparisot~ het~ween Stolzcs's erjl~ation nntl rxpcritncnt was givan in Vig. 1.6 from which it is seen t h a t is applics only t o rases w l ~ c rR < 1 . The pnt,tern of ~ strcamlinos in front of anti behind the sphere must be the snrnc, as by rcvc,rsing t,he tlirectiou of frce flow, i. e., by changing the sign of vclocity c o n ~ p o r ~ e rint cqns. ~ s (6.3) and (6.4) t.11~ y s t o n ~is transformet1 into it,self. The st,reamlincs in viscons s flow past. a sphcro are s l ~ o w nin Fig. 0.2. Tltcy were tlrnwn ns they woultl nl)pear to a n observer in front of w l ~ o m the sphere is dragged with n constant, vclocity U,. 'I'he sltrt,ch contains also velocit,y prolilcs a t scvcral cross-s~ct~ions. is seen f,l~nt It tho sphere drags with i t a vrry witlr layer of flnitl w l ~ i v lr~ t , r ~ ~ tover : i l ) o ~ ~ tn e x Is o , tliitrnclor on I)ot,l~sitlns. At, vory high Itryrtoltls nurnl)ors t l ~ i s 1~orln~l:iry l:~y(:r L)ccornes very thin.

Tile prcssrlrc distribr~t,ion along a 1ncridin.11 t,hr sl)hcre as well as alor~g axis of the of al)scissar, r , is S ~ I O W I Iin Fig. 6.1. '1'11e: shrnring-stress di~t~ributiotl the spllere over can also be cnln~l~,Lctl t h e n.l,ovo formr~lac.If, is for~ntl h a t t,he sllenring st,ress from t has it,s largoat value nt poirll /I wl~crc = ij ,IL fJ,/I1 :LII(I is r~(11nl t,hc pressrlre t to riso nt PI or prrssurc tlccrrase nt /',. Tntrgmting t,ho pressure distribr~t.ion ant1 the sttraring sl,rrss over the surfacr of tho sphrre we obt,nin t,ho t,ot,nl tlrng

Ipig. 6.2. Sl.rcanilincs nnd vrloci1.y di.st.ribrttinr~ it1 Stokm' snlt1t.ior1 for n spllcrr i l l pa r;lllc.l flo\v

[Pig. 6 . 3 . S1.rc:itnlir1rs i l l llir flow

'This is f,ltc vcry wcll known rTloko.~ cr/uation for thc: tlrag of n sl)l~rrt:.I t , can I 1 v shown t,Ilat. o l ~ c t.llirtl of f.hc t1r:t.g is tlrro t,o t,he prossure ,list,ril)litio~~~ ~.II:L~,t.11~o n ~ : ~ i ~ ~ i r ~ g n ~ d r t.wo t,l~irtls nrr t111ot.o t.11~ cxistctico of shcnr. I t is fr~rl,llar rcrnnrk:~l)lc t,11:lt t,l~c ctr:~g is ~ x o ~ ) ~ r t , ito ~t.hc lfirst, powcr of vclocity. If a t1ra.g cocfficiet~tis fornled i)y o ~n rc*krrillg f,llc tlr;la 1.0 t,lrc tlyrl:~mic l~c:t.rl Q 11,2,nritl t.11~ rront.:~l arca., :IS is dotlc: in tllc c.:rsct of Iligl~cr I ~ C ~ I I O I ( I S ~ n ~ n I ) ( ~ r s ,if we pr~t. r or

ORCVII'.~ inraprovcrnt-~~t:AII ~ I T I I ) ~ ~ V I ! I T I ( - I of', St,ol<c:s'ss<,It~t,iot~I S giv(!t~ 1j.y I~ WI C. Mr.Oseen [l I], who took the incrt,ia terms in the Navicr-Sf.okcs equations pa.rt,ly info :~cconnt. I l r a.ssr~n~ctl talle vrlocit,y c o m p o r ~ r t ~ t s Ita t~c~l,rrsc~trt,c~tl t11n.t :IS t.11,: S I I I I I o f :L (~onsI,;~nl :III(I $1, p ( * r l ~ ~ r l ) ~~~ O ,~iIo 'l'l~!tx ,t I I~ ~ .
( 3 ; ~ ~ ~

1)

C,)x RZ ( ;@ Up?) ,
24

a;hc,rc*i s ' , 11' all(\ 711' nrr t,l~o ~)crl,rirl):l i.c.~.nls,r r l t l :IS s11~l1, n ; ~ 1r.it 11 ~ . c ~ st.0 ~ ~ ~ ( (.ion : st ll l ( . l ~ f'rcr st,rca~n e vclocity (1,. I t is to rlotecl, I~owevcr, tllat, t,l~is r~ot, r ~ irl l 1,11c is t irnnlrrliatr neighl~onrhootlof t,hc spherr. With t.hc n s s r ~ r ~ l ~ ~(0.1 o)t ~ i ~ i I 1.111- illrrt.ia t.crms i t 1 t,hr Na,vier-Stdokt>s rqns. (3.32) nro tlrc.o~nl)osedin two ,pro~~l)s,g . : r.

c, =

R- ;

R=

Umd
v

(loo

allr

, U,

av'

-ax , . . .

and

"Iaz

a~' ,

,avr
IL

-ax , . . .

116
, 3

VI. Vrry slo\v t~lotion are very large ill a tmnsverse direction with rcspoct. t,o the mot,ion so tllat, t,hr problem is one in two tlinlensionst. In ortlcr t,o ol)t,ain a stready-st.atse problern Ict 11s assrime t,hat t,lle hlork is a t rest and t,liat thc plarlc gi~icle forrctl t,o nlovc witSlta ronstal~t. is vctloci0y lI wit,l~ rctspoct i,o it.. 'l'hc x-nxis is nssllinrtl i l l I.II(: tlirccl,io~i n ~ o l i o t :111tl ol' ~, tho y-axis is at, right. anglns t,o t . 1 1 ~plane of t.l~o grlitlo. 'l'llr: I~rigllt~ of t , l ~ wrclgr h(n:) r I)c~l,wcc-~~ a l)Io(:lt I L I I ~ I I 1 l 1 t * ~ ~ l i ( l ti~: I I H H I I I I I I : ~ ~ IN: vt!~.yH I I I I I I I I . O I I I I ) I I I . ( Y ~ \ v i l l i 1111. t,l~t 1.0 lrngtll 1 of t l ~ r 1)lork.

I 11c sccontl group is ~lrglnctrtla s it, is small ot' the sccorltl ortlrr rornparcll wit.ll the first group. 'l'hrls we obt,nin t.llo following cqllat.iot~sof rnot,ion fro111 the NxvierSt,oltcs cq~rat.io~ls :

I I I C 1101111tla.ry c,o~~rlit.iol~s t.110 sarrlc as for t.llo Navir~.-Si~olirs arc ncll~;ltiot~s, 1)1t(, t.11~ Osccrl rclu;ltions are linear as wn.s t.llc caso ~rrit.l~ Stoltrs rqua.t.ions. t.hr
1
P

I he pat,t,c,rn of st,rr:~rrllir~rs now 1 1 0 lo~lgc:rt.11~ is sanlcx i l l f r o ~ ~ t , : L I I ( ~ I ~ c l ~ i ~ ~ l l ol' t , l ~ c -sphere. 'I'l~iscan be recognized if' rcfcrerlcc is tnatle t o rclns. ((i.12),I)rm.r~st: w r if (:II:III~C 1 ~sign of t,llr vclorit.ios and of the: pressilre, t,h(: cq~~nt,ions not t,mns1.1 do fortl~i111,o trl~crnsclves, wl~crcast,l~t: St,olics cclr~:~t.iorls (6.3) tlitl. 'l'hc st.rc:a.inlitlt:s ol' t.lln Osrcn cqrtat,ions arc plot,tcd in Fig. 6.3, and t,llo observer is again assun~ctlt o I)c a,t rrst wit,ll respect. t,o Clle flow a t a large disttance frorn t,lle sphere; it is itrlagi~~rtl tO~at,f,l~c p l ~ c r c dra.ggctl wiLh a constant, vclocit,y 11,. 'rhc Row in front of tall(: s is sl)ltrrc>is vcry silnilxr t,o t h a t given by St,okcs, but, beltintl the sphere the st.rearnli~~cls arc closer t,ogc?t,llcr whicll mc:llis t h a t tJlo vclocit,y is larger t,han irl t.he forrncr case. I'~rrt.ltcrrnorc~, I)ohilltl t , l ~ c sphere sornc ~)nrticlcsfollow it.s mot.iorl as is, in Ik(-l., ol)srrvc:tl rxpr*rilnrnt,ally at, large T<.cynoltls rliimbers.
1

Fig. 0.4. I.t~I~ric:~tiot~ in n 1)raring:a) lilo\v it) rvctlgc hrt.\vcrr~ l i t l r .I)loclc nncl planr. grlido ~ sr~rf:tcr; 1'rcsstlt.t: tlinLril)~ll.io~~ blovk, I)) ovcr 011 1.67
7

h~

l'llis lnoLion is a ~ n o r c gcnernl cxarnple of that, corlsiclrrrtl in Sv.c:t.iol~\I 1 , i. (,. o f t,lle illot,ion betwceu two parallel flat walls wit.11 a pressure grarlirtlt,. 'l'hc rsscnt,i:tl tliffcrcnre consist,^ in t,hc fact t h a t herc the two walls arc inclined at. :LII nnglc t,o each otJ~er. For this rcasorl the convective accelcration 7~ au/ax is evidcllt~l,y tliffcrcnt. from zero. An est.imat,ion of t h c viscous and inertria l'orcns shows immctli;~t.clyt,l~at,, in spite of t,hat, in all cases of pract,ical importancs, tile viscous forces arc prctlominant.. Tllc largest viscor~s tcrm in the equatpionof nlot,ion for t,llc x-direc:t,ior~ rc111nl is t o / L i)2u/r7y2.JIencc we can make the following cst.imat,c: Inertia force Viocous force

- p u au/ar -----

p U2/l

- ~ i a ~ u / a y ' C U[h2 -,

- Q Ul
18

.(

):

The inertia forces can b r r~eglcctcdwith rcspcct t o the viscolts forrrs if t11(,r ( ~ I r r ( ~ ( 1 Ttry noltls nutnl)rr c. Tile hyclrodynnniic tl~eoryof Itrbricntior~

R*=
or, by way of nrlr~lericalexample:

r' ( : ) ' a 1 ,

(6 14)

I llc p l ~ r n o l n r n : whicll t,akc place in oil I~ll)ricat,ctlbcnrir~gs nffortl nnot.l~:r ~ rs:~ntplcof flow in \vhicll viscous forces are predoininnnt,. I'ronl t.11~ pmct.ical point of virw tllrsr phcr~orncna are vcry iml)ort,nnt. At, high velocit.ics t,llc rlcaranc.r I)ct.\vrc-rl t.wo mncllinc elcrnmta wllicll : ~ r cit1 rrlat,ive mot.io~l (r. g . journal :~rld 1)rnring) is fillcltl 11y all oil st,rcarn i r ~which cxt:l-cmcly large pl,essnrc dill'crcnccs may I)r crcnt,rtl. As ;L collscqrrcllcr, t , l ~ r rc!volvirlg jourr1a.l is lift.rtl somcwhat 1)jr tl~c. oil fi1n1 ant1 n~ct,allic: cont.ac:l, Itct.\vcrn t,hc moving part.s is pmvent,ctl. 'l'l~cessent,iaI Ic;lt.hrr~s 1,llis t.ypr of mot,iorl can be rrr~clrrst,oocl t,l~c.cxanil)lr of a s l i t l t I)loclc of on or slil)l)rr rnovit~go n :I plan(. g ~ ~ i r srlrlkrc, Fig. 6.4, it, ])ring iln1)ortnnt. illat t.llry lc :IW i t ~ v I i t ~ ( :it. ;I srn:~ll:~r~glt~,r:1(:11 ~(l 0,L o ot,l~t-r.l ' ~ ~ s l ~ ~ l l : that, t~l ~ s In(rl i r ~ g s ~ ~ ~ ~ l ' a r r s l ~ s s ~~ i r
. I

This 1r;ltls t o a value of the Reynolds nunibcr reftrrcd t o tllr I t n g t l ~of tlic blorlt of I T / / I , =- 25,000, whtreas t h e reduced Reynol(1s rtumbrr R* 0 1.

The trvo-dimcnsionnl tl~cory \rrns first forn~r~lnkd 0. Ilrynoltls, hy Sor. (18bC,),1'1. I , urr nlso OuLwnl~ls I<lnosikrrNo. 218, p. 3'3.

r/.

l'l~il. 'Sr:~nslxog.

1 I8

VT. Very slow tnotion

r.

'l'llo Ilytlrorlynn~~~in tllmry of I~~brivntiot~

I I!)

The tliffrrcnt,ial cq~tnt.iot~s(:rrrpit~g of motmion, cqns. (6.1),can be fitrl,hrr simplifier1 for the case ~ttttlcrconsitlcration. T11c cqu:~tionfor tllc y-tlireclion can be ornittctl altoget.llcr bccn~lscthe component v is very small with respect t o u . 1711rt,hcr,irr t l ~ c cqltnt.io~l l'nr 1,110 x-(lirrct.ion i)21c/a3:2 ca.11 I)c r~cglcct,ctlwith rcspocl, 1.0 a21~/r??/2, be+ c:alrsc the formrr is sn~nllcr t.ll;l.rltllc lnt,t,cr by n h e t o r o l t,lle ortlcr (h/1)2.' 1 ' 1 1 ~ prcssnrc tlist,ribution t n ~ ~ ssnl.isfy 1,llo contlition t,hnt p .r= I),, a t bot.lt etrtls of tjllc slipl~cr. t, Comp:trc>rl wil.lt 1,hc rase or flow bct,weo~l~)nmllol slitling walls, t l ~ c pressure gr:~rlienl~ in l,llc tlirrc:I.ion of ~ n o l ~ i o ap/ax, is no longer const,ant, but the very small prcssurc n, grntlic-nt, in t . 1 1 ~ ?/-diroc:t.ioncan I)c nrglrrt.rt1. Wit,ll t.11cscsitnplificntions the tliffrrrr~t,inl rq~tnI,ions (6.3) rt:tlucc t.o

'I'IIIIS tllc mass flow is known JVIICII t.11~ shn.po of the wctlgc is given as I.llo f~lnrl.iol~: t : ) . It ( Eqn. (0.19) gives t l l ~ prcssnrc gmdient., ant1 eqtl. (6.20) i v e s tllc prcssurc tlist,ril~~tt,iol~ ovrr t Ilc slipl~cr.

wllit:Ir n.ppcar in cqn. (0.20) tlcpcntl otlly on t,l~c g~ornct~ricnl~ a l ) of'I,l~e sl c gt1.1)I > r l . \ v r ~ t ~ t,ltc slitlrr nntl I'Itn plane. 'l'llc-ir rn.l,io
c (2) = hl (x)/b2(x)

(6.23)

nntl i,hc ccl\~:~t.inn cont.innii.y in tliffcro~l~ial of form can bc rcplnccd by t l ~ e contlit,ion tll:~tt.11~ volntnc of flow in evcry scct,iot~ mrtst be constnnt:

wllicl~ I l n s t,llc tlimcnsiorl of n 1cngl.lr plnys ntl imporl,a~~t, pnrt in l,lrc bllrory of I~~bricnt,ion; value for the wholc cl~ntrncl, it.8

is sometimes callctl thc cknrrrclerislic. 1hick)lesa. IVit.11 it.% ni(l, t,llc crl~latiot~ c.r)rlof' tinuity (0.21) cnn I>c contractccl t o q =; U l I , ((;.25)
frot~~ ~vllichit,s ~)llysirnl int,crprct.i~t,ion cvitlctlt. Tlre prcssrlrc can now be n.ril.t.ctl is

nntl the pressarc gratlictlt. I)econ~cs

wl~c-re = tlp/(lx dcnotcs t.l\r I,rcssllrt' gmclir,nt,, wlrinh must I)c tlet,crn~inccl s11n11 71' in n wn.y as 1.0 s ~ l ~ i a tllc con1.inuit.y crll~nlion(6.16), ntltl t,Ilc l ~ o l ~ n t l a r y fy c*orltlilions for prrsslcrc. I ttsc,rt irlg (6.18) int,o (6.10) we lirst ok)t,ait~

wl~icllsllows t h a t tOie prcssnre llns :I mnximllm or n ntiniln~itn nt n 1)lncn ~vlloro t,llc cha.nnel t,llic:ltncss is cq~lnlt o its cl~nrnoLorist.icvalrtt:, Ir. = 11. Oft,cn i t is tlrsir:~blcto mnintn.it~ 11osit~ivc n cscrss of' prcssore p - pO, R.II~Il l ~ c prcccding cqunt.ion can be 11scr1 t,o tlrrivc the co~ltlition fhr it,. Ass~tntitlg 1.h:~t p - po = 0 at, 3: -- 0 nntl l.llni, the l . l ~ i t : l z ~ ~is splncctl aL z -- z,,, we nl~tsl. I1 ~ ~ Ilnvo It (z) > II for 0

or, s o l v i ~ ~ g 71': Cot.

< z < x,,, itnplyillg

2)'

>0

h(r)<IIforx,,<x<l,irn~~lyingp'<O.
r ,

(6.28)

I l ~ r s crot~(lit,iot~s I,(> a. wc(lgc.lil~(;sl1:111(: lrn(1 wlti(.l~is twttv(*rg~~nI. l , l ~ r *tIirt~~~t.iot~ it1 or flow :~ntlwl~i(:Itnclnrits lo(:nl I~nt,lt1)11sil,ivc at)({ ncg;~t,ivc gr1111it~nI~ tl/t/~l.r. ~ I I I - f ; S II t l c p r n ~ l s o nttIlc shnpe of tile wl~olc ch;rnncl, t.l~c tlirccl'ion of I.llc prcssttrr gr:~tlit,t~l, a t n scct,ion cannot bc tlct,crmir~ctl from tlhltlz n tllc sc>ct,iott L :~lonc unlilzc: in pot,cnti:iI flow. In lrl1ecase of n wetlge will1 Ilat fnccs for wllich IL(z) -- O(n ---:P), I V I I ~ I ./L an(l rY ~ are cor~sl,n.tlt.s, Fig. 6.4, we obl.nin finnlly RCC

120

VI. Vcry ulow motion

and for the pressure distribution

p ( x ) = po

+ G,LL~-----. a-1) h2(2

2 (I-z)

(6.29)

The relations hecome somewhat simpler if the shape of the channel is described by t,he gap widths hl and h, a t inlet and exit, respect,ively, see Fig. 6.4. 'The cll:ir:lct,erist,ic witlt,h now becomes equal t o the harmonic mean

I f we compare t,his rcslllt with t . l ~ afor crccpitlg nlotioll p:lst, n sphcro in cclt~. t (6.71)), we l~ot,iceh a t in the case of t.lle slipper the pressure tlifTcretlec is grcatrr I I n~ f:rct,or t ( l l l ~ , , , )Since Ilh,,, is of thc order of 500 t.o 1000 (1 = 4, A,, =x 0.004 to 0.00s i l l ) . ~. t,lle prevailing prt:ss~~rcs seen to assume vcry large v a l ~ ~ e s -'l'hc occll~.l.c?tlc~c: are 1. of s ~ ~ high ~pressnrcs it1 slo\v viscous motion is a ~)oc.~~linr c l prol)crt,y of 1.110 t,,yl)(: of flo\v ( * ~ ~ r o t ~ t ~i lIl ~l~ ~ r ) rtil( : : ~ t ~ i o, l~ (~H:uno ~ ~ I I I Ii t:f is t~t*(!op~ix~!(l l,Itc: : I I I ~ C I Ii~~.ttt<xl ~ lo At, t ~ > . I II:II, ~~ I)c4,wccn Lhc two solitl snrfhccs is a n esscnt,inl feature of t llc flo\v. The prcsstlrc nrirl velocit,y tlistriltlltiorl, ant1 t,lle shape of st roamlir~rsfor t.hc c:lsr or a ~)ln,tlc slipper arc give11i t 1 Fig. 6.4. It, will I)c nol,icc:tl (.II:L~. I~:~c:k-llow occ:lll.s i l l t,Ilc rcgion of prcssllrc rise ncnr t h c wall a t rest,, just, a s w:is t.11~ case wiI.11 t.11~ r:h:~r~nel in Pig. 5.2, wllen t,Ilc prcs.rr~rc incrcasc~din Lllc tlircct,io~~ \vall nlot.io11. \V. Il'rocsscl of 151 calcl~lat~etl pressure distribution ant1 t,hrrlst. srlpport.rtl hy a slipl)rr of fil~ile t,hc width as well as by a spherical slipper and cor~firmcd t,hcsc calculat,iorls by c x p c r i m r ~ ~ t , . 111 many cases whcn the wiclt,h of t,he slipper is finil,c, t,11cnssulnpt,iorl mntlc earlier that, the flow is one-dimensional is iri~ufficicnt~, atltl t,hc cxist,cncc of n. con~l)one~lt, 111 ill the z-tlirec:l,ion must, bc t.altcn into a ~ c o ~ l n t ; Ilcrc z is pnrprntlio~rlnr t I I O plnr~c 1.0 of the sltct,ch i l l Fig. 6.4. 'l'hc etlrrat,iot~ ~)rcccdir~g ((i.19) n u ~ s t cqn. rlow \ I ~ Lsl~l>ljlrrncnt,etl by
h

and the condition for positive pressure excess, eqn. (6.28), now requires t h a t t,lle channel should be convergent. I n this notation, t h e pressure tlistribution is given by

and the result.ant of the pressure forces can be con~puteclby int,egration, when we ol)t,ain

with k . h,/h,. The resr~lt~ant the sllczring stresses can be c a l c ~ ~ l a t ~ c ta similar = of in l manner:
1

and the cquat,ion of continuity beco~ncs

It is int,erestirlg to note

[el t h a t the resultant pressure force possesses a maximunl for k = 2.2 approximately, when its valrle is

Tl~c corfficicnt of frict,ion F / P is propor16onal to hz/Z and can be mado very small. The coordi~lat,esof the centre of pressure, x,, can be shown t,o be equal to

For srnall angles of inclirlat.ion between block and .klidc (k w I ) , tile pressure distrih ~ ~ t i ofrom cqn. (6.29) is nearly parabolic, the charact,erist.ic thic:ltness ant1 cent,re rl of prcsssnre k)cirljT. very nearly a t z = 1 t . Pni,t,ing hm = h(4 1) we cnn find t h a t t h e prcssllrc tli[l:ronce 1)ccomcs

In Lhc cnsc of a jo11rr1a1 ant1 1tc:lrirlg l.lloro n11ls1Ito oc:c:t~~~l,ricil.y I)cl,wt:c~~~ i t 1 (.II(:III ortlt:r 1.0 c r c : ~ ta ~ ~ wctlgc of vnri:rl)lc hoigllt, whic:h is c s ~ c ~ ~ I ifi :II lt l l r ~ ~ sis. t,o , ~ l createtl. l'hc rclcvant t l ~ c o r g I)ascd on t h e prccctlitlg principles, as well ns oil exnct, , two-dimensional t,l~eory,was developed in great, dct,ail by A. Somrnerfelcl [lG], L. Guembel [6] and G. Vogelpolil 1-20,211. Figure 6.5 shoivs Lhe prcssnrc distribut.io11 in the narrow gap between jonrnal and bearing; it possesses a vcry pronounced maximum nen,r t o the narrowest section of the I~lbricntiori wctlgc. Jlenoc, a signif r:~nt, cont.ribntion to thc loatl-bearing capncity is made by t h a t portion of tOle gap wllic:h is co~l,~iergent the direct,ion of rotation of t,he journal. Thc rcsnlt,nnt of the in pressure forces in t,his dist,ribntion balances t,hc load on t . 1 1 ~ bearing. I t has also been

Nrlmrritaal rxnmplr: U = 10 mlscc; ,r = 0 04 kg/m ser: 1 = 0 1 m ; a = 2 1 = 0 2 m; h, = 0.2 mm. FI~rlrr (1/(2a-1) = 1 30 N/1n2; p , = 1.33 x 5002 0 30 Ml'n ( = :1 3 hnr). jc

122

VI. Very low tnotion

d. The Hrle-Shnw flow

12.7

ext.endc(l t,o i n c l ~ ~ dh e case of bearings witah finite width [ I , $1, when it. was f o u n d tc t h a t t h e decrease in t,llrust s r ~ p p o r t e dby sllrh a hearing is very corlsidernble d u e t o t h e sitlewisc decrease in t,he pressure. Most theoretical calculations have been conduct,cd under t,Ile xssumpt,ion of const,ant viscosity. Tn reality h e a t is evolved tshroogh friction a n d t,he t e m p e r a t u r e of t , l ~ c luhricating oil is increased. Since t h e viscosit,y of oil tlccreascs ral)itlly wit,h incrri~singt,c:tnpcrat,nre (Tal)lc 1.2), t h e t,hrust also d r c r m s r s grc:nt,ly. 111 rnorr rcc:c.lit. t,ilncs 1'. N a h m e [I01 extcr~tlcrlt,hc I ~ ~ d r o t l y n n r n i c tltrory of' lubrication t.o inclrltfe t , l ~ c cffrct, of t.ltc varint.ion of viscosit,y wit,ll t,?rnperat.rlrc ( c f . Chap. XI1).

Here R, and Uc donote, respectively, the radit~sand the peripheral relocit,y of the concentric journal (e = 0 ) and d ia the width of the gap. vortices After the onset of instability, the flow in tho gap developn rrgulnrly spaced, ccll~llnr 'l'l~e axes of t,hesc vortireu coincide \\sit11 the which n.ltcrnnhly rotat,e in opposite dirertion~. circumferential direction, ns shown achemat.irnlly in Pigu. 17.32 nnd in tlle photograp11 of Fig. 17.30. In n certain rnnge of Taylor nr~nibers,the flow in the Taylor vortice~ remainn Iaminnr. l'rnnuition t,o tr~rbr~lent ocrnrs a t value^ of the Taylor nuntbcr wl~icllc,onrriderahly oxrcrcl flow the lilnit, of rrt,ahility. Tho tl~rco rcgi~ncwof (low (ns will be rrprnl.rrl in See. XVIIf n ~ ~ irt l I'ig. i 17.04) nre characterized as follo\i.s:
41.3

<

T
T T

< 41.3 < 400 > 400

Inlninar Cor~ot,to flow; Inininnr flow witahi:nll~~lnr 'l'nylor vort.irm; t,nrb~~lcr~L Ilow.

\Vllcli the flow becomea nnat,ablc, the torqne arli11g O tho rot,at.ing cylinder inrrrancu s I . r r ~ ~ l y , n t~rca~tsc? kinetic energy nhrerl in tl~t. the uccontlnry flow ~ t r t ~he c.on~pen~at.etl work. st by The sanie flow phenomena, generally speaking, oocrlr when t l ~ e hearing is londed nnd 1,l1c gap wiclt,h vnrie~ circl~mferentinlly,bnt, t.11~dct.nila of t . 1 flow bcro~ncmore ronlplrx. At,tr~npts ~ Ilnvc lwon rnndc t,o cnlct~lnt,c tttrbl~lcntllow in a gap of n bonril~gwit,l~t.hr rritl of I'r1111tlt,l'~ tho mixing lengtl~ [Chap. XIX, eqn. (19.7)1. 'rho set of t,hese prol)lelns hnu at,t.mckeda wide circle of invr,stigntorn, utlch a8 I). P. Wilrork [19]. V. N. Co~i~l~nntirleuc~~41. E. A . Sait)el nntl N. A. 12, 3, hlnckrn 114. 151 have writton two gcncr~ila.cror~nte t,hat ront.nin ntlrnwotls litcrnt,ttrr rrfrrcnrr~.

d. Tllc Ilcle-Shnw flow

At~ot~hcr rr~nnrkn.l)lc sollti.ion of t.ho t f l ~ r c c - t l i ~ n c n s i oc i~ln ln l ~ i o n s c r r r p i n g ~l ~ of moI.ion, eqns. (0.3) a n d (6.4), can b c obt,ninctl for (.lie t:nsc of flow botr\vcc~lt w o parnllrl f l a t walls separated b y a small tlist,ance 2h. I f a cylintlrical body of n.rbit,r:~ry cross-sect,ion is inserted brtwccn t h e t w o plates a t rigllt, angles s o t.hat i t conlplclcly fills t.11~ space bctwecn t l l c ~ n ,t h e resulting pilttcrn of st,rc::~~nlines idcnticnl wit811 is 1,ltnt in potential flow a b o u t t,he anme sllapu. 11. S. Jlclo-Shnw [7] nrrc:tl t.l~iutrlct;lloil t o o b t a i n e x p ~ r i m c n t ~ n la t t e r n s of strenn~lirlcs in p o t c l ~ t i a lflow about. : ~ r l ~ i t , r a r y p botlies. It is easy t o prove t h a t t h e solr~t~ion crccpirig rnot.ion f r o ~ n~ ( ~ I I s . for (6.3) nntl (6.4) possosscs t h e salnc st,rrn.mlincs n.s t h e corrt:sporltling ~)ot.crtt~ial flow. W e select a syst.cm o f coortlinntcs wit,It its origin in 1,111: ccrtt,rc: I)t:t\vc:c~lt t,ltc? t,wo plnt.cs, a n d m a k e t h e x, y-plnnc pnrallcl t o tltc pli~t,cs, t.lle z-axis I)cing p c r p o n ( l i r ~ ~ l : ~ r L t,l~c:m. T h e body is i~sstlmctlt o I)e plncc(l in a strcnrn of volocil,y (J,, ~):II.:III(:I o 1.0 l,l~o x-axis. A t a lnrgc dist,:~ncc f'rotn t h e I)otly tllc vrlocil.y t l i s t . r i l , ~ ~ t . iis ~ ~ o ~x~r:~l,olic:, ns in 1,110 ntot,iotl in a rct~f,:~.ngnl:~r t:l~:~nrtcl l ~ i a lw:ls c:otisitlcc.ocl in St:c:t io11 V.I . w ~ I Irncc

M'ith largo velocities n.ntl higli l . r ~ n p c r n t ~ t ~ r r s viscosit,y). t . 1 1 ~ c ( l ~ ~ c e t l (low r 1X.eynoltls r ~ r ~ m l R* r ~ c from cqn. (fi.14) en11 ansllmo vnlum ncnr o r cxc:ceding 11nity. 'Vlii~means t , l ~ n ittcr1.i:~forccs bccornc c o m p n m ~ l ~ l c t witrll viscous forccs i ~ n t lt l ~ c v:~litlil.y of t.hc t,l~cxorytnny h c q ~ l c s t i o l ~ e t [ L is possil~lct.o irnprovo t.hc t,llcory, nntl t o c:xtrlitl i t l. t,o I~igllcr1teynol:ls rlnmbrrs, 1)y n st,cp-l)y-st,cp procctlnre. 'I'llo neglncLc:tl i r ~ c r t ~ i n t,crnis c:n.n Gc cxlcula.tctl f r o n ~t,llc first npproximatiort anti i ~ l t ~ r o t l ~ its c ~ l ~ c i:xl.rrr)nl forcrs s o t.Ilat, R secon(1 :~pproxi~nnt,ioll obt.nine11. 'l'l~is ~ ~ r o c c d n r c is corrt:spon(ls t,o Osrc~n'simprovctl solut,ioll for t , l ~ r llow ~tnst, sp11rl.c. SIICII : ~ l r . ~ ~ l a t ~ i o n s O1)(x:11 n c II~V prrfnrrnctl by W. l(~hlcr1. 181, w11o fonnrl L I I ; L ~ t.hc iltc?rtSi;tcorrcct.ions in t,hr cn.sr of n ~)ln,tln slipper o r rirc.t~larI)rnrit~g o n o t exccctl 10 per cent,. of I.11c: s o l ~ ~ t . i o n n t l r r d ~r t*onsitlrrn.tjon f i x values of I I t,o R * ~ 5, n11proxim:~Ccly.A c:omr)nrison bot.wocn t,l~corct.ical nntl cxprrirncttt.n,lrcst11t.sis c:or~t,ninctl :I boolc I)y (>. Vogrlpohl [22J, nntl irr in a n rnrlier pn.pcr 1211.

Tllrblllrnre. 'l'lrr tno~lri'nt.cnilcnry to incrrnsc~1l1r lonrls nnd I11~rlc.r also t l ~ i ?[~rripl~rsnl l~as Ir(1 10 n si1,11nI,ir)11 \ v l ~ i r , l l~ l ~ r in inrrti:~forrrs that, no\vntI:ty!i occur in ,rrl~)vitic,s rjf l l l r I~ll,~.icilLi~g I,cgin to 1)lny n r l in11)ortnnI pnrt i n t.l~r fill11 1)so(!t~ss. Ulldcr rcrtnin r~oti(litions, t11e \ : I I I I ~ I ~ I (yo~lt~t,l,t! t,o ~li!rolllc!I I I I U ~ :pllf! lrtltln 1.0 ~lll'~~ll~t'11i'r. I~ lIr)\v I~~~C, Lllis As rnrly n u 1!)2.7, G . I. 'l'nylos I I R I in\.rslip:rtrrl t.hr rnsr of n brnring in \ r l ~ i r l ~ jo~~rnnl IIlc rol,nt.cs~ co~~rctlt.rir:~llyt.ltr I~r~slting that 1 l ~ lrut)ricnt.ing gal) in one of ronrit:tnt I I ~ i r l i ~ ~ r s s . in so 'rllr i l ~ s ~ n 0 i l"nil 1I1c1rnnsiIio11 t I I ~ I I I I I I ~ iaC govcr~~r(l t l ~ ( l i ~ n r ~ ~ s i o 'l'nylor snt~rnI>er i~y to I ~ by r ~~lrs .

A s o l ~ ~ t . i o r ~cclrls. (6.3) nntl (6.4) c:ntt of

u = 7 1 t l y

[I(:

wril,t,c:~~L S : ~

( n:)
-

,,

124

VI.

Very slow motion t o I:~rger Reynolds numbers b y succcssivo approximnt,ion, a s mentioned prcvionsly. IIowevcr, in all cases t h e calculations become s o complicated t h a t i t is n o t practicable t o carry o u t more t h a n one s t e p i n t h e approximation. F o r this reason i t is n o t possil)lo t o reach tltc rc:gion of motlcrntc Reynolds nr~lrrbcrsf r o m this tlircctiol~. , , all int,cnts a n d purposes t h e region of moderate R e ~ n o l d sn i l m h e r ~in whic:h .lo 1,110 in(:rl,i:~ tincl viscoi~sfor(:(:s I L ~ Oof t ~ o r ~ t p ~ ~ ~I rI :I ~ II ~ ~l ~( I! ~ I ~ IlI l I~ r o ~ ~I,II(! l lia:l~l ~ l ~ J ~ l I ~ ~ ~o~ of flow 11a.sn o t been cxtcnsivcly investigntcd b y analytic means. I t is, t.hercforc, t h e more useful t o h a v e t h e possibility of integrating t h c Navicr-Stokes c q t ~ a t i o nfor t,he other limiting casc of very large Rcynolds numbers. , '1'11~swe a r c lctl t o tlre boltntlary-layer thco1.y which will form t h e subjcc.1 of t h o lollowing chapters.

of tlto t,wo-tli~nt~~tsionnl potential flow p a s t t h e g i v r n body. Tl111s ?I,, v , a n d p , satisfy t h o equat.ions

J'irst we not,ioc all OIICO from 1.11~o I u t , i ~ n s (6.39) t l ~ a 1.11~ q r ~ a t ~ i o n c o n t i n ~ l i t ya n d t c of t,he cquntion of motion in l l ~ z-tlircction a r e ~at~infietf.h e fact, t-hat t h e cqnat,ions of e T ~not.ion t h e z - a n d ?/-directions a r e also satisfied follows frorn tllc p o t e r ~ t i a character in l of ?I,, a n d v,,. T h e functions ?I,, a n d v , satisfy t h e condition of irrotationality

s o tlrat t h e pot.cntin1 cqrlnt,ions

V 27 1 ,

= 0 and

V 2v ,

= 0, where

V 2 = a2/i3z2

+
Fig. 6.6. IJcle-Shew flo~v past circ~~lnr cylinder nt R* 4, s f k r Itic.gcln [I:$]

iI2/B?p2,a r e sa1,isfied.

'I'lte first t\vo cqnnt.ions (6.3) r e d ~ ~ t,o a p / a z ce / L a2u/az2 ancl ap/a?j = /L a 2 v / a z 2 ; t.11r.y nrc, howcvt:r, sat,isfied, a s seen fro111 C(]IIS.(0.39). T h u s C ~ I I S . (0.39) reprosent a solt~t.ion t.hn ccluations for creoping mol.ion. 0 1 1 t h e ot,l~cr of Itantl Llte flow rcprcsentctl 1)y rclns. (6.39) has t h e s a m e streamlines a s potential flow al)out tlte botly, n.11~1h e t st.rcamlir~csfor all parnllcl layers z = const a r c congruent. 'The condition of n o slip at. t h e pla.1.c~ = f h is seen t,o b e satisfied b y e q n . (6.39), b u t t h e contlition z of n o slip a t t h e sr~rfacc: t,he body is n o t sat,isfied. of 'I'ltr ml.io of incrt,i:~ viscorls forces ill JTele-Shaw motion, just a s i n t h e casc t,o ~ rctlucctl Itcyr~oldsn u m b e r of t,ltc n~ot.ionof Irtl)ricat,ing oil, is g i v c : ~1)y t.11~

Referencer [I] Bauer, K.: Einfluss der endlichen Breite des (:leitlngcrs nr~fTrngfiihigkeit uncl IIeibr~ng. Forschg. 1ng.-Wes. 14, 48-02 (1943). 121 Constnntinescu. V.N.:Analynia of bearings oprmting in trtrl)ulrnt rcgin~e.'l'rn~~s. i\SI\lE, Seriaq D, J. Ilnsic Eng. 84, 130-151 (l!)(i2). [3] Constnntinescu, V.N.: On the influence of inertin forces in tnrbulent and Inn~innrxelfacting films. Trans. ASME, Series F, J. 1,llbricntion Technolo~y92, 47:1--481 (1970). [4] Constantinescu, V.N.: On gaa lubricatio~lin turbulent regin~e.Trans. ASMI':, Series 11, J. Basic Eng. 86, 475-482 (1964). [ R ] Frossel, U . lteibl~ngs~videratnltd Trngkrnft c i n ~ Gleitncli1111es ': r~nrl s encllichrr Brrile. Po~.scIig. 111g.-Wcs.13, 65--75 (1042). [GI Giintbel, L., and Everling, 13.: Ileibur~g uttd Sclin~ierut~g Mnscl~incnbnu.13crli11,1025. in1 [7] flole-Shnw, H.S.: Invest,igntio~tof thc nntr~rc surfncc renist.nncc of wntar nntl of st,ron~n of motio~~ nndcr ccrtnin ex~ierir~tcntnl contlitions. ' ~ ' ~ o I I AI.R ~ . I I Nnv. Arch. X I , 25 (IA!)H); aco also Nnture 58, 34 (1898) tint1 Proc. Roy. Innl. 16. 40 (1899). (81 Knhlert, W.: Dcr Einllusx cler l'rlgl~eit.~ltrlfle der Irydrotly~~a~~~iscl~etl bei Schtniertnittolthcorie. Uius. Brnunschweig 1947; 1ng.-Arc.11.16, 321 -342 (1948). [9] Michell, A.G.M.: Z. Mnth. 11. Phys. 52, S. 123 (1905); seealso Ostwald's IClnssiker No. 218. (101 Nnltt~~e, Beitrrigc zur I~ydrodynnn~iuclte~t F.: l'hcorio der I,agcrrcibrn~g. 1ng.-Arch. 11, 191-200 11940). --r[I I] Oseen, C. W.: Uber die Stokcs'sche Forrnel und iiher einc verwnndte Aufgnbc in der Hydrodynamik. Ark. f. Math. Astron. och Fys. 6, No. 29 (1!110). [I21 Pmndtl, I,.: The mechnnics of viscous fluids. In W. F. Ilurand: Aerodynnn~ic Theory I l l , 34-208 (1035). [I31 R,iegels, F.: Zltr Kritilc des Hele-Shnw-Vcrsucl~es. Diss. Gnttingen 1038; ZAMM 18, 05- 106 (1933). 1141 $nib&, E.A., and Mncken, N.A.: The fluid mecl~anicsof Inbricntion. Annual Review of Fluid Mech. (M. Van Dyke, ed.) 5, 185-212 (1973). [IR] Snibel, E.A., nnd Mnoken. N.A.: Non-lnmirmr bchnvior in bcnrings. Critic-nl review of tlte li(.rrnt,~~rr. l'mnx. ASMI(:, Scric~F, .I. I,~lliricntinn'I'ccl~r~oloay 174---I81 (1974). 96,
\ -

wl~c-re1, tlcnot,rs a n11amat.c:ristit: l i r ~ c a rtlilr~c.nsio~~ l.ltc hotly in t.l~cR., ?/-1tlatlc. of If R * c:sc~ettls unit,y t,hc inertia terms I)cc:o~ne considcmlilc nntl t h e motion tlcvint.rs frorn 1 . 1 1 ~sinrplc s o l t ~ l ~ i o(6.39). n

'1'11~ solt~t.iorlgiven b y cqn. (6.30) can b c itnprovctl in t h e s a m e mnnncr a s Stolcc~s'ssolu~,iorr o r a sphere o r t.hc solut,ion for very slow flow. T h e inertia t,crtns a r c f cnlcnl:t.l.otl from t11c first approsimni.ion ant1 introdtlce;l i n t o t h e cq~lat,ionsns c!xt,rrn:rl forcrs, : ~ n t l n improved solutiort results. ?'his was carricd o u t I)y F. Riegels a 1181 for t-11c casc of Tfclc-Sl~nw flow past, a circrllar rylindsr.
F o r R * > 1 t l ~ cst.rt:nmlinos in t.11~ various layers pnrallcl t o t.l~c~ v a l l scease t o l)c c o n g n ~ c n l . .T l ~ c slow p;~rt,iclesnear t,l~ct ~ v oplat,cs a r e tlefleclcd m o r e b y t,l~o 1)l.csrnc:r of (.he hotly t11n.n i,llc fast,cr particlcfi near tllc ccnt.rc. T h i s causes t'hc s t ~ r c a n ~ l i ~t.os n.pprn.r s o m c w l ~ n tblurrrtl a.rltl t,hc phcnomcnon is m o r e pronounced tr at, t.ltr rcnr of l f l ~ c botly t h a n in fronl, of it,, Fig. G.6. S o l t ~ t i o l ~ s tlrr case of cnrccping motion a r e inherently restricted t o very small in Rryrtoltls 1~1tni1)rrs111 prineiplr i t is possiblr t o extend t h e ficltl of applicat,ion

[I01 Snll~lnPrfclil, Z r ~ rl ~ ~ d r o r l ~ ~ ~ ; t l n i s'l'ltcorio (lor Scbnliern~itt~clrcib~~t~g. 11.: r.he,~ Z. Met.11.. U . I'hYsilr $0, (1!)04); also 0sta.nltl's l i l i r ~ ~ i No. r21R, 11. 108, nntl: ~ u r T I l r o r i c d c r !)7 k~ Schmlcrn~iit.c!lrribrl~)R Tochn. Pl~ycl2. 58 (1!)21): also Onl~valtl'~ Z. I<l:tss~ker No. 218. p. 181. 1171 stokes, (:.(:.: ()I\ Lhe elrcct of int,ernnl frict.io~l l l ~ ~ i tOII t l ~ niotion of prlldlllrlln~ of ls r 1"nn~. cnttllir, l>l~il, Snc. 9, l'nrt, I I, 8 - lO(\ (1851) i>r (:011. J'nllr~fl1 1 1 , 55. (181 : ~ r l o r .(2.1.: StnLilit.y of n viscous l i q ~ ~ in>nlainrrl bct,wcctl two r o t , n t i ~ ~ g (l rylil~(lclr. Phil. I rnnn. 2223, 281)-2!)3 (1923). [lo] wilcock, 1). Y.: 'l'llrl)rllcncr ill high-spcrd jot~rnnl bmriogs. 'I'rnt~s. rZSM15 72. 8% (l('50). [20] Vogelpohl, G . : Ijcitrlige zor I<cnnt,tlistlrr Oleitlagerreibu~rg. l ~ ~ - ~ o r s r l r ~ ~ ~ l (1'337). t V 380 ~ s l r d (211 Vogel~>ohl, ~ h t ~ l i r h k c i t n l ) o z i e I ) tlt!r ~(~ l cci~ll: ~ ~ r r r r i h r ~ ~ ~ g 0.: ~~ :~ t rind ~lntoro 1tril)llngsgVrnzc. Z. \'I11 91, 370 (1949). [22] \.ogelpolll, (:.: I3~t~irImsicl1rrc C:lcitlagcr. Ilcrrcl1111111~a\~rrInllrrnl < o ~ ~ a t . r ~ ~ k t . i o ~ ~ fiir nnrl Hetriel). Vol. I , Springer-\'erl;~g, 211tl. ~(1..I3crlit1, 1007.

Part B. Lanlinar bounclary layers

Boundary-layer equations for t w o - d i ~ n e n s i o ~ ~ d incon~l~rcssil,le flow; bounclary layer on a plate

n.

I ) r r i v n t i o ~ ~l I t o ~ ~ ~ ~ t l n r ~ -r l l ~ t r r i o l ~for t \ v ~ - d i ~ ~ t t - ~flowi ~ ~ ~ n l o t a y nt u ~s

IVc tlow ]wot:t:rtl Lo c:x:~rnir~e sccorltl 1itnit.ing c n s r , tr:~tnclyt.l1:1I, of v e r y stnnll 1.11~ visc:osil.y o r vcr.y l a r g e I t e y r ~ o l t l snrlm1)cr. A n i n ~ l ) o r l n . corrt~ril)ut~iono (.Ire scit:ncc: ~~t t of llrritl rnotion w a s ~ n n ~ by I,. 1'mrrtlt.l [21] in 1904 w l ~ c r ~ clnrifit:tl t,l~t: lc Irc csst~tll.i:tl i ~ i l l r ~ r ~ ~ rvc s ~ o s i t ~itr f I o \ v ~8r.L Iriglr Ibc~rnoltls r ~ r ~ n ~ b n r ~ t l slrowrtl I~o\r,t l r r of i y rrs N:~vicr-St,oltrs cclrtn(iorrs col~lcl bo siml~lifictl 1.0 yinltl npproxitrint,r s o l ~ r t , i o n sfor (I~is s c . \Ye s h a l l c x p l n i n t h r s c sirnplilicat.ions wit,h t , l ~ o rn nit1 of a n :crgn~llcnt. l ~ i r l r w [ w r s r r v e s tlrc: p l ~ y s i c a lp i c t , r ~ r co f t . 1 1 ~p l ~ r n o r n c r r o n ,nntl it, will b e rccnllctl t , l ~ : ~ltl i Ilrc 1)11ll< f t.llr flui(l ir~c?rt.i;to r r r s prctloniirr:~t.r, tlrn i ~ i f l ~ l c . ~ ~ t vo s e o ~ l s o f of : i forc(>s b e i n g V;I11is11iri~Iyt ~ i n l l . s

. 7.1.

Ilo~~r~tlnry-I;~yc.r along n wall Ilow

Il'or I,Ir(: S;II<Cof sit~rl)liciI.y w e s l ~ n l lc.o~isitloc.I,a~n-tli~~lc~r~sio~l:rI :I, l l ~ ~ i t l flo~r,01' \villr v r r y SIII~LII viseosil,y t ~ l ) o ~ :L l ,(~ylit~(It.it~;r,l of sl(~rt(It*r~ t Llo(ly (~ross-sct:lo t ~ J t 3 i K . 7. I . i , \Vit.h t,hc excel)l.ion of tsl~cimmctlial.c ~ ~ c ~ i g l r l ~ o ~ l r l ~t,Ir(: t l r ~ r f ; l c ~(.Ire vc:lot.ilic:s of o o s r, ilro of l , l ~ c ortlcr o f t.lto frcn-st.rcnrn vclorit.y, V , ;l,nd t,lrc p n t . l o r t ~of st,rc:~n~litrc.s ~ ~ t l n t,llc vcloc:itjy tlisl~ribr~t.ior~ tlcvinl.c o r ~ l yslig11t.l~ o r n t , l ~ o s c t 1 frict.ionlrss ( ~ l o l , r t ~ t , i : ~ l ) h i flow. Jlo\vcvc:r, tlct,nilrtl invt~sI,ign.t.iotrsc v r n l I,llrlL, r ~ r ~ l i l itlrl ~ l o t , c ~ ~ ~Ill.o ~ v .111(: f l t r i t l r inl tloc?s 1106 slitlc o v e r t,hc wall, i)nt, : t d l ~ e r r s1.0 it. 'l'l~c t,rnnsil.iotr liom z e r o vt.loc~il.\. tit. I.II(* I\,ILII 1.0 t r l ~ c ~ t l lt ~ r ~ ~ g t r i I . ~111,l ( : f t ( SOIIIC tIisl,nrr(-~fro111 it, t,:~l{tssl)lt~t!ci t 1 ;L v r r J r t,11i11

rq~tnt,ions t\vo.ditnrnuiot~nI for flow; ho~lndarylnyer on n plate 128 V I I . I3011nclnry-layer layer, t.hc so-cnllctl borrnclary layer. 111Lllis manncr there are two regions t o consitlcr, r v r n if 1,llo tlivision t)ct,wc.cn t,hcm is not very sharp: 1. A vcry tllir~ lnyrr i r ~the itnmct1i:~tencighbourl~oodof the body in which t,lrc vrlocit,y grn.tlicnt normal t,o t.hc wall, a?~/r?y, very largc (hni~nrlrr~?/ is Lqer). 111 t.11isrrgiol~ t,llr vrry small viscosiLy /L of 131~c r ~ i t lcxcr1,s :rtl rssc:trI,i:~linfl~rcnc.(: fl i l l so f:~.r :LS 1 . 1 1 ~ sI~c:aring sI.rcss t l ~ ( i ) ~ / i )I y I : L ~ I ) :ISSIIIIIO I:~rgt:V:LIIICH.
- 7

a. Drrivnliot~of bo~tnclnry-lnyc,r rq~tnlions flow along n Il:~tplntr for

129

2. l u t.l~o rctn:l.initlg rrgiorl no s~tclr1:tt.g~ vc:locity gratlict~k occur nrltl 1.l1ci~~flrrrrlcc ~f viscosil,,v is tlnitnporL:tt~t,. I n t.l~is rrgion t.Irc flow is frict,ior~loss arrtl pot.ont,iaI.

.I .

gcncml it, is possible t,o st,at.c {.hat the Ll~icltnessof tlrc bonndary layer int,rr;tscs wit.11viseosit,y, or, more generally, Lhat, it decreases as the Reynolds rrrimbcr incrensrs. It. W:LS SCCII fronl scvcrnl cx:lct sol~lt~ions t,lle Navicr-St,olzcs cqrrnt3iorls of I)r(*ser~tcd C11n.p.V t h a t t,ltc bonntlary-lnycr thickness is proportional to the sqriarc in rool, ol' Iti~ic:tn:tl,icvisoosit,y : 6-fi.
111

It(: 11onr1cI;rry (:ol~tIit,iol~s c : :tl)s(~~r(:c slip 11et,~(:r11 ar of 111~: fl~rici :III(I t . 1 1 ~ \v:tIl, ~ i . c. rc :-_ 0 for =- 0, ;lntl 11, -- (1 Ihr ?J ->m. 1 1

\\'llcr~ malcir~gt.l~c si~n~)lific:~Lions inl.rodrrcrti into I.lre Nnvicr-St.ol;ns eqnnt.ior~s t,o I)c it, is nssrrtnrcl t.l~at, l,l~is Lhickncss is vcsry srnall cornl)nretl wit11 a sl.ill ~~nsl)eciliotl linrnr tlimc?nsiot~, of thc k~otjy: T,, 0 1, .

<

In this way tI1(. solt~tiorlrrol)tnin~tl from t h r bonntlnry-layer ~ q n n t i o n s are xsymptoflr :~rltl:tlq)ly t o vrry 1;~rgcRrynoltls 11um1)ers.
\Va slrall now proccctl to disclrss the simplification of the Navicr-Stokes rcl~tnt,ions, l ~ t lin ortlcr t.o achieve it, we s l ~ a l lmake a n estimate of the order of a rt~:~gnit,ntlc c:~,cl~ r n ~ . 111 tlrc two-tlimensional problem shown in Fig. 7.1 we of tn slr:l.li Itcgin I)y ~ s s r l t n i t ~ g wall tio be flat : ~ n d t,11c coinciding witti tho x-dirc~t~ion, t,l~c 1,-:txis 1,eing I~crl)cn(lic~llar it,. Wo now rcwritc the Navier-Stokes cqoations ill to tli~rrr~lsionlrss I;)r.m by rchrring ;tll .;clonit,ies t o t l ~ c free-st,rcnn~ vclocit,y, V, ant1 I ) j r rcfrrrir~g :III li11r:tr tlitnnnsions 1.0 a rhar:~cterist.icIcr~gt,h, of t l ~ c L, I)otly, wltiol~ is so srlccl,cd n s t.o rnsnrc t h a t the tlimcnsionlcss rlcri~at~ive, au/i)z,clocs not, cxcocd r r l ~ i t ,in ~ tlrr rrgiotl rrntlcr cor~sitlcrat,ion. ~ 'rllc pressrlre is macle dirncnsionlnss wit11 [J 1 f 2 , nntl I i n ~ r rrfcrrctl to r,/ If. lPr~rt,I~or, cxprcssiorl is tlte

Wit.l~ t,hc :~ssrnnl~t~iol~s d o ~~rc:viouslyt.llc: tlirnrt~siot~lrss ) o ~ ~ t ~ ~ l : ~ r y - l ; ~ ~ ~nn l t,hicltr~css,dll,, for w l ~ i r l\vc sl\a.ll retain t,hc syml)ol (\, is vr:ry small wit,ll rrsprct. ~ 1,o 1111it,,y, (0 I). JVr SII:III now c:st~itr~:~t~r ortl(:r of r ~ ~ : t ~ ~ ~ i t ~oft (<::I(,II: 1,c\r111l or(I(*t, 11c: ;111lt* l,l~t: t l( il 1.0 1.0 tlrop stnall tcrrns n.tltl t.ll~ts ar:l~iovr t80 1.11~:clrsirotl sitnl)lific::ct.iort of 1.hc: rclt~:~,Iiol~s. Sitlcc iJis/ar is of t,llc order 1 , wo sec from 1 . 1 1 ~cqr~:~l,ion c.or~t,intlit,y. l ~ : ~ tr(lu:111~ of l . i'v/i)?/ is of Lhc: ortlcr I, xntl Ilenco, sinc:~ t the wall v =- 0, t , l ~ ; ~ t 1,lte I)o~rlltl:r.ry a in lttyc:r 11 is of I.II(: orflcr 0. 'I'IIIIS tli)/tl:r :~n(li?2v/8x2 : ~ r c :LISO of l , l t t > or(l(:r 0. l ~ ~ ~ t . t , l ~ c . r ij2?r/iJ.rVs l111corder 1 . (TIIc of11c:rs of rnn.gl~il,tltlc of nrc s l ~ o w ri t~ cqns. (7.1) 1.0 (7.:1) 1 1111drrt.hc intlivid~ra.lt.crn~s.) \\.'c sllall, fnrtller, assume t h a t tllc no11-stcndy :~ccclcr:~t,ion ~ / a is of t,hc! sn.tnct i) l ordcr n.s l.lle convective term 1 .au/a:r wl~ichrncnns 1.ltat vory srttltlcn nrcolcrnt.iot~s, 1 s11cl1as occur in vcry lnrgc prcssltrc waves, arc cxclr~ctctl.Zn accort1:~rlcc wit,ll orlr 11rcviotrsn.rgtlrncnt sornc of the viscoris terms must be of tllr same ordcr of rnngnit,irtlr :IS t.hc irrcr1,i:t t,erms, a t lcnst i n t,l~c immctlintc ncighl)ourl~oodof t l ~ c wall, nrltl i l l s1)il.c of t,lle srn:~llt~css (,he fact,or 1/R. JIcncc sornc of t,l~csccorld deriv:tt.ivcs of of vrloci1,y nus st t~ccornrvcry Ixrgo nnar t,llc wall. I n nt:cortl:tncc with w l ~ a tw:~ss:~itl Itrforc: this can only : ~ p p l yto az7r./r?y2 ant1 i)2~~/ay2. Since t.11~ componnrrt of vc:loci~,~ p:~,rallrlt 8 0 l.11c w:dl increases frorn zero :tt. t,ltc wall 1x1 t,llt: vnl~rc: I in t211(. frc:rst.rc::~rrr arross 1.llr 1:lycr o f t,hic:lrr~csn \ire 11;tvc: (?,

<

\vl~c~rens i)v/if?j , 016 I ant1 i)2v/if?/2 l/d. If tltcsc v:tlrtes : ~ r oinscrLct1 ittt.o c:cll~s. (7.2) atrd (7.3), it. follows from the first cq~~at,iolr molion Il~at, visco~ls of the f'orrrs i t 1 t,l~c hontltl:~rylayer can bccotnc of t.hc same ortlcr of rnngl~i(,rrtl(: tllr il~c.rt,i:t :ts ii)rc.c:s o t ~ l yif t<l~o Itrynoltls nrrrnl)er is of tShe ortlcr 1/02:

tlel~~t,c:s I<~c:yrroltls~l~lnrl)or t,l~c which is assurncd very large. Urlcier these nssilr~lpt,ions, n.ntl rt:t.;lirring 1.h~: same symbols for t.11~ dirnensionlcss cltrant,iGics a s for l,lrcir tlirnrtlsior~;rl c:orlnt,crpnrts, we lravc from t.11~ PJnvicr-S1,okcs e q ~ ~ a t ~ i ofor platlo ns flow. rclrls. (3.32) or ( 4 . 4 ) :

first, cqrlat,ion, t11:lt. of cont,inuit,y, rcrnnins unnltcretl for vcry lnrgc Ilcyrloltls ntlmbcrs. T11e srcontl ccluat,ion can now be sirnj)Iifirtl Ily ttcgl(:ct.il~gi:Zi~/r?.c.2 wit,h respect t o a2i~/ay2. From t,he t,hirtl eqrtation wc rnay infrr t,hnt i)p/al/ iu of t,I~e ordcr d. The pressure incrcnse ncross the bonndnry Inycr w l ~ i c lwoultl t)c ot~t,:r,ined ~ I)y int.cgrn,t,iny!. 1 1 ~ l t.llird c~clnirt,ion, of 1.11c is ot,tlrr 02, i. t-. very st~rn.ll. 'l'lllls 1 . 1 1 ~ ) I . ~ . S S I I I . ~ \ I

.lllc .

130 VII. Boundary-layor cquntionzl for two-dinlcnsional flow: 1)orlntlnrylnyer o n a pint0

in a diroct,ion normal to t , l ~ boundary layer is pra.ct,ically c o n ~ t ~ a n it ;mo.y hc assume t. layer whore its value is determined ed equal t,o Lhat a t t.he ont,er tdge of the I~oundary by L11e frict,ionlcss flow. 'Vho pressure is snit1 t,o be "impressetl" on the borlndary layer by the out.er flow. It, may, therefore, be regarded a s a ltnown futlction a s far as boundary-layer flow is concerned, and it dcper~ds only on the coordinate z,and on time t. At the oi~t,cr ctlge of the bountlary layer the parallel component 7 becomes r cc111n.ll o t h a t in t,lle outer flow, U(x,t). Sinco there is no large velocity gradient Itore, tile viscous t.rrms in eqn. (7.2) vanish for largo vn.luca of R, and ronserlnent,ly, for the o ~ l t ~ flow we obtain rr

In tho cast: of stently /lolo t , l ~ e nl)ove syst,cm of cqr~nt~ions sim~tlifirsto

--

witslt 1.11~I~onntlnrycontli1,ion.s !/-=0: u--0,

a--.O;
?I:-m:

71:-(J(:r).

(7.121

whore again tho symbols denote dimensional quat~t,ities. I n the case of stently flow the eqr~ationis simplifictl still f ~ ~ r l h ct 1 t h n l the i r pressure dopentis only on s. We shall rlnphasize this cirrumstnnrc by writing t h r tlrrivntivc ns d p / t l ~ , that, so
[J-

11, is necessary t,o presoril)c, in ntltiit.io~l,n vr1ocit.y prolilo nt t l ~ rit~it.ialsc,cl.iot~, 1 : say, I)y i~ltlicnt~ing l ~ e J,, t , fi~nct~ion ?r(a,,,y). Tho problcrrl is t,I~lts scbrtl t,o ~.t~tll~c-r it,sclf tto the cn1t:ulstion of tho f u r t l ~ e r change of a giver1 vc1ocil.y profile wit.11n ~ i v c , ~ ~ ~)ot~cnt~ial motion. 1,Ite mat,llemnt,ical simplificntion acltievod on llto prccctling i)n,Aosis col~sitl~:v:~l,lc :

d (J

tlx

= - -

1 dp

p dz

. .

:LS for frict.ionlrss flow. 'l'llo I~ontitlnry-lnycrt.11icIzncss is very stnnll :tntl t.hr trrtnsvrrsc velocif,y cotn1)otwt1tv is very small at, tho cdgo of t,l~c boilntlarg Ia.yer ( a / I' cT/L). 'i'1111spotcnt,ia.l t~on-\risconsflow ahont Ll~cI ~ o d ynndcr considerntion i n wl~icllthe prrpcntlirl~lar vrlocit,y component, is vanishingly smnll nrnr t.he wall offers n vrry gootl npproxin~nt~ion 1.0 tho nct,nnl cxtcrnnl flow. The pressure gmdicnt, in t.he 2-tlire~t~ion t.he boundnry in I:~ycrcan I)c oht.ninod by siii11)lg npplyirlg t,llo Bcrnor~lli erjl~at.iorl (7.5%) o tho st,ronnit line a t t , l ~ c wall i t 1 t.hc Itnown po(.ent,inl flow.

I IIC ho11ttcl:u.y oontli(.ions for t . 1 1 ~rxt.rrnnl flow :Ire nrnrly tho snnic
3

it, is I,rno t,lint,,as distinct from the rase of oreoping inot,ior~,. 1 1 ~t1011-Iit1rar t c:l~nmrtrr of t,ho Nnvirr-Stoltrs oqttatio~l 11n.sbeen prrsctrvetl, hut of t,hc t.11rreorigir~nl t~cl~rnt~io~ts li)r 11, I,, nntl p of t . 1 1 ~lwo-tlirnrnsiot~iLIIlow problrtrl, ono, I,l~c cclurlt,iot~01' rnot,iott nor~nalL tho wall, 11n.s been clroppctl con~plct,ely. o Thns tho number of 11rllinc)wrrs llns I)c,rn r c d ~ ~ r c Ijy orlo. l ' l ~ c r r rcrnnirls n s?jst,cni of t.wo s i ~ r t ~ t l l ~ : ~ .t.tll~:~.l.io~~s tl ~~col~s Sor t j I l ( * t.\vo I I ~ ~ ~ I I O W I I& S ~ , I I ( I 1 . 'Iqh<:pr(:ssIlro <;c:~sotll,o IN- : I I I 11111<tto\v1t I 1 1'11t1rtiolt :111tl (:an now be oval~~nt,etl from t.l~c pol,cnI,inl flow solr~tiotlfor 1,11(? botlw n.it.11 t l ~ c nit1 of the Rcrnonlli cqunt.ion. I?r~l.t,hcr, onn viscor~st.r.r~l~ the rrr~~:sir~iny in rtlr~ntiott of mot.ion has also b c r t ~tlroppcd. I'innlly, wc shall no1.c t.hn1, t h e rst.irnnt,ion of (.It(: I ~ o l ~ t ~ t l n r y - l : ~I y (r. ~<~ I ( ~ si lsl ~I ~ I I t't111. (7.4) sl~owcdt.ltnt d 1 (7.13) 'I'l~c lirct, l h n t 0 11; , infcrrntl frorn t . 1 1 ~t:xnnt sol~t~.iotts ~ 1 1 t - N~~\:it.~'-SIolit*s of tv!~l:~tiorls, t . l ~ c r r l ~ y is conlirn~ctl. The r~cin~rricxl rocffic:irtrt., sl.ill tr~issil~g c . c l t ~ . (7.I:{), ill will t,llrn onl. l o br cc1un.l t205 for t11r rasr of n flnt, plate a t zrro it~(.i(l('~~t.(,. I I 1, \\.II~* will nionn t . I ~ t : tlislancc front ills Icntling ctlgn. ,.11r prcc:rtling tlcrivnlions wnro rrl:~l.c:tll,o a flat. ~ ) l n l t . . 11111. l,l~t~l.o 1 1 0 t l i l l i c : ~ ~ l l ~ I is c:xt.t:t~tli~~g t21~cnto 1,llr casc of 81. c:l~rvr:tl w:~ll [2(q. \\!II(.II Illis is tlot~t-,t , is ~ I I I I I I I l i I.llat, eqr~nt~ions (7.10) t,o (7.12) cont.it~r~c Ilc apj)licnl)lr 011 c:ot~tlitiot~ t.o t,lt:~l. . i ~ t % t t>~~rvnl.nrr no(, C I I R I I ~ C ~ I ) r i ~ p t , ns \vo~tItl1)o t,11o C:I.S~ \ v i l , l ~sI1:1.r1)( ~ l g , ' ~ . tlors Iy ,1 11(* j)rcscnt n r g ~ ~ r n c n ts s ~ ~ r n catt f,hc ont8set, 0l1:~t. 1.110 v i s t ' o ~ i l .:I~ a tl 1liv.l~1 I I ~ ,
it1

Slltntnirlg I I ~ ,\vr nrt- now in ;I ~ ) o s i t i o ~ ~ t.0 writ.(: r l o w ~t.l~o ~ sitnl)lifir~tlN:~vicr\Vc ng:l,it~ Stoltrs rc,r~ntions,Irtlowrl :IS I'vrotd/l'.s br:711i~rlro~/-lrr?lrr ~r~tctrtio~ts. r n l . l ~ r ~ ~ t,o ( l i ~ ~ ~ e t ~ s iq irt ~~ ~ ~ ~ t . i:t tilrIs , o l ) t : ~ i:t ~ o : nl l (

flow ~sscnt~inlly only in n vory lllirl I:t.ycr. 1 L sltor~ltl Ijc rc-c*orrlt.tl.I~owc~vc.r, I.II:II. ;~t,lcn~pt,s been mntle L dcrivc the bonr~rlnry-1:tyort ~ t l ~ ~ a t , if'rorns hnvo o or~ N:tvirl.St,okos ocltlnl.ions it1 a purely n~:at<hrrnnt.it-nl way, t , l ~ x is \vit,l10111. IIbr :rtlol)tior~ol' l pltysicnlly ~ ) I : ~ i ~ s i(:or~ccpts1241. l~lc

pot,c~nli:~l flow I r ( . r . l ) is to I)(. t ~ r ) ~ ~ s i t l rI<tto\vtl: i f . t l t ~ l r r n ~ i ~1.l1t: sI)rc,ssilrc rrd rt~ tlistril)tll iol~t v i l l t tI1t3 :lit1 ol' r:t111. ( 7 5 ) . 1 1 1 :~tltliIion,:I snit:~l)lr ) o ~ ~ ~ ~ t l r ? r y - IIOW r r I lny n~ttsfl)r ~)rrsrril)t*tl Ihr- \vI~oIt. !/ t.c.gic~l~ ovvr .r. 1111(1tsr (-ot~sitl(-r:lt lor iotl illsli~nt. .- 0. 1
'I'll?
t . l ~ ( b

I t . is alrcbntly possible t,o clrnw sonlo i r n p o r t : ~ ~r~ t , ~ c , l l ~ s i fro111t11r l ) r t ~ t ' t . t l i ~ ~ ~ o~ or~s ~ l ~ ~ l i l ~ o r n t i .ov. swil~l~ol~t, ~ ~ S ( : I I S S ~ ,IlI~q11t>st,in11' t l ~ ItI~I ~ I I I O ~ I So l ' i ~ l t t y r n f i o ~ ~ . n , first! t ~r ol I

VII. Horl~~rl;~r,v-l;~~er t~clr~:tt.iotls t,\\o-tli~ll~~rsiol~nI bonntlnry Inyrr for flow:

011 ;I

plr1t.c

c. A remark on the inBgrat.ion of the boundary-layer equntions

71
T

133

,I .I)(: fi~.stin~l)orl,;l~lt, ;lns\vt;r is t,n t l t - l , r r n ~ i ~ ~ c c i r ( : ~ ~ ~ n s t n n 1111c1cr I,ltc rrs tJrtrst,ion r q u a t i o n s F r o m eqn. (7 11) wit.11 t h e bolrnclary contlitiorls w h i c l ~snlnc 01' 1I1r rc>t.;rrtlrtl llrritl in 1,Itt: I ) o l ~ ~ l t l n r y laycr (,an I)c t,r:lnsportctl in1.o ?/ = 0 t h e rnnin st.rc>:lln o r , ill ot,llcr wortls. !,I fir?(! w l ~ c ! ~ .p ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - t ~ f I I ~ ~ ~ l ~ C C ~ ~ ~ \ \ l I f ~ ~ l l l f , l ~ ~ ) ~ \ y l l I I I : IO C ( . I I\~ . I I ~ Ix rc-gioll wit.11 :HI :rtlvrrsc: prcssrlrc gratlionl, cxist.s nlotrg t h c ~ V I w;:ll, l h r rc,t.nrtlt.tl llr~irl~)nrt.icIt\s (.annot., in gcncrill, pcnct,mt.c t,oo far ii1t.o t.ht, rcgion o f inc:rrnsotl I)r.cssllrc n\ving 1.0 t,llrir srn:tll I t i ~ ~ c t energy. 'l'llns t.11~:I)oltntl:lry Iaycr ic is tlvllct.t.rtl sitl(.\v;~ysI'ronr t l ~ cwall, scparat,cs from il, nrrd moves int.0 t.hr 1nnil1 sl.rc.;1111, Fig. 7.2. 111gonc*r:~l tho flllitl pxrl,irlt:s I)c:l~intlt,hi: point of srpnrat,ion follow thc. Ilrcbssl1rr gt.:ltlirt~l,; t t r t l nlovc, in a tlirrt:liorl opposi1,c: t o t.11t: r x t r r n a l s11,ram.

v =- 0 wc 11;lvr a t

111 t h e irulnediat,e r~cigllbourhoodof t h e wall t h e c n r v a t n r e of t,he volocit,y profile depentls only o n t h e pressure gradient, a n d t.he c u r v a t u r e of t h e velocit.y profile a t t h e wnll changes its sign with t h e pressure gradient. P o r flow with dccrcasing pressure (acceleratetl flow, d p l d x < 0 ) we h a v e from eqn. (7.15) t h a t (a2u/ay2),,,, 0 a n d , therefore, a2u/ay2 < 0 o v e r t h e whole width of t h e lpoundary layer, Fig. 7.3. JII t h e region of pressure incroase (dccelcrntctl flow, d p / d x > 0) we fi n d (a2u/ay2) 1 0. Since, however, in a n y case a2u./ay2 < 0 at, a largc distance from t h e wall, Lllerc m u s t exist a point for which a 2 f ~ / a y = 0. l?his is a point of inflexiont of t,he v ~ l o c i t ~ y 2 1)rofilc in t h e bollntl:lry layer, Fig. 7.4.
: T

;I)

(1 ' "
r
7

3~ o ' O i

( ( y );~($1'' O
o i r of :
I

')

Fig. 7.2. Sepnration of tlin 11ot111d;trylayer. l'low past :i Imdy wit11 soparnt,ion (S = point t of s~pnrat~ion). ) ) Shape of st.rmr~llines near 11oitltof sepnrat.ion. r) \'elorit.y tlist.ril)ittio~~ near tile point of separation (PI point of in"cxin11)
7;

I l ~ r . ~ i o i n l sc.lt:~r:~.tio~~ of i:; tlofit~ctl:IS 1,I1r litnit I)et,wecrl forwar(l rind reverse flow in t.lrc. I:Iyvr in t,I~t,i~nt~~c:tli:lt.c ncigl~l)o~lrllootl t,lre wall, o r of
ai n:

()

ay v = o

=o

Fig. 7.0. Velocity distribut,ion in a borrndnry layer \vit,h pressure decrease

Fig. 7.4. Vclocit,y dislribtltion in a b o r l t ~ d a r ~ layer wit.11 pressrtrc increase; 1'1 point, of inflexion

In order t.o nnswc:r t h e qr~cst~ion whether a n d where scpnrat,ion _c$r!!_rg,-i t of l, is nc~ccssn.iy,in g c ~ l c r ; ~first t o intcgratc t h o bounclary-lnycr eqrtntions: C~cncmlly sl)c:tlting, t.llc I)orlntl;~ry-layrr cqllntions a r e only valid a s f a r a s t11c point of scl)arnt.ion. A s h o r t (list,:~ncc tlownst,rcarn from t,hc poinl, of scpnmtion l h c t)ountlnry-l:lyrr bec:otnt,s s o 1,llic:lc t.l~:lt, , l ~n s s ~ ~ r n p t , iwl~ic:llwrrc tn:~tlcin t . I ~ t !clt:riv;l.l,ion of t,11c* I c o~~s 1)o1111t1ary-ln.ynr rclu:lt,ior~sno longer apply. 111 t!l~c c?sc of 1,otlies wit,lr blunt. sl.crns_t,l~o sopnr;~.(.etl I)or~ntl:~ry Ia.yt:r displaces t,hc p o t c r ~ t ~ i a l How from tllo body b y a n npprcci;tt)lr tlist,;~rit:o ant1 t,llt: prrssnro disteribrtt,ion in~pressctlo n t h c bountlary laycr ~ n ~ t s t I)c tlc~t,crmi~~ctl c>xpcrirncnt,, I)eonrrsc t h e cxt,crnn.l flow tlcpcntls or1 t h e phcnomcn:~ I)y c~ottncc:l.c:tl wibh scp:lratiotr. 'I'hc fact t,l~at, sepamt,iorl in st,catly flow occnrs o r l y in tlccclcratcd flow (tlp/tl.~: 0) > can I)(? rnsily irlft:rrctl from a. c o n ~ i t l e m t ~ i oof t h e relxt.ion t ~ e t ~ w e ct h e prcssllrc n n gr:ltlic~rlt,tlp/tl.r nntl lfhc vcloci1,y tlisl.ril)nl,ion II.(?J) with t.llc nit1 of t h e bonntlxry-layer

It follows t.hat in Llie region of ret.nrtlct1 pol,crltial flow t.hc vclocity prolilo ill t,Ile bonntlary l n y r r always displays a point of inflexion. Sincc Lhc vcloc:it,y prolilt. ; ~ t ,t,ho point of sny)nmt.ion : ~ n dwith n 'rro l,:tngc!nt rnnst, I1:lvo r~ point. of i t ~ l l t ~ u i o t ~ , it, follows l.l~;iI. sc.l);ll:tl,ion (.:it1 only oc:c:ur wl~c:nt . l ~ c ? pol,cr~l,iitlIlow is r.c*l.:~~.tIt!tI.
c. A r e m a r k on tlic integration of tlic bnundnry-lnyer rquntinns In order to integr:lto t . 1 1 ~ boondary-layer eq~zations, whet,l~cr thc r~on-st.oady it1 case, cqns. (7.7) and (7.8), or in the shady case, cqna. (7.10) and (7.11), it is olkn convenirnl to int,rotl~lcr n stream fi~nolion yt(x, y, 1) defined by
U =

av
ay

'

. = - aax~ '
i4

(7.17) inll)ort.atlt

'I'll~velonit,y profile n.t, the point, of ~rpnrnt,iorris seen to Ilave a perpendicrllnr t.nngent a t the will sllow regions of reverswall. 'Cho ve1ocit.y profiles clownutrennl fro111tllo point of ~eparatiorl otl flow near tho wall, l'ig. 7 . 2 ~ .

Tho exisknce of a poi111 irlllcxion in tlic vclocil,y profiln in tllr bollt~diiryIxyer of Tor its stability (trnr~eitiot~ lanlinar to turhtllent. flow), Reo Chap. XVI. from

134

V J I . I%o~tnt~nry-~nycr cr(~~at.iorrs ~wo-t~i~r~et~sio~lnI for flo\v; 1rn111ldary layer

or1 R

pI:it,(:

r. The bol~ndary lnyrr along a flnt plnte

l,o know the velocit,y gmdicnt i ~ tllc \v;lll, which cat1 be ncllicved only t.lirolrg11 t

3 36

rr(lla1,ion of I.lic 1.l1ircl order 101.111~ strc::~n~ fi~nc:lion. bo~~ncl:lry 'Thr wllicllis portin](jifirc~l(i:ll c:olltlit,ionR rc.clllirn t.llo nl,n(.ll(,co r slip 111 1,Ilr \ ~1111, r Rv~/i)!/ -= iJ~lr/i):r 0 111. 1,Itctvltll. I c l ~ r11c.1.. I IIO 1 o = : l illit,inl GOtlllitiOll 1 = 0 ~)rr~~:ril)(:sve10cit.y (liuLrihl~l.io~~ i)y~/i!!/o v ~ r \v11olcrrgiotr. nt Lllc ZI = 1.l1c i f t,ilin eqnntiollfor t]lc ~(,rcanr fl~nction con~pnrccl in \viI.lr t . 1 1 ~cornplet~c Nnviel.-St.okesequations (4.\0), it, i8Reen tljat, Lllc: bonncloty-layer R . R S I ~ ~ I P ~ ~ IOI I~ ~ S retlrlccd t . 1 1 ~ VO orclrr ol tlrc cqunt,ion from foltr to Llrrco. 1. Skin friction '

inf,rgr:~tio~r tJ1e clifTcrclrt.in1cqclat.iot~s bltc bourltlnry layer. I f ' scp:~rnl.iol~ of of occllrs I)c,forc tlrc: tmiling erigo, cqn. (7.20) is vn.litl only ns far as 1,llc poilrt of srl)nrnt.io~r. I~~~rt.Irrrrnoro, . 1 1 ~Intninnr bor~lltlaryI:~,yrr if 1 t,rnnsForms inlo n f,rlrl~rtlcllt, onc, cqn. (7.20) applies oldy as far ns t.lle point of tmnsitiorl. Rchinrl tllc poir~tof t,r:~nsit,iorl t 1 t r r . c - is 1,11rl111lcr1t, fric1.io11,1,o I)c tlis(:t~ssc:tli t 1 (!11:1.p.X X 11. If srl)aml,iorr cxists, 1.11~1)rcssurc tlisttribuLioti tliffcrs coltsit1cr;tbly fronl t , l ~ : ~ t in 1,llc i(leal ca.so of frictionless, pot~enLi;tlflo\v arltl pressure, or form tlmg, rcsrllt,~. ,I ,llrts t,llc l)o~~r~tlary-lnycr tllcory cxpl;tir~st.hc facl tll:~t,in atltlit,iot~t,o sltitl fric~f,iotr, llrrrr is :tiso fort11 (lr:~g,I ) I I L ils ningrlit,t~(l(: (:;LIIIIO~, l)c (::LI(~III;~Lc:(I \vit,Il l,11(: nil1 01' ~ I I ( . l)o~lntlnry-layer t,llcory in n simple nlnnncr. A rouglr cst,in~ntc will, however, I,c given in (:ltn,p. XXV.
e. T l ~ c bo1111dnrylayer nlong n flnt lrlnte

\VlIat1 1 . 1 1 ~ I)ollntl;lry-Iayer rqust,ions arc int~rgrnt~ctl,1 1 ~~ r l o c : i l .tlislribut.ion t. ~ (:an I)c tledr~ood, ant1 t,lrr position of t,hr point of srpnmt.ion cat1 be dctcrrninotl. 'I'lris, in t,urn, perrnit,s us t.o m.lculxt,c 1.hc visro~lstlrng (skin frirt.ion) nrorlrltl t,llo st~rfnce Iry a silnplc process of int,carnt,itrg tlrr sllmring st,rrss nt t.hc ~ r n l lover t h r sllrfaco of t.llo 1)otly. 'I'l~csllrnring st.rrss at, t.he \v:lll is

TI] Ollc R I I C C ~ C ( ~ ~ I I ~ cl~nj)t,cr sllnll ~lctlllcc n11n11)crof gcncrnl ~lrol~rrt.ies wo a of 1,Ilctliffcrcntial oq~lntions tJrc bourltlar.y layor. Ilowcvrr, I)cforo cloitig ~ , I I : I ~ ,it, srrtrrs of o l ) l ) o r t ~ n ~o c:onsitl(:r n o w n spocifio cxnrnl)lc anti so 1.0 gain grcnlcr I;trnili;tril.g tc will1 (,he eq~lahiolrs.'l'hc simplest. cxarnplc of tAc npplication of t , l ~ c bountlnry-ln.ycr rq11nIions is snhrrlntl try t,hc flow nlorrg n very tJlirl flat p1:il.c. 1Ti.st~oricnll.yl,Ilis \v;is 111(: lirsl, oxnrnl)lc illl~sLr~it.it~g ~ i t ~ l ) l i ( ~ : ~of i o ~ l 1110 ( . I'r:ti~(lt.I's O O I I I I ( ~ ~ L ~ ~ - ~I.l1(-01.y; ~ :I~V(~I

L),

= 1)
1-0

to cos

4 ds ,

I'ig. 7.6. Tllr I)ol~ntlnryInyrr 1iIo11ga Il:~t. 1rlnt.c at zrro i~~ci~lr?nce

il. was clisc~rssetl t)y 11. B l i ~ s i ~ t s i l l Itis (Ioclor's t,llcsis at, (~oct.t.ingrtl.llrt 1.11~ [2] lentling edge of t.he plate L)c a t x - 0, the ~ ) l n t ebeing ~>arnllclo the r-nxis ant1 = t infinit.cly long tlownst,ream, Fig. 7.6. Wc shall corlsidrr sleatly flow wit,h ;I frccst,ron.m volocitty, [I,, wlliclr is pnmllrl to the x-axis. Tlrc vclooity of p0t~cr11,inl flow oclnnliorls is corlst,xnt in this case, and, thcrcforc, dp/dx z 0. Tho bo~lndary-lnper (7.10) t,o (7.12) I)cco~nc

ovc,r (.Ilc \vllol(: srtrfntrt~.f r o n ~ st.:~gnation t.lrn poinl, :rl, t.11(:Ir;~,tling ctlgo L I.llc t,l.:~iling o (:tlge, nssll,nillg (,lr:~t. h r c is no sspn.rnt.ion. Since cos 4 (1s .= (IT, whrrc x is rnrns~lrrtl t i1.1~0' \vril.(: p:~rn.lI(~I I.11r f~.c~c-sl~rc~:~.~r, \v(' 1,o v(?loril.y,
I

arrtl tile illt.cgrn.t,iolr,r . Iprforr, is 1.0 I)c ~ x ~ c I I ( I c ( Iovrr t,lr(\ WIIOIC \vt:l.t.r(l s11rfac:c frotn 7s 1.11(: Icntlitlg t,o 1,Irc: (,r:~ililig rtlgr. In ortlrr 1.0 c:r.l(:ulnLc t,llc! skin frict.ion it, is ncccss:lry

Since tJle syst,c~n 111ltlcr consitl(:mtioli l1:rs no prcfrrrc~l Icngt,l~il, is ronsotrnhlo t,o suppose t h a t tJle velocil.y profiles a t vnrying tlisI,:~ncc.sfrom the Icntliltg ctlgc n.rc sirnilnr 1.0 eac:I~ohher, which Incntrs LllnL Ll~cvoloc:il,y c:rrrt7c\s? L ( ! / ) for vnryillg tlisl,tul-

136 VII. lloundnry-layer erluations for two-dimensionnl flow; boundary laycr on n plnte
ces x can be made identiral by selectling suitable scale factors for u and yt. The scale fact,ors for u and y appear quite naturally a s t h e free-stream velocity, U, ant1 the bountlary-layer thickness, S(x), rcspcct~ivcly.It will be noted t h a t t h e latter increases with tho current distance x. Ilcnce t h e principle of similarity of velocity profil~sin t h e bo~rndarylayer can be written a s u/lJw = 4(?//6), where t h e funct,ioll 6) must be thc same a t all clistanccs x from the lcatling rtlgc. We can now estimatc the thickness of the boundary layer. From the exact solnt,ior~s the Navier-Stokes equations considered previously (Chap. V) i t was of foand, c. g. in t,hc case of a suddenly accelerated plat2c, t h a t (1 I/yE , where t clcnotctl tho time from t h e s t a r t of the motion. I n relation t o t h e problem under consicleration wc may s u b ~ t ~ i t ufor 1 the time which a fluid particle consumes while te travelling from the leading edge to t h e point x. For a partficlc outeide the boundary layer this is t x/lJ,, so t h a t we may p u t S v x/lJ, . We now introcluce t h e y/S so t h a t new tlimcnsionless coordinate 77

e. Tlir houndnry layrr along a flat, p1at.r

137

-1/

In this cxamplc both partial clifferential equations (7.21) anct (7.22) have bcctl transformed into a n ordinary different,ial cqr~ationfor t,hc stream funclrion by the ~imilarit~y transformation, eqns. (7.24) and (7.25). The resulting diffcrcnhial equation is non-lincar and of the third ordcr. Tllc Llrrce 1)orrnd:try conditions (7.29) arc, I.hcrcl'orc, suffic:icnt t,o ~Iet~crminc so111tion complctcly. the '1'110 nnihlyl,ic: c:vrlllr:kl,ioll of I,ho sol:rl,iort of OIIO tlifi:ro~lLinl c!tllrr~l,ior~ (7.28) is c111itc t,cdiorrs. 11. Ulssius obtained this solution in thc form OK a series expansion :~rountl71 = 0 and a n asymptotic expansion for 71 very large, t h e two forms being matched a t a soitablc valric of 7. The resulting proccdurc was described in detail, 1)y 1,. Prandtl [22]. Subscqucnt to t,hal,, I,. Bairstow [ I ] and S. Coldstcin [1:3] solvc~l thc same ccl~retionbut with the aid of a slightly modifietl procedure. Somewhat, rarlicr, C. Tocpfer [27] solvcd t h e Rlasir~s equation (7.28) numerically by thc :ipplic:at,ion of t.hr mcthod of R ~ r n g eand I < ~ r t t a .!rho snmc equation was solvcd again, this time with an increased accuracy, by I,. Howarth 1161; t h e numerical valncs of I , / ' and /" quoted in Table 7.1 have been taken from his paper. In t,his conr~rxion, t h e reader may also consult a new mcthod of integration dcvised by I). Rlcltsyri [In].

'I'hc cqlration of continuity, a s already tliscusscd in S ~ L . VIId, can be integratetl by int,rod~~c:ing stream function y~(x,y). We p u t a

'I'llc variation of the longiIf~rdinnl o m p o l ~ c ~ ~ ti l -- / ' ( q ) is sccn plott,otl in c ~/ , Fig. 7.7. (:omparing i t with the profilc near a stagnation point, Fig. 5.10, wc sce t h a t I.llc vvlocit,y profile on a flat pla18cpossrsscs a vcr-y small t:~lrvnf.~~rct J ~ c at w:dl anql t.t~rl~s r;~ll~c:r nbrr~pI.ly f~rrLlinrf r o n ~L in ortlcr t,o rcnt:h t,hc :lsyrnpt,otic valtrc. At, tltc: i wall il.sclf the curve has a point of inllcxion, since for y = 0 : a2~r/a?/2 0. =

where J ( 7 ) tlcnotcs t h e dimensionless stream function. Thus the velocity componcr~Ls become :

the primc clcnoting rliffercntiation with respect to q . Similarly, the transverse vclocitv com t ~ o n e n tis

Writing down t.hc f~lrtherterms of eqn. (7.22), and inserting, we have

Afl.cr simplification, t h e following ordinary differential equation is obtained: J J"

+ 2 /"'

= 0 (Blaains's equation).

(7.28)

Fig. 7.7. Velocit,y distribrltion in the boundary layer along n flat plate, after Blasius [2]

Fig. 7.8. The transverse velocity cornponent in the boundary layer nlong a flat ~>ht#2

As seen from eqns. (7.23), as well ns (7.26) ant1 (7,.27), the boundary conditions a r e : 'The t,ra~nsvcrsc component of t,hc vclocity in thc boundary layer, given by eqn. (7.27), is rrprcscntc:d in Fig. 7.8. I t is worth t~ot~ing t h a t a t the outer edge of here t.he bountlary layrr, i. c. for 11 +oo this romponcnt tliffers from zero; we have

Tho prohlem of a//inity or similarit!/ of velocity p r o f l r ~ be considered from n more general will po~nt view in Chnp. VJII. The more exnct theory sllowa that the region immediately behind of tlio lending eclgo m i t ~ bo excluded; RM? p. 141. t

,---

cqnntions for two-dirncnaionnl no\\,; houndary layer on a pink 138 VII. no~~ndnry-layer This means t h a t a t the outcr edge there is a flow outward which is due t o the fact t h a t the increasing boundary-layer thickness causes tho fluid t o be displaced from tohe wnll a s i t flows along it. There is no boundary-layer separation in tho present case, a s t,he pressure grndient is equal t o zero. J . St,cinllcner [25] pr~hlisllctla syst,ctnat.ic rcvicw of t,l~c soll~t.ions TJln.sius's fro equation. 111 part,ic:~llnr,hc providcd a tli~nl~ssion t~llcchnrnct.cr of the sol~rt-ionsl l of i the intcgrntion rnngc where r] < 0 in the presence of a varict,y of bountlnry conditions. I t turns out. t.hnt t,llcrc exist, three set* of so111t.ionswhich differ from each other by their nsyrnpt.otio l ~ e l ~ n v i o r 7 + -m. Apart from t01r larninnr hountlnry layer on atf a flat platme, solutions which can I I givcn a pl~ysit:allymcaningrtll irlt,crprct.nt,ion the ~ include Inminar flour between t,wo parallel streams of which the two-dimensional hnlf-jet. is a special ca.se (scc See. IXII), larninnr flow with suction or I~lowing right nt angles (see Src. X I V b ) , as well ns tho laminar bonntla.ry Iaycr formed over a wn.ll moving parallel to thc stream in the same or in the opposite direction. Skin friction: Thcskin friction can be easily clctertninrtl from the precotling t1nt.a. From q n . (7.19) we obtain for one side of t h e plate c. The bountlnry laycr along
n

nnt, plat0

1 3!)

Tahle 7.1. Tlle function / ( v ) for tho boundary layer along a flnt plate at zero incidence, after J,. Mowarth 1101

wllcrr 1) is t,hc witlth and 1 is the Icngt,h of t h e ~)lat,e. Now tho local shearing stress a t the wall is given by

wiLh /" (0) -- a 1)ccornra:

0.332 from Table 7.1. llence the ditncnsio~~lrss shearing st,rcss

(:o~~sccjrlcrttly, from cqn. (7.30), t,llr sliil~friction of one sitlc 1)ct:olnc.s

1

nntl for a. plnt,r irrttrd on I)of.h sitlrs:

It, is rrtr~:l~~l<n.l)lr f h n slti11 l'ric~t.iotlis 111.oport.ionnl t11(. powrr # of velocit,y tI1:tt. t.o whcrcns in rrc?c?l)ingrnot.io~l t.llcrc urns ~)roport,ionnli(.y f,he first, Ilowrr of vclocit,y. t,o I ~ i ~ r t ~ lf,llr: rt1m.g incrca.sos wil,Il I.llo sclrt;l.rc roof, of t,l~c ~r , Icngt.l~of t8hc 1,la.t,e. This (.:I.II l)c i~~t.c~rl)rot,c-tl :IS sl1ou7irlgt,lla.t.~,II(, (lownst.re:~rrl 1)orf.ions of the pI:~t.(: col~t.ril)~~Le 11rol)ort.io11:1t.c-ly t o t . 1 1 ~t,ot,:~Itlr:lp t01:~n1 . 1 1 ~portio~ls noa.r t.11~ Irss o Irntling rtlgr,

140 VJ1. Bo~~nclnry-layrr rquat.inns for t,~rn-tli~iic.~ixio~~nlI~oi~ndnry oli flow; layer

n plnte

e. Thc boundary lnyer nlong n flat, plate

141

because they lie in tlic region where t h c boundary laycr is thicker a n d where, consequently, the shearing sttress a t t h c wall is smnllcr. Introtlurinp, a s usual, a dimensionless tlrng coefficient by the defiriiCion
C

where q, denotes a point outside t h e boundary layer. Using tlic value f ( q ) from Tablc 7.1 we o b h i n q, - / (Q) = 1-7208 and liencc

r ---l a ; l u , F ,
l l t c clislnncc y = dl is sl~owrl n K g . 7.7. '1'11is is t11c distnncc by wlucl~l,l~c ; i strcarlilines of t h e external potential flow are displaced owing to t h e effect of friction near the wall. T h e boundary-layer thickness, 6, givcn in eqn. (7.36), over which t h e potential velocity is attained to within 1 pcr ccnt. is, i n round figures, three times ' larger t h a n t h e displacement thickness.

2 1)

whrrr A = 2 1) 1 clsnolcs tllc wcttccl surf:~ce aroa, we o b t a i ~ l from cqn. (7.33) thc forrnula :

--

..

I 1 Ircrc R, = 11, I/v d c r i o l ~ sthe RcynoItIs nurn1)er forrnctl wit,lr the Icngth of the platc: and tile frcc-strcnm velocity. This law of friction on a p1at.e first dcdnccd by I T . f2lasius, is valicl only in tlie region of laminar flow, i. e. for R, = IJ, l / v < 5 x 10" to I 0 6 . I t is rcprcscntctl in Fig. 21.2 as cltrvc ( I ) . 111 t,lic region of t.~~rl>~llcrit, mot.ion, R, > loG, t . 1 1 ~drag bccomcs considerably grcatcr than t i , i ~ tgivcn in cqrt. (7.34).

thickntss which will be used W c may a t this point cvaluate t h e momcitli~m latcr. T h e loss of morncntum in t h e boundary layer, a s comparcd wilh potential flow,
m

a2

is givcn by ,g J IL(TJ,
0

- u ) dy,

so t h a t a new thickness can be defined by

m

e~

~ ~ b , = ~ ~ u ( ~ ~ - - ~ ) d y ,
u-0

l301111dnry-lnyerthickness: 1 , is impossible to int1ic:~t.c I~or~ntlary-1;rycr 1 a l.l~ic:lzncss it1 all ~lnarnhigt~ous way, b c c a ~ ~ s c influence of vi~cosit~y the bonndary laycr t,lic in clccrcascs asyrnptot,ically out,wards. 7'110 parallel colnponcnt,, u,tetitls asymptotically t o the value [Im of t,hc potcnLia1 flow (thc function / ' ( ? I ) tends asymptotically t o 1). If i t is tlcsircd t o define thc hollndary-lnycr thickricss a s thnt distance for which IL --- 0.99 [I,, t.licn, a s scon from l':r1)lc 7.1, q 5.0. ITcr~cc t01c bont~tl:~ry-laycr t,lliclrness, a s tlcfinctl Ilcrc, bccornes

aZ

=I&
Y-0

(1 -

&) d y .

Nulncrical evaluation for t h e plate a t zero incidence gives:

A p1iysic:ally ~ne:~ningful rrlcnsurc for t.l~c 1)orlnd:~rylayer t.hiclc~iess t.11~ is rlisplnrx1hicklzes.s (TI, whit:li was n.lren.tly i~~trotlucntl ecln. (2.0), JTig. 2.3. 'l'llc tlisin placcr~lcnt,thickncss is t h a t distance by which t h e external p o h n t i a l field of flow
mp.?t,t

4 =0.664

1 / ~
-

(momentum thickncss).

(7.39)

is displaced ouLwards a s a conscquencc of thc decrease in vclocily in tho 1)ountlxry

m

layer. Tlic dccrcasc it1 volumc flow d u e to tlie influence or fricl.ion is j ((I,, --I&) cly,
l,

so t,hnt for 0, wc havc thc definition

It is necessary to remark hcre t h a t near t h e leading edge of t h e plnte t b c boundmy-layor theory acascs t o apply, sincc thcrc t h c assumption a 2 ~ ~ / 8 x 2 a2u/8y2/ is not satisfied. Tho boundary-laycr theory applics only from a ccrlain value of the Rrynoltls numbcr R = lJ, x / v onwards. Thc rclntiorlship near tho I c a t l i ~ ~ g edge can only be found from t h e full Navier-Stokes equations becnusc i t involves a singularity a t t h e leading edge itself. An a t t e m p t t o carry o u t such a ~ a l c u l a t ~ i o n was made by G. F. Carrier and C. C. Lin [5] a s well a s by B. A. Bolcy and M. B. Fricdman [3].

1<I

Willl 1r./17, from cqn. (7.26) we obtain

Experimental inveatigationa: Measuremenla to test the theory given on t h e preceding pagcs were carried out first by J. M. Burgers [4] and B. G. van dcr lleggc Zijnen [16], and subsequently by M. H a m e n [14]. Particularly carcful and cornprehensive measurements were reported later by J. Nikuradse [20]. It was found t h a t t h e formation of t h e boundary layer is greatly influenccd by t h c shape of tho leading edgc na well as by t h c very small prcssrlre gradient which m a y exist in tho

142

V I I . Hor~nclnry-lnyrr q ~ ~ n t i ifort ~ s r ~ t\vo-di~i~rr~nio~l~~l Ilon.; I)o~~nilrrr,y Inyrr on n plelo

ext.rrn:d flow. .J. Niltur;~tlsci ~ ~ t , r o ~ l ucar(!f111corrf:~1~ions ~.IICSC possi1)lc c ~ e c t s , rc(~ for when he carrintl o ~ t t his ~nnnsrlrcntcnt,son a ~)ln,t,c a sLroatn of air. 'f?Ite velocity . in tlistribl~t,iot~ thc larr~iltnr I~ounrlnry I:t):rr 11n.s I)ecn plotl.ctl frotn Niltr~ratlsc's in meast~rrmontsin Fig. 7.9 for scvc:ml tlist,:tnc:rs from t,l~c Icatling ctlgr. 'l'hc? siinil:l.rit,y

tlisr~~ssrtl Chap. XVI, Itavc tlemnr~slmt.ctl. l ~ atllc vn.llic of this 'c.rit.ic:bl' Itcynolds in t t n1t111l)rr can 1~c(.ontc considnml~lyInrgor in a n sir st.rcaltt whicll is rnatlc very free rroln tlisl.url)anc:c!. 111 tltis way it is ~)ossil)lct,o rr:~c.l~ v:ilr~c~sof I l l ) 1.0 n,l)o~lt. i',., .r/v x loG,

Cf'

of

I:ij!. 7.10. Loral rocffiricc~t 6Izi11 frivtio~~ 011 n flnt, ])l:iln at ZPIV iriri(lr~rco l l i i11con1l1rcssi fln\rp, dclcrblo minr~lfrom tlirrcl tnrnnnrct~lrntof shearillg strcss by 1,irp111atln ancl Dl~nwan
Tl~cory: Inmlnnr From cqn. (7.:11); Lllrlr!llrnl fronl eqn. (21.12)

0 0 0 ~0.0WZ
0

/nd/rect skin friction measuremen! fmm velocity profile Direct skin fiction measuremen/, x
t

- 28.6cm

(0. 181

.~

,x-56cm

00001

. ! - . I - - \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 . . I 1. 1 . 1

- + .

Fig. 7.9. Vclocity rlisf.ril)~~lio~r Inn~i~inro ~ ~ ~ ~ rlnyrr o n n IlnL pl:rt,r nt, xrrn i~~rirlrncr. in tlio h lnry nn ~ricasr~rcd Nikr~rndso by [20]

Lho velocil,y prolil(:s :it v:triows tlistanccs z from t.Irc Ir:~rling ctlge prrtliclotl 11.y t,he t l ~ e o r yis confirmotl by t.ltcse mcn.snrcmc~~t~s. c T l ~ shapc of the vclocit,~.~)rofilc a.grees eql~allywall with t(11at calcr~lat.ctlwit.11 l.lxc :~itlof the tltcory. 'rhc rrlat.ion l>ct,mrcn t.hc dinirnsiortlcss h o ~ ~ r t t l n . r y - l : i ~ r t,ltit:knoss 6 U,/v z and the Iteynolds n r ~ n ~ l forrnctl wit.h t.hc cnrrcnt Icngt.lt, z, wns alrcntly l)lot,t,ctl in I'ig. 2.19. '1'11is ~rr tlirncl~siotllcsst.ltiok~t~:ss rrnt:~insco~tst.attI, long ns 1,110 1)0111i(l:~ry is l:tn~in:rr, :IS 111.yrr nrttl il,s nll~noric:nl v:~,lr~o 11oar1y 1.It:r.L givcn i l l ccln. (7.35). A1 I:~rxc: Ilcyrtoltls is l~t~rnl)ers ziv 1,110I)onrttl;~ry I/, I:ryc:r c:r:l.sc:s to bc' Inrninar arltl tr:ir~sit.io~t t~r1)ltlrtrL 1.0 motlion takes place. 7'11is fact, m n I)c rccogrtizct\'ilr Fig. 2.1!) Itg nol.ic:ir:g l,hc tnnrkrtl ir~creascin 1,ho Lhi~kncssof t.110 b o ~ ~ n ( l : ~In.ycr n.s f,he tlisl.:~lice from l,l~c! .ry lratling etlao is increased. Arcortling t,o t . l ~ rm r a s l ~ r c m c n t ,porf'orrnctl l)y 1%.C. van tlrr ~ ITcgge Zijnen anti M. Ilanscn t.rnnsil.iort from 1;~rninar tl~rl)r~lcnt, t:rltes 1)lacc t,o flow n.t l7& z / v = 300.000. 'rltis rorrcspotttls t,o a vn.llic of t , l ~ c I<oynolcls ntlrnl)cr rc:fcrrrtl f,o (.he tlisplnccment t,l~irltnrss,I f , cll/v 950. klorr rcccnt; ~nr:~sltrcmcnt,s, IN: t.o
of
~

1/

: flat pl:ttc was also stlbjectctl to careful exL p(:rintcntaI verification. The local sllearing stress a t the wall can be determinccl intiirectJg from t h e slope of the velocit,y profilc a t the wall together with eqrt. (7.31). In rccrnt t,imcs IT. W. 1,iepmann and S. Dhawan [18] measured the shearing stdress tlirocI.ly frotn t,hc forco acting on a small porl,ion of t,ho plnto which wns nrrnngctl so t , l ~ a it could move slightly with respect t o the main plate. The results of t l ~ e i r t w r y careful measurements arc seen reprotluccd in Fig. 7.10, which shows a plot of the local coefficient of skin frictior~ cf' t o / k Q 1Jm2, against, t h e R.cynolds number R = 1 , z / v . In the range of R = 2 x 10"o , 1 , 6 x 10"both laminar and t,ltrbrrlcnt, flows arc possible. I t can be sccn t,hat direct and ir~dircctm c a s ~ ~ r c n ~ c r t t ~ s nrc in oxcrllont, agrt:erncnt, with each ol,l~or. Mcr~st~rcrnot~l,~ lnntinnr rnnga give in t,ho a sI,ril~ittg(!o11fit311:kt,io11 l%lttsius's oqn. ( 7 . X ) frn111 wIti(:h cff .?: 0 . f ~ f b i / ~ ~ ~ . of 111 the t.tlrl)r~lcnf~ range l,hcrc is a l ~ o goo(1 ngrecmcnl wit.11 I'rnttdt.1'~ tjh~:orctlif:nl forrrtr~l:~ u l ~ i c l~rrillbc tladr~ccdin Cltap. X X I , cqn. (21.12). ~

,.ltc I a n ~ i n : ~ r of fricl.ion on I law

--

Jllc conlplctc ngrccmcnt bctflwcen t,hrorcl.icnl antl ex~)crintcnt,n,lc s r ~ l t .wllioll r ~ existas for t>he velocity dist,ribnt.ion nncl t,hc shcn.ring stxcss in a 1aniinn.r I)onndn.ry lnyer on s flat plate a t zero incidence that, has heen hrougl~tinta evidcncr in Figs. 7.9 ant1 7.10 for the r m g e R > lo5 nneqrlivocally dcmot~strat~rs valitlity of t,he , the boutttlnry-ln.yer n.l~proximnt,ions from the ~)hysicnlpoint, of vicw. TII spit.(! t,Itis,

144 VTI. Bonndary lnycr eqr~ationsfor two-dimensional flow; boundary layer on a plate
cartrain ~ n a t l ~ e m n t , i c j n h a v e axpenclod m u c h effort t o c r e a t . ~ "mnthemnf,icel proof" ns R. f o r t,ho valiclity of t h e s o simplifications; i n thiw c o n r ~ e x i o nc o n s ~ l l tt h e work of 11. S c l i m i d t ant1 I<. S c h r o e d e r 1.241.

f. Ronndary layer of higher order

146

f. Boundary layer of higher ordert

Tire boundary-layer e q ~ ~ a t i o n a bccrr obt,aitierl in See. V1I a of t.liis chapter I,y a process have of cstiniating ordcra of magriit,ndc of individual terrns in the colnplete equations of motion. The boondary-layer equations can, however, also be derivctl with the aid of a more general theory. In order to obbain asymptotic expansions of tlic sollrtions of the Navier-Stokes cquat.iorrn for large Reynolds nnn~bers, t is possible to establinh n pertrtrbnt,ion scheme in which i
&

I f 1 ( r , 11). 1'1 y), for t,he sccond-order ~ollltionlJz(z, y), Yz(z, (x, 1'2(r, y). ctc. tJpto ~ o l u l i o t r ~ of t,l~e C C O I I ~order, t,erms proport,ional 10 E*, t.l~at. t . 1 ~ R in fric:t.io~ialtc-rtn~ t.lic>Nnvicr-Stoltrs in ~ql~at,ions, ren1:rin ~ ~ n a c c o t ~ ~ ~ t Te~ I I Isolc~tions first and sccciticl orclcr (:orr~npo~~tI for. , d R , or 1.0 inviscid (lows or cveti t,o pot.entinl flows when only field8 wit.li n ~rtiifnr~n onronring vclorit:y nt-c: nl.~~tliril. Ylrc solntiotis of /frat order sntisfy llic 0011ntlnryrontliI,ionn

Tho solntion of thc potent.ial-flow c q ~ ~ a t i o n s (2, y), 1'1 (1, !I) gives 1 . 1 1 ~ 111 vclooit,y 111(n.,0) at, t.hc \vall, nnrl I ~ c ~ ~ n o ~c q ~i~u t i o n ~ l l ' n lcnrls to the wall prnss\~ro

=-=

VR

is cl~onenas t,lie perturbation parameter. This leads to a so-called singular perturbation sclrenre and renulta in tlie neparat,ion of the required auymptotic expansion of tlie nolution into an out,er expansion (external flow) and an inner expansion (boundary-layer flow). With t,l~e aid of the method of rnntcl~edasymptotic expansions it thus becomes possible to derive an asyrnptotic expnnsion of tho completc solr~tion. The first term of such an asymptotic expansion is preciuely the noll~tionof the I,o~cndnrylayer oqr~ations.Moreover, the continnation of the pertnrbation calcr~lation allows 11s to comprrt,e further ternis of the expansion and ao t o extend the classical tlieory of hor~ndarylaycrs duc to Pmndtl. We thus create a boundary-layer tlieory of higher order. l'lre second t,erms of tlic expansion are of particnlar practical importance because we can look upon them as correct,ions to the clrrrrsical tl~eory which represent boundary-layer effecb of second order. Extensive presentations of boundnry-layel. tticory of higher order were prtblisl~edby M. Van Dyke [Dl, K. Gcrstcn [lo], and K. Gcrsten and J. F. Gross [12]. In addition, reference [8] contains a detailed exposition of t,he metliod of n~atchcd asymptotic expansions. The basic ideas of this metliod can bc txaced to I,. l'randtl; they have bcen made plausible with reference to a sirnplc mathematical example in Scc. 1Vf. I n what follows, we'give a brief descript,ion of tlre theory of asymptotic soll~tions large for Reynolds numbers as it applies to a two-di~nensional, incompressible flow. The main purpose of thin argrrment is to find an exknsion of Prandtl's boundary-layer thcory and to derive the bonndary-layer eqnntions of higher order. Details of the derivations can be found in the treatise of M. Van Dyke 171. The starting point is constituted by the Navicr-Stoker, equations written with reference to a curvilinear, rectangular system pf cooidinakn in See. IJIg, Fig. 3.9.AI1 lcngths are measrtred in utrita of a convenient length R", for cxarnplc the rndills of c u r v n t ~ ~ a c the stagnation point. rt Velocities arc referred to U, and the overpressnrcs are referred t o e I/&. The gconiet,ricnl sliapc is describetl by t,lic local radius of c u r v a t ~ ~ r e ,( z ) , nntl the tlitncnnionlcns c~~rvnt.nrc thc R of ~ ~ ~ r f is c e n K ( x ) = Ro/ll(z). (7.41)
Outer expansions: In order t,o solve thc systcm of equations (3.38), we assume the following

1/?

(7.40) The solutions of seco,til order satisfy t l ~ c 1)outitlnry conditions

y-t

w:

11%t V j = 0 , Z

wlrcrc d l ( r ) tleriotes tlrr~displ~rccnienttliiclznc~sdcfiticd in an an:iIogo~~s way nu l,l~al, i:r111. in (7.36); see alno eqn. (7.51). Thc solntion of tllc potcnt,inl equation leails ngnin to tlic rlistrib~~tion t.he pnrnllcl vrlnc:il.y of coniponcnts a t the wall, Uz(z, 0). and to tlie pressure
1'2

(x, 0) =

CJr ( r , 0) . 112 ( r , 0).

(7.41;)

The resnlt.it~g solotions do not, gcncrally speaking, satisfy tlrc no-slip condition a t the wnll arid for this reason they are not valid near it; they are given tlie name "outer solntions" or "outer n8ymptot.i~ expansions".
Inner expansions: In order to obtain solntions valid near the wnll, it is necessary to apply a special procednre. Instead of tlie distance, y, from thc wall, wc ititrodnce a new, strctclird coordinate N = yls. (7.47)

This so-called inner variable was so selected as to prevent tlic disappearnnce of some of the viscor~s terms in the equations of first order in the coordinate system z, N. For the sotnbions licar tlrc wall (in the bor~lrtlarylayer), we ngnin nnslllnc nsympt,ot,ic rxpnnaionu, viz. 16(2, y, F) = UI(X, N) t
F

UZ(T, 4 N)

...,

) ~ ( 7 . y . ~ ~ 7 ~ 1 ( 7 , N 1) / 2 1 ~ 2 ( ~ , 1N..., - ) p ( z , y,

= p ~ ( zN) ,

+ e pz(z, N) t . ...

asymptotic expanniotis: u ( r , y, e ) = U l ( r , y) -t
F

Ua(x, y) i- ...

v(z, y, F) = Vl(r, y) 4- s Yz(z, y) -t p ( r , y, s) = PI(Z, ?I)

. ..

~ 2 ( 5y,) -1-

.... J

S~~bstitutioti the systcrn of equations (3.38) and ordering according to powers of s, yicltls the into following systems of eqr~ations.

(7.4H)

l3ounAary-layer ~ q u n l z o m firat order: 01

(7.42)

l'hesc forms arc subsLit,llkd into eqns. (3.38) and the torms arc ordered hy the powers of s. I n this manner, we olbt,nitl a ncquencc of syst,erns of cqn~tioiis Lire first-ortlcr solrtt,ion 711 ( r , y), for

I owr thin srction In I'rofcnnor K. Ccrstcrn.

146 V I I . 1{0111itlnrj n y r r c q ~ ~ n t i o n s t ~ v o - t l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ flow; ~ )~on l~ n d n rl ? g r r o n n plnt,e I for isio l ~ n

f.

B o ~ ~ n c l a lnyer o f I ~ i g l ~ o rrt l r r ry c

147

T h c distribution of the locnl shcnring strew t o second order is

The b o ~ l n d n r y lnyer o f nccond order also rencta o n the out,cr flow. T h e pnpar b y I(. Ccmt,rn [I 1 1 cont,nin~ c n l c ~ ~ l a t i o n the dinplncemcr~t, , h i c k t l e ~ ~ second ortlrr. a of t to Examples Flnt plate n l zero incidence. 111 the cnso o f n n i ~ n p r r ~ n r n bflnt platc nt. z r r o ineilo dance, the rlisplncement t h i c l t n e ~ s in cnlct~lnted 61 wil.11 the n i d of cqn. (7.37). A c c o r t l i ~ i g o rclll. t (7.45). t,he b o r ~ r ~ t l n r y condition for t,he otlt,cr flow is

' S l ~ r r c l ~ ~ n t i o ofi s ~ first o r d r r , rclnR (7.4!)), tlo riot r o n t n i n 111r H t * y t i o l c l ~ 11111i1l)rr exlrlic.itly. I t f o l l ~ \ v n11111110 (.r, 8 ) nnc! cl(.r, ,V) 1111lstnlso IN: indrl)en(lrnt of l l ~ e ~ c ~ I I o ~ ~ ~ s I I~IIIII~I~~. 'I'liis 1)rvvrs thnt t l ~1ot.nt ion o f t IIP r point of l n ~ n i n n sepnrnt.ion is inrlepe~ldcnt f t Ilr I l r y ~ i o l r l s r o nrl1111)er.
/Joii~irlnr?l-ln!~rr cqurr1io)in o/ nrco?rrl orrlcr:

whcrcr I l ~Ir n g t l ~ t . l ~ a r of plnt,r hns I)cen e l ~ o s r n n rc~frrrncc. nn 'I'l~c. 8ol11tionof IIIP. \ v o - t l i t i ~ t ~ ~ ~ n i n t ~ t ~ I I potent.inl c q ~ ~ n t , i o n ~ h j e tcot thin 11011nd1iry o n t l i l i o n a~ ~ yields

p2 =

I'z (a. 0)

4 /r J ; i

(x,O)

h .] '

'rhc nsnocint,ed st,rmnilinm nre pnrabolnr W ~ ~ O Rfoci nre n t the o r i g i t ~ n d wliose v r r t i r e s l i e o n R n tile r-nxis. I t follows t,hnt in t,his particulnr cnne t,lic velocity Uz(x; 0) a t t.he wall vnnislics, n n d the solution o f the nyst,ern of eqnntions (7.52) a n d (7.83) ie t h e t.rivinl solrttion. \Ye r o n r l u d r , therefore, t.Iint i n the cnne of t , l ~ e flat plnt,e t h e second-order correctior~t o nkin f r i c t i o r ~vanishes. N o v e r t l ~ e l e ~ s , muat n o t drnw the co~tclrrsion t h a t the second-order drag coefficient also we flow described b y cqn. (7.57) cont,rivanishes. This is dne t o the fact t h a t tl~esecontl-ortlerexternal h u b s a rnoment,um term. This can be identified b y c a l c ~ ~ l a t i n g integml o f ~ ~ ~ o r n e n tovern the ~ul the whole p l a t e when i t w i l l be discovered that, t,liis c o n t r i b ~ ~ t . i o n eqnivnlent t o a n incrrnsc i n is have l ~ e c nn r r i c d o u t b y I . l l n n i 1171 w l ~ o o ~ ~ n d t . l ~ e r f t,lint tlrng rocfficient. drng. SII~II cnlct~latlonn of n f l i ~ t plate is given b y ,

'Sl~ro11t.rrI ) o ~ ~ r ) t I n rorirlitionn (i. r. for h -+ m ) of t l i r inner solt~tionn u.cll ns the inner h o ~ ~ n d ry ' nn n r y c.onclitio~~s the outer s o l ~ ~ t i o r (c. g. cqn. (7.45) for l ' ~ ( r ,0)) follo\v fro111 t.he m a t r l r i l ~ g of ls of t.hc inner nncl orlt.nr so111t.ions;ner nlso 171. 'I'hr s y s t c ~ i iof r c l r ~ l ~ t i o n(7.52). (7.53) for l l ~ r ! e r o ~ ~ d - ~ r d r r s ~ 1)01111dnry lny(*r l o o doru not, ronI,nin t.l~c:Ilt~ynolcls n111110t.r* ~ ~ ) l i ( * i l I~o\I.Pv~~~. t ly. it ( : o n I ~ ~ i n f l so1111io11s lil.st, o r ~ I r r of nrlcl is nlortt ~ ~ t ( . l l ~ iI.hcln I.!Ic V~. Iirsb-order ~ysIt.111.b u t it r o ~ ~ s i s on l i n r n r tli~li!rcllIinl r t ~ t l l l t i o l l ~ . 1. I l l i s tf 1'0 rcnson, it. is ~~ossil)le, t,~lrn,In srpnrntc the \vl~olt!so111tio11 n t o 1 sltln of p i ~ r t i nfioltltions. 11. in i 1 l hi18 l~cv:o~iic r11slo11111ry s p l i t t,l~e 1.0 soll~t,ion l l t o rr r ~ ~ r v n t ,t~c~ n ~ n d i n t o n tliul~lnc*e~nent i . rre n tern), IIIII \vtBs l ~ n l nol, IIII~RII~ t,l~isrlinc~~ssiotl y f ~ ~ r t . h e~ e r e . l an Ir Utlr t n t . l ~ e In(-t t , l ~ n tho 011rvnt,11re t . 1 wnll is nrr01111tcdfor i n t,llc sroontl-order theory, t of ~ t h r r r npl)cnrs n I)rrssIIrc g r n t l i c n l i n I h c t l i r r r t i o n norm111l o I l ~xvnll. F o r this rrnson, the prmsrlrr r 111. I l ~ \~IIII~ t x - o ~clilli.t.ont fro111 t,lrnt. \ \ - l ~ i t . l ~ ~IIIII~PSS~~I r I ~~vn is 011 t . 1 1 1)011nd11ry ~ i y r I l y tlie o ~ ~ t r r ~ I r flow. I n I r g r ~ ~ t i n g nt!ross I.l)<*~ ~ t i d n lrn y r r , wt! o11Inin t,lir prc!sst~rec o r f f i r i e n t nt, IIIC bo y wnll i n t.11e for~n

'I'l~t,

prrssllrr 31. llir \r:~ll x r r r d s t11r i ~ n p r r s s r r prrssrlrr w l ~ c r ~ wall is ronvex ( K c l t.hc

> 0).

!r2l~orr 2,32(i = x X (0.RtiO.1)2. 'J'l~o rorrec>tion ( I l ~ c srrond I r r n ~ ) n r t l n . (7.59) n ~ i i o ~ ~to l 5.5%, i n s nl, :-Ill3, (Itwrrnui~ig o 0.2y0 nt, R = 106, ( : o ~ i ~ [ ~ t o~t r ~(tfirst I~I.III. t I ~ l r l% 1 11c fnot t , l ~ ntt l ~ c scrond tern1 i n eqn. (7.5!1) tlocs n o t raprrscnt skin friction is oxplninctl I l y tl~e observntion t h n t the singnlnr chnracter of the f l o ~ v t tlic lending rclgc i n d ~ ~ r n u a e prrssnrt: tltng. Presulnnbly, n t the lending edge t,here nrises n n infinite ovrrlrrrssrlrr ~ v l ~ i c loi n t r i l ~ ~ t t p1sfirtile r 1 force i n spite of the vanishingly s ~ n s lp1nt.c t,liirlrness. 111 t , l ~ i s l connexion n rornpnrison w i t h tlie case of t , l ~ e pnrnboln of See. IXj uhortld be ~ n n t l r . Sl,rict.ly ~ l ~ r n l t i n g , 1)rorrtling ~ i ~ ~ n l yof i n 1,Iit: n (Ion. ~IIHI, n 1111l. p111t0 is r c ~ t r i c l t * cll o II SVIII~. i n l i n i l r p l n t r . 111 111ts t-nsci ol' IL l i n i l o I t ~ n f i t l ~ l ~ t ~ 1 1 t . 1 t r iS(I.~*PH II~.(.OIII(YIl II I.I'I(II~II t, * n~ ~ ~ i o t l i l i t .111, ( rlist.nnre 11psLren111 t , l ~ etrailing edge. Ilotvcvcr, I'rendl.l'n I ) o t ~ n t l n r y - l n y r r of eq~tntionu, b r i n g pnrnbolic, cannot. n c c o ~ r n for t h i "trailing-edge rlrrot.". t ~ According t o K. Stemnrtaon [25n], it is pousil~lct o ninstcr SIICII trniling-edge r f f r r t s , or, generally speaking, t.he elTects which arc exprrssctl ns ~ingrtlnrit.irs(r. g. lencling rtlpr, trailinfi edge, nrpnrnt.ion) I)y I'rnntlt,l'n c q ~ ~ n t . i o r ~ lni ,r o ~ ~ n lgrnornlizntion of I'rnr~tlll'nront,cl)l of l h r t g ~ I ) o ~ ~ n t l n Inyer. This is dono b y t,l~c:int,rodr~clion 1.11~t l r n of " I I I I I ~ ~ ~ R I ~ I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ I " ry of i 1)011nt111ry Inyers o r the "triple-tleck" c o ~ l c r p t . F o r t.110 case of a flnt plnt,r, ngnin, I<. S t r \ v n r f s o ~ ~ (25n.1 nncl A. T'. .hlrssittv ( I X I ) ] fintl that t.hc ultin-frict,ion r o r f f i c i c ~ nis given b y t

..

148 VTI. Bo~lndnrylnycr eqnations for two-dimensionnl flow; boundary layer on n plate
[lo] Geraten, K.: Grenzuchichteflkkte hiiherer Ordnung. Anniversnry volume corn~ncmorati~~g Professor H. Schlichting's 05th anniveranry (Sept. 30, 1972). l b p . 7215 Inst. f. Stromungumech. Techn. Univ. a t Brnunschweig, 29--53 (1972). 1111 Gersten, I<.: Die Verdriingungsdirlro bci Granzuchiclibn Iiiihemr Ordnnng. ZAhlM 51, 105-171 119741. , [I21 (ierst.cn, J<., nnd GrOfIfI,J.F.: Iiighcr-orclcr bonndnry lnyor t.l~c?ory. Flnid Dyrinrnic.~ 'I'l.nnn~~c!l.ic)nfl (I 1176). [I31 Oolclntcin, S.: C:onccrtring some aolulions of tho boundnry lnycr equntions in hydrodyrinrnics. Proc. Cnmbr. Phil. Soc. 26, 1-30 (1030); 8f30~180: Modern developme~~ts fluid dynamics, in Vol. I, 135, Oxford, 1938. [I41 Hsnsen, M.: Die Ceschwindigkeibverteilung in der Grenzschicht an ciner cingctnucliten. I'lnttc. ZAMM 8 , 385-199 (1928); NACA 'I'M 685 (1930). [I51 Van der Hegge-Zijnen, B. G.: Mcnsnrcn~entaof the velocity distribntion in tho 1)oundary layer along n plnne surface. Tl~eaia,1)elft 1924. [IF,] Hownrth. I..: 0 1 1 the sol~ltionof the Inminar l>ortlidnrylnycr eqnntionu. Proc. Itoy. Soc. lmndon A 164, 647-570 (1038). 1171 Imni. I.: Second approxirnntion to tho lnrninnr b o ~ ~ n d n r y layer flow over IL flnt. plate. ,JAS 24, 155- 1Bti (1957). [I81 I,iopmon, 1%. W., and J>l~nwlm, Direct n~enauren~enta local akin friction in low-spcccl S.: of and 11igl1-speedflow. I'roc. First US Nnt. Congr. Appl. Meoli. 809 (1951). [18a] Mclnik, 1t.E.. and Chow, R.: Anympt,otic theory of t,wo-rlin~on~io~inl trniling eclgc flows. (irumnlnn ltescarch L)epartnlent itep. Rl3-510 (1976). [18b] Memitcr, A.J'.: Uo1111darylnyor Ilow ncnr the t,railing edgc of n flnt plntc. SLAM J . Appl. Mntl~.18, 241 -257 (1970). [In] Mcksyn, I).: New ~nel.lioclsin lnn~ir~nr bouncl~rrylnyer tlieory. I ~ n d o n , 1961. 120J Nik~lrndnc,.J.: I,nn~inarcRcibungnncliio~~lcr~ (lor liingnnngr~trii~nlcn nn 1'lnI.b. Monogrrrl)h. Zcntrnle f. wiea. 13crichbwese11, Berlin, 1042. 1211 I F d t l , L.: Uber Fliissigkeitsbeweg~~ng selir kleiner Steibnng. Proc. Third Intern. Mnth. bci zur Hydro- und Aerodynnniik. Congr. Heidolberg 1904. Itoprinted in: Vier Al)l~andlttngcn Giit,tingcn, 1927; NACA TM 452 (1928); s m also: CmII. Workn I I , 575-584 (191iI). 1221 l'rnndtl, I,: The mechanics of viscotls fluids. 111W.F. Uurnnd: Aerodynamic Theory I l l , 34-208 (1935). [23] l b t t a , J.C.: Grenzschichtt,heorie zweibr O r d n ~ t r ~fiir cl)ene und nchsensymmetri~chr g llyperscliallstromung. ZFW 15, 329k334 (1907). [24] y h m i d t , H., and Schriider, K.: Laminnre Grcnzsct~icl~ten. kritischor Literatnrberirht. 15in 1 a r t I : Gruncil~gendcr firenzschichttl~oorie. Loftfnhrtforscl~r~ng 65-97 (1942). 19, [25] Steinheuer, J . : Die Liisnngen dcr Blnsiosschcn (~rcnzsrl~icl~t~iiffercntinlgleicl~nng. Proc. Wias. Oes. Braunscliweig X X , 96-125 (1968). [25a] Skwnrbon, K . : Milltistrnctored borrndnry layers on flnt platen and rclnbd hodit*. Adv. Appl. Mech. 14, 140-23!3, ,2cndcn1ic J'reau, Now York, 1074. 1201 'J'oll~nien, W.: (:re~~z~ct~icl~ttlieoric. Ilandbt~chdcr 1Cxpcr.-l'ltyuik I I', Pnrt 1. 241-287 (1931). [27] 'riil>fcr, C.: 1~cr11crk1111g~:n zn dcni ,411f~nb~ 11. 1111mi11s: vnn ~~r,:r~~.s~!l~i(!l~l~~~~ in l~liin~iglc~~il~-n tnit klcincr J<ciI)nng.Z. M~rt,li.1'11yn. 60. :1!)7-:I98 (1!)12). 12XJ WoyI. It. : Cono~:rning t,l~cclillirrentinl eq~rnt,ionnoi sor~lcborlntl~~ry 11ryr.rI ) ~ ~ I ) I c I II'roc. IH. Nnt. Acatl. Sci. Washington 27, 578-583 (1941). [29] U'cyl, [I.: On the differential eq~lationsof tllr nirnplcnt 1)oundnry layer problrrns. i\nn. Mnt.11. 4.3, 381 4 0 7 (1942). [:go] .Innour, Z.: lZenista~iceof a flat plate a t low Jleynoldci nrln~bcrs.NACA TM 131(i (1951).

Cf

10

LO

roo

600

10 00

Fig. 7.1 1. Skin-friction coefficicnt, of n flat, plat^ of finite lcngtl~ t zero incitlcrlco a ( I ) 'f'llrory aftrr 11. Illnsius,oqn.(7.34) (2) l'l~cnrynncr A . 1'. Mrlrsitrr I 1 R I ) I . ' rqn. (7.00) A Tlirnry nrter I)r~lain (m~lulior~ of Nnvier-Stnkrsc~loaLio~~a) 0 ICxnc-ritrte~~Ia 7,. . I ~ I B ~ I I ~ nI.lvr 1301

Here, tlio trailing edge has been ncco~rntedfor, bnt not the displacerncnt effect. Tlic diirgrnrn in trig. 7.11, rcprotlnccd from tllc work of It. E. Mclnik nnd It. Chow [18a], shows t,l~at v:l.lucs of c, computed wibh t,hc aid of eqn. (7.60) ngrec very well witlr the resrrlts t.11~ obtained frorn the complck: Navicr-Stokes equntions as well as with those of ~neasnrerner~ts down to RI = 10. At Rl = 40 eqn. (7.60) leads to c, = 0.:316 which is less than 2% in excess of the exact vnlnc cl = 0.31 1. Sertion 1Xj will ret.r~rnto the discnssion of exact soltltions of houndnry-layer equations of srcoritl order.

References

111 13airstow, I,.: Skin friction. J. ltoy. Acro. Soc. 19, 3 (1025). 121 I%lnsios, M.: Grenzucl~ichtct~ Fliimigkeiten nit kleiner JEcibnng. Z. Mtrlh. J'hyn. .SF, 1-37 in (1008). Engl. transl. in NACA TM 1256. 131 Bolcy, B.A., and Friedn~an,M.B.: On the viscons flow aro~rndthe lcnding edge of a flat plntc. J A S S 26, 453-454 (1059). 141 Ihrgcrs, J.M.: The motion of n fluid in the borlndnry lnyer along a plane smooth surface. l'roc. First Intcrn. Congr. of Appl. Meell., Delft 1924 (C.B. Biezeno and J. M. Burgers, ed.) I)olft, 1925, pp. 113--128. [R] Carrier, (. I?., and I,in, C.C.: On t,tie nnturc of t,ll&bonndnry layor near t,lic leading edge ; of a fllrt plate. Qnnrt. Appl. Mnth. V I , 63-68 (lp48). [ti] I)linwnn, S.: Direct n~crcqurcmentaof skin friction. NACA Rep. 1121 (1953). [7] Van Dyke, M.: Higher npproxi~nntiona boundary layer theory. Pnrt 1: General analysis. in JI'M I4, lti1- 177 (1962). I'nrt 2: Application tm leerling edges. JFM 14, 481-495 (I!)62). I'nrt 3: I1nrrrl)oln in uniforrn streani. JI'M 1.7, 145-IR!) (1964). [R] Van Dyke, M.: I'crtnrbntion rnet,hodu in fluid mnchanicu. ~\cncle~nic Pre-%,New York, 1964. I91 Van 1)ykc. M.: Higher-order 0o11ndar.y Inyer theory. Annonl Iteview of F'l~~icl Mech. I, 2tiR 2!)2 (I!)(;!)).

a. Drpel~denrc of

the rhnmcteristicn of

n.

boundary lnyer on tllr llry~~oldn IIIIOIIIPT 151

tlinler~sionlcssquantities were used; all velocities were referred to t,hc free-strcnrn velocity IT,,, all lengths having been retfuced with t,hr aitl of n cl~aractcristic length of t h r botly, 11. 1)enoting all tlirner~sionlcssmagnitutfes I I n prime, thus ?r/fJm,= u ' , ~ . . . , x / L = z', . . . , wc obtain the following equations for the steady, two-tlimrr~sionnl
CRSR

CIIAFTER VIII

Gencral propertiee of the boundary-layer equatione

12cforc: pnssi~lgt,o t.11~ cn.lcr~l:lt,io~~ of furtl~crcxarnplcs of bountlnry-layer llow i I I t.lla next, chnpt,rr, we prol)ost: first, t.o tliscrlss some grncral propertics of tJlc bound:~ry-l:rycr t:qr~atiorls. 111 tloing so we sl~nllronfinc our ntttlention t o steady, twotlirr~ension:~l, ant1 i r ~ c - o ~ r ~ ~ ) r t ~ s s i ~)~ ( ~( l I:lyt!rs. l)o I ln nr~ Alt,hougl~ . 1 1 ~~)o~~ntl;trj--l:i.yt~r t rclr~:ttionsllnvc h e n simplified t o n great axt,crlt., a s colr~l):wctl\vit.l~t,hr Nnvir~.-St.oltcs rclr~xt,ions.t,hoy arc still so tlifficrllt from t ' l ~ e mat31ren~nt.ical ~)oinlof vie\\, t.l~:lt.trot, vdry marly gcncml s t , a t c n ~ r r ~:rborrt tlicrn ts ran I,c n~atle. 'I'o I,c:gin wit.ll, it. is import-antft o not.ice t h a t t,he Nnvier-Slolrcs aqlla.t,io1ls:trc or t , I ~ t ?c,llil)t.ic.typa \vit,h rrspcct t,o tllc c:oorclin:~l,c.s,n ~ h c r m s Prnnrlt.l's l ~ o ~ ~ t ~ t I : ~ . r y~ l ; t ~ ~ t:~ r,:LI-O i o~~:ir;ti)olic,, is : c o ~ ~ s t ~ t ~ ~ ~ t ~ sin~plifyit~g -t ~ ~ l, t~s It L or 1-IIC r ~ ( ~ r nss~rrnpt,iol~s I)ountl;rry-layc?r t,l~coryt h a t t,he pressure can be assr~mcticonstant it1 ill R clircction n.t right :~nglcst o t h e hountl:lry Inycr, whereas along t h e wall the 1wess1rrc can I,c r c p r d e t l a s being "imprcsscd" I)g t l ~ c external flow so t h a t it bcc.otncs a givrn I'rlnc:l.iorl. 'rhr rcsr~lt~ing omission of t,hc arlnntion of motion perpentlicr~l:irt.o t l ~ e tlirccLiotl of flow can be i ~ ~ t c r p r c t cpl~ysicnllyI)y stat,ing t h a t a fluit1 tl ~);trt.ic.la tha l)our~tl:lryIaycr has zcro mass, nntl s~~lTers frietionnl tlrag, as far in 110 ;rs it,s motlion in t.11r t.mnsvcrsc ctiroct,ior~is conccrnccl. I t is, tl~crcforc,clear t,l~a.t~ with sr~t:lrfrlntl;trnc~t~t,al cl~nngcsi n t r o t l ~ ~ c cint,o the cqtlat,ions of motion we mnsb d :~nt.ic.ipatc t.ll:~t, t,llcir solrlt,iot~s will exhibit certain n~:ltl~cmatical singnlarities, :111(1 t.ll:lt, :tgrrrrncr~t I,c:t,wrcr~ol)scrved :t11(1 ~illt:~~lat,ed phrrlon~onncannot always scc nlso cqs. (7.10) t,o (7.12).IIerc R dcllotcs t.lrc ltcynolds n11rnbc.r forlnt>tl \vit.h t,)lc nit1 of 1 . 1 1 ~ rcfcrencc qunnt,itics

I t is seen from eqns. ( 8 . 1 ) and (8.2) that, the bountlnry-layer solut,ior~ dcpcnds on onc parameter, the Iteynolds nrrrnber R, if the shape of the botly, and, hcnc:c, t,llc potential motion U 1 ( x ' )are given. By t h e use of a further trxnsformation i t is possible to c1irninnt.c tllc Rcyrloltls number also from crlns. (8.1) nnd (8.2). If wt: p111.

eqns. ( 8 . 1 )and ( 8 . 2 )transform into:

u1

a?!: + ax'

,I ,t

ay"

a - U' dU' + -....c dz' 32 u '

ay'j2

'

with the boundary conditions: v' = O and v" = O a t

a Ueprrltlrrlcc of tllr cl~nrnctrriuticsof n bo~lrlclnrylnycr or1 t l ~ r . Ilcynoltls rltlml~rrt

?/'I

- 0 and

71' . =

U' a t y'' =a.

,, J hese equatdons (lo not now contain the R.cynolrls numl)cr, so t h a t t l ~ e solrrtions
'I'ho assu~npt~ions l ~ i c l warc rn;~tlcirt t l ~ ntlt:riv:lt.ion of t,hc t)ouritlnry-lnycr w ~ rqrtnt.ions are s:~tisfictlwith a n increasing tlcgrce of accurncy as the Itaynoltls number ir~c:rrnses.,,hrls hountl:~ry-lnycr thcory can bc regardcd a s n process of nsymplolic l i~itrgmtiol~f t,llr Nn.vier-Bt,olrrs rqnn.t,ions nt 11cl.y In.rge Itcyrloltls nr~rnl,c~.s*. o 'rhis sl.:~tc~mrnt, Irntls 11s 11ow to R tlisc~ission of the yclntiortship bet.wcen t(11c Itcynoltls nirmhcr anrl t . 1 ) ~chn.rnctt~rist.icsof R t,orindnry 1h.yer on our individrlal body-under consitlcrat,iorl. I t , will 1)a reanllctl t,hat in tfllctlcrivst~ion the boundary-lnyer equations of of this system, i. e. t.he functions u1(z', and v" ( s fy"), are also indeperltlent of t h e y") , Reynolds number. A variation in the Rcynoltls number cnnscs a n nffinc t,rnnsformation of tho boundary lnynr during which t.110ordinn.t,o nntl the vclonily in 1,11(. transverse direction arc mult,iplictl by R-'I2. I n othcr wortls, for n given botly tho tlimcn~ionless velocity componcnt,s M / U , ant1 ( v / ( l , ) . ( l J , L / V ) ' / n.ro f~~r~cl.iorls ~ o f the dimensionless coortlinates z / L and (?//I,). ( ( I , I , / V ) ' ~the frlnctions, marc,. ~; over, d o not depend on t,hc Rcy~loldsn ~ i m b c r n y longer. a l~ The practical importance of this principle o/ nim.ilat.il?y~ o i f respo-1 lo Ilr!/nold.~ nirmher consists in thc fact t h a t for a given body shape it suffir:cs t o fir~tl solrtt,iot~ the to the l~oundary-layer problem only once in terms of the above tlimcnsionless varia1)lcs.

162

VIII. General properties of the boundary-layer equations

b. 'Sin~ilnr'solutions or the boundnry-lnycr cqunt,ions

163

Such a solution is valid for a n y Reynolds number, provided t h a t the boundary layer is laminar. I n particular, i t follows further t h a t the position of t h e point of separation is independent of the Reynolds number. The angle wl~ich formed between is t h e streamline through the point of separation and the body, Fig. 7.2, simply decreases in t h e ratio 1/R1I2a s t,he Reynolds number increases. Rforrovrr, t,l~c far!, l,l~:~t, srpar:ll ion tlors t:~ltcpl:lcr i?i prcsrrvrtl wl~c*n process tlicof passing t o t h e limit R + co is carried out. T l ~ n s in t h e case of body shapes wl~iclt , cxhibit separation, t h e boundary-layer theory presents a totally different picture of the flow pattern than t h e frictionlcss potential theory, even in the limit of R 4 0 0 . T h i s argument confirms t h e conclusion which was already emphatically stressecl in Chap TV, namely t h a t the proccss of passing t o t h e limit of frictionlcss flow must themselves; it may only be undernot be pei-formed in the differential cq~tat~ioris talren in t h e integral solution, if physically meaningful rcsrllts are t o be obtained.

I t will be recallad t h a t with the similarity transformution T ] = y r,cqn. (7.24), we ohtained a n ordinary differcntial cquation, eqn. (7.28), for tho s t r c a n ~ function /(q), instead of t h e original partial diKercntial eclnatior~s. We shall now concern ourselves with the t y ~ ~ oof potential flows for s wl~ich . s ~ ~ c t ~ 'similar' sol~~l.ions exist. l'l~is prol)lom WILH (I~N(:IIHH(:~I t , ~ r o n (t , ( , ( . l ~ . i l i I f i t . ~ tby S.( : o l t l ~ l , o i1.4j, w ~ t l lr~l,orby W. Mt~nglcr [!)J. ,'1'11(: poi11t or d(:pt~r!,~~rt> ~ ~~ is t o consider t h e boundary-layer equations for plane stdady flow, cqns. (7.10) and (7.11) together with eqn. (7.5s), which can be written as

1 / ~

-- --/v

au &

-t av= o , ay

1 . 'Similnr* soletions o f the boundary-lnyer cquntions 1

t h e boundary conditions 1)cirig ?r. a -- O for = 0, :hr~tlu - I/ for ?/ --. oo. 'l'ho cc~n:lt,ion of c:or~t~ir~uit~y is it~tc:gratctl by t,l~ointroc111c:l.ion of t l ~ e tilrc:rrn ftrnc:l,ior~ y ( x , 11) wibh
=7 -

A sccond, ancl very important, question arising o u t of the s o l ~ ~ t ~of boundaryion layer equations, is the investigation of the conditions untlcr which two solr~tior~s arc 'similar'. We shall define here 'similar' solutions a s those for which the component u of t h e velocity has the propcrty t h a t two velocity profiles u ( z , y) locat.ecl a t tfifferent coordinates x differ only by a scale factor in u a n d y. Therefore, in t h e rase of such 'similar' solutions t h e velocity profiles u ( x , y) a t all values of x can 1)e m a d r congrnent if they are plotted in coordinates which have been made dimensionless wit11 reference t o the scale factors. Such velocity profiles will also sometimes be e:llled mifine. The local potential velocity U(x) a t section x is a n obvious scale factor for u, because t h e dimensionless u ( x ) varies with y from zero t o unity a t all sections. The scalc factor for y denoted by g(x), must be made proportional t o the local boundary-layer tl~ickncss.The requirement of 'similarity' is seen t o reduce itself t o the requirement; t h a t for two arbitrary sections, x, and x,, the componer~ta ~ ( xy) mustf satisfy the following equation ,

T h u s t h e equation of motion bccon~cs

with the boundary conditions ay/az = 0 and ap/ay = 0 for y = 0, and ay/ay = IJ for y = oo. I n order t o discuss the question of 'similarity', dimensionless quantities are introduced, a s was done in See. V I I I a . All lengths are reduced with the aici of a suitable reference length, L, a n d all velocities arc made dimcnsionlcss wit11 rdference t o a suitable velocity, I / , . As a result the Reynolds number

't'hc! bountlary layer nlong a flat plate a t zero incidence considered in the preceding
r11apt.er possessed this property of 'similarity'. The free-streani velocity U was , the scalc factor for u, and the scale factor Sol y was equal t o the quantity g = v x/U, which was proport,ionnl t o the boundary-layer thickness. All velocity profiles became it1ent.ica.l in a ~ l o t u/IJ,, against y/g = y )/ U,/v x = T ] , IFig. 7.7. Similarly, of the rases of t,wo- and threc-clirnerisiorlal stagnation flow, Chap. V, afforded examples of solutions whic:l~ proved t o be 'similar' in the present sense.

appears iri the cqn;ition. S i m u l t a n e o ~ ~ sthe y-coordinate is reforred t o tlte ~limonsionly les~ scale factor q(x), so t h a t we p u t

1/

I he quest, for 'similar' sol~it~ions particulyly irnporbant with respect to is

t.he mnthen~nt.icnlcl~trrnct~cr the solut.iorl. I n cnses when 'similar' soluiions exist of it. is pwsil)lr, 11s we sl~nllsre in ~norc? ctrtnil later, to reducc the system of partial dilTrrent.inl eqrlnt,ions t o onc involving ordinary differential equations, which, evidcntly, cot-~st,it.ntcsa considerable mathematical simplification of the problem. 'i'he h o ~ ~ n c l a rlayer along a flat p1at.c can serve a s a n example in this respect also. y

proposed by F. Sc11uIt.z-Grunow[Gn, 15a], ninkes it poasiblc to rcduce uevcrnl problems involving self-similar solutiolis to that of bl~e plate at zero incidence. If A = 612 R is cl~oscl~ flnt as the curvature parametor, the trnnaformntions can be npplicd to flows nlong longitudinnlly curved walls with bl~lnt shnrp lending edges as well ns wit,h blowing or s~lctior~ or (Cl~npt. XIV). The preceding trnnsfnrmation is exnct to second ordcr in cnrvnt,~~rc which men118tbnt all t,crms of the ordcr A hrivr been incl~~ded.

164

VIII. Ccnernl propertic8 of Lhe bo~~ndnry-layer eq~lntiotis

b. 'similar' solution of the boundary-lnycrequntioris

155

T h e fact,or I / ~ - f o t,he ortlinabe already appcarod in cqn. (8.4). 'rho stream fnnct,iorl r is m ~ t l e di~ncrisionloss t.ho suhst,it,~lt~ior~ by

This cquat,iorl was first given by V. M. Falkner and S. W. S k n r ~ [2], and its solutions were lat,er studied in tlctail by I). R. 1l:trtrce 101. We sllall revert t o this poi11t; i r ~ the surceeding c h a p t ~ r .
~ ( z )From .

10 remains riow t,o dctarlnino from nclti. (8.14) Cllc nondit.iorls for l J ( z ) ancl (8.14) we oht,nin first

where the prirne in /' clenot.cs difircnt,iat,iort wit,ll respect, to 71, and wit,h rf:spc?ot, t o z in g'. It. is now seer1 directly from cqn. (8.12) tlhat the vc1ocit.y [)rofilc-s ~ s ( x11) , nre similar in t.lro previonsly tlcfincd scnso, when t,llc st,rc:lm firnc:l.iot~ tlel)t:ntls only / on tllc O I I C vnri:tblc 7 , ecln. (8.10), so t,I~:it, t.ho clcl)ct~tlcnc:c f j on [ i~ c.anccllctl. o Iri t l r i ~(:we, moreover, the p:~rti:tl tliffcre11li:~lecl~l:lt,ior~ I,llc st,ream Functioir, For eqn. (s.!)), mtl.sL retlrlce itsclf 1.0 nrr orc1in:~rytliffcrcr~li:rl ccluntion for j(?). If we rlow proceed to investigate the corlrljt,ions untlcr whiclr this retlllctiorl~oi eqn. (8.9) takes placr, we slli~llobtlnin t,ltc condition wliic;l~must be snt,isfictl 1)y tlie potont.ial flow IJ (2) for s r ~ c 'similar' solut,iot~s o exist.. l~ t If we intfroducc now t.llc tlimcnsiorllcss variables from eqris. (8.10) a n d (8.1 1) int,o cqn. (8.9), we obt,n.in tile following tliffcrenlial ccluation for /((, q):

l"rl~rt~l~rr (8.14) we llavc from

a - D r .

L 99'

ant1 I t n ~ ~ c c

where I< is a constal~t. The elin~inationof g froin cqnc (8.17) ant1 (8.18) yic,l(ls t.lle velority dist,ributiotl of the potcnt,ial flow

:~tltl

1'

-- 0 lor

w l ~ r r rI" -- tll'ltlr 'I'll(, 1no11ntl:~ry rontlitions for rcln. ( 8 13) :I,(. ?I - - 0 and 1' -- I for 11 = r-a.

0 :~ntl

I t will 1 ) rc.r:lllcd (,hat the case 2 a ~

0 11:~sl)(-t.ll rsc.l~rtlrtl.

'Sitni1:tr' soIt~t.ions . ~ i s lonly IVIIOII / :i11(1 (lo not, (Ic:p(:n(l on 6, i. (:. ~ I I c ! IJIV t /' ~ rigl~l,-l~:~rlrl t l vo f ocln. (8.13) vanish(:s. Sitr~~rll,:~.ttro~~sIy ~i 111c cocffi~i(:nt,sa ant1 P 01; t.hc Irft,-ltnncl sitlo of cyn (4.13) rn~tst* itrtlo~,cntlcn~ x, i. c., l.lrcy must, I)(: 11,. of (~otist,;~tit.. l:il,l,cr (:o~~tIit,ion, 'l'l~is rotnk)it~(xi wit11 cqn. (8.14), frtrnisl~csl,wo (~tlrl~:~t,ions for ( l i t ? ~)ol.cnl,i:l~l vc,loc-il.~. : ( R - ) ant1 t , l ~ c I scnlo f:tc:t,or q ( z ) for t.11o ortlinal.r, so t.11:11, t l t ~ y(>:III I)<*I~\*:LIII:~I,C<I. ll(:r~cx:, il' si1nil:~r s o l t ~ t , i o ~ ~ sl ) o ~ r t ~ ~ I : ~ r y - l : ~ y carc l o or flow r (,xis1 , t I t ( * s t . r ( ~ ~ n~ t n ( . l , i o(~ I ) I I I I I S ~ , s:~l,isfy t,ll(: fnllo~ving or(lin:try (lilTcrcnt~i:~l fi / ?~

a nntl p, ns i t ran I)c ittcludcd in g. Therefore ns long a s a 0 it is perrnissiblc t,o pnt a =- -1- 1 wit.llorlt, loss of gcneralit,y. I t is, furthcrrnorc, c.onvrrlient t,o irlt.rot1t1c.c
:I.

As srcn from cqn. (8.14) tJle result, is intlrpentlrnt of a n y comnloll f:lct,or of

trow c.or~st.:~.r~t~ roplacc 111 t.o

l)y pr~I,t.ing

so t11:1l., wiI.11 a = 1, the vc1orit.y clisf.ril)~lt~iott t.llc% of ~)otc,t~l.inl : ~ l ~ t.11~: flow r l sc::tltr I:lc:bor ! for t.llc ordinnt,c 1)ccomc /

VI11. Gcncrnl properttiesof the boundary-layer cqrrations

cl. Trnnsformation of the boundary-layer equations into the hcat-conduction equntion 157

and t.hc tmnsformation rcluation (8.10) for the ordinatc is

I t is Ll111s concludccl l.h:rt, siniil:~r solul.ior~s Lhc bou~ttlary-layer ccli~nt.ionsarc of ol)taincd when t h c vclocit,y tiistriI)i~t.ior~ thc potcnt.ial flow is proportional to a of power of thc lcngth of arc, rncnsurcd along 1.11~ wall from the stagnation point. S u r l ~pot.cntial flows occur, in fact, in the ncighbourhood of thc stagnation point of a wedge whose inclutfcd anglc is cqnal t o n /?,as shown in Fig. 8.1. I t is easy t o verify with thc aid of potcr~tialtheory t.liat we havc hcrc

The case a = 0 : The case a = 0 which has, so far, bcen left o u t of account, leads, a s is easily inferred from eqn. (8.19), t o potentinl flows U ( z ) which arc proportional t o l / z for a11 values of /?.Depending on the sign of U this is the case of a two-climensional sink or source, and can also be intarprctcd ns flow in a divcrgrnt, or convorgcnt c.hanncl with flat walls. This type of flow will also be consitlcretl in grratcr tlctiiil in Chap. 1X. Thc second casc excluded earlier, namely t h a t when 2 a - /? - 0, leads t o . 'similar' solutions with U ( x ) proportional t o ep2, where p is a positivc or negativc constant.. We shall, howcver, rcfrain from discussing this casc. , problem of the cxist,cncc of similar solutions i~lvolving Lhc non-stcatly bonntlary layers was discussed l)y 11. Schuh [l!j]; thc same problcm in rclation t o c o n ~ ~ ~ r c s s i l ~ l o boundary layers will I)c tlisc~rsscdin Scc. X I I I d .

d. Transformation of the boundary-layer cquations into the heat-conduction equation

whcrc C is a constant. The rclnt.ionsllil) k)rtwccn t,hc wedge angle factor /? ant1 t h r rxpor~rrit, is cxactly t h a t givcn in cqn. (8.21). m

It. von Miscs [lo] published in 1927 a rcmarkablc transfornation of t.hc boundary-layer cquations. This transformation cxhibita thc mathematical chnract.cr of t h e equations even more clcarly than the original form. Inslcad of tho C:~rtasi:rn coordinates z and y, von Miscs introcluced the stream function y ~ ,together with the lcngth coordinate z a s indcpcntlcnt variables. Substituting

into eqns. (7.10) and (7.11), a s wcll a s introducing t h e ricw coordinatcs [ = x anti r ] = tp instcad of z a n d y, we obtain Fig. 8.1. Flow pas1 a \vcdge. I n t l ~ cneighhourI~r~orl tho leading cdgc Ilm pobn1i:d vrlocit,y of rli~l.rib~~l.ion is lJ(z) C r m

Particular case8 for n = I: ( a ) For =- I we have n = I, ant1 cqn. (8.22) hccorncs : U ( z ) = rc 2. 'l'liis is thc case of two-din~rnsional strqn.nl~:on /loin, which was considered i r l Snc. Vl) 9, and which locl t,o an cx:~ct, solut.ion of thc: Navier-Sl.oltcs cclu:rt,ior~s. WiI,ll a -- I, nncl /? =-: I , the tli&:rcnt,i:ll eclrlation (8.15) transforms irlt,o c q r i (5.39) \rvhich was already considcrcd carlicr. 'l'hc transformat,iori equation for thc ordinate, ccln. (8.24). hccorncs idcr~t~ical with thc alrcaciy familiar oquation (5.38), if we put, IJ/z -- a.

J-Ience, from eqn. (7.10), i t follows t h n t

Introducing, Furthcr, t h e 'total head'

(b) For /? =- 0 wc have nh -- 0, hrncc IJ(z) is const,ant and c q ~ l a t o U,. This is l t.licc:ascof :~/lccll d e d zero incirhnce. ltfollowsfrop cqn. (8.24)t h a t r ] =y U,/2 v z . p 'I'his val~rc tlifli:rs only by a faclor 1/2 from t h a t i~it,roduccd cqn. (7.24). Correspondin /"' ingly t,hc clifTc:rcntial c q ~ ~ a t i o n $-//" = 0 which follows from cqn. (8.15) differs by a fiu:t.or 2 in Ohc snconcl term from nqn. (7.28) whic11 was solved cerlier. The two ecl~lat,ions hrcomo idc~ll~ical whnn tsransformcd t o identical dcfinit.ions of r ] . Soli~t,ionfor diiTcrer~t,valuos of m will be corisiclercd latcr in Chap. IX.

1/

wherc t h e small quantity

p v2 can bc ncglcctcd, wc obtain, reverting t o Lllc s y m l ~ o l

z for l :

We m a y also p o t

158

VIII. General ppropcrtics of t,llc boundary-layer cqr~nLions

r. Tlrc rno~nenlrlrn ant1 rrrrrgy-irrfrgrnl cqr~rilions IIrr I)o~lt~tlnry for I;ryt-r

159

I'ltl~tation (8.27) is a tliffrrrnt,ial equation for f8ho t o t d prrssuro g ( x , vi), and its I)orrtrtlary rontlit.ions arc
g = p ( x ) for rl, = 0 and g = .p ( 2 ) -1- 2
Q

ror~tlit.ions,togct.l~er with crrt,air~ cornpnt.ibilit,y ~ontlit~iotrs. t.ho remaining rc-gion In

of flrtitl in the boundary layer only a mean over the tliffcrcrrlial ~qunt~iotr satisfictl, is

U 2 -- const for

)I)

= co .

111 ortlrr I,o rrl)t.rst?tiI,1,Irc flow in 1 . 1 1 ~ l)l~ysirn.l ~,l:tno ?I, is ncct~ss:r.ryl o t.r;~nsli)rtn n', it, l'ron~ill l,o ?/ \viI,lt t,he :r,itI ol' IJICct111:~tiotr

tlic nIcnn heing t:~kenover the wlrole tlliclrncss of t h e boundary layer. Such :I nre:trr vnl~rcis oht.airret1 from t,he ~nonientumequation wlticl~is, in t,nrn, tlerivrtl l'rorn t , l ~ e t>q~t:itio~~ of niol.iorr I ) j r it~t~rgmt~ion tlrc bor~ndary-1:~ycr over t.hicknc:ss. Sirrrr (.Iris t-tlrt:~,tiottwill Ipc oll,t.rr 11s(*t1r t.110 ~ ~ l ) ~ ~ r o x i t r~~ r l .~ : . I ~ o tIN> ~ I ~ H ~ : I IINIS ( ~jvt. . it r t i t ( ~ to I ~ , : ~I I. I slr~II tIe(Iucc it now, writing i t tlowt~ it,s tnotlcrtr fnrtn. T l ~ eqrt:it3ionis ktrow~l t,Ir(: in c :LS nlo~ttentunt-integwlequation of boundary-laycr theory, o r a s v o r ~l<iir~n;in'sirrtc~gr:rl c q ~ ~ n t i o(7J tr \\'c sltnll rcsl,rict ourselves 1.0 t,lrc cnsc of slc~:ttly,t.\vo-tlitnct~sit~tti~l, ~ ti r ~ t - o ~ n :~r l ~)ressiblcflow, i. c., we sliall refer t o cqns. (7.10) tso (7.12). Upon intcgr:ttit~gt,lle rqu:it.ion of motion (7.10) with respect t o 11, from ?/ = 0 (wall) t,o ?I =- 11, wllcrc 1.11~ I:~ycr?/ 1 IL is c?verywhLrc out,sitle t.lrc b o ~ ~ n t l n rIaycr, we obtain: y
h

JSq~mtion (8.27) is relat,ed t o t,hc Ircat-conduction e q ~ ~ a t ~ i oTile tliffercnt,ial n. rt~nn.t.ion t,ho one-dimct~sional for case, e. g. for a bar, is given by

whrrc 7 tlenot,cs t h e t.cmpernl.t~rr, tlcnoLcs 1.11~ ' t t,in~c, rc is t,ho t,llrrmal tliKr~siviLy, n.ntl scc Chap. X I I . Jlowevcr, the transformed I)o~~ndary-layer cqnat,ion, unlike eqn. (8.28), is non-linear, ~ C C S I I S tlro thermal tliffilsivity is rr1)laced by v .IL, which tlopentls on ~ the indcpentlent variable x, a s well a s on the tlepcndent, varinl~le g. At tblrewall, VJ = 0, 14 = 0, q -- I), eqn. (8.27) exllibit,~ n unpleasant si11gularit.y. a Ttrr Irft.-t)n.ntl side becomes ag/ax = tlp/tlx 0. On the right,-hand side we have 16 = 0, nntl, therefore, azg/avi2 = oo.This circumst,xnce is dist.r~rbing whrn numerical methods are used, and is inl;imat,nly conncct,ctl with the singt~larbelraviortr of t.11e velocity profilc near tho wall. A detailed tlisoussiorr of eqn. (8.27) was given by I,. I'mndt,l [I I], who had dt:tlnccd the tmnsfornration a long time before t,he paper by It. von Misen appcnmd, wit.hout,, however, publishing it?, c I . [ I , 12, 161. 11. ,J. 1,11oltcrt [8] npplictl cqn. (8.27) t o tire example of t.lle borlrtdary laycr on a flat plat>ein order t o test its pmct.icnbilit,y. 1,. Rosenhead and H. Simpson [I31 ga.vc a. c:rit.icnl cliscnssior~of t,hc preceding pul)lic*nt,iotr.

'rhr slrenrittg stress a t tho wall, T,, has l~rcrtsr~bstitutctlfor p(au/ay),, so t l t : ~ t rqrr (8 21)) is sern t o br valid both for laminar and t u r b ~ ~ l e n t flows, on cot~clition that, in t l ~ e latter case u a n d 7~ deuotr the time averages of tlre respechive velocity rotnponents. The normal velocity ron~ponrr~t,,can be rcplacrd by v - - J (iI~/r?z)d v, . y, as srcn from the c q u a t . i o ~ ~ continuity, antl, conscq~~cttt.ly, have of we
Y

1nt.rgrxting hy part,s, we obt,airi for the second t,erln

e.

Tl~c nio~ncnttlm an11 energy-integral eqrrntions for the boundary layer

so t h a t

A complete calculation o l the hountlary laycr for a given body with the nit1 of tlre differ~rit~ial eql~at~ions in Inany cases, a s will 60 seen in more detail in t h e is, next chapter, so cunihersomc and time-consuming t h a t it can only be carried o u t with t.ho a.itl of : n clcct,ronic computer (sec also See. 1X i). I t is, tlicreforc, desirable L 1.0 possess nt Im,st approxi~natc mrtllotls of solnt.ion, to be applied in cases w11en a n exact so111I.ionof t , t ~ c bo~lntjnry-l:~ycr et111at.ions canrrot I)c obtained wit11 a rcasor~ablc an~oltnt, work, cvctl if thoir :iccumcy is only limited. Strcl~ of approximate ~not,Irotls can he tlevisctl if we d o not insist on satisfying t.11~ tlifferential equations for every fluitl part.icle. Irtst~catl, t.he b o ~ ~ n d a r y - l a yeqr~ation ~at~isfietl a st,ratrtm near the er is in wall nntl n m r t11e region of transitior~1.0 t,he external flow by satisfying the boundary
-

j ~ ~ u w - ~ ) ~ ( 1dz J ( u 1- (Ir' ? 1
0
0

-U)CIY -=

zn. e

(8 29:l)

1 Srr foot,no(r on 1). 79 or rci. ( I 11 and t l ~ Irtlrr of I,. rrandtl t,o ZAMhl 8.249 ((1028). r
?

Since in both intcgmls the ir~t~egrnrld vanishes outsitle 1,lic boundary Inyrr, i t is prrn~issiblct o p u t h + oo . We now introduce t h e displacement thicknrss, a, and the momcrrtr~nl , tlricl~tr~ss, d,, which have nlrcady brcn lirtrd in Chap. VIJ. They arc dc,fincd I)y

160

VITT. General propertirs of the boundary-layer equations

9, U =

d. The rnolncnti~rn and energy-inkgrnl equations for the bounclary layer

161

and

y=o

1( U - ~ ) d y
a ,

(displacement thickness) , (morncntum thickness) .

(8.30)

sidc rcpresenta the loss in mechanical encrgy (kinetic and pressure encrgy) taking place in the boundary layer as compared with the potential flow. IIcnce the tcrm

4 p n/ u ( U 2 -u2)
(8.3 1)

dy

T C I ) T O S C ~ the ~~

flux of clissipntcd encrgy, ant1 tho Icfl.-l~r~~ltl sitie

6, U2 =

u(U-U) d y

It will be not& t,llat in the first tcrm of the eqn. (8.29a), differentiation with respect to x , and integration with respect to y, may bo interchanged as the upper limit h
is independcnt of z IIence .

rrprescnts the rate of chnngc of thc flux of tlissipatctl cnrrgy p r r i~nit, 1c:ngt.11 i l l I.ht. x-(1irectpion. If, in acldition to the displacement, and momentum thickncss from eqns. (8.30) and (8.31) ,.espeotjivcly, we introduce the r1issip.ation-energy thickness, d,, from the definition

U3 a3 = [u(U2-u2) d y
0

(energy tlricltness),

(8.34)

we can rewrite thc crtcrgy-inbgral equation (8.33) in the following sirnplifictl form:

This is t,hc momenlum-integml eq&ion lor two-dime~~ional, incompressible boundary ln?yers. As long m no statement is madc concerning T ~ eqn. (8.32) applies to laminar , boundary layers nlike. This form of the momentum inhegral equation and t ~ ~ r b u l c n t was first given by 11. Gruscl~wita[5].It finds its application in the approximate thcories for laminar and turb~rlent boundary layers (Chaps. X , X I and X X I I ) . Using a sirnilnr approach, K . Wicghnrtlt [17] dcduced a n energy-inlcgral e q d i o n for laminar boundary layers. This cqrlation is obtained by multiplying the equation of motion by u and then inkgrating from y = 0 to y = h > a(%). Substituting, again, v from thc equation of continuity we obtain

which rcpresents the energy-integral eqmtion for two-dimnsionnl, lnminnr boundary l yers i n ineom.pre.~sibleflmu t. u I n onlcr to visualize thc displacement thickness, the momentum thickness, and the cncrgy-dissipation thickness, i t is convenient to calculate thcm for thc simplc case of linear velocity distribution, as shown in Fig. 8.2. I n this casc we find: displacement thickness momentum thickness cncrgy thickncss

dl

= )6 6,=+d d, -= 1 d .

The second term can bc trarlsformcd by integrating b y parts: The extension of the preceding approximatc method to axially symmetrical boundary layers will be discussed in Chap. XI. Approximate mot hod^ for thermal boundary layers are trcatcd in Sec. X I I g ; those for compressible and non-steady bountlary Iaycrs will bc given in SCC.X I I I ~ 1 and Chap. XV, rcspcctivcly. wlrercas by combining tlrc first with the thircl tcrm we have
h

Fig. 8.2. Boundary layer wit11 lineor vclocity distribution

d - boanrlary-lnycr tl~ickncss 6, - clisplaccment thickness d, - momentsm thickness 4. - Energy lhicknesa

Finally, upon integrating tlrc right-hand side by pnrts, we obtain

'l'lic upper linrit of ir~tegrat~ion coultl here, too, be rcplaced b y y = oo, becausc the intcgrantls become cqual to zero outaide the boundary layer. The quantity p (&I*)' represent8 the energy, per unit volumc and time, which is transformed into heat by frictiorr (tlissipation, cf. Chap. XTI). Tho term & e (U2-u2) on the 1~"-Ilant1

In the case of turbulont flowtr, the energy-irtbgral equation wsurnes tho form

162

VIII. General propertien of the boundary-layer equations

References

[I] Hct,z, A. : Zur Bcrcclrnung des Uhcrgnnges Intninnrer Grenzschicht~t~ die Auxset~utrijmrrng. in I'ifty yorrs of bortndnry-lnyer rcscarch (CV. Tolltnicn atld 11. Giirtler, ed.). Brnot~scl~wcig, 1955, 03-70. [2] Falkncr, V.M., ancl Skan, S.W.: Some npproxitnntc solr~tiono the hotlnclnry Inyer equaof ttono. I'hil. Mag. 12, 865-890 (1031); AltC RM. 1314 (11130). [W] (:cis, Th.: K l ~ n ~ i c h o Crenzscl~ichtenan Jtot.etio~~nlriirporn. Fifty years of borrtttlnry lnyer researcl~(W. Tolln~icn nnd II. Cvrtler, cd.), Ur~utrschweig.1955, 294-303. 141 Goldstcin, S.: A t ~ o t a trlrcbor~ndnry on lnyer cquntions. Yroc. Cambr. Pl~il. Soc. 35, 338-340 , (1039). [5] Gr~~soltwit,z, Die turhr~lentc? I<.: IZ.cil~ungsncl~icl~tcl~cncr in Stfriin~rtng I)rt~cltnl~f~~ll bci rt~rtl 1)rucknnnLieg. It~g.-Arch. 321 -340 (11):11). 2, [ O ] Hnrt,reo, I>.R.: 0 1 s n equation occurring in Fnlkncr and Skan's npproxitrlate trentnrrnt 8 of t,l~o equntiorrs of the bortndnry Inynr. Proc. (:n~nl)r.l'l~il.Soc. 33, l'art. 11. 223 -239 (1!):17). Ifin1 - Holt. M.: I3asie d e v e l o ~ m e n t ~ Ilttid dgnnn~ics.Corrtribrttion of P. Schultz-Grunow and in I W. lireuer, 377-436, k e w York, 19G5. [7] von KBrm&n, Th.: Obcr ln~ninarcu r ~ dturbulentc Jtcibung. ZAMM 1, 233-253 (1921). Engl. trnnsl. in NACA T M 1092; ncc nlso Coll. Works 11, 70-~-97, London 1056. [R] Ltlckert, H. J.: u b e r die I n t e g r a l i o ~ ~ I)iKerctrt,inlgloicl~u~tg der eitrcr Gleitnolricl~tin ziilrcr Fliinoigkcit. I)~RR. Ilorlin 1!)33, reprirrbctl in: Scltriftcn dcs Mnth. Seminars, IIIR~,.nngcw. f. Math. dcr Univ. 13crlin 1 , 245 (1!):1:1). 191 Mttnglor, W.: 1% "iil~ttliclrcn" Liisrntgntr dcr ProttdLluchen C r o n z s c l ~ i c l ~ l ~ g l c i c l ~ ~ ~ r l g c ~ ~ . ZAhlM 23, i41-251 (1943). vorr Miscs, It.: Iletnerkungen zur Hydrodynnmik. ZAMM 7, 425-431 (1927). Pranrltl, I,.: Zur 13erechnung der Grenzscl~ichtsn.ZAMM 1 8 , 77-82 (iR3H); see also Coll. Works 11, 063-672, , J . Itoy. Aero. Soc. 45, 35-40 (19413, and NACA TM 959 (1940). Itiegels, 17.. and Znnt, J.: Znm f)bergnng von (:retizschiclrt,en in die rtngestiirtc? St.riinrnng. Nachr. Akati. Wiss. cot tin get^, hlntl~.Yhya. Klasae, 42-46 (1947). Itonenhend, L., and Simpson, J.H.: Note on tho velocity distribr~tion the wake hehind in n .~ , l ~ ~ nlnced alone t.he ~t.renni. ts I'roc. Catnhr. Phil. Soc. 32, 285--2!J1 (1930). - flnt. n . Schriirtnr. . Verwend;'ns dcr Dihrenzcnreclttrr~t~g Berechnung dcr ln~t~innren Grcnz...- . - - . , K.: . . - zur schicht,. Math. Naohr. 4, ?39-4(i7 (1951). Sol~uh,)I.: {Jber die "iihnlichet~" Lijnungen tler itlst~tior~aren Inminnror~ Orenzscltichtgleichung in ittltornprcsoiblor St.rornu~tg. Fifty years of bonndsry-lnycr research (W. Tol1111ien nrrd H. (jiirtler, ed.), 13rnun~rl1wrig. 1955, 147- 152. Srliultz-(:rr~no\r., 17.. ntttl Ilensclcr, 11.: Al~nliclrr Bren7,srIriclrt.liiRttt~gr11 z\vt.iter Ortln~~trg fiir St~riinrrt~rgs- ' L . e t i ~ p c r ~ t ~ ~ r g r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ i t : l r t ~ ~ r 1111t~ nn longitudinnl gckriirnrnkr~Winden mit, Cren7~ahichtbeeidlu~su11g. \.Viirt~~e- StoKii1)crtragung I . 214--219 (1908). und 'I'ollt~tie~r, W.: Ubor d m Vcrllaltct~cincr Striin~ungtangs einer Wand an1 Lusseren Rnnd ilrror I<~il~11rrg~~t:lric')1(. Ilt\tz Annivcrnitry Volurrrc, 218-224 (1945). Winglt:~rdt,I<.: ubor r i ~ t r ~ ~ ICncrgicnnt~zzur I ~ c r c c l ~ n r Isnrinnrer Crrt~zxc~l~icIrt.rr,. tr~~ l11g.Arclt. I/;, 231 - 242 (l!l48).
>
~

CHAPTER IX

Exact solutions of the stmdy-stntc i~nau(1orylayer eclnrrtion~in two-clin~cnaionnlniotiorl

'I'l~c p r c s c ~ c:hn.ptcr will tlcal wit.11 sornc! cxn.rt sol111.io11s t,llr I ) o u r ~ t l a r ~ - l a ~ c r ~t of r c l ~ ~ : ~ l . i o n s .~ o l r ~ t . i owill 1)c considorctl e x a c t w l ~ c ni t is a c:oml~lal,rs o l ~ ~ t i o of A n rt t.11(: I)o~~n:l:~ry-In.ycr cqrl:lttions, irrcspcct.ivc o f wl~ct.l\cri t is oi~t,n.i~ictl :~~~:~lyl,i(::tll,y o r I1.y i t ~ t m c r i r a lrnct,hotls. 0 1 1 t . 1 1 ~ otJlcr Ilantl, C l ~ a l ) . will tical wit.l~ p l ~ r o x i ~ ~ t ; ~ t t : S n ~ o l l ~ t . i o r i. s , witlr solut.iorls wl~ic:l~ ~ e. :trn obt.nit~ctlf r o m i ~ ~ t c g r n c l ~ t ~ i o n s t, ~ c : l ~ 1,s rl 1 t , l ~ o n o r n c n t ~ ~ ~ r n ~ n c r g ~ v - i n t ~ e g rc t\l.~ t a l , i o ~ ~ s ~ tltltl ~ I tlrscribrtl it1 t h o p r c c c t l i ~ ~ g c:l~ny)t.c*~., rnt ltcr t,Ilnn f r o m clifI'crcnt,ial ccluatiot~s. I llrro a r e i n cxist,cnce o n l y compnrat,ivcly few c:xn.ct, a ~ ~ n . l ~ t , i cs:o ll~ r t ~ i o r ~~ n c l a ; s.

,.

-.

\r8c shall tliscrtss t . l ~ c mfirst.. G c t ~ c m l l yspcnlring, t , l ~ c procoss o f o l ~ t , a i n i r ~ g n.r,alyt.ical s o l n t i o r ~ sof t h o b o ~ ~ n t i a r y - l a y e r cquat.ions e r l c o u r ~ t ~ c rcor~sitlcrablcm a t l l ~ c m n t ~ i c n l s tlil'lirt~llics. n.s alrently i l l l ~ s t r a t ~ cwith t,ho c x n m p l c of' a flat plato. Tlrc t l i f i r e t ~ t , i a l d c.cl~~af,iotls norl-linrar in most, rascs s o t,Ilat,, a g a i n gcrlt:rally spcalting, t.llry call :t.rr be solvet1 o n l y by power-series e x p a n s i o n s or b y r ~ n m c r i c a l~ i i c t ~ l ~ o 15vrn for t h o ds. ~)lt,ysically sirnplest c a s e of t , l ~ e o u n d a r y layer o n a fiat p l a t e at zcro i~~citlcnc:o b \viI-l~ i ~ ~ r o r n l ) r c s s i b flow n o closed-form a n a 1 y t . i ~ o l u t i o r ~h a s bccn tliscovcrctl s o f:~r. lc s

11 I I S I t o - r l i r ~ ~ ~ ~ soi o ti ~ o I t l I o I I ~ I ~ : I - ~t : I: r I~ o ~ t :1rt,1 ~ v i s t 1 t c . i ~ I ~ o l ~ n t l : ~ r y ions :).re givc.tr I1.y c!t111s. (7.10) t,o (7.1%): colrtlil

y =0:

u=o,

" =o;

y =w.
:III

IL

=U(x) .

(9.3)

111 :~tltIit~inn,vdooit,y profile ~ ( 0 , IIIIIS~, g i v r t ~ a y) I)? :I!,

i t t i t , i : ~ I s v ( * l , i o ~ :~~ y :,t t s ,

164

I X . Icxact solutions of the shady-state boundary-layer equations

= 0 and ify~/i)z 0 : ~ the w:tII, y = 0 , and == t

a. Flow past

wedge

165

with t,l~obollnt1:try rontlit,ior~s r?y~/i)ll ! (r)a t = oo . -- I

a. I;lo~v paat a wedge

Thc: 'sirnilar' solutions discussed in Chap. V l I l consLiI.ntc a particnlarly sitnplo class of solutions u ( x , y) which have the property t h a t the velocity profiles a t different distnnccs, x, can be made congruent wiLh suitablc scale factors for u and y. The systcr.~ of p;xrt,ial differential equations (9.1) and (9.2) is now rcdnced t o onc orclinary rliffcrcnt,ialcq~lation.It was proved in Chap. V l I l t l ~ a such similar solutions exist t when t,he velocity of t,hc potential flow is proportional t o a power of tllo length coor(linat.c, 2, rneasurcd from the stagnetiot~point,, i. e. for

the velocity profiles have no point of inflexion, whereas in tho case of decolcrat.rti flow (m < 0 , p < 0 ) t l ~ c yexhibit a point of inflexion. Sepxrat,ion occurs for = - 0.199, i. e. for nt = - 0.091. This rcs~lltsl~o\vs t.llnt t l ~ c laminar hor~l\tlnry layer is able t.o s r ~ p p o r only a very small dccelcration w i t l ~ o ~separat,iorl occurir~n. t lt I<. St,nwart,son [64] gave x tlct,ailctl analysis of tho rn:~riifoltl of sol~lt,i~rlsf o ryn. (9.8). A(:oor(littg L 1-Itis ~ ~ ~ t t ~ ~i tl1y1,Ite: s rt~rtgc! in(:rc~~sit~g o si , of' prousllrc!s ( 0. I!)!) . , < p ( 0) t l ~ e r c exists a further solution, t h a t is, in addition t o the one discovered by IJxrt.rer. The additional solution leads t o a velocity profile with baclz-flow (cl. Chap. X f ) . Tl~c potential flow given by U(Z) = 1 ~ xm exists in thc ricigllbourllootl of t . 1 1 ~ , stngtiation p o i l ~ ton a wedge, Fig. 8.1, wl~oscinclr~tlcdanglc 8, is given by eqn. (0.7). Two-dimensional stagnation flow, as well a s t,hc boundary layer on n llat. plate a t zero incidencc, constitut,~ particular cases of the preserit solutions, the former latter for = 0 ant1 m = 0. for p = 1 and in = 1, t l ~ e

Jrrorn cqn. (8.24) it rollows t h a t t,hc trar~sformal.ior~ tllc intfol)endcr~t. of v;l.rial)lc ?I, which lends t o a n ortlinary tlifl'crcnt,inl tcl~lat,ion, is:

'J'l~rr ~ l ~ a t i o r ~ o n t i n ~ ~ i t ~ y of o is intrgratcd by tile introduction of a stream function,

as

S ( ~ P I I from

cqrls. (8.1 I ) ant1 (8.23). 'l'hns t h e vrlocity romponel~tsbecome

u = u1 2" / ' ( r ] ) =

u /'(r]),

Fig. 9. I. Velocit.y distribrrtion in tlie 1:~tninar bor~ndary layer in tile flow past a wedge given by U (x) = a , zm. Tllc exponent m and the wedge anglc P (Fig. 8.1) arc connecbd tlirorlgll cqn. (9.7)

1 tit.rotl~tc:ingt,l~c?sc vnlrtos into t t ~ c q l ~ a t ~ i of ~ e o r motion (9.l),dividing by ni. I L ~ zZ"'--I, nnrl put,t,ing, as in cqn. (8.21),

, , c o:~.scfl lh

: -

&,m

2-

.j is worL11y of at~l.c~nt.io~r. (,Itis cnac 1.l1o elillrc!t~l,i:~l 111

we ol)tnir~tllc following differential eqr~at~ion / ( I ) ) for

/"' -t / /" -1- p ( 1

-1 ' 2 ) = 0

cquat.ion for /(q) hccomcs: /"' .I- / /" 1- 4 (1 = 0; it, t,rnnsforn~s irlt,o ~ . I I ( * tlifi:rcnl.inl c!clrtitl.iorl ofroL:~(.ior~:~IIy sytnrnct.ric~~l with slng~l:~l.io~t ocltl. (5.47), flow poit~l,, i. e., 4"' -1- 2 4 4" 1 - 4" = 0 for $(C), if we put r ] = 5 1 / 2 and d//dsj = d+/d<. , h i s means t h a t the calculation of the boundary layer in t h e rotationally symlnctricnl l case can be reduced to the cal~ulat~ion two-din~ensional of flow past a wedge whoso included angle is n = n/2.

I t . will IN: roc::tllrtl 1.Ii:tt it, was ;~lrcady givcr~as eilrl. (8.15), ant1 t h a t itti I ) O I I I I ( I R ~ Y f contlil ions a.re Y] 0 : / = 0 , 1' --= 0 ; /l=1.
7

The rriationsllip between the two-dimensional ant1 rotfatiot~ally bymrnetric:~l I)oun(lary layers will be f u r t l ~ c rtliscussctl, in s morc gerrcral lor~rt,in Chap. XI. If the similarity variable r ] defined in ccp. (9.5) were rcplaccd by t,he indcpendcnt variable i j = y U ( x ) / v z , the difirenl-in1 equatiot~for Lhc fut~clionI ( ? ) / u/fJ woltld change its forrn to

I':q~>:ltio~~ was first clrduccd 1))' \'. 31. Fnllrner anrl S. \\'. Skan, ant1 its solutions (0.8) lvrrr latrr invrstip:~trdin detail by 1). It. Ilart,rce (see Erferences to Chap. VIII). 'I'11r solnt.iol~ rrprcsr~ltrtl Vig. 0.1. In tlic case o l ar.cclcrat,ec\ flow (IIL 0 . P >0) is in b

1/

'I'his c.cluat,ion Lrarlsforms i n t o tI1n.L Tor :I flat plat^, c q n . (7.28), i n (.he special cnse wllcn m = 0. T h e so111t.ions of t , l ~ c Falltncr-Slran rclrln.tion (9.8) h a v e been discussed l i n t l e t + ~ iin 1611. According t,o J. Sl,cinl~cr~cr nn interesting c x t e ~ ~ s ioft 6hr solr~t.ir~t~ r [631, o ~ of t,l~r'nlltner-Sltnn e q ~ ~ n t i o n whiclr in vnlid for ret.nrded flows (P < 0)in cases when velocity dintrihtct.ions posses8(9.8) ing n velocity cxccns (I'(i1) > 1) with n ~ n a x i n ~ l near the wall arc ndrnittcd. In R I I C ~ Icnscs, tlle r~n linlit /'('I) = 1 for 11 -+ 00 is nttnincd nsympLot,icnlly "from abovr" rnthcr thnn "from hclow", as was t,l~e cn8c RO far. SIICII uoIt11.ions can he interpreted pl~ysirnlly corrrspo~~ding a laminar as to wall-jet prodlrcctl in nn cxtnrnal strcnrn wit.11n positive ]~ressu~.e grndient,. dplda: > 0. Ileferenro [ G 3 ] drrnonnt,rntn~ t,hnt t.lle limiting cnne of Lllmc uolt~t,ions, I ) t n i r ~ ~ d~ I ~ I,IIc ~nnxirnltn~ o W I I velocity cxccns tcntlu 10 infinit,~, trnl~nforms t ~ l r ) i 1.l1r \\,I-ll-known~rll-sitnilnr nolttl.ion of n J > I I ~ C wnll-jet in t,l~c absence of nn cxtrrnnl vclociLy -- n cnnc trcr~tcclhy R I . 11. (:lartt:rl (ucc 1401 in (Il~r~p. I ) - ~ X mhen we put, p = -2. A pnrt,irulnrly drt,niletl n~onogrnpllon exnrt., self-nirnilnr solt~t.ionsfor lnminnr I~orlndary lnyeru in two-din~ensional nnd rot,ntionnlly symnletric nrrangemcnt,~, inrl~lsive the nssocintrtl of thcrtnnl bout~dnrylnycrn (acn Chnp. XTl),wns prlhlinl~cdh y C . 1'. J>cwey nntl *I. F. Grosn [141. Their consitlcrnt.io11~ inelntle t,l~e elTt:ct.s of con~presaibilit~ Chnp. XIJI) wil.11 ant1 rnitl~o~lt, (sen hcn,t tmnnfer, relate Lo vnryitlg vnlnes of t.he Prar~tlt,l number, and inc,l~tde some rases of suction nrrd blowing. K. 1(. Cl~ennnd P. A. Libby 191 cnrriecl out nn cxtx?nsivc invcst,ignlion of bo~~llrlnry lnycrs wl~ichare el~ornctorizcdby ~ m n l l clcpnrtnrcs from t.11~ nelf-ui~nilnr\\.ctlge-flow boltt~tlnrylnycrs of t.110 I'nlknrr-Sltan type. Rvidcnt,ly, R I I ~ I I1)ounrlnry Inyerrr nre no longer nolf-uin1iln.r.

,I ltr I ) O I I I I I ~ * L ~. o t ~ ~ l i I ,rollow Pronl C ( ~ I(V.3) nilti nrc?: /' : 0 nl. o, ~ ~ ion~ I. 0 I / I nnt1 /" = 0 a(* 17 == w 'I'lris i s nlso :I j)nrl,ierrlnr caso of ~ l clasa 01' 'sirnilat.' s o l ~ r t ~ i ~ t ~ ~ ~ o

consitlcred in C h a p . V111. ISqr~atiorl(9.12) is o b t n i n c d f r o m I.11c m o r e g c n r r a l t l i f l i ~ r c ~ ~ l tial equation (8.15) f o r t.11~ case of 'similar' boutldnry layers, if we p u t a 0, nlrd 4- 1. l'lie e x a m p l e u n d e r considerattion is o n e of t,hc rare cases w h e n tSi1cs o l l ~ t ~ i o r ~ of' tllc botrndary-layer e q u a t i o n c a n b e ol)t,aincd a n a l y t i c a l l y i n closrd f o r m .

.-.

k'irst,, u p o n mult,iplying c q n . (9.12) b y

1"

a n d i n t e g r a t i n g ollce, \vc? I1:lvc

u ~ h e r cn is a r o n s t n n t of i n t r g m t i o u . 1t.s v a l u e is zero, a s
f]
f 00.

/'

. 1 ant1 -

/"

--

0 lor

'1'1111s

b .

Flow in n convergent channel

'J'l~e r a s e of potcnt,ial flow giver1

I,y t h e e q ~ r n t ~ i o n
x

U ( s ) = -2L

>0 is related to flows pmt a wedge, ant1 also l e a d s to 'similar' sollitions. W i t h it r c p r e s o ~ t , a two-dimengional mot,ion in n c o n v e r g e n t c h n r ~ n c l i t h flat, walls (sink). w
T h e v o l u m e o f flow for a fill1 o p e n i n g a n g l e 2 n a n d for a s t r n t , l ~ n iof rtnit Ilcigllt is ($ = 2 n ?I,, (Fig. 9.2). I n t , r o d r ~ o i n gt.he simi1nrit.y t,ransfortnat.ion

w h r r e t h e atlditive const.ant of intrgrnt,ion is s e e n t o b e c q l ~ n lt o z e r o it1 v i r w of t h e I ) o ~ t n d a r ycondition /' = I at 17 = oo . T h e int,egral r a n b e rxprcssctl itt closetl f o r m a s follows:

o r , solving f o r

1'

= w/11:
(9.13)

H e r e wo l ~ a v s r l l ~ s t , i t ~ ~ rlfat~lr-' r tcd 1 1.14G. Tnt.roclr~oitlgI,ho 1,oln.r n t ~ g l c 0 .: !,/.,., as wcll as Q -- 2 n r I1 ( r -= ratlinl rlistnncr f r o m t h e s i n k ) , wo (*at1 rrplnco 11 fro111 c q n . (9.10) 1,y

fi

,I ,h o vclocilPjr tlist,ribr~tiorl givcn b y r q n . (9.13) is rcprescnt.cci in Fig. 9.:1.

.-

/\I,

1,

7 .

:{,

approxima.t,cly, t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r m e r g e s w i t h tJre potent6rtl flow. JTcncc. t,llr I~otlndary-ln.yrt. ~ l ~ i r k t ~I)oc-o~nrs = 3 z 140 r ; it, tlc~crmscs, i t ot.Ilrr rxnml,lcs, t rss J n.s ~ Fig. 9.2. 1"low in n ronvrrgrnt rhnnt~rl

as

IIJR.

168

IX. Exnot, sol~rt,ionn tlic ntrady-strateboundary-layer equations of

Fig. 9.3. V~loc*itydistribr~tion in t h~ laminar Iio~~ndnry layer of t.110 flow i l l a convcrgcrlt cllanncl

c. Flow past a cylinder; syrnrnet,ricol case ( nle~ius nerie~)

169

r111mbc:r of tcrms is rcq~rirctl;in fact,, 1.l1eirnr~rnbcris so 1:~t-g~ a t i t oeagcs t ~ obe th ~mct,iral)lo t,al)ulaf,c Ohem all with a reasonnl,lo itnlollnt, of rrrtmcdcnl worl<.'131~is to IS C ~ I I S O ( I Iby t,hc ( : i r e ~ ~ m s l , : tlrat c t t,llo casc or slorltlrr botly-srcliot~s, . g , i t r t4It(: ~ ~ ~ in o onse of 1111 rllipsc, pl:rc:c:tl in a st,rcari~ 1)nrallcl t,o i t s rlrnjor axis, or itl tlte cnso of ntl acrofoil, t'llc pot.cntial vclocity near the st,agn:~t.iorlpoirlt i l l t . 1 1 ~rloialll)ot~rlloo~l of t.l~c Im.tling otlgc: inorca~cs n1,c:r:l)ly it(; first, :trlcl l.ltc?n vi1rit:s vcSl.y~ l o w l ovc:r :i c:ollsi.~ tloml)lo tlislS:~rrce tlowns1.rcn.lrl. A fur~ct,ior~ this t~ypccarrnot bc well representetl of by :L power .icrics with a small nrrml)er of t c r ~ n s .I n spite of t.llis limitsat.iorrB l : t s i ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ~nct,llodis nl gmitt f ~ ~ r n l a n ~ c nimporta~rcc tal brcausc, irr cirscs wlrctl its collvcrgcll(:c: is irrsufficirnt to rcacll the! poir~t, separation, i t can I)c rlscrl t,o a~lcttlateannlytirillly of ant1 \ v i t . l ~great accuracy tllc initial portion of t,l~c I)onntlary I:~.ycr nen.r t,hc ~ t , a ~ n : ~ t . i o ~ ~ ~)oillt,. 'l'hc cn.lonln.t.iorrcan t.lrrn l)c cont.in~rctl\rril.lr 1,llc aicl of a s ~ ~ i t n b l o nltlncric::~l inl,egrat,ion mct.hod, such as, for exa~nplc, t,llc ollc dcscribrrl in Src. IXi. We shall now very briefly dcscribe the proccdurc t h a t is followetl for the ralculation of a boundary layer wit.h the nit1 of a Blasius series. A more dct,ailrtl acco~lrlt, can bc found in the earlier editions of tiris book [57a]. llowevcr, t,hc nllrrlcrical rt~srr1t.s for the circular cylinder are given more f~rlly. We consider thc symnrelric case and i~ssurnct.hat, tllc pol~c~rt.ial flow is give11 i l l tile form of the series Tlle coefficicnt,~ u s , . . . depend only on t,l~e ul, allape of the body and me t,o be considered Irnown. Tlle contilruit,yequatio!~is sat,inficcl by elre inl,~~odllction a streamof function p (x, y). In Llinlogy wiL11 cqn. (9.15) it is I)la~~sil)le t,o adoitt n powcr also . .. . scrics in a,its coefficient,^ being trcatcd as fiinct.ions of !I. Thc choice of t,hc par(,irular form of the power scrics is governed by (,he tlcsire to render t.hc firnct.ions of ?/ corlLainerl in it independent of the cocfficicnta 14, us, . . . which tlcsrri1)e t,lrc potc1rt.in.l 113, flow. I n this manner, the functions of y becornc universal ant1 can be calc~llat,etl olxcc and for all. The distance from t,lre wall is made dirncnsionlcss by assuming? (9.16)

The prrcetling solutiol~was first obtained by I<. l'ol~lhausen 1501 It will bc recalled. from Scc. V b 12 on p. 107 t h a t t h e flow through a divergent channel discussed by C. llamel constitutes a n cxact solution of the Nevier-Stokcs cqnations. The diagram in Fig. 5.15 contained some nr~merical results pertaining t o this solutiorl. Tn this connexion, a paprr by B. 1,. IZrevrs ancl C. d . ICipprr~han [52] may n s e f ~ ~ l l y bc consrllt,rcl. c. Flow pnnt a cylinder; ~ ~ r n r n e t r i c n i case (nlasius S~ries) Tlrc cli~ss 'sin~ilar'solutions of the boundary-la.ycr cqnations considered so of of far is comparat,ively narrow. Apart from t,hc c x a m p ~ c s t h e flat plate, stagnation flow, flow past a wc(lgo, and flow in a convergent channel which havc already been dcscribcd, few adtliLiona1 solat,ions can be obtained. Wa s l ~ a lnow corlsider t,he general l case of tho bo~lndary laycr on a cylindrical body in a stream which is pcrperltlicrllnr to its axis. The method of solut,ion was first given by IT. l3lasius [4]; it was clcvelopetl further h y I<. Hiemenz [39] and I,. 1Iowarth [40]. It is necessary t o dist,inpuis1r here two cascs depcntling on whctlrcr the cylinder is symmetrical nbou: an ,?.xis which is pamilel t,o the stream a t a large distance from the body or not,. \?'e shall rrfcr t,o tlrcse two cascs a s t,o the symmetrical and asymlnetrical case, rc~pect~ivc1.y. In cithcr ciisc tllc vclocit,y of the p o t c n t . i ~flow i,q ?ssunrctl t o have,+ f 2 ~ 1 n i of a powcrpcr/ci in 2, where s denotes Ure clistanc? -{rorn t,lre. st.agrrnt,iotr .poirrt, r n c a s ~ ~ r calong t,hc conLonr. 'rlrc vclocit,y profile irr t,hc l~or~rldary d layor is :~1so rcpre~c:nt,e~~ sinrilw power series in r , wlrerc tho cocfficicrrts arc i~ssarnnlW )I(: as a f n ~ ~ c t , t oofs t,he c ~ o r t l i n a t ~ e lacas~lretla t right angles t o the wall (Blasius series). n y, I,. Howart,ll succectlcd in finding n ~ u b s t i t u t ~ i o n the velocity profile which confers for universal validitmyon the y-dependent coefficients. I n ot,her words, by a suitable asslllnption r c ~ r d i ~ ~ g t.11~ power series, it.s coefficients have been made independent of t,llc partPicr~lo,rs t,he cylindrical body, so thpt the resulting functions could be of evnlunt,etl and prcsrntarl in t,he form of t,nl)lcs. Thus the calculation of t,he boundary layer for a sllnpc becomes vcry sinrplo if IISC is lnntle of tslt~t~nl)lcs. providld t,lrit the t,nbuln.tlion cxt,ends over a sufficiently large number of terms of tfhe series. 'I'lto t~scfnlnrssof Rln.sins's inet,hotl is, Irowcvcr, sevorely rest,ricted kty t'hc fact. tllnl., Iwcrisrly in 1.11~rnost, i m p o r l , a ~ ~ t of vcry slender I)orly-sl~ages, l:rrg(: case a

for t'he st'ream-function with the aid of which it now bccorr~espossiblc t o det,crrninc the appropriate serics for t,he velocity compo~rerltsu = a v l a y and v = -awlax. Srll)st,it,nt,ir~~ expressions into the equation of inot.iol1 (0.2) we compare cocxflit,hese

form in oht,aincrl from t h e IIlasir~s eqn. (7.24) 11y nnhstitt~tir~g it. t h c first.term (!).IT,), i. r. in for Urn.This brings wit.11 if, t.11~ tlisactvnntngc. t.llitt it, does not r~lnltrn n nlloanrlrr lor (Ilr i~~rrmne the Imr~ntlnry-layer in tllioltness i r ~ tlownstrenln dirertiorl. tllr
'rllis
111 J

170

TX. 1Sxact uol~~tions t.ho steady-state bout~dary-layer of eqrrntionu

c. Flow past n cylinder; syrn~nrtrical case (the Rlnsius series)

171

cirnts nnd LIIIIS obt,ain n s y s t c ~ nof ordinary t l i ~ ~ r e n l ~equat,ions for t.he funct,ions inl /3, . . . . 'l'he first two e q ~ ~ n t i o n s turn out to be

J I I t,lirsc, ~lill'(;rc:~il~inl~ior~ rrs~)c(:l, r1 is cIrt~ol.r~l 1)ritnrs. 'I'IIC* ~~.sso(;i~~t,(:cl \vil,l~ l,o I)y bol~ntlnrycolltlit.ions are

All difTcrcntinl cquatsions for the fiinctionnl coefficients arc of the third orrlcr, nnd only the first, one, t,haI, for f r , is non-linear; i t is itlct~ticalwith the eq~lstionfor twodirnensional stagnnt,ion flow, eqn. (5.3!)), tliscrlsscd in Chap. V. All rcmnining equntions arc linenr ant1 their cocfficientpsnrc cxprcssetl in t,crms of the f ~ ~ r ~ c t , iassoons ciat,etl wil)h the preceding t,crms. The frtrlctions ant1 hnvc been ralcrllstctl already by I<. llicmerlz [39J, i ~ n dtheir first tlcl.ivnt,ivrs nrc rcpresent,ccl grnplrically it1 Fig. 9.4. The frlnrl,ion 1; for t,hc vclocit,y tlist.rihntion was rcprocl~~cccl rarlicr ill l'ig. 5.10 nnrl l'nhle 5.1 (when it was tlcnot,rtl O 4'). T11e higher-order funat,ions (:an Ilc found y i l l the earlier rtlil.ions [57n]. Fig. 9.5. \'clocity distribution
in the boundary layer on n

circ\rlnr cylinder

Fig. 0.4. Thr fr~iict.ions and 1,' which nppmr It' in t,lir nlnsills power series. The velocit,y profiles for diffrrcnt values of 4 are seen plottecl in Fig. 9.5 whicll is I)nscd on a series for t.hc velocity, u , carried as far as the tcrrn in x l l . The velocity 1)rofiies for > (30" possess a point of inflexion because they lie i n t h e region of increasing pressure. of 8 The di~tribut~ion shearing stress ro = / r ( 0 ~ 1 y)o is plotted in Fig. 9.6. The position of t,l~e point of separation rcslilts from the condition that. TO = 0, nnd is given by # s = 108.8"

E x o t ~ ~ l ~Circr~lnrcyli~ider.Wn sli~11nn\v apply tthe met,liotl o~~l.lincd t , l ~ r le: in lwrcc?cling pnrngrnplis t,o t h r cn,se of s circular cylindrr. In order t o ljc clrfinit,~, we or1 hnse t,hc? ca.lculat~iol~ (.he prcssrirr tlistri1)rttion ol~tninrtlfrom pot>cnt,ialthrory, t t l t l i o ~ ~ glll ~I111c lif8rrn.l.~~re ~ ~ O ~ ) I C I T ulns frc(111cnt.lys01Iv~d i tllic I with 1 . 1 1 ~:lid of all rxprrimrrrt~n.llyrlotarrnirlc.tl prrssllrc clist.ril)~rt.ion. 'I'l~r itlrdl ,vrlocit.jr tlist.vii)rlt.ion i l l n o n - v i s r o ~ ~il.rof.n.t,iol~n.l r ~ \ vpn,st. n c~ir.c:rlln.r s, fl rylitltlr:r of ratli~ls I2 ant1 f~.(\r-st.rcnn~ \jc.loc:il.y (1, 1):~rn11(.1 t , l ~ c : :,-asis is givrn Ijy (.I)

Fig. 9.6. Variation of sllearilig strew nt the wall over the circumference of a circular cylindor for a lnrnirinr boundary lnycr

d. Ronndnry layer for the potential flow given hy U(x) = Uo - ax"

173

wcrc t,erminatetl a t ~ 9 t1hepoint of separat,ion would tllrn ollt LO , If. t,Jle power be at, +s Ion.oo. Iktt,er accllracy can rrowndays ltc obtainetl with nrimericnl

.-=

mct.l~ods, Sccs. JXi ant1 Xc3. sco 'rhc nccllracy of t,his r.ale~~lnt.ion I)nsod on 11 powcr scrirs can I)n t,cst,od for spced of cotlvcrgcncc of t,l~c omit,t,ctl I)ortlion of t,l~c serics by ittvolcing t01c co?adilions o/ com.pnbiOility at, t,hc wnll. I\ccortling 1.0 (>tin.(7.15), wc ~ n t ~ s t , Ilnvc:

Fig. 0.7. Verification of I.l~e conifirst pntibility condition froin eqn. (9.21) for the laminar boundary layer on a circular cylintlcr f r o n ~ Pig. 9.5. Thn first compatibility conclition is satisfied approxitnntely as far as some point beyond separation

were Inado the bitsis of his Itoandary-lnyer calculations. f l i s rne:~snrcment~s sl1ow6tl s ~ p a m t ~ i o n 4, == 81, whereas t,he calculation intlicnted!(bs = 82O. 1,ater 0. l~lneltsat ItnrL p[~l)lislrcd ext,ensive expcrimcr~t,nl t1nt.a on t,hc l~rcsinrrdistsil~~~t,iort, 1 . 1 0 , l'ig. ~vl~icll poirtt t o :I l:~.rgc infl~tencc tahc Itrytrolrls nrlrnl~cr. of 'l'or vnlrtrs of t.l~t, Itc:~~t~oltls r~~trnbcr hcloto Me crilicr~ltJtc j)rcssIlrc r r ~ i t ~ i t r o(;t:tIrs ~~ . I r . t - : ~ t nrnr (b - T o 0 , 41,11tl ~rt~~ i l~ tho prr'ssI".c is r~t-n.rl.y cortsI,:~.t~l, t.110\vlrolo I I O I V I I S I , ~ 11ot.l~iot1 t,11t* (:ylitl~lt,l.. over ~ ! : / I I I 01. ]?or 1tt:ynoltls nnrnbers ahove the critical t.11~ pressure rni~tiln~rtn shifts t,o (b -- no0 al~~roxirnat.t in agreement with t h e potential-flow thcory and, on the wl~olc,t,l~e ly, prrsslire distribution tleparts less from t h a t giver1 by the potcttbial theory t,llnr~ tho in provio~rs case. nct,wcen t,l~esc valtlcs, i. e. n m r a critical Rcynoltls n ~ ~ t n bofrn,l>pro.uie ~nnt.clyTJ, I ) / v = 3 x 10" t , l ~ e drag cocflicict~t,of l . l ~ c t:irc~tl:~r cylintlcr tlrt~rt~ascs nhr111)t'ly(Fig. 1.4-), and this phcnorncnon ir~tlicat~cs tOtat t,l~cbor~ntlary In,ycr I ~ n s I)ccon~ctrtrbuler~t (see Sec. X V [ r I f ) . Tl~e laminar hountlnry layer on a circt~lnrcylirldcr was rllso ir~vcst,ignI.c~rl I)y A. ~l~lrotn [G7], a t a Iteynoltls ~trrmbcrZ J , I l / v = 28,000 a r ~ t l11g A. F:~gc[lOlit1 t,l~c mngc U , L)/v = 1.0 t o 3.3 x 10% A ppncr by L. Sclrillcr nntl W. 1,irtkc [54] cont,ains some considcrat,ior~scot~ccrr~ing prrssrlrc tlrng nt~tl sliir~ f.ricl,io~~ t.110 in rc~gionof Iteynoltls n~lmhcrsb r l o n ~the cril.icnl. 111 t l ~ c r:lngc of l t c y r ~ o l t l ~ 1111t111)(:rs from about GO t o about 5000 there exists bcllirrd the cylintlcr a vortex stxcct w l ~ i c l ~ sl~ows regular, periodic strrlcturc (Figs. 2.7 nnd 2.8). Tllc frcqucr~cy t w l ~ i c lvora a ~ tices arc s l ~ e din tllis so-callcd von I<ilrn~:invortex strcct has been i~lvcst.igatctl by 11. Dlenk, D. Puchs and IT. Liebers, and, more recently by A. Roslllro (see C l ~ a p 11). .
~

d. Boundary layer for the potential flow given by (1(.r)

(Io - a x n

Figlrrc 9.7 cornpal,es t,l~c c~rrvat,urc the velocit,y profiles mcasuretl at. t,he wall wit.11 of its exact value rcpresct~t,edby UcllJ/tlx. 'rllc agrrcment is gootl for a clistance fi' lIryond t,llc poillt sep~.rat,ion. may, Lherrforc, conrlutlc t.11at t,l~t, We J3lxsi11sseries terminnt,ir~g t tlrc t,crtn ~ 1 satisfies t,l~c a 1 compatibiiit,y co~lclit,ion a circ~tlarcylinon dcr up t,o n point. \vltich lies bryolltl t.ltc point of scparat,ion. I t does not,, howover, ~~ccessnriljr (ollo\v t,hat. 1,lrc: Ir11ncnlrtl srrics t.rprrsc~lt.s t.11~ velocity profile n.it.11good nc,rltrl\c*y. As nlrently mcnt.ionetl, in t . 1 ~ case of Inore slender botly-sltnp~scor~siclernbly morc t.rrrns of t,he J3lasins serics are roqnircd, if it is tlcsirctl t,o o l ~ t a i nt,l~c velonit,y profiles as fn.r as t,l~c point of scparat,ior~. Ilowcver, t,he cvalunt.io~l furl,hcr f n n c ~ i o n ; ~ l of roefficic~ltsis hinclerctl by considerable difficult.ies. Tltese are tluc not orily t o t,lle f.:~ctt,l~at, every atltlit,ional t,crrn in t,he scries the ntrmbcr of cliffercr~t,inlequations for l o I)& solvetl incrcnscs, b u t also, ant1 even morc forcibly, t h e difficult,ics are tlnc t,o t,l>cincrtl t o r.va.lnnt,e t,l\e funct-ions for the lower power ternts with ever increasing nrcltrary, if l.l~c ~ ~ n c t ~ i for stClle f on higher power terms are t o be s~ifficicr~t~ly n.ccnrat,e. 1,. Ilownrtlr 1401 rxtentlrtl t.hc prrscnt nuet,l~odt,o irtclrldc t l ~ casymmet,~.ical casts, l)nt t.11~ t,n.ttr~Int,ion t , l ~ c of fi~nct,ional coefficients was not carried bcyo~lclthose c.orrcspontlin~t,o t,hc power z2. N. 1Proessli1tg (231 carrictl o l ~ a n estension of this t rnt:t,liotl lrn llrc rot.nt,ionally symlnt>t,ricnl cnsc which will be consitlered in Chap. X I . illrnsrtrc~nrnt~s t.hc prcssnrc dist.ril)~~tion of nro~lntl a cirrrllnr cylind?r wcrr rcport,rd I)y I<. Tlinnrnz in his t.l~tsis prcsrnf.cd t.o (2octt.ingnn Univrrsit,y [R9l. 'I'llcy

A further family of solutions of the boundary-layer equations was found by L. EIowartl~ [dl] nnd I. Tnni [OF]. Tl~cse solutions relate to t01r potential tlow given by

whirll, evidently, constitutes n generalized form of the flow nlong a flat plate (see Ser. VIIe), arrd becomes identical with it when we put a = 0. ln tho fiirr~plc~t \ v i t l ~n -s 1, \ v h ~ r wn3 rnse l~ trcnted by L. Ilowarth, tl~oflow can bo interpreircl n.9 t l ~ a twllirl~ orcuts in a clrnt~r~ell ~ i c l l w consi~ts a portiot~wit11 pnr~llolwnlls (velocity (, followed by rither a convcrp;rr~t .= 0) of I) (a of or n divergent (a > 0) section?. This is another rxan~plc a borrndnry layer for wlrich the vrloclty profiles nre not sirmlar. L. Ilowarth introd~lccdt l ~ o nrw indrpc~rclent vnrinblo

~vhirl~identical wit11 tlrnt used in tho flat platc solution at zero inridcncc. IIc asxumctl f~trther is

(x*
~

< 0, accclerntcd flow; x* > 0, dcceleratacl flow). 16 is now

--

t,o stipulate a powcr srries

. -

\Vhen cqnatiot~(0.22) is written in the forn~U ( T ) -- l J , ( l -x/L) for 71 = 1 , it can also be intarprctad as represcnt,ing bhc potcntinl flow along a flat wall wl~ich ~tn.rt.q x = 0 and nrhich at R ~ I I I ~ ~ S to anothrr illfinite wnll a t right nnglcs In it at, r on L.Jt is of the snnlc ~JIIIC RR t.11~ cnsc of tlecelcratrtl stngnat,ior~ flo\v sl~ownin Fig. 2.17, thc stngnnt,ion ]mint bring nt z .-: L.

174

TX. Exnct ~olut,ionu tlio stondy-state boundnry-lnyrr eq~lat.ioris of

e. Flow in tho wakc of flat plxtc nt zero incidoicc

175

in r* for t l ~ e t r c n mfimctiori in n mariner ~irr~ilnr thc enao of the cylinder, Scc. TXr, the cocf~ to ficirnta being fnnctions of y:

1I~ncc the vrlocit,y of flow hcco~nes

u = 1 U O{l,'(q) - (8 z*) /,'(?I) -1- ( 8 z ) l;(q) *'

+ . ..) .

(9.25)

Tnl.rotl~lring t,I~rse vnlnes i n h t.ho oq11nt.ionsof motlion (9.2) and comparing coefficients we obtain a ~yutcni01 ordinary diITrronlda1 equ:tt.ionu for t.110 F I I I I C ~ ~ O I IfR ( r l ) , lI(11), . . . . Tho first threo g of t,I~cuc tire: lof"-1- I0 1 " 0 , 0

nt~d tlorolcrnt~edflow are uenn plot8t~cd Fig. 9.8. 11. ~hotrld noted t,Iint.nll p r o f i l ~ ~ tlccclcrntcd in be in flow have n, point of inRexion. D. It. IInrtroo [38] repcntcd tl~cso calo~~lntior~s obtninctl good nrid ngrcemc~lt,wit11 L. H o ~ n r t ~ l The case for a / i J , 0.125 wns rnloolnted more ncc~tvnt.clyhy l. 1). C.F. Ileigil 1441 wlio ~ 8 nn clecl.ronic digit.al cotnpr~ter t,l~c ~ ~ r p o s c w l ~ o ~ d for p nnd pnitl ~llccial nL,telltio~~ tlic region of scpnrntio~i. t o TIICvallto of t.11~ for111fnctor a t l.110 point of sepnrat,io~t il.srlf wns founrl t,o ho x* = 0.1198. , llic nictliod ornploycd by L. JIownrtl~\rns cxkt~tlnrlby I. 'l'ntli 1001 t.o it~cluclcI.lw caws corrcspotitling to n 2 1 (witli a > 0). tio\vcvcr, I. 'l'nni did 11ot publisl~nny t.nbles of the f~rrlct.ionnl roeflicicnts but confined liitnsclf to reporling lho 1i11:~l ros111Lfor n = 2. 4 ntid 8. 111 Iiis cnsc, (no, MIC poor ronvcrgcnro of tlic ~ e r i c s not pcr~nit did llim 1.0 dotcr~nitic poitit of sc:li:lritthe tion wil,l~unfficic:r~t,ncrllril.cy ant1 110 fortnrl I~it~inrli rot~~ltell~cl I I U C I,. Il(~wnrl.l~'sI I I I I ( T ~ ~ : L ~, L o II ro~~li~~~~tilion R(!II<:III~~.

/['" -1- 1 ,

- 2 lo' -k 3 /,>" = - 1 , fz"' -1- 1, 12"- 4 1,' 1 -1- 5 1,'' 1, = - 4 + 2 1, ', '"

3 I,

I,",

e. Flow in the wakc of flat plate nt zero i~~cidence

Only tho first cqnnt,io~~ lion-linmr, nntl i t in identical wit.11 tlint for n flat plats nt zero inciis dence:. All rornnining equations are lincnr nnrl contain only t,he function f, in the homogeneotls portion, wlierons t,he non-liomogeneous tern18 itre for~nrd wit,lt t,Iie nid of the remaining funct~ions 1.. I,. flowarlll solved trho first. scven tliKcrcntinl eqnations (11p tO and including I,), and calctllatocl t,zblcs for Llic~n. 'rim ucricn (9.25) cotivcrges \voll witah t.hcso valnrs of I,, in t.he rango - 0.1 _< x* 5 -1- 0.1. Jti tllc casc of decclorntctl flow (x* > 0) t,l~c point. of scpcration is a t z* = 0.12 npproxi~nntrly, I)ut for thc sliglit.ly cxhndetl rangc of valnns t.110 convcrgor1r:o of the scries (9.25) is no lo~iger wsrlrec!. 111ordor t ronclt t.lrc poinL of sepnrnt.ion,-1,. 1Iownrll1 used a nninericnl proccdum for o of no111t.ion. ~ 1 ~ r i t . y V profilrs for sevcrnl vn111csof r* for hot,h acc~lerntrd tho ronl.innnt.ior~ t,l~c

The application of the boundary-layer equations is not rcstrict,cd t o rcgions npnr a solitl wall. They can also he applied when a stratum in which thc irrfltlcncc of frict,ion is rlominating cxists in the interior of a fluid. Such a case occurs, among ot.llcrs, w h c n two laycrs of fluid with tliffcrcnt vclocitics mcct, for instnricc, iri tho wake bcliind a body, or when a fluid is tlischarged through a n orifice. We shall consider three examplcs of t,his typo in the prcserit ant1 in t h e succccdirig scctions, and wc s l ~ a l lrctllrn to thein when considcririg tl~rbulcrrtflow. As our first example we shall discuss the case of flow in the wake of a flat plate a t zero incidence, Fig. 9.9. Behind the trailing edge the two vclocity profiles coalesce int,o one profilc in t h e walte. I t s widt,h increases with increasing distancc, and its mean velocity decreases. Tlie magnitude of the dcprcssion in t h e vclocity curvc is dircctly conncct,cd with tho drag on tjhc bocty. On thc wholc, howcvcr, a.s wc shall see later, the velocity profile in t h e wake, a t a large distancc from t h c body, is intlrpenrlent of thc sllape of the body, cxccpt for a scale factor. On the otlicr hand thc vclocit,y profile very closc t o thc body is, evidently, detcr~niricct t h e bonirdnry by layer on tho I ~ o d y and its slrapc dcpct~ds whcther or not t l ~ c , on flow has ~ c p a r a t ~ c d . The momcntu~lle q r ~ a t i o rcall be used to c.alculatc thc drag from the vclocit,y ~ ~wofilc t.11~ in wnlre. For this j ~ u r l ~ o s c draw a rcrtarigr~lar wc control snrfacc AA, 13113,

Vr1ot.iI.y r l i s l v i l , ~ ~ l i o ~t ~~ r . I : ~ I I I ~ I I :oII ~ I I ~ ~ ; I:~yrr in l > I I ~ ~ COI. I,II? p o I r ~ ~ l . iflo\v ;~l ( I ( ? ) ~ - -/\,, - . rlx, :~llcr l l o \ ~ ; ~ r141~ ll 1 Fig. 9.R.
t
r .

~ ~ V C ' I I

by

Fig. 9.9. ~\lq)lirnt.ion the niomcnof tun1 equation in tho calcr~latiou the of drag on a flat p l a k nt zero ir~cidenco froni the velocit,y profilo in the wake

difTcrs from tlint i r ~ Chap. VIT by J ho in(lr11cntlrnt \~arinl)lo in t.hr nhovc rqr~nt.inns

factor

1.

e. Flow as shown in Fig. 9.9. The bonndary AIBl, parallel to the plate, is placed a t such
e distancc from the body t h a t i t lies ovcrywhere in the region of undisturbed velocity,

ill

ll~e walte of flnt plntc Rnte of flow

nt

zcro incitlrncc

177

Cross-~ection

Dlot~ient~~nidircclior~r it,

Purthorrnorc, t,llc pressnrc is constant over the whole of t,he cor~trolsurface, so t01at j~rcssurc forces (lo not contrit~utet o the mornenturn. When calculat~ing the flux of mornontunl across the cont,rol surface i t is necessary t o remcmber that, owing t o ront,innity, fl~rid~ n u s loxvc t , l ~ r o n gtho hor~ntlaryA I B l ; tho q ~ t a n t i t ~ y t l~ of f l r l i t l leaving I.l~rongl~ l l l is ccll~;rl A1 t.o t,ho t1iffcrent:o I)elwccn t,l~at ot~tcring Lhro~rglt A I A and loaving t,hrorigh BIR. 'rho boundary AT3 contribntcs no term t o t.hc nom men tam in the x-diraction becanso, owing t o symmetry, t h e transverse velocity vanisllcs along it,. The momentnm balancc is given in tabular form on the next page, and in i t the convc~tt,ion followetl t.11:bt inflowing masscs are considcrcd positive, is and ontgoing masscs arc talten t,o bc negative. The width of the platje is denoted l)y b. l'hc tot,al flux or morncntntn is cqnal to t h e drag D on a flat ~ ) l a t c wetted on orlc sitlc. 'l'hrls we have
03

I/,.

C -- (:o~ltrolsrlrfnrc

2 Rnte of flow

Momctit~~~n flus

-=

Drrig

=be/u(~,-u)dy.
v-0

Intrgrat,io~~ may bo prrfomlctl from ?/ = 0 t o y = oo instcad of t,o 2/ = It, t)ccausc for ?/ > h tllc intcgrantl in eqn. (9.26) vanishes Ilrnce thc drag on a plate wetted 0x1 both sitlcs bcromrs

,I ,l ~ c r o c c ~ l ~ ~ t ' ( ~ 11xc o f n nict,l~otlol' c:o~~l,inr~ir~g p lnnltrs n. Iznowtl sol~tl.ioti. 'l'ltc~ (:ILI(:IIInt,ion st,arts with t.11~ p~,oiile t the t.miling ctlge, calt:r~lnt.ctl a with t.11(: aid ol' Jllnsius's

is stnall rotnl)arctl wit.11Urn,so t.hnt q~~n.tlrn,t ic nntl hig111,r~ , C I . ~ Iill ~ I Z 711

IIIIIY

l)r 11t~gltv~t.rt1.

2D =be u(u,-u) -m

t~. y

(9 27)

~nct,l~otl, we sha.11 refrain from fitrt.hrr disrussing it hrre. 'I'hc asympt,ot,ic exand p:~nsionin t.he ~ll)st,rraln direction was calcnlat~cd by W. To1lrnic:n 1091. Sinrt: i t , is t,ypical for problems o F flow in t,hc walte, ant1 since we shall mi~lte of it in t,l~c nse more itnport,nnt, t,urbulcnt case, we propose t o devot,c some t,itnc t,o an account, of it. As t h r prrssnre trrm is rclrlal to zero, the t)onntlary-layrr cynntiot~(9 2)rombinetl wit11 rqn (9 29) gives

This cc~uat,ionapplies t o a n y symrnet,rical cylintlrical body ant1 not only t o a flat plat,o. Tt is t,o bo rcrncmbcrctl t h a t in t h e more general case thc integral over the profile in t,he wake must be t,aken a t a sufficiently distant sect.ion, and one across n~hirllt,l~o st.at.ic pressure has it.s undisturbed value. Since near a plate there are in no pressure tlill'crrnccs cit,l~cr t,l~elorlgitrldinnl or in t h e transverse direction, ccln. (9.27) npplins t,o any tlist.ancc brhintl the platc. Furthermore, eqn. (9.27) may 11c: nl)pltc(i t.n a n y scct.ion x of tlhc 1)oltntlary layer, when i t gives t h e drag on t h e portion of t-l~c plate between the leatlirig ctlgc ant1 tlltat sect,ion. The physical meaning in of tho ir~t~cgml eqn. (9.20) or (9.27) is t h a t i t rcprcscnts tho loss of momentum due t o frict,ion. I t is itlcntical with the intcgral in eqn. (8.31) which dcfirled the mome?ltum thickness a, so t h a t eqn. (9.26) can he givcn tllc alternative fbrm ,

\vliere t . l ~ clrlatlrntic: t r r ~ n s r in arc :

it,

nn(1 vI I1:lvc I)rc:n ornit.tt~tl. 'l'l~cItn~lntlnry contlit,ions

y =0:

aU! = O ; ay

yroo:

'L1=O.

'I'he 1):wtial tlilli:~~r~~t.inl cqunt,ion call, here 1.00, be tmnsfortnctl into a n or(li11iir.y tliffcrcnlinl ecl~~nt,ion n snit,n,blc? by t,mnsrormnt,ion. Sirl~ilnrly 1 . 1 1 ~ to ass~lml)tiot~ (7.24) in 13lnsirrs's mct.l~o(l t,l~c for 11x1 ~ ) l a t c ~ ) I I ( . wr

Wc shall now proccrd to calcolatc tthc velocity profile in the walte, in particular, large dist.ance x t)ehintl the trailing edge of t,he flat plate. The calculation must bn p(:rfonnc(l in two sLcps: 1. Through an expansion in thc downstream direction fro111 I.he Irntling t.o I,llr t,r:tiling ctlgr, i . c. I)y n ~ : ~ l c r ~ l a t ,which inv?lvt:s tehc conion t.inr~:~.t.ion t11o Illilsills j)rofilc 011 thc plalo near d.hc t,rniling cclgo, anti 2. Through a n of nl)st,rrarn direction. 'fhe latt,er'is a kind of asymptot,ic'int,egration expansion in t , l ~ c for x Inrgc tlistancc bchintl t h r plate and is valid irrespective of the sha,pe of the 1)orlp. It. \ \ r i l l 1)c nrrrssnry h r r r 1.0 makc Lhc nssrrmpt,ion t,llat t.lle vc1orit.y difference it1 t.11~ kc IV:I (0.29) 711 (", !/) ' , - - u ( z , y) U
9.1, n.

antl, in adtlit.iot~, assnme t.hxt( 71, is of' the forin wr

tl1

= U-c

(-;)-kg(,]),

whc.ro 1 is the Irrlgt,ll of tlrr platc, Fig. 9.9. Tl~o power -- .j for 1:i n eqn. (9.31) is just.ifiet1 on the ground t h a t the ~no~nent.urn int,cgrnl whicll givrs t,hc drag on tho plnt,c i l l oqn. (!1.27) I ~ I I I S ~ , intlrpondrnk of r . I)r

178

IX, Exact solutions of tlrc steady-statc boi~ndary-layer cqunt.ions

Hence, omit,t.ing quadm.t.io terms in 1 5 , the drag oil a plate wctzted on hot,h sidca, a s givrtr in eqn. (9.27), is transformed t.o
+m

clifferencr in t l ~ c wakc of a flat platc a t zero incidonrr becomes

2n=beCJ,/u,dy.
y--m

, Ito volocit.y clist.ril)~tt.ior~ I give11 1 . t.11isn.syrnplotio cclllnLiort is rr:prrsc:nt,otl i t t I'ig. !). 10. by

lntrodurir~g,furt.llcr, t . 1 1 ~assr~rnpt~iorl (9.31) i11t.o (9.30), ant1 tlividing tthrough by 11,z . (2/1)--112 z-1, we obt,nin the following tliffcrerrt~i:\lcquation for g(t1):
JI"

1-

4 71 JI'

-1-

hq

=7

(9.33)

I t is remnrkablo t,llat the vclocitty dist8ril)nt.ionis identical wit11 (::~t~ss'.s c:rror-tlistribntion function. As assulncrl a t the bogin~ling,cqn. (9.35) is valitl only a t grcnt, distnnces from the platc. W. Tollmicrl verified that. i t Inny bo nscd a t about z -- 1 . ]pig. 9.1 1 corlt,nins n plot, frotn wllirll t . 1 1 ~wliolr vc:locit,y.lit*ltlrnn I,(! ittliv.r.t~tl. Tho flow in tllc \valto of' n platc as wc-ll a s ill tllat bc:l~intl any ot611rr body is, s, in most cases, turbulcrit J5ve11in tllc case of small Itcynoltls n i ~ n ~ h r rsny R, < 106, w11en the bol~ntlnrylaycr rcrnnins laminar a s far a s tho txailing cdgc, tllc flow iri t,l~e waltc still bccomes f u r b ~ ~ l c rbecause the vclocity j)rolilcs in tile wnltr, all of ~t, which posscss n point of inflcxioll, nrc c ~ t ~ r c m c l1111stnI)lc.111otllrr wortls, cvcn y with ~ o m p a r a t ~ i v esmall Rcynolds numbers tho wnkc 1)ecomes tnrbulellt.. 'l'ur\)lllent ly wakes will be discussed in Chap. XXIV.

f. The two-dirnensio~~nl larnir~nr jet

where flrc rorlstnnt of integration vanrshes on ncrount of tho t ~ o l ~ n d n rcondition y a t q = 0. Rcpcatcd integration gives the solrltion

g = exp ( -

'1 ?12).

(9.34)

The efflux of a jot from nn orifice affords a frlrtllrr example of motion in tho abscnco of solid boundaries to wliiclr it is possible t o apply the boundary-layer theory. We proposc t o discuss the two-dimensional problem so t h a t we shall assume

l l r r c t . 1 1 ~constn.nt of int.cgrnt,ion n.ppcnw in Lllc form of a cocffcicnt and can be mntlc cqr~nl o nnit,y without loss of gerleralit,y, a s t,hc veloc:ity dist,riblltion function u , t frorn eqn. (9.31) st.ill contains n free coefficient G . This constant C is determineti from the condition t . l ~ at,l~c t drag calcr~lated from the loss of morncr~t~r~m, (9.32), eqn. rnrrst, hc equal 1.0 t.ha.t o n t,he pIat$e, q n . (7.33). First wr notivc t,ilnt

0 1t.11r: ot.llnr 1

I~nntl, from cqn. (7.33) we ann w h c tlown tho sltirl fric+t,ionon n. plntc I wat,t,otl o n I)oll~sitlcs in kllc form:

Fig. 9.10. Anyn~pLot.ic vclocitydistribrttion in t11c lan~inarwake bol~inds flat plate, from erln. (9.35)

Fig. 9.11. Velorily (listribittion i t l ~ c t n laminar wakc 1)cllintl a flat platc at zcro innidenco

180

I X . Exact solrltions of tllc sbntly-stato boundary-layer equal~ions

t h a t t,lle jet cmcrgcs from a long, narrow slit and mixes with the surrollntling fluid. This 1rol)lom was solvctl by 11. Scl~lichl.ing [60] and W. Biclrley [3]. I n practicn, in this case, ns in t h e previous ones, tho flow becomes t r ~ r l ~ r ~ l cWe. slinll, llowevcr, nt, discnss hero the laminar c:we in some tlct,nil, since the turbulent jet, wllicll will be oonsidrretl later, can be analyzed mntllcmatically in arl identical way. Thc rmerging jet carries with i L solno of the s~trrorltltlitlg Iluitl wl~icli wns originally a t rest beenuso of the fricl.ion developetl on its periphery. ' r t ~ eresulting patt.ern of sLrcarnlines is shown in Fig. 9.12. We shall adopt a system of ~oorctinat~es wit.11 i1.s origin in Lhe slit and wit,l~ axis of absrissno eoincitling with the jet axis. it,s

'I'l~c tlwo 1111ltnown oxj)o~lrnta and q will I)c tlet.crnlitirt1 f r o n ~ttlle follo\vir~g p co~ltlit iotls :

..his g i v r ; t,u~or q ~ ~ a t ~ i ofors p and q : I n

2p
. f/

-0

a11tI 21)

--

2q

I
'

~7)

:jq ,

ant1 hrnc.c,

-. A

q - ? ?.I

(!or~sr:cl~~c~rt.ly, assumptions for td~ciritlrpcr~tlcr~t~ tllc vari:ll)lt: a t ~ t l for 1.11~ st,rcntn frtnc.t,ion can be writtcri as

if s ~ ~ i t ; ~ l ) l c c:onstxtlt fa,c:tors arc itrc:lr~~lr~l. 'I'l~r.rrlnrc,, t,It(. vc,l1)c.it.3rc S o ~ ~ ~ l ~a1.r ~ t ~ r ~ t o~ given I)y t,l~cfi)llowi~)gexpressions:

The jet spreads o~~twa.rtls t.hc tlowr~st.reamdiroct.ion owing t,o the influence of in frict,ion, wl~crc:~s vc?locit,y in t , l ~ e it,s cetrt,rc decrcascs in t h e same direction. For tlre snltc of simplicit.y we sllall assume t h a t the slit is infinitely small, but in order t o rt!t.:lin a finite volnrnc of flow as well as a finite m o t n o ~ t ~ ~ m , necessary t o nssumo it is a n i n f i r ~ i t fl~ritlvel6oil.y it1 t l ~ c ,~ slit. 'l'lrc pressure gratlicnt tlpltlx in tjho 2-tlirect,ion can Iicrc, as in t.11~prcvior~scxan~plc,be neglcctctl, because the constnrtt pressure i r ~ surro~rntling t.he flr~itl irnl~rcsscs itsrlfon t.l~c Consequel~tly, total n i o m e ~ ~ t ~ r m jet tlrc in t . 1 1 ~r-tlircct,iotl, clcno1,c:tl I)y J, nus st, remain const8ant arid i r ~ t l c p o ~ ~ d n n l 1,lle of tlistancc r from tlrc orifice. Ilcnco

l ~ ~ t , r o t l ~ ~t,llcsc~ g c * i t valrles into tllc difTcrcnt,ia.lccjr~at~ion (9.2), arltl r(lu:~t,i~lg 1 ~) ~ O S S I I T O I.1 I t,crm t.o zero, we obtain t h e following difTercnt.ial eq~int.ion t h e stream fnnc1,ion 1 (TI) : for

is ~)ossil)lc n~nlzca snit.;~l)le t,o assltmpt,ion regnr(ling blic velocity distxil)ution if vrlociLy profiles ~ i ( r , y ) , jnst :IS in tlie case of a flat plate is ror~sitlcrctlt,h:~Lt,l~e zrro ir~aitlcnce, I Y I O S prol)al)ly sinli1n.r. 1)ecause the problem as a wllole possesses arc ~ tlo ch:~mct,nrist,ic!i ~ ~ e n r l tlitncr~sion. \Yo sl~nll ass~!mc:, t,hercfore, t h a t tho velocity u is a fi~tlnt,iot~ ylh, wlrrrc h is t,hc \vitlt,h of t,he jet, suitably tlefined. We sllall also of assume t,l~:~t.is proportional 1.0 x*. Aacortlingly we can write the strcam fut~ction h i t 1 t,hr lor111

'I'I1e c o n s t a ~ ~ t integration is zero bcc:a~~scf t,llc I)o~rlltl:~~.y of o co~rtlit.iotls 11 - 0, :l.t$ arltl the resulting tliKerentia.l equation of 1,lle sccotid ortlcr coultl bo i~ll,c:gral.ctl immediately if the first term containrtl t;llc fn.ctor 2. 'l'his ran bc! nc:hirvrtl I)y t,lrr following t.m.nsformat.ion:

f=2aF(t),1 I \vIlcrc OI is n lice constant,, l,o be clot,er~nittctl Iat.rr. 'l'1111s n.l)ovcc q ~ ~ : ~ t t,r:lnsfol~lns t01c .iot~
==

aq;

182

TX. Exact fiolrtt.ionsof t,l~c stmtly-s1.ntn Iior~r~<lar~l-layer eq~~at,ion.s

K. Pnrnllcl ~t,rcarn.s l~lrninar in flow

nntl t,llt?clnslr now cletrotos tlilTrrcnt,ia.tion wit11 rcspcct, t o (. T h c bol~nrlary contlit.ions art? ( ~ 0 F: = O ; t=oo: (0.41)

and, hencc, for tlio volocit,y di~tribrlt~ion

r=O

ant1

tltt-

cq~t:rt.iorr cnn

Iir-

inlvprnI.ctl on(-o moro l.o give

whcro t.ltr cotlsl;~rtl~ inl.rgr:it,iotr was ~n:itle cclttnl 1.0 I. 'l'llis li)llo\vs if we p ~ i t of Ff(0) 1 , wlticlt is prrnlissihlr wil.ltottt loss ol'gc~lcrnlil,y Itacnnsc (if I,llo frcc cotlst.:inl. a in t,l~c rrlnt.icin Iictwoen f R I I ~ ICq~~atiorr P. (9.42) is n clill:rrrrt.ial cqn:tt,ion of 1tit:t::~t.i'~ type ancl can Iir int.rgral.ctl in closctl t,rrms. \Ye oliI.nilr
F

I h c transvcrsc: vclooil,y a t t,hc l~or~ntlnry L I I ~ . jet is of

7

I ~ r v rtling this etlnnt ion wr ol)l.airl

ant1 tlrc volltme-mtc of disclrxrgc per unit Ircight of slit bocomcs Q = e J v (I!/, or
-m

-1

00

I. =t,arth
Since, furt,llcr, tlP/tlE q n . (9.37) and is
. I

E=

1 - exp(-BE) - - 1 4- cxp (--Z$)

Q = 3.3010 (I< V X ) " ~ .

'

(!).48)

1:in1r2E, t l ~ e vt:locit.y ( l i ~ l r i l ~ ~ t l(:all n I tloclr~cctlfrom ~ioI ~

-

(I

t . a n 1 16) . ~

(9.44)

Ilre vrlorily tlisI.ril)ntiorl from crln. (9.37) is soon plott.ctl i r l Pig. !).Is. 1L tiow rcnr:rins t,o dct.crtnirrc. t811cconst,:tnt. a , :LII(I tllis ~ i l nbe (lone wit.11 tlre nit1 of contlition (!).:3R) wl~iclr st,atcs t h a t t,l~c rnonrcnI,unl in t.llo x-tlirrcl iorl is ronst,nnt.. (:ornbinirlg rqns. (9.44) :111(1 (0.36)we obl.nirl

w e slrall assume tllxt tho flux of momonturn, J, for thc jet is given. It is proportional t o t>hrexcess in pressure with which the jet leaves t h e slit. lrrtrodricing t h e kinematic mo~nenlltnt.I/@ = K, we have from eqn. (9.45)

Tlic volrlmc-rate of tliscliargo increases in Urc tlownstrcam direction, bccai~sc: flnid particles are carried away with t h e jet owing L friction on its botlndnrics. I t also o increases with increasing momcrit,nm. The corre,sponcling rotationally symrnct.rica1 casc in which tlie jet cmcrgcs from n small circr~larorificc will be tliscussed in Chap. XI. The problem of t,hc twodime~lsionallaminar compressible jet cmcrging from narrow slit was solvctl Iiy S. 1. P.zi [4!)] nrrtl M. Z. J<rzywol)lor:ki [42]. Moasl~rcrncnts porformctl I)y TI:. N. Antlrntlo [I] for tho t,wo-tli~ncnsiotr:~I 1n.rnina.r jct ronfirn~t.lre preceding tlrcorct~ic;ilargurncnt vory well. 'l'llo jct rcr~railrslaminar n p t,o R 30 a p p r o ~ i m a t ~ r l wlrcrc t,he Ibynoltls number is rcfcrrctl t.o tltc cfflrlx y, vc1ooit.y and t o t.he widL11 ol' tho slit. Tho casc of a Lwo-tlinlensional ant1 t.llat of .z circular t8rtrl)ulentjct is discusscd in Clrap. X X I V . A comprclrensivc review of all probloms involving jets can be f o ~ ~ n d S. I. Pai's book [49]. in

g. Pnrnllel stren~nni r ~laminnr llow

Wo shall now 1)rirfly cxnrninc the lnycr 1)ctwccn two pnrallcl, Inminnr sI,rcnms which move a t tlifTercrrt vclocitics, ant1 so provitlc a htrt.lrcr cxnrnplc of the npplicability of the bountlnry-laycr equations. Thc forrn~~liif.ion the ~)roblt:rn is scot1 of iI111sLraLctlin Fig. !).14: Two it~il~ially st:p:ir:~Lc(l, I ~ I ~ I ~ s O I1i:irnlIcl~ ~ I , I I ~ I I ~ HI,~~!ILIIIS\vlti(!lt move witz!\ t h e vcloc~it.icsTJ1 nncl (I,, rcspccCivcly, 11cgin t,o intcrc\ct t,lrror~gIrfrit:t.iorr. I t is possil)lo t,o assrlmc t h n t l,hc transition from t,hc vclociLy U , t o vclocity ( I , talccs place in n narrow zone of mixing ant1 t h a t t h e transvcrsc v c ~ " c i t ,componcl~t,v , is ~ everywhere smalc oomp,zrcd with t h e longitudinal velocity, 11. Consequently, t h e boundnry-layer equation (9.1) can be usctl to describe the flow in t,hc zoncs I and 11, and tlie pressure t1crrn may be omitted.
I n n manner analogous t o tlrat employetl for tllc boundary layer on a flnt platme (Scc. VIIe), i t is possible t o obtain t h e ordinary tliff~rent~inl cq11ation

Fig. 9.13. ,VrIcirit,yciist,ril~~~lio~~ i n x t,\\o-rJi~~~rt~. sio11111 ~ i r e ~ t lfrcc~ jcL frot~~ RINJ ~i . cqt~s.(9.44) :~nd (11.1~5) icspect~ivcly.For tlio two-tlirnerrxionnl jct [ = 0.275 K113 / ( v ~ ) ~ / ~ for the y and , circnlar jct. C 0.244 y/vz. I< and K' t1t.not.c: Ilir kir~crnat.ic rnon~rnt.um / e J

184

IX. Exact solutions of the steady-skate boundary-layer equations

11. Flow in the irlet lengt.l~of n strnigl~tc h n n ~ ~ r l

185

by int'rodaring t,hc dimensionless t r a n s v e r s e coordinat,e 9 = y lJl/v z a n d tlte strean1 f~lrrct.ios = y~ V 1z /. A s s u m i n g t , l ~ nIL/U= ure a r c led t o t,Iic b o u n d n r y t contlit ions

1/

1/

/ I ,

Accortling t,o t h e investigation carried o u t by J. St,cinhcuer [63], as ment.ionetl i n C h a p . VIJ, these solnt~ionsbelong to a sprcial g r o u p of solut,ions of Rlasiu8's e q u a t i o n (9.49). T h e values of / ' ( 0 ) a n d /"(0) recent,ly cnlculat,ctl for various vn.lurs of t . 1 1 ~ vclocit,y r a t i o I c a n b e fou~iclill t,lrnt, rcfcrr.trcc. I n t~.tltlition,t.hr c l i s p l n c ~ c ~ n r t ~ l of (.he zero s t , r c a ~ n l i n c Iras also bcc11 cnlcnlatctl. 'l'ljis occrrrs ss a r r s n l t of I , l ~ c , i ~ . r u ~ ~ l st,a.nae t,l~nt, t,hc n o r t n ~ l lvrlocit,y c o t n p o n o n l , ~ 11 = - a i / ~ / r ? x ( I ) / ' - /) for 7, L I , 111.c:not, rclual 111. t,lrc, t,wo c ~ l g c b ~ t.ltc! bottntl~t.t.yIily('~.. of

IICC~IISC Y) =- 0 t,lrcre. T h e s o l ~ l t ~ i oof t h e dilTercntial e q u a t i o n (9.49) s u b j e c t to t h e n borlntlary contlit,iorrs (9.50) a n d (9.51) c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d i n closed f o r m , a n d a rrurncrical ~ n c t ~ h o d c ~ s tb e employed. It is possible t o o b t a i n e x a c t n u m e r i c a l soluni t,io~tsI)y tlrc IISC of asyniptot,ic e x p a n s i o n s f o r 77 + - co a n d 17 -+ -1- cro togetfher wit.11 a series cxpatisiori a b o u t r] = 0 ; s e v e r a l s u c h solutions were p r o v i d ~ d R. C. by 1,oc:Iz 1451. 'f'hc prol)lcm w a s first, solved by n ~ l m e r i c a li n t e g r a t i o n by M . 1,essen [44a] st,al.t.ing wit.11 at1 n s y ~ n p t o 1 . i ~ expansion for r] -+ -00.
Pig. 9 . 1 4 prc.scnt,s v e l o ~ i t ~ y profiles for I = U , / U 1 = 0 a n d 0.5. A n irnprovcd tlumerical solution w a s p ~ t k ~ l i s h cb l W. J. Christian [lo]. Tliis special ty cnsc of t h e int.eract,ion l ~ e t ~ w e enn wide, l~olnogericousj e t a n d an adjoining m a s s of quiescent, a i r is oft,eti tlescribcd b y tlio t e r m "plane half-jet".

R. C. J.oclr [45l s t n d i e d , i n atltlit.ion, t h e case w l ~ e l rt,hr t.wo Iralf-jets tliffcr in t h e i r clensit.ics ancl viscosit,ies, ar~d riot o n l y i r t tllcir velocities. A n e x a n i p l c of stlclr :I case is t,lrc flow of a i r o v e r a wnt,cr srlrf:r.cc. T l ~ c o l l ~ t i o nn o w tlrpcntls o n t , l ~ c s 1):lr:Ltnctcr x -- I,, p2/p1p1 it1 atltlit.ion 1.0 I. I,oclc provirletl sevcrnl c x n c t solut.iotls n s well a s solutions which were l)ascd 0 1 1 t h e r n o m e n t . u ~ ni ~ ~ t . c g rrclilat,ion. An a ~ ~ ~ r r o s i m ; ~ l c al mc.t.ltotl w a s also conccivc.tl 1)y 0 . I<. l'ott(rr 151).
T1rc probleln of tltc rotnpressi1,lc h:rlf-jet, w a s st,rltlirtl I)y I). It.. C l ~ : ~ p t n a171. n (!or~iprc~ssiblc flows of t h i s t,ype play 1% ccrt.air~p a r t in t , I ~ e a l ( : ~ ~ l n t i o n orsrl~:rralc>cl, l i c e s l ~ r a layers in wnkcs 18, 131. r

.J11n tlin.gr:~rn in .

h. Flow in the inlet lengtl~or n s ~ r n i g l ~ t rlsnnnrl

As i t furl.11rr oxn1n1)loof t . \ v o - t l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~fs i o ~i l~ : ItII C 1101111tlilt.y Io\ l I li~yrt.,\ \ r sl1:1111 1 0 \ \ , ( ~ 1 1 1 sitlcr tho case of flow in the i t ~ l r t length of n str:tight CIIRIIIICI \\.ill1 lliiL 11:11.;1llrl~vi~lls. :I I::rg(: /\I t~pstrenrn distnnce from the inlet the velocity dist.ribution is n s s r ~ ~ n rto be ~ ~ n i f o rant1 llamd ~n holic over thr witlt.11 of t.he chnnnel, ns indicnt.cd in Chnp. V. \\'e shall nssnrne tlrnt t.11~ vrlocit,y in the inlct s e c t i o ~ ~ uniforn~ly is distrib~tt,cd over it8 u~idt,h,2 0 , nnd t,hnt it.8 tnng~~it.r~clr(!". is Owing to visrorts frict,ion, hor~ndarylayers \\.ill be formed on t~ot.l~ u.nlls, nntl thrir asitltl~\\-ill incrensr in the dow~~st.rcn~n clircct,ion. At the beginning, i. e. at small tlist,nnccs fro~nt I ~ c inld section, the houndary layers urill grow in t,hc same nny as t,hey \vol~ltlnlong n flat plntr : ~ zrro t incidence. The resulting velocit,y prolile will consist of taro bor~nd:rry-lnyerprofiles on thr two walls joined in the cent,re hy n line of const~rntvclocity. Since the v o l ~ ~ n ~ flo\v Inlist 1)r t,l~r of c same for every section, the tlecrrasr in t,he ratc of Row near the walls whicl~ clue to frirtion ~nrtst is t)c.compensated by n corresponding increase near t,l~c axis. 'l'hr~stho boundnry Inyrr is formctl ~rr~rler influence of an nccelernt,etl ext.crnnl flow, ns cliutinct froin thr cnse of the fl&t.1)I:tlc. At, t,Ile larger distnncecr from the inlet section the two b o ~ ~ n d n r y Inyers grncl~ixlly merge into e n r l ~ other, nr~tlfinally the velocity profile is trnnsforrned asyml)toticnlly into t.11r pnrnbolir d i s t r i l ) ~ i I i ~ n of I'oiseuille flow. , I his process can I x : ~ n a l ~ w x l ~nnt,lrc~nc~ticnllyone of two \ v i y s . I'irsL, the i111cgrat.io11 in can he l,c~rf~)rniccl (.he t l t , \ v t ~ s L r r tlircction so t.l~nL in :~~~~ the I~onncl:~ry-lnycr gro\rt.ll is cal(:~~lntt~tl lor :III:~crc.lrrnt,c~l cxtcr~lnlsl.rr:ri~~. Srco~~clly. is ~~ossil)lr :ln:~I~st! ~~rogrrssivt. ib 1.0 tho (l(?vi:~l.io~l o l 1I1c. ~)rolilc r o ~ n f its :1y11111toti(: I)it~.:~l~oli~' clis(ril)t~t.io~~. inI('~t.~~l.i(lnI ~>ro(.(.t.tl l I l ~ t ' i. r . (YII il ~rpstrra~tn tlircction. Ilaving rrhtainerl bot.h solr~lions, Ray in t.hc for111of scric.s cxp:tl~siorls,\vo c:lll rrl.nir~n suffiricnt, nur~~lx-r t.rrlns in either of t.llcn~ of and join Lhe Lwo solr~tions n sccl.ion wlrcro :tt, I)oLh arc still npplicnble. 111t.lris way the flow for t.11~ v l ~ oilr ~ l r Ict~gtlris obt,ninctl. 'rhc ~ncl.l~otl ~ c t \vhiclr \\as first used by H. Scl~lichling[67], will now hc ontlir~rdin brief. I\-r nssutne a systcni of coorrlinat,es \vhose axis of nhscissnc roinritlcs \vitll t,hnL of the c11n11r~cl. Fig. 9.15. For the cxpu~eion the ~~l)strcnln in tlirrctior~n-r slrnll rncnsltre the ordinate !I from t.11~ ccnt.re-line of the cl~nnnel,wl~crcnsfor the c.xpnnsiot~in t.11~ tlo\vnstrcnt~~ direction t,hr ortlin:ltc !/' will be n~rns~trrtl fro111one of the walls. 'l'l~r inlct vclocit.y \\.ill I)r (lrnoted I)y (1,. nntl that in Llir ccnt,ral st,rean~hy TI(r). I\'(: brain I I \vriting t.hr rcll~at.ion r cont.inr~it).: ~ o

Fig. 9.14. Velocity distrihut,ion in the zone hetrvecn two int,crnct.ing parallel streams, after R . C. Loclc [45]

j u d Y = (ion.
y'=O

1 81;
1 0 08 . 06 . 0.4 02 .

I X . Exact, aolrrt,ionn of t l ~ c nt.rn<ly-stsate boundnry-layer eqnnt.ionn

An npproxilnntcr tnetlrod of calcnlnl.ion for tho L\ro-tlimenaionnlcnsc wltich is bnsed on the momontunr equation (see Chap. X), as wcll as t\u~nerousexpcrin~e~ltnl resulta which rcac11 into the t ~ t r h ~ ~ lregion, have been reportctl in two papers by H. Jlnh~~cmnnn L. Ehret ent and [36] ant1 [37]. The flow in the entrance of n pipe I I ~ Rbeen studietl by 1.. Rol~illcr [55]. The details of a ~alculnt~ion \vhicl~dcvclops the .solution from tlic downs(,rcam directtion t~l)wxrtls cnn bc found in [57]. T11e problem of' t,l~edeveloprncnt of t l ~ e flow pxt,t.ern in t.lic inlet IctlKt,j~ a of clrnnnel was cxnrnined crit.ically by M. Van l)ykc 1711 when he for~nulnt~cd sccondhis order t,lieory, see Sees. VIIf and 1Xm. I l e drew nt,l,cntion t o the fact, tllnt tlic soluLion tlisplnyctl in Fig. 9. IT, ~ . t : l ) ~ . t ~IL c ~ ~ l , s ~ Iir~I.-or(Ic~. l ~ ~ l , Ii o It r ~ ~ vt~liclonly for VC:I.J' ~o L I in 111.t.p: Itcynoltls n ~ ~ n ~ l ~I'vrr s lhis rcnson it i* f'ortntl t.o s l ~ o wccr(,nirr tlcvinl.ions nt. low o . Itcyr~oltlstrt~tnbcrsfrom t,hc corrcspontling t~rtlncricnlsolrtl.ior~of tJlc full N ~ ~ v i c r SLokcs erllrntions.

0 -0.2
-0.4 -0.6 - 0.8

- 10 .
Y

u o
I ? .9 . 5 Vr1ocit.y dintribntion for lamir~nrflow in 1.llo inlet section of n channel

i. Thc n~clhodof fi~ritcdiRccrencest

Modern n~cthods(digitnlcnmpulers). I n recent years a large number ofnl~melical mct11od.s has been developed for solving t h e ln~nirlar boundary-layer e(~lrat,ions. Tlicse rnct,liods fall mainly under the 11ead111g implicit finite-diffcrcr~ce of procctlrlrcs nrirl represent a developrncnt of a numerical procctlure first forn~nlat,cd Flueggeby Lotz and Blottner [21]. The metl~ods refcrrcd t o are accurate and fast but reqt~ire access t,o a digital computer. The choice of m e t l ~ o d a given case depotlcls on t I ~ e in nature of the prohlrm co~rsitlered, but is also a matter of personal prefcrence. For a review of existing methods tllc render is rcfcrrcd to a Rnrvey article hy Blott,ner [6].

lntrotlnring t.he displ:~t:rn~c~~t iI~irl<~~rss 0 , rr0r11 ~ Y I I I . (8.30) we ran write

atid wit.11 tilo aid of cqn. (9.62) wo can \vrit.o

Near t.he inlet srrtion t . 1 1 ~I>n~rntlary lnycr rlcvrlops in t l ~ e salnc \ray as on a flat plate at zero inritlrnce it1 rrnnccrlcratad Ilow, so that fro111cqn. (7.37) we Iiavo

is tllr ('I~nriirlrri~tic. n i r n s i ~ ~ ~ l r s ~ di inlet Ic1ig111.1':qnntion (9.53) ran ~ l s o written as I)e U(x) =

V,

{I

~ v i t l r li, 1.73. I n tl~istnalltirr 1 . 1 1 ~ vrloc:it,y o~~tsitlc ~ r t l 1)ountlary layer has hren developed i n powrrs or . 'i'lio vnlnr of K , is known fro111Hlnsins's solntin~~ tho fiat plntc, but the for rcn~nininproc-1lirir11l.a 2 , Ii,. . . . arc ~ ~ ~ ~ l o ~ o thry ~ , K ns n r t clrl~rnclon tlro 1)nnndnry layer wllich

+ Ir', a + I<,e Z i-

(9.55)

The metllotl proposed Ilcrcin is chosen for its simplicity and its wide range of possil~le app1ioat)ions; it differs from the early rnetl~ods t h a t t.mnsforrncd (sirnilarin it,y-typo) varinbles are uscd ancl t.11~ st,cp sizcs are allowcd t o vary in t,hc st,rcamwise arid normal dirceCion. Some of the advantngcs of tising transformetl varinblcs n.re: (a) t.he growt,11 in t l ~ e domain of c:alculntiotr n.ssocint,cd wit11 t11c ir~crcasingI ) o t ~ n t l n r ~ Inycr tdlickness is largrly eliminn,tctl; (1)) t.11~botindary-layer profiles are smoother nrrtl vary more slowly in the tfmnsfnrmed plane allowing larger step sizcs t o be 11scd; and (c) (.he finite-tliffcrencc fnrmulnt,iotl hcro~ncs virttrally itlcnt,ical for cc~rnprcssible nnd incornpressihlc plane and axially synirncl,ric bountlary-layer flnws. The nsc of vnrin1)le step size in the normal direction lnnltcs it, possittlc L calculnt.~ o ttrrlr~tlctrtns wcll a s Ixminr~r flows with only minor c:I~nrig~:n ~ o r r n ~ r l ~ ~ l . i r ~ t ~ . ir f Special classes of larnit~arflow8 characttrizv(1 1)y I)e)un(l:lry I ~ ~ y e r n wiLh cliflr*rt.r~t lengtll scales (e. g. large blowing rates), can also be ha~ldled with greater accuracy.

4 :

l~ns no( yrl I)rrt~ tl~.trrn~inc.el. 11 the serirs expansio~l 1 frorn the npstrcnm clirrction we asantno u = a o ( y ) -- TL' ( r ,y), 1v11ere u,(!,) is t,lre pambolic vclorit,y dist.rihr~t.iun, e. u,(!/) = ) 11,(1 - y 2 / n 2 ) , and u' is n.n additionnl i. vrloc.ity wl~oseliigl~crortlcr~Inny hc ncglrrtccl i l l t . 1 ~ first npl~roxinlation. Ir'ig~~re gives nn inclie.ntion of Iho rl~nngo t,l~o 9.15 in vclocit,y profile over t,ho inlet. Ir~igtlr. It is srrn t.hnt, t,l~r l)nr~bolic ~)rofile fnr~nctl about v z/rc2 No = 0.10, SO tl~nt a c t ~ ~inlot in nt tho ni Irr~gl,lt ZE - O~llin(fJ,a/r)= 0.04(2rr) . R wl~nrcR tlcnotas t,l~cItoy~~oI(Is is nt~n~ber referred to t.l~e~wi~lt.l~ cl~nnncl.For exnriiplc nt. R 2000 t.o 500n t.he inlet l o ~ ~ gexknds over of t,lio tl~ XI) to 200 rlint~rirl\vidt.l~s. COIIRPC~IIPIIIIY, doc.s not h1~00111ef ~ ~ l tlovrloprtl nt all if the (,he flow ly c.l~nnnrli~ sl~e)rt il t.lw Il.cyt~e~ltls or r~nn~hcr rornpnml.ivcly lnrge. is

I n111 indcht~tl Professor T. K. Fnrinelorp o f t,he Tr~nt-itutr Trrl~rrolngy Trontlliri~n, to of it1 who kintlly provided tuc with tlw following presentation.

\\r)ltre j = 0 (plane flow) or j = 1 (flow with axial symmetry). The boundary condit,ions arc 16 -- I ) = 0 a t !/ = 0 n.ntl 11. =- 1 (n.) a t ?/ 0 . For turbulent flows u - a n d v 1 a.rc t.he n,~)propl.in(,c lrlrnn vclocit,ics n,tltl ~1 rrprescnt.s a sllitably defined cdtly viscosit,y, scc for inst,:~ncr A . M . 0. Smit.11 n.nd 'l'. Ccl)coi [ D l ] . I'or Inminer flows 1 .= 0. 7'11~, r n l ~ s f ~ , ~ ~ r ~ ~ a l , i o t ~ l of r(ltls. (9.50) ancl (9.57) to d i t r l e ~ ~ s i o t ~ l ~ s s vnria1)Ies i~~corporaLes I~ot,Il t11(, l$ln.sir~s ant1 l l ~ c Mn~lglrrl.rnnsfot~tr~n.titr~~s:~lsoII. (:orrl.lcr I:13, 341) nl~tl (sc~ is tl(4itlrd n.s ft)llows :

In the absence of ~ r l c t ~ i o r ~t)Io\ving t1he boundnry conditions nrr or

Nrar t,hc lending'ctlgo of a cuspctl botly anti in tell(:stngnat,ion region of a I)lnnt, I~otly, rq~~at'ions (9.04) and (9.05) r c t l ~ ~ c e t,rnc similnrit,y form. 'l'l~ccorrrs1)ontling s i l n i l ~ ~ . ~ . to ~ o I ~ ~ ( . i(:II.II IIHIYI, I,II(~I.vI'III~I~,. i ~V ~\ .lI I I ~ * H (111. I . I I ~~~ ( ~ t ~ ~ ) - IO l y i-I ~~i~l t~~ t ~~l ~~ . r . o n sI)(* 1 si t ~ i t 1 I i ~ t( l l . . . t ( ~r~cl.ltc~tl. ~nc.l.l~otl 'l'lto prosentcd hcrc solves t l ~ c 11art)ialtlill'crerit.ial cclllat,ion (!).(i4) a ~ i t l(wit,li small modificabions) also t,he associated sirnilar eqnaLions re(~uirotln.s init,ial val~lrs. Tllc method is tJlus self-st,art,ingand ~cclnires o ndt1iLionn.l i t ~ p t ~ t . . n Finite-clilTereace q11otient8: The tlornain of c n l ~ u l a t ~ i o ~ lt,he (6, q)-l~ln,n(in rnn I)(, re~~rescnt,rd a scmi-infir~itc by strip borlnrlcrl by t.l~cwall q = 0, t,llc rtlpr or t.llr 1)onncIary layer 11 = ye, wit,ll q, suit,nl)ly drfinrtl, n,ntl t , l ~ init,ial linc [ -= lo\vl~c.~.rI V r ~I sol~tt,ionis p r c s ~ ~ r n et,o I)c lcnown. d
7

This strip is completely covered by a grid with lines drawn parallel to t,he ( and coordinntes as illrlstro.t,ctl in Fig. 9.16. 'l'l~c s t q sizr A[ rcl)rcsc~~t.s tlist,:tnrc. t.11~ bet,wcer~t,wo snr.crssivc grid lincs 5 = const,al~t; is prost~~nctl I)c stn:~ll I I I I ~ , is it i.o ot,hcrwise rrnspccifictl. 'I'hc corres1)ontling step sizes in t.llc q-tlirrct.iou nrr spc:c.ilictt t,o vary i r l geometric 1)rogrcssiorl. The rnl,io Octwecn t,wo s ~ ~ c c r s s i v e lincs, TI,, grid and yn+l, is denoted by I< = I -1 k where 1 k J varies from 0 t,n 0.05 in l.ypical cases. Rncll notlal point is itlcntified by a dor~l)lcintlcx m, ?L wllirl~tlclinrs it.s posit,ion Fin, yn according tso

111 writing t>hefinite-tlilTerence quol.icnt,s it is corivcnlent t,o int.roclr~ce t,he moan of two successive Ay-values

nntl E , is t,llr rdtly visvosit,y from etln. (39.2). The s~~l)script,s tlrnotx- part.inl ctilkrctit.ia.liot~, anrl t,l~c clunnt,it,y
5

0( t ) = 2
7 7 ~ 0 ;/ = O ;

iJ' ( r )
1, (a)
0

t J(2,)d . ~ .

In the step-by-step calculations the solution is considcretl I<nown a t 5,n arlcl ell preceding grid lines, and the variables F nntl / are sougl~tat. [,,,, 1. C t ~ t ~ I l ~ ~ l - t l IiIl~ Yrr~l,ptositnntio~~s Iltr tlrrivalivc~sk',, nncl l~',,,, n t [,,, I I rltc ( \ T ~~ to nntl 1',,,+1, .-I, rr,sprctiv(~ly, a ' I ' n ~ l o ~ . in sc,tic~s olttainttl by expnntling 1",,,,1,

=On.r~tlq=cm;

I,--

I.

(9.63)

Fi~~it~e-tlifl'c?rcncc: cclnnt,ions of sccoiitl orcler call I>(: S O I V C ~ (by mnt,rix invel.sion ront.inrs) r1111rhnlorc cfficicnt.ly trllan t.llirtl (or higher) ordcr equat,ions. I t is of inter?st,. t,lict.eforo, t,o rrclurc eclnat.ions (9.01) to sccond ordcr. To this erld the variable I;' -= /, is int,l.otl~tcrtl and ecln. (9.01) is rcwrit,ten a s

INF'v],l I / F I I

--F~)-T-~((FE'~--~~F',~].

(9.64)
Fig. 9.16. \'ari.zble stcp size finit.c-rliffrronce grid for t.he rnlcr~lnt,ionof lat~iinnr and tr~rb~llctlt,

'J'llis rtlua(iotl now conlains two l ~ n k n o w rfunctions, f and 1'1, I ~ u tllrse are relat,etl ~ t by tlrr sirtlplr rxprc~ssior~

Iiotlnrlnry Inycrs
x knon.~~ vnlllcs, O rtnknn\vlr r n l l ~ r s

ccnt,rred at, (rn -1- 1, n ) . 1'110 two t,xpt~cssionsare t.hert:lipon cornt)ined in such a way t h n t tcrnls of ortlcr A q 2 are elitnina1.rtl. The corrcsponclir~g rliffrrerlce qnot,icnks can I,c given t.tlc, form (index w e 1I omit,tcd):

aF,,
il,l

2 /I 11,'

II

I]

I 0( A .1
= -Ii;

(9 69) proces.s t,lle tcrrns ( / S ) t can be licJ)t constnrlt. (ecll~nlt,o stration)unt,il initial convergence is ncllicved.
t . 1 1 ~ Gnluc

n~11rl.c

L I = \(--I,

14 = ( l i 2 - 1 ) C1,

n.t t . 1 1 ~prrvious

where

I'~

1l2

(I

-+- K ) , rPz- L ~ ,

.-- 2

r1J ' ~ ,

I>,,

-=

I.

E(lltn.tions (9.69) nncl (9.70) rcrlr~cct.c-,t,l~c st.nntlartl form for cent,ral difl'crenccs when

K = I. For the (-tlcrivat,ivrs in cqnnt.inn (9.64) a siml~lc baclrwnrtl tlini.rener forrnl~ln is

used

Metltod of nol~ltion:Equations (9.74) r c p r c ~ o n n~~ o of N-1 si~ntlll.nnc:ousr1,lgc:t t I~raiceqt~ntiotirrfor the t ~ ~ i l r t i ok;ntl,n = 2, 3, . . ., N). At, c n c l ~levcl IL (.llrcc w ~ ~ (n unknown quat~t~ities appear, namely F n a j l ,.-I, Fm.kl,n Fniit, ant1 ,,+I, but sincc F , + I , ~ and F m + l , are known from t h e boundary cot~ilitions,1.11~ ~ totnl nnrnbcr of ccl~~ations equals t J ~ enr~nlberof unlrnowns. The set of nlgcliraic cqrrnt,ions rnn be wril,t.cn in so-callod tllrcc-tlingonnl matrix forrn. Mnhriccs of Illis ttypcwhcro oK-tlir~go~tnl elements vanish o l ~ t ~ s i i d e three-tliagonal band can bc invertotl b g a sirnplc: ant1 th direct nlot.Iloc1 well s11it.cdfor digital co~nputcrs.l'oend tlriseqtla.tion (0.74) is rcwrit,toll in "stantlard form" (snbscripts ( m -1I ) ornittcd)

E -

Fsr

1,.

n --

Flit, n

At -

-I

ocnr).

(9.7 I )

Thc botlnclary condit.ions arc

The 1nrgc.r I,rtlnc.at,ion error wlliclt alil,cn.t,s 11crc is balancctl liy 1,llc it.cral.ivc scltclne proposc(1 for solving t l ~ tlillbrcr~ccc-qt~al,ion. r 'l'llo non-lit1cn.r t,ernis in r(lnnt,ion (9.04) Ilavc t o be replaced by lincarizccl diflkrencc qnot,icnt.s. Tho tcrlns fFIlant1 FFg may serve as exntnples and t,l\cy are writ,t,cn as
J'

wllerc IL = I t l r ~ ~ o ttbc wall and ?t = N the edge of tile bor~ntlary cs layer. J1, is asst~tnetl now t,llat a solut,ion existst in tllc form

F g = Fi,(Ff)mI. 1 , n. and

jt(Ft1)m+1, n ,

(9.72)

\vhrrr (FE)lni ant1 (F,,),,,( 1 , . a r r given 1)y (9.71) n.ntl (9.69), res})cct,ivcly. The unltnown coel'firictlt.~ ant1 / i a r r srl. rcltlnl t,o tllc Itr~ownvalurs PI,,,, ancl I,,, in F'i trllc: first it.cm.t,ion ( i -- 0) anti latar ulitl:~l.cdb y F" /Ji(i= 1, 2, 3 , . . .) in t,hc second nntl fnrt,hcr successive it,crat,ions. lSxperic:ncc sl~ggestst,llnt the tc:t.rn F2 shot~lrlbe ~pproximat,rtl by
t I, n

The boundary condit,ion F1 = 0 and t,hc rcyuirernent t,llnt rcll~ation (9.77) sl~orlld rcrnnin valitl indcpcntlcnt,ly of the s l , c size /Iq leads to ~

rl n

n t I , ,l L

- Z%, n .

(9.73) When the precerling expressions are substitut,cd int20 oqn. (!).741,), 1.11~ following relohion is obt.aincd
17n

l'hc lincnrizrtl Iitii1,r-tlifl'ercnw c,not.icnts given ahove are su11st~it.ut~erl the into tlifl'crentinl t~q~~nl.iorl (9.G4) nrtd Llle result is rltultiplied througlt by A E t o give a tlilYcrcnce ecllra.t,iotl. 'J'l~isis writden as follows

- C,I - J l t , 1- A,, Jtn-l Fn

,.I

I),,

-- A , , G n - .1 11,t 4. A,, ~c',,-I

'

(!).SO)

En =

- Gtl
I{" -I A" E,,- I

Q n = -1)" - A " Gn- I

n, -I

A , , R,

By rncnns of cclr~alion(9.81) ant1 tlle condition (9.78), it bccorncs possil~lc cotnpot,~ t.o

192

J X . 1Cxact sol~~Lion~ st,rndy-state l~ountlary-layer of tho equat,iona

= 2 for all grid point,s between

i. T h o method of f i r l i b diffcfcrr~~oes

103

R , and G',, for sucoessive values of n startling wit,h ?z

t,hc wall and the ctlge of the 1)onndary layer.

Sinco 17,,.,l for 12 = N - 1 is lznown from rqnat,ion (!).70), it 1,ccomrs possil~leto evaluate all nnlznowns F, I)y means of equation (9.77) wl~ilc t,mvc,rsing td~o hountlary layer from t,ho ctlgc t,o the wall t,lirongll (Icrreasing va111cs of ? b , i . O. for 17. -- N-l , N--2, . . ., 2. '1'11is corn~)lrl,rs r calc~llnl,ion Il',, lh of F,, l l . n )in ono il.c~.nl,ion. On(:(: I{',,,, 1 1 s 1 1 I)c~vi l r I r ~ . n i i ~ ~t11r l . t ( ~ ( cot.~.c.sj)ondi~ig solnt.ion for /0141,n ca.n be found by rlireot. nun~cvirnlinhcgrat,iort of e q ~ ~ a t ' i o n (9.05). The t,rapezoidal rule snfficcs for t,his purpose.
(7.-

guessing a solat,ior~whicl~salisfics the bonndary condit,ions), whereas those wit,ll index i arc t o be found in t-11c 1:-th or c n r r c t ~ titcmt,ion. 'L'lte t1ifTcrc:nc:c tjrlol,irnf,s (9.69) and (0.70) are now srtl)sti(.ut,cd in1.o equa0ion (!).84). '1'1ie rrsnlt. is a t l i f l i - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c c ecluat,ion whicll can be writt,en in the standard form of eqnat,ion (9.74), wit.11 coeffi-

The calculat.et1 vniues P7n4.1,n /,,+l,. are used t,o dnt,crmine new and iniproved a.ntl vn,lrtcs of t,l~e cot,fficients A,,, I?,,,C,, which in t , ~ ~leads t,o new and improved values rn of F,+I,,, ant1 f,, I,,. 111(? ~wocess t.~rtnin:~tcd is whct~t,hc rcs111t,sof two s~~cccssive it,rrnt,ions ngrco t,o within a specifietl t,olcrancc, typically of order 10-5. 'l'lio convergrlice is nsnallp rapitl, t01ree t,o four iterat,ions being atlecluate in most cases with st,rp sizrs A.r in l , l ~ e range 0.01 t,o 0.05.

, ,.

111 crrt,t~in ~)roLlc:nisit, I~ecomrst ~ ~ c c s s n r ~ t,o nllow for b o ~ ~ n d a . r y - l ; ~ y ( ~ r growt,l~ 1)y inerc,asing N (or ve) as t,l~ecalc~~lat~ions procercl tlownst,reant. The houndarylayer ctlgc is rlcfinctl by t,hc rcquirctncnt t,hat tho difference F N - F n r ~ l sltould be Icss t,lian a sperificd valnc, t,.vpically of ordrr 10-4. 7'hc growth, in t,crrr~s the preof s r n t variablcs, is usrlally very rnotlcst even for cases involving separation.

A v n r i a l ~ l ( ~ primary int.crcst. in Lhc calcnlat,ion is the s1.rrs.s at, t,hc wall; it,s of vnlr~ocan bc tl~t~erminetl with gootl accuracy from the five point formula

A linear variation in F suffices as a n initia,l guess, Fo, and the corrcsl~ontlingvalr~e o f f is det,ermincd from equation (9.86). The coefficients A,, /I,,, C,, ant1 I),, nro c:~loulatcd next, and tltc corresponcling valncs of h, n.ntl (r,, arcb tlct~crrni~~ctl ', ILCI.OSS t l ~ t * bonntlary layer. The recurrence rclnlion (9.77) and t,he bonlltlnrg contlit,iorls (!).78) are t.llerl used t o determine t h e new it,crat.e, F I , across t,hr bounclnry Iagrr. 'Yhr process is repeated until the difference bct,wcen successive it,eratrs becomes slnallcr t l ~ a r ~ specified t,olerance. The number of it.emtions required is typically of ortlcr the 8 to 12. The method is simpler t,lian t,he usl~al "s11ooting'' 111ctliod usc(1 for two-point l~onntlary-vnlncproblem$ ant1 it converges in tnany eases wIlc:~.ct,lre In,t.tel.~ r ~ c t , l ~ o t l fails, for inst,ance for very large blowing mt.es.
Applications: The finite-tlifferencc methot1 prescnt.ctl Iirrc is in1,cntlctl a s n prnctical engineering t,ool. Great,rr accuracy can be achicvcrl with a more elnl>orntr proeednrc, 1,111,t,his in trtrrl learls t,o greater cotnplexit,y in forninlat,ion a.ntl progrntnrning ant1 t o a n increascct tlemnrid for comput.er t,ime and cnpacit.y. The corii\~nting time nnd accnmey tlel~cndfor all tlifTcrcncc ntet,lrotls on the st,rp sizr nsrtl in tht. r n l r ~ l Iatiorts. It, is of int.crest, to exa,mine the accuracy of the present, ~nct,l~otl a few in cases for which very accurat3e solut,ionsare known. The cases considrretl are 11owa1.t.h'~ linrnrly retarcletl flow (cf. Scc. I X d ) a,nd the circular cylinder with a pressure clistrih~~t.ion ncrortling 1,o l)ot.cnt,inl 1.11eory ant1 nccot,tling t,o t.11~ cspcritnenl,~ I[ic.li~r~~z of (c/. See. X o). '1'11~ rrsult,s for n "norrnnl" step sizc nntl a "srn:i,ll" S ~ C size arc tal)nlntcd [I 11clow. l'rotn t.11~ c:II(:III:L~.~(I rc~1111~s only t,hc 1ocat.ion of t,ltc scl~n.rt~.l.ion 11oin1s:II.(! sl~own. Cnse ('o~lsiderrd I,i~~enrly set.artlrtl Ilow

111ilinlvnlr~cs: \Vlic~n sing hnl~~~l:rl.c.tl similar solrrl.ions as s1,arling valrlcs, ext,c:nsivc int~c~t,j)olat,ioti rc.clnil,ecl wl~rncver variable st,cp sizes Ay,, are nsctl. I t is is rnorcx conrcnirnt, antl rfficient also t,tr g o ~ e r a t et,hc sin~ilarit~y solut.ion by finite tlifi~rr-rcst.hroupl1 surcessivc iterat,ions. The equat,ion t>obe solved is oht,aincd from cclna,li~~ii (!).64).and can I)c writt,on in 1inoar.ized form as

Present res~~lts (1) x,' (2) x,*

(1) 4, (2) 4 ,
=
=

I
I
or r,* or T,*
=

.-

1Sxnct

0.1227 0.1210 106.13" 105.01

O

r8* = 0.1I!)!) ( I l o \ \ . n r t l i )

(l,eig11)[44] - 0.1 198 (Sc~l~ortinrlcr) 0.120:)

Circular ryli~~tlcr (l'okntinl flow)

-.

= = = =

( r f . Scc. X c )

4a

104.5' (Srl~ocnni~er) -

Circrllnr cylit~tlrr (Ilic~ncne prms. tlntn)

r 7

(2) 4,

( I ) $,

80.!)8" 80.08"

#.

-=

(intrrl)olntrd)

80.0(: (.lnlli: nnd Stnitl1)(.42/

1 11c i~~(li(%cs ( i . i--1) i~itli(,:it,(, Llic it,ct.nl,ioti for wl~icli t,lic varinl)jt; is ~ : v a ~ t ~ a t , r ~ ~ afl(1
t1rnot.c.s tl/llq. \'nrial)lrs witdl in(lrs i-1 arc consitlcred lrnowrl (init.ially by

(I])'

(1) "Norlnnl" step sizc: .,It

0.01, ,,ItI = 0.05; (2) "S~nnll"strp size: A [

0,001. .,11/

-=

0.025

194

IX. Jqxnct eolutions of t,hc stcwly-ntnto I)or~ntio.ry-layer cqr~ntiorin

j. Bor~ndaryl ~ y c r second ordcr of

I95

Ilere, the new variable is defined a s The cornputing tirnc wit11 f . 1 1 ~"normnl" strep sizc is tyltically Ci t o 10 scconds on t.hc UNIVIIC 1108 colnpntcr.'l'he accuracy wit,l~ slnnll step sizc is seen to Ire bet,tcr the 11r1t t t.11~ a expense of a twcnt,y-foltl inert-nse in comtrut,c.r tirnc. For engirlenring calcnIations Lhe conl.scr grid shor~ltlsrlflicc; il, rcclt~iresrunning times of t,lrc ortlcr 10 sccorltlrr in cr~sc pr:~otinnl int.c.rcst sr~cltas t.l~c of 1n.tnirlnr l)or~ntlnry Inyrr ol' nn ncrofoil. 11nl)rr)vc:tleconotny cnr1 bc nc:hit:vc:tl Iiy vnrying t.lrc step size ns t.hc cnlt:ulntion proc,cetls, t h n t is using t h e fine mrsh only in t h e critical region near separation.

Stll)st.it,ut.in,g t.licsc forrr~s into t,hc J)onntlnry-lnycr er(~~nt.ionsfirst nnti second ortlcr, of wc oi~l~nin

1"' -1.
,,I

f f"

-11 - 1'"

0, - 1'2 -1- 2) -1- 0.6470,

(!).!)l)
(9.92)

A summary account of nurncricnl methods in fluid mccl~anicsis give11 in thc lecture notes of Stnoldc,ren [G5].
j. Uot~i~dnry layer of second order?
'l'he secontl-orclrr equntions, cqns. (7 52) nnd (7.53) for flow in n hol~ntlary layer were dcrivcd in Ser. V l l f . This system of linear partial differcnt,ial equations r a n be solvcd if the first-order solntiorls u (z, N ) nnti vl (x, N ) are Irnown, and if the funcl tions I < ( r ) , IJz(x, 0) nntl I'z(x, 0) nre suitably prescribed. I t follows t h a t the calculation of n second-order bo~lttclaryla.yer on a given body in a strcnm requires t h a t the following steps should be taken: (a) Cnlculat~ionof t h e potential flow (external flow of first order) about the body with the boundary conditions IT1 ( r , 0 ) = 0. The solution yields U l ( s , 0).

Fy' -1- f P;' - 2 f' F; -1Fd -1- f

with t.11~ btrllntln.ry condillions

1" F, = 11 ( J f" - 2 1' F'd 4-/" IFd -- - 2 ,

(!I.!):!)

'

The first, equation d c l ~ c r m i n c ~ first,-orclcr b o ~ ~ n t l n rInyc:r which in itlcnI.irn.l wiI.11 the y eqn. (5.39) for ~ t n g n a t ~ i oflow nt a flat plnt.c. The two succeeding equn.t,ions detern mine the second-ortler boundary layer. Thc solrlt~ionhns been split into t.wo part.s, the partin1 solution thle t.o curvature (srtbscript c) anti the partial solut,ion due to the displacelnent effect (subscript, d). T h e latter is induced by the cxtcrnal flow of sccond order wit,h the velocil,y Uz(x, 0) = Uzl z , a s determined in step (c) above. For Fd we obtain the following simple solution

(b) Cnlculat,ion of t h e first-order boundary layer for given U l ( x , 0), t h a t is, determinatfion of tlie sol~ltionof t h e oystem of equations (7.49). I n pn.rticular, from the uolution i r l ( r , N), v l ( ~N ) we calculate the fnllction Vz(x, 0) with the aid of equ. , (7.45). (c) Calculation of the second-order external flow for the boundary condit,ions Vz(x, 0) and zero velocit,y a t large diotance from the body in accordance with eqn. (7.45). The solution provides us with U z ( x , 0) and P z ( x , 0). I n what follows, we shall assume t h a t t.hese steps have already been taken. We shall concentrate on more detailed second-order calculation for several particular cases. Symmetric atngnation flow: T11is type of flow wau analyzed in detail by M . Van Dyke (see also Chap. VII, [7]). It is assumed that. the expressions for the external flow of first ant1 second ordrr on a convex wall a t the stagllation point (K = 1 a t x = 0) have bcen found and yield U ( 2 , 0) = U l l x The skin-friction cocfficient follows frolri eqn (7.55) Inserting the numerical vnl~les f"(0) == 1.2326; F:(O) we find I.hnt,
= - 1.9133; F:(O)

= 1.8489,

(9.06)

-t F UZ12 + 0 (c2),

(9.87)

whrrc IJu nntl TIzlnrr conslsr~ts which dt,pentl on the shnpc of the lrody. Accortling for t o eqn. (7 48), wc make t h e following assu~nption the inner solution:

Thc formrllae for the pressure ant1 skin-friction cocfficiorlt are ul~ivcrsal. The missing numerical values of the constant,^ U11 and Uzl depend only on the shape of Lllc bociy. In nll known examples, Clzl has turrletl orlt, t,o b~ nrgat,ivc. 'Yl~issignifies ttle sltin-friction cocfficicnt, near the ~ t n g n s t ~ i opoint on a convex wall decreases dllc to n higher-orcter bonntlary-layer cfft:cC~ ((:urvl~tlIrc nll(1 (~i~~)ln(:crnt!l~t.); (.)I(! OI)IJOH~(.(! i~ true about the pressnrc coefficient a t the wall. t This eql~stior~ seen to be idcntjical wit,h eqn. (9.16) of Scc. IXc if it is ~totedthat l l ~ e i8 coordinates z,y in it derroto lengths, wlrersas Iicre t,licy have bccn rcferrerl to I.hc cli~ractcrinlicI C I I ~ I . I I R, (radius of cnrvntt~ro t,llc hody at the nI~gni~t.ion ol point) nntl nrntlc dimcr~oior~lcs,s. Wllctt cornparing the velocity distribution of the cxtcrnal flow8 from cqns. (9.87) nrtd (9.16), we have Q = l/KN = ! l/V" / .

~ I I I

iri~lnhtr~rl Profcnsor I<. Grrntcn for 1,11enxpo~it.ion thin ~rct-ion. t,o in

l!Ni

I X . I3xnrt solr~tionrc thc .stc*n(ly-stntr of 1)onndnry-layer e q r ~ n t i o ~ l ~

j. 15oundnry layer of second orclcr

1!)7

P n r r ~ l ~ n l n n ~ymt::etric strclnl::: 'r'l~c in sccond-o~.tlcr I)otrr~tlary layer on a parabola in n ~yrnrnr1.ric: st.rrn.tti was rnlrnlnt,cstl I)y M . Van I)yltc (sc!c c ~ l u o('ll~al). I I , 171). 111 V 1.110I I C ~ ~ I I I ) I ) I I I . I st,n.g~i:~t,io~i,II:LV(: of I ~ ~ ( I wr

I'ig. 8.17. 1,ocnl kin-friction coeffirior~t in t.hn rleipl~l)nurhootl u ut.n&nnt.io~r of point ~x~.rnl~ol:$r r r l l d of in t 1111111l)cr -- l l mR/v R
1 1

UI1 1 nntl lJzl = - 0.01. (9.00) 111t.hc rnsr of t l ~ c pnrnl~oln h a v r nt onr tlispos:l.l a r1111ncricn.l wc sol~lt,ior~ t,hc co111of pl('f r Nn.vit:r-St.okrs cc]llnt,ions drlc to It. '1'. I):Lv~s I I I I nntl c:Ln use it. for a tlirc!ck cval~lnl of t.11~ ion irrrl~r.ovc:n~rnt mntlr by 1.l1csccontl-order t,l~oory. Pignre 0.17 slrows a plot. of t . l ~ c sltin-frict.ior1 rocfficicnt from (9.!)7) a t a si,ngnat,ion point, of s parabola. in t,rrrns of 1.11~ Rcynnltls nurnl)cr forlnrtl wit.11 1.11~ ratlius of cnrvature nt, 1.11~ vertex. I t follows I'ron~c q n . .(9.!)7) Lhat

of

Lllo

I<,cy~~olds

( I ) l'irst-urdrr I ~ n ~ ~ n < l n r y - l n y c r Ilicnr)'.R -coo: (2) Srt.o~ttl-orclcrI , o l l ~ ~ ~ l n r y - I ~ tIy, f ~ ~ o r y ,I?IIII. l r (n.lol),n l l v r I < , ( ; V I H I V ~ I ( I 1111 01 ( ' I ~ ! # I L V l I ) (3) Nnt~beric:~lI I I I I I O I I r , l 1.111: N:~vi(.r-XI~!kr'n rrlllnII l.lo~tanIIc.r 11. 1. Ilnvin 1 1 1 1 ' (I) R 0. Str.,:t.riall Ill,!v

0.1

lo-'

roo

10'

10'

I 10'

toL

- 'J7p

105

lo6

Cnrvc 2 in Fig. 9.17 is a plot, of t l ~ i s rcl;l.t,ion, w l ~ c r c a s Curve 1 dcpictss t l ~ e first-order solr~t,ion. Cilrvc 3 11;~s IJCCII plo1,tctl with t.hc rcsrllt.~ It. '? I)nvisls nr~mcrical of I. solunt~ in tion. 'l'11r ronsiclcrablc i ~ n l ) r o \ ~ c r n ccfli.ct,ctl by t h e sccontl-order t l ~ c o r y t h e lower r:tngr of Jtcynolds n111nl)crsis clcnl.ly visil~lc.I n wtltlition, t,he clingrams give a n unsln1)ignous intlicnt,ion t,l~ni, t,lle sccontl-ordrr t.htory allows 11s t o itle11t.if.v t l ~ c range r e of vn1itlit.y of first,-ortlcr l.lrc:ory. Jf a n c ~ . r o of lrp t,o 2 % is t o t ~ tolcmtcd, it follows t l ~ a tfirst-ortlcr t,llcory applies a t J<.cynoltls nl~rnl)crsin cxcess of R = 1.5 x 105. Similar cornl)nrisons bnscd on I t . . 1):~vis's ~t~rnic~ricnl ' I solnt,ions reveal l.l~a.ttlic lo\rrcr limit of vn.litlit,y for the scc:ontl-ortlcr t,hcory is at, R = 100 for a 2 % t,olcrnnce. l'ig111.r 9.18 givos tlingrnnis of st,nbir prc~ssr~rc sltiri-friction tlisl.ril)r~t,ions nntl along t,he cx~ntjour a pn.rxl)ola at. zero incitlrncc, both cvaluat.ed with t,lle aid of secontlof ortlrr t,l~cory. I'or purposcs of comparison, tthc tlia.gmrns contain dist.r.ibut.ions calcnIat,cd with t,hc aitl of first,-order bo~lntlary-laycrt,hrory (R -z GO). 13ot.11 ~ ) r c s s n r c dist,ribrlt.ions s t a r t a.it,l~ = 1 a t t.11~ c,, st,agnntiot~ pciint,. F'rictionlcss flow (R + GO) givcss 1 c,, = ----(9.102)
I - 1 2 r*

(1) c p for I l o ~ l v i a c ~ n lflow, R -r m, r ~ l n(8.102) lo . ( 2 ) c p for R 100; erln. (0.104) (3) C ; A'/' = 3.486 x * ' / ' ; ~ ~ n g n n l i opoillt; R --+ m: r~ eqn. (9.101); s 0 (4) C; R ' / ' = 2-63 x*'/';sl.nn~~nlion point; R--t m: eqo. (9.101); s = 0-1 (5) c j R1/'==0.601r* - ' I 1 ; flat,plitt,c

Ii'ig. 8. 18.n) St.nt,irpressure dinLril,r~tion h ) disLribl~l,io~~ and of sllc:~ring8Lrcsn nround 1 . h ~ ronL011r p:rr~t[)oln zero i~~citlci~cc. curves for R = 100 corrm~)ontt ~econrl-order at, The 1.0 l~o~tr~rl:iry-lnyc*r tlleory ; the curves R -+ oo correspond to first-order l.l~cory W l ~ r r c n ~ prcssrlrc cocfficio~t incrcasccl IIY higller-ordcr cfit:t,s, t h e slcintlic is friction is rctlr~crtl h c r c l ~ y I t follows Urnt tl>cp r c s s ~ ~ tlrctg of n p n , r : ~ \ ~ )inc:l.cnsc~s, t . rc ln whereas t,l~t? sltiri frict.ion tlrcrcnscs for 1l.oynoltls 1111rn0cl.s tl(:c:rc:nsit~gf r o ~ r ~ m. R

'

w l ~ c r c ---- : c l / l l otlcnot,c:s t , l ~ dirnc~isior~lcss :I.* c tlist,;~nrc from t , l ~ vcrt,c:x of t.Ii(: 11nral)ola c ant1 ~ n o a s r ~ r cnlorlg 1,llc: ccntcrlinc; sot: n.lso Fig. 9.18. I'or R tl 100 w r find frorn ccln. (9.98) for t,11c r1t\igh1)orrrhoo(1of tfIlc st,ng~~nf,ior~ Gllnk point

J'or t,hc pressure d r a g ol' :L pnrabol:~of \vitll,li 1) [I11 t h a t

( C X C ~ I I S ~ V of C

I)ILSC ( I I Y I ~ ) .~

Y C

li11t1

C,,

--

I I.:IH r*,'

(9.104)

wl~oroR: =: (231*)112 near t11c st,n.gnat,ion point,. A4 expected, t,he higher-order correct,ions dccren.sc in t,he downstrcarn direction, particuln.rly also tluc t o t h e decreasing t:urvc~t~rrrc !.hat, tlircct,ion. At, z~1)olrta:* = 2, t . 1 1 ~higlrcr-order clfeetrs vanish t o all in it~i.rnt.s ~)rrrposcs. n,t~tl Si1niln.r concl~isioris apply t o l.llc slrin-friction coc:fficicntt which, 11on.c-vcr,clisl)lxys nl, t,lrc, st.n.gnnt,ion 11oir1t. t,lr(% Iargcst, sccor~tl-ortlrr correct,ion.

T h u s , aL R = 100 t l ~ c pressurc d r a g cxccctls th:rt in nn inviscitl flow 1)y I(il)'/,. T h e fact, t.llat t h e pressure d r a g incrca.scs n.s x rcsult of t h e opcrntion of socondorder boundary-lnycr cfTects point,s t o t , l ~ e possibility t,lrat snr,Ii d m g s l ~ o ~ ~ l t l :Ipprnr in t , l ~ c frarncworlr of a second-ortlcr theory also for- n flxt, j)lnl,c a t zcro inritlrrlor, a s alrcatly intimat,cd in Src. V l I f .

O~l:cr ehnpw: Second-orcler (:ITcetls f i ~ r11n.lf-borlics h a v o I ~ c r n i n ~ r s t ~ i g n t e t l 1)y 'I'hc ~OSIIIOS n r c similar t o t , l ~ o s c for t.hc parnholn.. 'l'hc cocffi c i e n k for c q n s . (!).!)7) ant1 (!).!lX) a r c

Id. 1)evan 1 1 21.

1JI1 :1.5;

1JZ1= r - - 0 . 0 2 .

l ~ u t . l . l ~sol~ll.iorls t . l ~ c : I)onntlary-lnyrr c*rlun.l,iol~s rr or (7.52) a r ~ t l(7.53) scco11t1 ortlcr of a r c availitblc, as rnigl~l, 11n.ve 1)cr.n cxl)ccl.c:tl, for oases which Ien.tl L o self-sin~ilitrsolut i o n s in first o r d e r , See. VIII b. I n t h e c a s e of flows wllosc first-order e x t e r n a l flows a r c of t h e f o r n ~ I J l ( x , 0 ) z m 1,11t: scc:ontl-ordcr t l ~ c w r yn.lso Irarls t o st3lf-similar solut.ions if

K(x)

x(jn-l)Iz;

tJ2(:x, 0)

xn.

(9. 101;)

li'~trt,l~cr tlc.t.:~ils o n c c r l ~ i n gl.lrc cfrefr.ot*sof srcontl o r t l r r call bo S o ~ ~ ninl CIhnlx V l I n.s c t 8.9 i r V1lI [Gal, [IFia]. Tflc l&tlter r.or~t,nin ~ intlicntaions a b o u t s c c o r ~ d - o r d c effects r i n t4I1eprcscncc of srlct,ion, blowing, hcnt. t,m.nsfer a n d compressibility. Secot~cl-order clfcct.s ncqniro inc:renuing impori.ance for I ~ i g h Mach nnrnl)crs ant1 i n t h e presencc of blowing. I n tllis connexion c o n s u l t [24, 25,47,48,59].

well

[ I ] Anclrado, 15.N.: 'rhc \~nlocit.ydist.ribnt.ion in :i liqr~itl-illto-liq~~icl l'l~eplnnr jet. Proc. jet. Pl~ys.Soe. 1,on(lo11 51. 784 - 7!)3 (I!):!9). 121 Ihxtcr, I).(>., nr~tlI'liiggc-1,ot.z. I.: 'l'hr sol~ltinnof rornprc~ssihlelanlir~xrb o ~ ~ n d n r y layer prol~lcninby a iinitr: tlilli?rcnc:c rnrtd~otl.i';ir~ 11: I~urkl~er dist:r~ssionof t l ~ crr~ct,l~od and con~y)nt;it.inti exnn~l)lcs. of Tccl~n. Jl.cp. 110, Iliv. 15ng. h1ec:h. Stanford Univ. (l!)57); short8 version: ZAh11' gh, 81 !IT, (1!)5X). [3] 13icklcy, Mr.: '1'11~pl:tno jrt.. I'hil. Mag. Scr. 7, 26. 7 2 7 7 3 1 (I!l30). 141 1)Iani~s.11.:. (:r(~~~zst-l~i(:l~(r~l in 1~liissigkcit.t~n ~ i t n ltlcincr Itcibnng. Z. Mnt.11. u. T'l~ys. 56, I ~-37 (1!)08); I311gl. t,r:insl. in NACA 'l'hl 1256. I5J I3lott,ncr. F.(:. : I"initc difli:rcncc n ~ r t l ~ o d a solntioli of t.hr bor~l~dnry-lnyrr of cqr~alions. AlAA ,I. 8 , 19:) - 205 (1970). If,:&]13lott,ner, I?. ( 2 . : Invest,igat.ion of some 1init.t: rlifircn~:~ tcchniq~~cs solving t,hc bour~dnry for 1nyi.r (~c{~~:~tions. I I hl:tl,l~.Ajq11. bli!(!11. l4:11g. 6. I -- 30 (1075). (!OI ~. Stnith, 11.M.0.: A Iinitc (lilTcrc~~(:c ~nct.I~oil v : ~ l r ~ ~ l a ro~~i~)ressihle for ti~~g I(;] (;vOcri, 'r., Iarnin:~rnnil t.r~rh~~lcnI bonr~dnryIayrru. 'l'r;ins. ASM 15, ,I. I3a.sic I':t~g. 92, 52:)--535 (1970). 171 (>h:i11111nn, It.: 1,antinnr nixing of n r t ~ n ~ ~ ~ r c s Ilni(1.l c 11. s i l ~ NACA 'J'N 1800 (1049). 181 C ~ I : I ~ I IJ).IIt..: I'I'hc!on-t.ic:rl ;in:ilysis of I~c:i(. ~ ~I , t.r:~nsfcr regions of scparat,cd flow. NACA in 'YK 37\12 (1!l!it;). [!)I Chcn, I<. I<., tind I,il)l~y,1'. A,: Hor~ntlnryInyrrs with sn~nll ~lcp:irt.~lrcn from Lhe PnlknerSknn profile. ,I I'M 36, 243 - 292 ( llI(i8). 1101 Chrisl,inn. \2'..J.: In~provcd n~~nlrricnl l ~ ~ t i o n t.11~ J ~ l a s i ~ ~ s so of problem n.it,l~three poil~t. hor~nclaryc!o~tclit,ion. ,IASS Z Y , 91 1-912 (1901 ). 11 I ] I):~vis. I<.'l'.: h'11111rrira1 solnt,i~n 1.I1c Knvicr.St,ok~scquat,ions for sylnlnetric laminar of i n r o ~ n ~ ~ r c s s illowc pnst, a 1111r1iI)oln. l~l JVhl 51. 417 .433 (l!)72). 1121 I)n\,nn, I,.: Sccontl order incon~prcs~ibli> lnlni~~nr bonntlnry layer tlrvclopnicnt on n twoilintcnsic~~~:il ~rtni,infinit,chcn1,y. 1'11. I). 'rl~osis,Univ. of (!nIifornia at 1,os Angclcs, 1964. [I31 I)cnisor~, M. 12.. and J%anrn,15.: Conlprrssiblr free sjlcnr lnycr wit11 finite init,inl thicIt~icss. AlAA ,I. 1, 342-340 (I!)F:$). 114) I)cwry, C.I'., and Gross, k'.: Exnrt siniilnr s o l ~ ~ t i o ofs the Ian~irlarhortndary Inyer eqnan t.ior~rr.t1dvnnc.r~in Ilcat 'I'rnnsfer Val. .I, ~\e!:ulrn~ic I'rcss, Ke\v York, 1967, 317-446. [If,]. 15rnns, II.l,.: I,:~ti~innr 1)onnclnry Inyrr theory. Acltlison-Wrslry P~lblisl~ing Corrrpany, I~)ntlt)n, L!)(i8. I IT,] I't~gr,2 1 . : 'l'l~ctiirflo~rnro~lndII c.irc.nl:~r c:ylintlc!r in 1 1 1 rrgion ~vhrrn bo~tndnry ~ t.11~ srpnrntm fro111thr U I I ~ ~ II'ltil., ~ . I C Mag. 7. 253 (l!P2!)).

1171 Page, A,, and Palkncr, V.M.: Frlrther o x ~ ~ r r i r n e n b t l ~ c on flow nrountl n circular cylinder. llh4 136!) (l0:Jl). [IS] I~nlkncr, . M.: A f~lrtlier V ir~veal.igat,ion soll1l.io11 honndnry 1:iyrr AIt.(: R.M 1884 (19:{$)). of of I I!)] J'allcner, V.M.: Sin~plifiedcnlcolntion of t,l~c lalninar bount1:rry layer. A I t C llhl I H I ) ~ (1941 1. 1201 I'anneloep. T., nntl I'liiggc-lotz, I. : 'rho con~presnil~lc bo~tntl:lrylayer nlo11g 11 W I L ~ - C - S I I : L ~ I ~ ~ I wall. 1rtg.-Arch. 33, 24--35 (1!)63). (21 1 l~liig~r-I,otx,, nncl l5lol,t,11t*r, G . : Vmn)l)r~t,titit)n t.hr t!oi~~~)r~?asiI~lc t)o1111(1:~ry I., IP. of 1ti111i11:br layer Ilow incltrtling diq)l:rccrnent I.l~icltnrsnintcr~~(:t,ion 11si11glinite diIlCrc~~ccI I ( ! ( ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s . I Stnnford Llniv. Div. J<ng. Mccll. Tcah. Ilcl). 131 (lg(i2). Shortr:l~cclvcruiot~in .Jourl~:~l tlc MCcaniq~~c 307---423 (1963). 2, [22] Jt'liiggc-LoL7., I.: The cornl)ntnf.ion of 1.110 Innlinnr i : o ~ ~ ~ ~ ) r e sI~ io ~llo ~ ( l ~~r~ el)cl~. ~ l) r : i y r . Ill~~:ll. J5ng. St.anfort1 1Jniv.. I t c j ~ :lV2---30--7 (11)54). 11. [23] Friisnling. N.: Vcrd~~nst.nng, Wiirn~ciil)rrgnngrtncl (:cui:I~wi~~~li ~ i t ~ v c r I ~ ? i l ~ t t ~ g I~i T.I~*I!~. tlitr~cnsior~nlt:r uncl r o l . r ~ l i o ~ ~ ~ n y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n ~ iL r irs(:re~~z~~l~itf~t~f.rii~n~~t~~. I n ~ n n ~c I ~ c r r I,II~I<~S. v . (III~ Ars~lcr.N. I?. Avd. 2. 36, NO. 4 (1!)40); arc n l ~ o NACA TM 14:12. [24] Gcrstcn, I<., ant1 Grons, J . IP.: Maw-Crnnsfor clfccta in l ~ i g l ~ordor bo~indary cr l~iyer solnt.ionfl. Tho leading edge of n swept cylintlcr. Int. J. ItcaL Mass Transfer I G , 05-79 (1072). [25] C:erskn, I<., Gross, .J. F., nntl 13orgcr. (:.: 1% Grcnzschicllt, hiil~crer Ortlnung at1 (lor S t e ~ t linio cines ucl~icbcndrnZylindcrs tnit ut.nrkcn~I \ I I R ~ ~ I L RI~111gwiu~. 3:JO-:l41 (1fl72). %. P ~ . 20, [21i] (:oltlslci~~, Otr bhc t\ro-tlirncnsiot~nl S.: nt~:ntly llow of a vincous ll~titlhcl~indt i solitl I)otly. I'roc. Itoy. 601:. I.ondon A 142, R45-5(i2 (l!l3J). [27] C:oldsLrin. S. (ctl.): hlodcrn tlcvclopmcnla in flrtid tlynnrnim, Val. I, 105. Clart:ndon l'rcxs, Oxford. 1938. [2R] (:ol(lstein, S.: On Inrninar honnrlnry layor flow near a posit.ion of ncpnrat.ion. Q~lart.,J. Mcrh. Appl. Math. 1, 43- (i!) (1948). [29J Giirtlcr, 11.: Ein I)illcre~~zet~veifnl~rer~ Jlerochnnng Inlninarcr Grcnzschichtcn. 1ng.zur Arch. 16, 173-187 (1048). [30] Giirtlcr, 11.: I':~II~~IISR ~cliwaclrcn cincr Wat~clwclligkrit drn Vcrlnufclcr In11ri1rart:n Crcnza~rf schichten. I'arta 1 ant1 11. ZAMhl 25/27. 2:):i-244 (1947) :inel 28, 13-22 (1949). [31] C:iirt.ler, H.: Z I I A[)proxirnat,ion st,ation$rer latninarcr Grenzncl~ichLsLro~nu~n Iiilfe ~ mit dcr al)grbrochcnen I3lasiusschcn Reihc. Arch. Math. I , No. 3, 235 2 4 0 (1049). [32] Giirt.lrr, 11.: Jtcibr~ngs\\riderstn~~d schwacl~ eincr gcwclltcn Ilngsangcstriitntcn Plnttc. Arch. hlatli. 1. 450-453 ( 1940). 13.31 (:iirt.ler, H.: Kine n e w Jtcihcnc~itwic:klr~~~g fiir Inn~innreC:rcnzs(:hirhtcn. ZAMM 32, 270271 (1!)52). [94] (tiirtlcr, 11.: A nrw srrics for thr calc~rlnI.ionof steady lanlinnr hor~nflnrylnycr flows. J . Mi~tl~. Mech. 6 , I -GC, (1957). [35] (:iirt.lcr, I]., anti MriLLing, 11.: Zn den l'aniscl~en C.rcnzscl~icht,cn. Ostcrr. 1ng.-Archiv 11, 11 1-- I22 (1!)57). [36] I ~ I I ~ I I I ~ I I(., nn(l IIChret, L.: 1)cr I)n~cltvcrlust II~III , (lor lnn~ir~nrrr~ Striin~ung dcr ,lnlnrtfin strerkc von gc:rntlcn, rbcncn Sl)alt.cn. .lb. (It. I,~rftf:~l~rLfornc:I~~~~g I, 21-36 (1041). [:17] I ~ : L ~ I I I ~ I11.. ~R~I II I~ICl~rrt,,I,.: Ilcr Strii~n~~~rgs\viclcrntn~~d II . in gcraden, cbenen Spaltcn u n k r 13criicksicl1t.ig11ng 1Pinlnt1fvcrl11nt.c. clt,. 1,11ftfahrtforscI11111g 186 --207 ( I 942). tler JI). I, 1581 Hartrec, 1).R.: A solrttion of t l ~ c Inn~inarb o ~ n ~ d n r y Inyrr cqnation for rct.nrdetl Ilow. A1tC 1tM 2420 (1949). [39] I l i r ~ t ~ e n I<.: Die Grenxscl~irht,nn rir~cnlin tlcn glciehfiirn~igc~n z, I~liissigl~rit8st~ro111 ringet,cuchtcn grmtlen I<rriszylintlcr. 'I'hesis (:<it tingrn 1!)11 ; I)ingl. 1'olyt.rchn. .I. 326, 321 (I!)] 1). 1401 lIo\vnrt.l~, O n Ll~c I,.: rnlcrtliition of slcatly Ilon- i l l t l ~ r horlntlnry lnycr ntrir t.hr s~~rfavc! n of cyIin(lcr in IL ~ t r r ~ ,\It(! ~ItM l(\:V2 (1O:ki). ~n . 1411 II01vart11, I,.: 011 LII(: nt~l~ltion the I n ~ n i ~I~ot~n(I:irv - r:q~lnt,iona. I'roc-. Iloy. Sor.. of ~ ~ i r " lnycr . London 11 164, 517--57!) (1038). 1421 ,Jnffc, N.A., and S n ~ i t l ~ . A.M.O.: Cnlc~llr~tion Ialninnr Oounclnry 1:iyern by Inrans of n ol' dilferentinl-dinbrcnce 111ethotl.Progress in zlerospace Sciericm, Vol. 12 (1). I<iicl~crnnnt~, ed.), Pcrga~nonl'ress. 1972. 42.21 Icrller, H . B.: Numerical mebhodn in bountlnry lnyer theory. Ann. Rev. Firlid Mech. (M. van Dvke. ed.) 10. 41 7-433 (1978). 1431 I<rzywohlorki, M.Z.: On ~ t m d y .Inn~innr two-cli~~~rnsionnl in ron~~irrnsil)lc jets viscorls R:~FIOR fttr brhin(I tht: ulit. Qttttrl,. llpl~l. I ~ I I I 7, 313 (]!kt!)). M .
l ~ ( k i

200

1X. Ixxnrt nolt~tionaof t.lin nt~ntly-nt-ah o ~ ~ n i l n r ~ - l n ~ o r b equations

1441 Leigh, I).(!. IT.: 'I'll(. 111111innr honnclxry layer equation: A lnetl~orl solnt,ion hy Innnnn of of l'ron. Cnlnbr. I'hil. Son. ,51, 320-332 (1956). an nlltot~lnticconlp~~tor. r44nl 1,rsnen. M. : 0 1 1 (.11(. at.nl)ilit.y of t,he Inttlirl:tr frcc bnrlntln.ry layer hrt.wt!en pnm.llcl ntrcnmn. NA(:I\ J<,c:p.!)7!t (I!t50); sc(: :tlso Sc. I), 'I'l~nsin,MI'I' (l!)48). [46] I.ork, I<.(:.: '1'11~ vcloc.ily tlistril)ntio~~l Lllo In~liitlnrI)or~~~(lary I)rt1vr011p e r ~ ~ l l r l il I:tycr stre:rtns. Qi~:~rt. Mc:(:l~.AppI. Mnt.11. .I, 42--6:l (1951). ,I. [,lli] Rlills, Il.. 11.: A r~olo S ~ I I I C OII nccc:lrrnl.c:fl I~ol~r~clnry voloiril:y proli11's. .l AS 5. 3125 (1!):38). 1nyt.r [47] I ' ; I ~ I C : I I ~ I II).: ,1liglic:r-ortlc:r sr~lrrl~io~~x ~ I I ( : o I I I [ I ~ ( ~ l isl~ Ir ~~ * ,: - ~ l i t ~ I~I (~ :I tI ~ I~ i~o ~ ~ ~ ~ l 11. ~ ~ for LIIC s ~ II : ~ I ~ . nry-lnyrr Ilnw nt I.lle nt.ng~~nlion point, of n grtlernl t~ocly.Archiven of Mecl~arlics(Warsaw) 26, 46!) 478 (1!t74). 1481 I':tl~rt~ft~ss. I).: Mnss-t.rn~~sfer H. offrr1.s or1 t.11~ t.llrcr-din~rnsiot~nl seconcl ortlor I1o1111daryI:tycr flow nl. 1 . 1 1 ~st,:bg~~:tl.iol~ of I I I I I I I ~ bo~li(?n. l~oint , Met:l~.Ilcs. (!OIIIIII., 286 - 2!)0 (1974). I [4!)] I'ai, S. I.: I'l~tid dy~lnl~li(:s j r t , ~ .1). \'a11 Nost.rnntl ( ! O I I ~ ~ New I York, 1954. of I~I ~, 1601 I ' o l ~ l l ~ n ~ ~ I<.: . Zr~rnWl~rr~~ngs\\~cisrr\ scn I111.egrat.iot1 der l)in'crct~tinlgleicIi~~ng C:rcnztler sclliclit. ZAh1M I, 252 208 (1!t21). [5l 1 I'ol.tcr, 0. IC.: I,n~ninarbol~lltlnry Inyors at. 1.11(* inferfncw of co-cl~rrr~lt. pnrnllrl sl,rmn~s. ()~r:irI~. hlrrl~.1\11pl. h l : ~ l ~10,. :%W2(l!t67). -1. l~ 1621 Ilc~cvrs.1%. : I J II<ilq,ci~l~i~t~, A 1111rlicnlnr I,., ~ C. .I.: clnss of si~llilnr fiolr~tionn Ilr rrlllations 01'1 of lotion :~ntlenergy of a ~risconsIluifl. JASS 29. 38--47 (1!tG2). I6:ll I<irlrl.~l~(:yc.r. I).: I ) i f i r o ~ ~ c e It. r~~ct.liodn it~ilialvnllre ~ ~ r o b l eIr~tc~rscirt~rc, Yorlr, for ~~~s. New l!t57. 1541 Scllillrr. I,., :~ntlI,i~~ltc, I)rr~ck-ntlcl Ht~il~~tt~gs\r.itlcrsI:~t~d MI.: dcn Zylindcrn hei 17.cy1101dnn(:llotl % : I ~ I ~ C I II~io40000. ZIW 24. l!):)~ l!i8 (1!):33). ROO 1551 S(.l~ill(-r, I)ic 15nt~\vic.ltl1111g I : ~ I I I ~ I I ( : (~ O(I~ l ~ ~ v i ~ ~ ~ l i g l z ~ : i (ill1 c r I ~ ~ i l ~ ~ U ~ g ~ I,.: (lor :~ ~s I t s v I<r~isroI~r) I ~I illl-c. Ikvl(:~tI.r~ng fiir clio %iil~iglztritfirnr.qnr~~r~g(:~~. 2, !)ti IO(i (1022). ZAMM [WiJ S ( ; l ~ l i c l ~ l i11.:gI. A ; ~ r ~ ~Sl,r:~l~In~~:i~rsl)r(:it,~~~~g.I,?, 21;0--263 (l!):33). ~~ i~~:~rr ZAMM 1571 St!l~licl~li~~g,J A I I I ~ I I : ~ ~~<~~ : I I : ~ I ~ ~ I I I I L ~ I ~ S ~ ~ ~ %~\hlhl ~ . :1(i8--:17:$ (19:34). 11.: I I I I ~ I I 14. ~ l57nl S ~ : l ~ l i c l ~ t11. :~(:rr~~zscl~icl~t.t,l~eorin. t~.;~nsl. I<estin, J. : I3o1111tlnry i~ g. 1':11gl. hy -layer theory. (it.11ctl., MrCmw-Hill, New Yorlz, I!)(%. 158j Scl~roodcr,I<.: Ein rinf:~cllrnI I I I I I I C ~ ~ S ~ '~cIr~f S l ~ r ezur Rerocht~ntig 1:~nlinnrenCrenz\ n ~~ tler scl~icl~t,. 1741 (1!)4:3); Intnr cx~)nn(lrilI I I I ~ rrpritltrd in Math. Nnrhr. 4, 430--467 (1!351). I'll : [ E l ] Scl~ult.z-Grunow, atld Ilrnselcr, It.: ffht~licl~c r r n z a c l ~ i c l ~ t l i xweitcr ~ ~ I'., C i s ~ ~ ~ Ordtlr~ng fiir Strii~nut~gs- I I ~' I ' r : ~ ~ ~ p c r e t , ~ t r g r n t ~ z ~111 ~longit,udinsl g c l z r i i n ~ ~ ~ ~ t n ~ ~ tnil II 1~ l~ir.l~(n~ Wander1 (:rc!~~zsrhicl~l.l~c.rit~fI~~s~~~~~g. St~oll'iil)crLm.gr~~~g \YKrlrlc- 11n6l 1, 214- 21!) (1968). [(iO] St~litll.A . M . O., :111tlCllltkr, I). \?I.: S n l ~ c l i o ~ ~ of tile inron~prrssiblebor~ntlnrylnyrr equnt.iot~s.,IIAII ,J. 1 , 2002--2071 (lOK3). [GI] Snlit.ll, A. hl. O., nntl (!rbori. 'l'.: Nnlllericnl sollll.iol~ Llle turi)r~le~lt of bor~~~rlnry-lnycr rqltntinus. M c l ) o t ~ ~ ~ r l l - l ) o ~Jlcl). : ~ s I)A(! :!:%7:%5 ~ ~ ; I No. (1967). [(i:%]S l . r i ~ ~ h c t ~ r r .Si1nil;lr solrttiolls for Illr I:llnirl:lr ~ n l jet, i l l a deoelernt,il~g .I.: l enter Ro11,. AIAA .I. s, 21ns 2200 ( 1nci8). 1 6 4 ) Str-\r.artso~~. I'l~rtllrr soll~tiorrs t.11~ I<.: of l~:illtr~c~r-SIzar~ cqrtnlion. I'roc. Cn~llhr. Phil. Soc. .50, 454 4li5 (1!)54). 1G51 S ~ ~ ~ o I ( l r I<.~ n ,~ ~ t ~ ~ c r itr~rtI~o(ls lIl:i<l(lyt~:~t~iivn. r( : X c;nl ill A(:/\ll,ll I,ecl,~treSer. No. 48 (1!)72). [Mi] 'J'nni, I.: 0 1 1 I.llr s o l r ~ l i o ~ ~ I:~lnill:lrI ~ o r ~ ~ ~ clrlycr cq~~at.ionn. I'hyn. Snc. J o p n l ~ o f t.11~ lnry .I. 4. 1 4 - 154 (l!b4!)). S(T :IISO:ITifty yr:ws of l ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ i l : ~ r yr.rls c n rr~ ;(\\I.~ ~ 'l'oll~i~ic:~~ 14. nyc n11d (:iirIlcr. r ~ l . ) I%rr~~~~~sc.lia.c:ig. 0 ( I !)ST,). , 10:1 2 0 l(i7 1 '~'IIOIII. 'I'll(: I X I I I ~ I I I I I . I ~ o ~ ~ ~ l c l n r yof t 1 1 frol~t. ,\.: lilyrr ~ p:lrl. O ~ :~ylil~(lc.r. I1hl I17(i (1!)2H); I t\I<C scr also ;Ill(! llhl I l!l4 (l!32!)). I0Xl 'l'iffortl. ,Z.N.: 11(.111. Ir:~~~sf(:r frirliot~:~l :inti cn'ccis in I.ztl~i~l:tr~ o ~ ~ n t l n r y I I:~.yrrs.l'nrt. 4: 111irrs:1Ii s O I I i o . \ V \ ' I I I I . 53 288 (l!)54). ((i!)] 'I'ollrl~ivl~. . : (:rr~~zsc:l~ir.l~trn. \\I lli111(ll)11(~11 ICxpcr. J'liysik 11'. I'art. I , 241 -287 (l!l:11). (lrr 1701 IJlricll, ;\.: 1)it. r11(>11v ~ l ~ i ~ l I <rc ~ i l ~ ~ t ~ ~ g s s c I ~ ic i-lI~ r ,t ~ l In n r an c ~ t Z~llintlrr.Arch. hlnl.l~. 33 --41 2, ( I!),t!t). f 7 1 I I 1.: I t I I a I I I I I I . I 1 . 8 l 823 (1970). (721 \\'i! I i t l k , I I . : ill)(.r x\wi I)iIfrrr~~scr~r~nt.T;I~r<~~~ rIvr (:rrl~zsr.I~irI~t~I.I~~-oric.Math. 4, 247Ar(:l~. 2%; ( l!)5:3), 17:1-1 , \ I I O I I ~ S I I O ~I~ ~ ~ ~ r l >: IoI I ~ nllirdi i ~ ~ ~ i'rr[~:~rrcll ~ y l I S: l : ~ t , tr111Ic-s. Fl.hl. NnnI,irnl ,\IIII~II:L(: Offirc. 11. hl. S l : ~ l i o ~ ~ Offir(: (l!l5(i). :~ry
~

CIJAPTEIE X

Approximate methods for the solution of the two-dimensional, steady boundary-layer equations
Ivllrod~rctor?~ rem,nrk: 'rhc cxaniples of enact solt~t.ionsof Ll~e bot~ntlnry-I:~~yt.~. ccluntions w h i c l ~h n v c b c r n d i s ~ t t s s ~ d t . 1 1 prcootling clrnpt.crs llavc s h o w n l , l ~ n (.It(. in ~ t mat,hemat,ical difficult.ics associated w i t h av~,cl,l?jtic.c d ~ t l ~ i o fors t h c m a r c consitlrrs i~ ablc. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e general p r o b l e m involving trhc flow of fluid r o u n d a botly of c a r b i t r a r y s l ~ a p e a n n o t b c complet.ely solved w i t h t.hc aid of t h e allalyt,icnl n1el.hotls prescnt,ctl t h u s f a r . T h e nuntericnl o r s t e p - b y - s t e p m e t h o d s (see Sec. I X i ) allow u s t o solve m o s t wit,l~ t,olcrablc ntnonitt. of worlc if n fnst, digil,nl co~nptttc.ris a availnblc. F o r t h i s rcnson, t.hc n p p r o x i m a l r rnct,l~otls t . 1 1solution of o u r 1)otrntlnl.yfor ~ layer eqnat.ions dovelopetl in cnrlicr t,imrs, thnt, is 1)cforr t , l ~ o ncjvcnt, of rontl)~tt,c.rs. d o n o t e n j o y t h c sarrlc irnl)ort,ar~cc o w nu t h e y tlitl I.hon. N c v c r t ~ l ~ r l c s n , 1)1.11l)osc. n wc. t o g i v e h e r e a n o u t l i n e of t h e s e approximat,e rnethotls, bccntlsc t h e y a r e \r.ell-sr~itetl 6, t h e g e n e r a t i o n of a q u i c k orlt,line of a solutpion e v e n in l n o r r c o m p l e x cases; i n t l ~ i s connexion t,he s u m m a r y b y E. T r u c k e n b r o d t [24] will h e fonntl I ~ e l p f u l .
T h i s c h a p t e r deals wit11 a p p r o x i m a t e mctllotls for l a m i n n r b o n n d a r y Iaycrs otlly. Anslogous m e t h o d s for t u r b t ~ l e n tb o u n d a r y l a y e r s (c/ C h a ~ )X X I I ) h a v e retn~rbrtl their speeial i m p o r t a n c e 111) t o t h i s d a y . A11 appro xi mat,^ m c t l l o d s a r e integral ~ n e t h o t l s l ~ i c h not, a t . t . e n ~ p t o sat,isfy w (lo t,he b o u n d a r y - l a y e r e q u a t i o n s for e v e r y ~ t ~ r c a r n l i ~i l es;b a d , t h e equat,iotis a r c s:~Lisn ficd o n l y o n a n a v e r a g e ext,endecl o v e r t h e t,lrickncss of t , l ~ e bounctnry Inyor. All npproxirnat,c met.lrocls a r c based o n t h e m o r n c n t u t n a n d c n c r g y cqnat.ions of O o t ~ n d ~ r y layer t.hcory k n o w n t,o u s f r o m Sec. V I l I e . All t , l ~ c s eneth hods c a n b e t.m.ccd l o t w o papers, o n c d a c t o T11. v o n ICArmQn [7], ancl t h e o t > l ~ r r 1C. P o l ~ l h a t t s e nI l 6 J . Reto forc p r o c c r d i t ~ gt o a p p l y t h c rnet,l~otlt o t.11~ goncral c a s r s of t,wo-ditner~sion:rl n.utl a x i a l l y - s y m ~ n c t , r i c n lbountlnry layers wit,h prcssttrc g r n ~ l i c ~ t ~w . ~ ,sl~rtll ronsitlrl. te firsl, t , l ~ c essentinl fcn.t,urcs of l.he mct,hod a s npplicd t o tSht: flat, plat,c nl. zcro incidcnoc. T h i s o x a ~ n p l cis ~)art,icttlnrly simple in t.hat t l ~ c prc.sstlrc gratlic>nt v:l.t~isltcs along t h e whole 1)lat.e. Morcovcr, w e sllnll h n v c t,hr o p ~ ) o r l , r ~ n i to, f n s s r s s i ~ ~1ht: y g powcr of t l ~ c p p r o x i m n t c rnctllotl, at. Icast i n a part,ict~larcase, a n d t o cornpnrc it a with t h o exnet, solution which is a l r e a d y I t n o w r ~f r o m C h a p . V I I . a. Application of t h e m o ~ n e n t u t n equation t o t h e flow pant a flat a t zero inciclence Applying 1.11~ o m c n t u r n c q ~ ~ a t i o rLo t h e f l t ~ i t lwi(.llirl t.h(: c:o~lIrol st~rf:tcc, m i s h o w n i n Icig. 10.1, wc: c : ~ ntlcrive t,hc s l n t c n ~ c n t t,l~nt. t.11(: l l ~ t x f I I ~ O I ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ,I lI~ r o n g ) ~ o I III

202

X. Approximate rncl.hoda for steady cqrlntionu

n. Applicnt,ion of tile morncntilm rqr~nt~ion L ~ I Oflow pnut n flnt plnLo at zcro incidcr~cc203 to the exact vnlrle for tofrom eqn. (7.32). Putling t u / p Urnz=a we have
E

the c:ont.rol s~lrfacc,consitlcrrd fixrd in spacr, is cqllal to the skin friction on the plate D ( s ) from the leading cclge (s=0) to the current section a t x. The application of tllc momentum equation to this particular case has already been cliscussecl in See. I X t It was then found, cqn. (9.26), t h a t the drag of a plate wetted on one side is given by
m

iy/urn2 a =0.332, with

.-

D(s) = b e /
u-0

u(u,--u)dy,

(10.1) Wit11 rcfc:rcncc to cqn. (10.3) or (10.4) wc con now porforrn nn npproximnto calcnlnt.ion of the I)o~~ntlnry lnycr nlong n Il:bt, plnlo a t zcro incitlcncc. '1'11t: CRH(?IICO of the npproximatc neth hod consists in assuming a suitable expression for the v c l o ~ i t ~ y tIist,ribr~t.ion (y) in t,trc bou~ldarylayer, talting cnrc thnt i t sntisfics the importnnt, u bou~idaryconditions for u(y), and t h a t it contains, in addition, one free p:~ramct.er, s11cl1ns a ~ n i t ~ n b l y clloscn bountlary-layer thicltncss which is finnlly dctcrmincd wit.11 t,lle aid of the momenlum equation (10.3). I n the particular case of n flat plate a t zero incidenco now being considered it is possible t o t,ake advantage of the fact. t h a t the velocity profiles arc similar. IIencc we p u t
'

where the integral is t he taken a t scrtion s . On tho other hantl tho tlmg m n bo o expresscd as an irltrgral of the shearing stpressto nt tllr wall, lnltrn nlong t l ~ c plntr: 1) ( s ) = b

1 r0(x) d x .
X

Upon comparing eqns. (10.1) and (10.2) we obtain

l'his equation cnn bc also dcclr~ccclin n purrly formal way from t,11c 11011ntlnr.y-layer equntion (7.22) by first integrating the equation of motion in the x-direction with respect t o y from y ---- 0 to ?/= m. Equation (10.3) is, finally, obtained without difficulty if the vclocit,y component v is eliminated with the aid of the equalion of = continuity, and if i t is noticed t.hat p(au/a~),,,~ t o .
m t m I surlace

&'l":--p
-5

u (x.Y)

Fig. 10.1. Application of tho momcrltun~ equation to the flow pmt n ant plnto nt zero incidencc

-x

Introcincing thc morncnl,nrn tl~iclir~css, clefinctl by rqn. (8.31), wc have a,,

where r] == 2/16(s) is the dimcnsio~lless distance from the wall referred to the boundnrylayer thicltness. The sin~ilarity velocity profilcs is here acconnt.ed for by assu~ning of that / ( ? I ) is a function of 7 only, and contains no adtlitional free parameter. The filnction / must vanish a t the wall ( 7 = 0) and tend to the value 1 for large values of 17, in view of the boundary conditions for u. When using the approximate method, it is expedient to plnce the point. a t which this transition occurs a t a finite distance from the wall, or in olher words, t o assume a finitc boundary-layer thickness 6 ( x ) , in spit.c of the fact that all cxnct solut,ions of t.hc houndnry-layer equations t.cntl asympt~oticallyto the lwtential flow associated with the part,icular problcnl 'l'hc bo~ndnry-lnyer t.liislrncss has no physical significance in this conncxion, being only a quant.ity wl~ichi t is convenient to use in thc computation. Having assrimcd tllc vclocity profilc in cqn. (10.0), we c:~11now proceed to r v n l ~ ~ a tllo momentum intcgml ( 1 0 3), arid we ol)l,;~in tc

Tllc momcntom cqnn.tion in ils form (10.4) rcprosrnb n particular cnso of t,hc gcncrnl momentum eqnntion 01' bollntlary-laycr Lhcory ns given in eqn. (8.32), heing valitl for the cnse of n llat plntc nt zcro ir~ciclcncc. pli~sicalmeaning expresses tllc fact 1t.s tfhatst.I~t!sl~earing st,rcss a t the wall is cqunl to thc loss of momentum in t l ~ o bonntlary I:lycr, because i n tho cxnrnple under consiclcrnlion t,hcre is no conl.ril~utionfrom t,llc prcss~lre gmtliont. 'So far rqn. (10.4) int,roclucncl 110 ntlclit.iona1 :~ssnmpLions,as will be the case wit,l~ l ~ c t aj)proximnt8cmct,l~od, bul, 1)c:forc tliscrissing tlris matter it might be nscfrll to nolc x ~cI:LI.~oII I)C~WCCI\ nn(I S2, W I I ~ C I I is obtaincti from cqn. (10.4) by int,rotl~~cing to

7'11~ intt*g~.nl cclrr. (10.7) rnll t ~ o w in I)~'cy~llr~nl,t.tl ~)rovitl,vl Illr~l sl,rcsilic: c t r s r ~ ~ n ~ ~ l i o n rt is mntlc for / ( ? I ) . 1'11tti1ig
1

for short,, we have r u ( u W - u) d y = u m 2 ~ = a, 8 2

v-0

urn2,

or

d,

= a, 0 .

204

X. ApproximnLc metl~otls stcatly equations lor

o.

Application of tlir mo~nrnt~~rn rqr~ationto Lllr flow pnst a flab lllr~lrL mro incidrnrr 205 n

'I'hc value of the displacement thickness O1 from cqn. (8.30) will now also be calcnlaktl as it will be rcqniretl later. Putting
1
a 2

J (1 - l) dtl,
--a,

(10.10) (10.1 1)

wc:

oltl,n.in

0,

d.

I?'l~rt,hrrniorr, thc visrous shearing stress a t the wall is given by

v

Un r

-/'(0)

=A

-5 --,

Um

hc calc~ilatodif a specific assumption rcgardirlg the vclocit,y profilc is matln, i. r . if t,lte fitrtction I ( ? ? )from eqn. (10.6) i~ given explicitly. W l ~ c nwrit.ing down a n expression for f ( q ) , it is ncrrssnry 1.0 sat,isljr cc.14nin 1)orlndary condit,ior~s for ZL(IJ), i. c. for / ( ? I ) . At lcast tJlc no-slip c:onclit.io~~ -- 0 L I : ~ t . -- 0 ant1 t11c condit.ion of continuity when passirlg frorn t,Itc 11ottnd:tr.y-layer ?/ l)rolilo l,o (.lit! ~mI,(:~)l.ilrl vl:loc*il.y,TI . (1 I I I , - 0, I I I I I S I ~ I)(\ ~111isli(vI. I I I ~ I ~ (I- O IV. I ~ I~ I I tlit,ions might inclr~tlct . 1 1 ~ contiriuity of 1.11~tangent ant1 crlrvi~lr~rc t l ~ o11oirlL, :IL wlicrc t,lic t w r ~ sollltions arc joined. Tn otllrr words, wc may scrlr t o satisfy tha (:onditions a~l./i)?l = 0 and a Z i ~ / a ? / = 0 a t IJ = (1. In the case of :t plate the col~tlit~iolt : ~ t,liat a2u/tJy2= 0 a t IJ = 0 is also of irnportancr, and it ran I)c scot1 frorn rclrl. (7.15) tl1a.t i t is satisficcl by the exact solution.
,

P1 = i ' ( 0 )

Numerical c x a m p l c s :
Wc now propose to test the usefulness of the prccctlirlg npproxirnak mct.hotl \viLh t,lte nit1 ofsevnrnl nxnmplcs. 7'11~ q~~alit:y thc result tlcpcrltls t o a grcnt cxI.cn1, of 0 1 1 t,hc assllrnpl,ior~whicl~ is matlc for thc volocity f~lrlot.ion (10.6). 111 ally c::~st%, as already mcnt,ionecl, the funct,ion /(q) niust vanish n 17 = 0 in view of t l ~ c L noslip condit,ion a t the wall. Moroovcr, for large vnlrlcs of 17 we 1i111sthavc /('/) = 1. T only a rough approximattion is tlcsirccl, tlie transition t o the valuc / ( q )= 1 may f occur with a tliscontinuous first, tlcrivativc. For a beltcr approxi~nat,ion,corrLinnit,y in d j / d f l may bc postjulatcd. lndcpcntlcnt~lyof the pnrticular nssl~myt,ionfor l ( q ) the cruant,it,ies

Inf,rotlllcing thcsc vnlnrs into the niomcntllm equation (10.4), wc obt,ain

Irit.cgrat,ion from 0 in t.11~ form

0 a t z -= 0 givrs t.11~ first, r c s ~ ~ lfor the approxi~nat~c t. thcory

I T r n c ~ sllearing strrss a t t.l~e tllc \vall from cqn. (10.12) beronics must Itc pnrc numI)crs. T h r y can bc easily calc~llatcdfrom cqns. (10.8) t o (10.17) Finally, t.hc t . o t ~ ldrag on a plate \vrt.t.ctl on both sides mri be written a s
I

2 I1 -- 2 1) J
0

to tlx,

i. c. Fig. 10.2. Vclocity tlisLril,~~lion t.hc boundary in layer on n flat plntr nt xrro i~icitlanrc!

:11i(1 fro111~ ( ~ I I s(10.1 1 ) anti (10.14) we obtain the tlisplaccmerit t,hicknrss .

(1) Lincrr armlrroxirnntiorl (2) Cubic npl~rrrximntiouIrom Tablr 10.1

A cornparison of t.11~ approximaf,c oxpressions for the Itonndary-layer t6hickrlcss, li)r t . 1 1 ~shcnring st.rcss a t t,hc wall, ant1 for dm.g with thc re~pcct~ivc formulae of t.11~ :lrc:ur:tt,c throry, rqns. (7.37), (7.31) nt~tl (7.:13), sliows t h a t Lhc use of tllc iritcgr:~I rnorncr~l~um q ~ l : ~ t i olcatls in all cn.ses t o a peufcctly correct fornlulation of the c n equations. I n ot,hcr words, t,lrc dcpcrlrlenccof tliese'quantities on the current length, x , t.11~ frcc-st,rexm vclocit,y, Urn,ant1 the coeffioiont of kinematic viscosity, v , is correctly tlctll~c~etl. li'r~rt,l~crniore, relation I)ct.~\~ecn the momer~tunitllickncss and shearing strrss nt, tlw wall givrn by rqn. (10 5) r a n also be dcducrd from t h e approximate rnlr~llation, is rnsily vcrifird. The still-unkrion,n coefficients a,, a and P, can only as ,

Tahlc 10.1 contains rcslllts of scvcral calcrtlat,ions wil.11 a.lt,cr~~ativc veloc:it,ytlistribl~t.ion fltnctions. l'hc first two funct1ionsnrc illuslr:l.tod wit,ll tlrc aid of I'ig. 10.2. 'I'hc linear fnnct,ion sat,isfics only t h e condit,iot~s ( 0 ) -- 0 ant1 / ( I ) -= I , wllcrcns tllc f cubic fr~nctiorlsatisfies i r ~atldition t,he conditions / ' ( I ) 0 :~ntl/"(0) : 0 ; finally, x a fonrt11 clcgrcc polj~r~ornial be made to snt,isfy the atldjt,ional contlit.ion /" (1) =-- 0 . can Thc sinc function satisfies the same I~oondarycoritfit,ions as the polynomial of folirtli dtgrcc, except for / " ( I ) = 0. The polynoniials of third ant1 fourth tlrgree ant1 t h e sine-fnnction lcatl t o values of shearing slrcss a t Itro wall which arc in error by less than 3 per cent and may bc considrrcd ent,ircly atlcqllatc. 'Tllc valnrs of the djsplaccmerit thickncss 6, show acccptablc agreement wit,h thc corrcsponditlg cxect values.

206

X. Approxi~nnte rnct.l~otls steady equat,iona for

b. The approxir~into nirthod duo to TIN. Jchrnlhn and K. Pol~lha~~ncn von

207

Table 10.1. Rrsultn of the calcr~lation the bo~lr~tlnry of layer for a flat plate at zero incidence baaed on a~nroximaLethcorv

forin is assumed for the vclocitty profile. This allows us t o calculate t h e momentum tl~ickucss, h e displace~nent t thickness, a n d t h e shearing stress a t tllc wall. I n choosing a suitablc velocity fi~riction t is necessary to talrc into account t h e same considerai t,ions ns beforc, nnmnly thosc regarding tlie no-slip contlition a t t,l~c wall, a s wcll a s thc r e c ~ i ~ i r c m r nof, ~ t cont.inc~it,y t . 1 1 ~point whcrc this sol~tt,ion joinctl t o tthc poLcnt*i:~l at, is soI~~t,ion. ~ ~ r I . l ~ t : r ni t~ oI,IIc, ~)rt:sot~co IL pr(-ssItro gratlict~t~ fr~r~c:I,ion I~ 1 rr of t,hc n111st atln~it the cxisbcricc of profilcs wit11 and w i t l ~ o r ~ tpoint of it~llcxioncorrcspor~tlirtg a t.o t,hcir occrirrencc in regions of nsg,zt,ive or positive pressure gradients. In ortlcr to kc in a posit,ion to cn.lcr~latc point of scgamtion with tho aitl of t l ~ npproxin~at~c tho c nletl~otlt,hc existence of a profile with zero gratlicnt a t the w:~11(au/ay),-,=0 must also be possible. On thc ot.hcr l~anclf ~ ~ n c t i o n s postulating similarity of vclocity profiles for various valrics of x m a y no lorigcr be prcscribctl. Followir~gI<. I'ol~l11a11scnwe asslime a polynomial of tlic fonrbh dcgrcc for the velocity function in t.crn~s t,hc dinicrrsionless tlist.ancc from t,hc wall 11 = ?//8(2), i. e. we put, of

in t,I~e range 0 5 11 5 I , wl\crens for 31 > 1 we assumc simply tc/U = 1. W e further d c ~ n a n d ,as before, t,Ilat the boundary laycr sho~ildjoin the potential flow a t the finitc distance from tltc wall y = d(x). I n ortlcr t o clct.crrninc t l ~ c four frcc constants, a b, c, (1, wc s11all prcscribc t l ~ c following four boundary conclit~ior~s

It is seen t , l ~ at.hc a p p r o s i n ~ a t c t mct.liocl Icacls t o sa.t,isfnctory rcsult,~ t.11~ in case of a flat platjc a t zero inciclcncc, and the extraordinary sinlp1icit.y of the calcnl:~t,ior~ is cluite rcnlarkable, compared with tlte complcxit,y of thc exact solution.
h. Tllc approxil~intcr~ietl~oilI ~
I C

to TII. VOII KLr1n511 R I I C ~K. P ~ b l h n l ~ s e for twoll dirnct~siot~al flow#

As seen from ccjns. (7.10) t o (7.12), t,hcy arc a11 sat,isficd by Lhe exact solution. Thcse requirrment.s are sufficient t.o tlctrrtriinc tlrc constants a, b, C, d, because the no-slip condition a t the wall i s implicit in eqn. (10.19). The first condit,ion whiclr is sat,isficrl 1 ) ~ ' all exact solntions, as seen from eqn. (7.15), is of part,ic~llar importance. I t dctrrtniucs t l ~ c curvat,urc of t l ~ o velocity profile near the wall atld malrcs sure t h a t tlrcro is no point of inllcxion in the velocity profile i n regions of dccrcnsing pressurc. I~nrtl~ertnore, regions of incrcasir~g prrssnrc contain poir~t~s of inflexion a s required by the exact solution in Chap. VII., Figs. 7.3 and 7.4. Introdrrcirlg tl~c tlirner~sionlcssq~~arit,it,y

We now propose to clcvelop the approximate mcthotl of t l ~ c 1)reccding scct.ion so t , l ~ n t can l)c apl~lictlto t . 1 1 ~ gcr~cralproblrm of a two-tlirncr~sional ho~rntlnry it layer wit.11 prcssrlrc gradient. The tnct,l~od its original for111was first ir~tlicatctl in I)y 1C. l'ohlhar~scn [Is]. The succeccling tlcscriptio~lof thc method is basetl on iLs tnorc motlcrn form as developcrl by tT. TIolstcir~and T . 13011len [GI. \Vc now cl~oose,a s t,hc along the wcttetl before, a system of coortlinat.cs in whicll x c1enot.c~ n.ro r n c a s ~ ~ r e d wall and whcrc y tlcnot,os t l ~ c tlisLancc fronl t,l~c wall. 'rhc I~asic crlnat,ion of t l ~ c tnonrent,nm t,heory is ol)t,ninctl by int,cgrnt,ir~g eqr~:~l,ior~ tlic of motion wit#I~ rcspcct tsoy from t.hn wall atf ?/ -=- 0 t.0 a ccrt,i~.ir~ tlist,arica I L ( x ) w l ~ i e lis assntn(:cI t,o t)e o~~tsicle ~ t.11~ I)o~trtdnry layer for all val~ros x. With this r~otat~ior~ tnomentl~mcqtiat.ior~ of t,l~c ' 11a.s the form nlrcntly givcri in (8.32), namely
I

wc o b t a i t ~ l ~ c t following cx1)rcssions for tlic cot:ffic:ic!t~l,sin cqn. ( 10. I D ) :

and hence for tlre vclocit,y profile: 'J'his e q ~ ~ a t ~ i o n g ian s v e ordinary diffrrrni ial rqnat,ion for t l ~ c o ~ ~ n t l n r y - l athiclrncss, h ~pr a s was tire rase wil.11 t l ~ c flat plntc in l,lic prc,cctlir~gscc*lion,provitlccl t l ~ n a ~ n i t : ~ b l o t

208 where

X. Approxin~atemethods for sbady equations

b. The npproxitnab rnethocl dl~o Th. von Kkrnldn ant1 K. Pohll~nnsen to

209

I t is easily recognized t h a t t h c velocit,y profiles cxprcssed in terms of g = y / b ( z ) constitute a onc-paran~ct~cr family of curves, t h e tlirnensior~lessquarrt,it,y A being a shape factor. T h e tlin~cnsio~iless (l~l:ltlt,it,y which may also IIC written a s A

in t,hc bolrrltlary layer, but tlris must be exrlntled in stcady flow. Since bel~indt h e point of scp:lration thr, present cxlculalion bxsrd, xs i t is, on t,he boundary-layer concept,, loses significance, the shape fnctor is secn t o be rcstrictrtl t o t h r rangr - 12 1 A -k 12 , src Pig 10.4. J3cforc proceeding to cnlctllat,~the bountlary-layer tlliclrncss S(x) from t,hc mon~cnI,~lrrl I.llrorc:t~~, is now ~nnvrniont, (:ILICIII~LI,O t.110 : ~ I ~ I I I I O ~ I ~ . ~ll~ivlcllrss, it, 1.0 IIII S2, t h e tlisplaccmer~tthickness, (I1, nlltl t h e viscous sliearing strcss aL llrc wall, t,,, with t,hc aitl of t h e approximate velocity profile in the same way a s was (lone for t h e flat platfa a t zero incidence in the preceding section. 'J'hrrs we obtain froin cqns. (8.83) ant1 (8.31), t,oget,her with eqn. (10.22),

PdU

dv

ran be int,rri)rcted pllysically as tJhr ratio of prrssrlro forces t o viscous forces. I n order t o obtain a quant-ity t o whirh real physical significance can be ascribed, it would be nerrssary to rcplnce 6 in the above definition by a linear quantity which itself posscsscs pl~ysicalsignificance, s ~ i e ha s the momerrtrim thickness. This will be done Ialcr in this section.

Cornputitla the tlefinitc integrals with the aitl of the values of F ( q ) and ecln. (10.23), we Ilavt:

(:(I/)

front

Silnilarly, t.11~ viscor~s stress a t t h e wall,

to = ! ~ ( i l ~ ~ / a y ) , _ , ,given is

I)y

I'lg. 10 3. Tho functior~sF(91) arld G 7 )for (7 the velocity distribution ill Lhe boundary rqns. (10 22) and (10.23) layer fro111

I n ortl(3r t.o tlct.c.rmii~rt,11(: s(.ill-r~nltnown s11n.p~ factor A (z) nntl, Ilrncc?, t11c ft~n(:t~ion O ( x ) from cqn. (10.21), it. is now necessary t,o rcfrr t o tthe momcnlum cq11nt.ion(10.18). h111lt.il)lying d , / v I J we can r c p r c ~ r r it tin t,Ilc following tlitnc~lsionlcssfornr: by ~
Fig. 10.4. Tho ot~c-parntncter family of vclo-

city profiles from cqrl. (10.22)

'1'11e t\vo ~ I I I I C ~ ~ ~ F(77) O I I S anrl ( : ( q )tlcfirlctl by nclrr. (1'0.23), which t,ogel,hcrcompose tthc vc1ocil.y-rlist,riI)r~t~ior~ fr~nct.ioll gi~rnnin cqn. (10.22), a.rc serrl ploltc-d in Fig. 10.3. Vrloc:it.y profilrs for v:lrions vnluns of A arc shown in J'ig. 10.4. The profilc wllicll cr>rrcspontls t.n A -0 is ol)f.ainc?rl w1ic:n tllJ/tlx'= 0 , i. r . for i,hc I)o~~rlda.ry : Iilycr wil.lr no prrssltrc g r : ~ t l i r ~ ~ t glnt,e nt zero i~vcitlrncc), for a point wlrrre t.11~ (Ila.t, or vrlocity or t,llc pot.rrrtinl flow pnssrs t,lllorlgl~ rnilliml~~n a ~ n n , x i n l n ~In . this case or n lhc: vclorit.y profilo l~ccotnrs itlenticnl \vit,I~ for~rtlt-drgrcc the polyno~nixl usctl for t,llr. flal, plate in t,l~oprcrrtling snct.ion. 7'11e prolilo a t separation \vit.lr (itu/a!/),, -- 0 , i. e. nib11 (1 =- 0, occrrrs for /I == - 12. I t will he sl~o\vn1at)rr t,hxt 1.11~ profile :LL tlhr st~agnat.ion point corresl~ol~ds A t,o 7.062. For A > 12 vnlnrs ?r/U > 1 occrlr

in which t,lrc bour~tlilry-la.ycr tl~iclrrlcss does not ap11r:~rcxplicil,ly; t.his circrlrnst,n~lrc 0 i s 11oL surprising, brcausc it const,it.ul,csonly a fortuit.ous qrrnnt,it,y nssorintctl with 1.11~ al>proxirnnto mct,llotl of cnl(:r~lnt,iorlant1 l ~ n sn o l):lrt.i('~~l:~r physi(::l,l I ~ ~ ( > ~ I I ~ I I F ( . 0 1 1 t,hc of,llcr 11:~ntl cqn. (10.20) cont.nins t.ltc rcnlly inlporl,;~lli, l)llysicnl cl~~:rrl1~il,ic:s, viz. t l ~ e tlisplncernenl; tl~iclrnrss,(Y1, t,llc rnomcnt.l~~n t,l~iclr~lrss, an([ t,hc sllrnring ii,, slprcssa t t,hc w:~llto.i t is, t.llcrcfore, n a t , ~ ~ r : ~11cgi11 to l with tllc: C:IICIII:L~.~O~I a2 fronl of t h e momcntum cqu:~t,ion (10.2G) nncl to drtll~cc fro111it wit.11 t,l~c of ( : ~ I I(10.24). d nit1 . J'ollo\ving J l . ITolst,rin nntl T. Dohlcn [T,] i t is c o n v c r l i r ~ t ot i ~ ~ t r o t l u for this prtrposc ~ cc a sccol~tl sha.~)c factor

210

X . Approximate mcthod~ shady rqi~etions for

b. Thc npproxininto incl.hod duo to Th. von Khrmhn rind IC. I'ol\lhn\rscn

21 1

which is connortctl with t l ~ cmonlcr~t~tnl tl~icknessin tllc samc way as t.lle first sha)>cfactor, A , was connect,cd with t,l~c boundary-layer t,l~ickness, in cqn. (10.21). 0, Tn atltlit,ion we sl~a,ll put
= ??"
v

'

(10.28)

so t h a t

This is a non-linear differential equation of the first ordcr for Z = S22/vas a function ftirlct,ion F ( I < ) of the current lengt,h coordinate, x. The fact t h a t the form of t l ~ e is very complcx does not c o n ~ t i t ~ ~ ~real difficully insofar a s t l ~ csol~~t,ion a te of eqn. (10.36) is concernetl, because i t is a urliversal function, i. e. one which is indcprndcnt of the s11:tpe of tllc body and i t can, thcrcforc, he calculntctl onro and (10.30), ns well na j2(I(), arltl F ( K ) for all. Thc ftlncl~ionsI C ( A ) from e . q ~ ~ from eqns. (10.31), (10.32), and (10.35), respectively, are given in Table 10.2. The auxiliary function F ( R ) is represented grnphically in Fig. 10.6.
Solution of the clillkre~~~ial~ ~ a t i ofor motnentum tl~ickneoe: Cor~ccrninqthc eq n solution of eqn. (10.36) i t is possible t o make tlie following rcrnarlrs: 'rho calculat,ion should begin a t tho st-ngnation point x = 0, whore U = 0 ant1 dU/& is finit,o and different from zero, unless the body posscsses there a shnrp crisped cdgc with zcro anglc. The initial slopc of tfhc integral curvo db/dx would bccome infinitc nt the upstream stagnation point were i t not for thc fact t h a t F ( I i ) vanishes there uimultancously. Thus the func.tion F ( K ) is seen t,o hnvc n physicnlly menningf111 init.ia1 value. The zero of P(I0 o c c ~ ~ w vnlucs of A for which t l ~ e for scconct bri~cketccl term on t l ~ right-hand side of eqn. (10.35) vanishes. Thus c

I t is sern from crjns. (10.21), (10.27) nntl (10.24) t l ~ n t(.l~c l ~ a p c s fa.ctors ,,I a t ~ t lli satisfy Lhe universal relation

F(lr') = 0 for K = K O = 0-0770, or for A = A , = 7.082

I< for the saltc of brevity, a.ritl sul)st,itutji~lg, ant1 Z from eqns. (10.27) ancl (10.28) rcspecl,ively, t.ogothor wil,l~f l ( K ) ar~tl/ , ( I ( ) from erlns. (10.31) and (10.32), we obtain, further, from Ll~r o m c r ~ t u n ~ m cqr~:~t,iolt (10.20) togcthcr wiCh a2 6,'/v = 4 cIX/tlx, the rol;~t,iorl

llence A = 7.052 is the value of the first shape factor a t the stngnation point, ss already mentioned. I n this manner the initial slope of the intcgrnl curve a t tlie upstream sta.gnation point is seen to be of the indeterminate form 8 (singular point of eqn. (10.36)), but its value can be easily comp~itcdby a simple process of going over to the litnit. U1e obtain

2 / 2 ( 1 < ) - 4 TC or, \vrit,tcn OIII, f ~ ~ l l ~ ,

--

2 I /'(I<) - F ( K ) (

( I0 :14)

\vllrrt: 1.110 rcxl:~.l,ion I)c~l.\vcc.t~ :1.11(1 I<was givc.11i l l (v111. (10.:10). \\'it,l~a.Il tl~csc il a.l,l)rcvint.ions nnrl s ~ ~ l ~ s l . i l ~ ~ ~ IlI I~ IiToC I I~. sI I I Ir c l ~ ~ a l , (IO.:3:1) can t01o O I ~ ~ I io~~ I)? r~\vril,l.cn in (,It(! vcry c~o~~tlc~rscltl (i1r.111

IIcre the subscript 0 refers to the upstream st,agnat*ionpoint. With these initial valncs t l ~ equation call bc convcllicntly inlcgratcd, c. g. b y the method of isoclincs. e Igigr~rc 10.5 illustrates the use of this method s s applied t o n symmct.rical aerofoil a t zero incidence. Thc calculntion begins with the vnlncs A,, = 7.052 and KO = 0.0770 a t the leading-edge ~ t ~ a g t ~ a t ipoint, and becorncs completetl ~rpon on reaching the point of separation with A = - 12 and Ii = -- 0.1567. Tllc velocity funct,ion U(x), together with its first d c r i ~ a t ~ i v e clU/dx, is given by the potcnt.inlflow solution. Thc value of d2U/dx2 is only rcquired n t t l ~ cIcading cdgc for t11c initmid slopc of t.he int,cgm.l curve. The procedure usctl in the c o m p ~ ~ t a t ~ i o n be sumr?arizcd as f o l l ~ w s : may

'I'II(* qt~nutilyIf - (TI/(?, is also rrg:tnlrtl :IS n shn.1)~ r:~rtor: is o f p:i~.l.ic~rlnr it. itnporta~~ce for Lho'li~rl~i~l~:t~t. I I : L ~ ~ c/. (!II:II). X 11. I t 3 V:LIIIC (;IT liitnita:~.r 11011:id:~ry J)OIIII 1:1yr~, S lilyrrs rnllgrs frotn n l ) r ) ~ ~2.3 (r) 3-5, f . 'l':~l)lo 10.2; i t , nsstunm val~~ca t. c ft-o~rl nl~ot~t to 2.2 in tllc rnso of 1.3 t,~~rl)i~lrr~t I)ou~lrlnr.y I:iyrrs. A 1 11tf: point of I.mrlnit,ion I/,? i~lcrrnsrs co~~sirl~:ral~ly, 10.6. r f . Fig.

,,

I . The potcr~t,ialflow functior~ U (x), togcthor wit11 i1.s derivative dU/dx, are given in terms of the arc length. 2. Jntcgration of cqn. (10.36) gives Z ( x ) and tlrc sccond shape factor K ( x ) so that the momcntum t,llickncss a,(x) can bc cnlcnlatcd from equation (10.27), and t,he posit,ion of the ~ ~ o iof tsrparntion may bo found subscq~icntdy. n

212

X. A1q)roxinintc r~ictl~orlg stearly equations for

b. The npproxitnste met,hod clrtc to 'rh. vori Kbrmhn nntl I<. Pol~lhnusen

213

for of I:~yera, 'bblr 10.2. 1211xili:iryfr~nrtio~in thr npproximntr rnlr~~letiorl lnlliitier bor~ndnry nftrr HoI~tcitinnrl l%ohlrti151

R. Tho variat.ion of tho first shape fact,or A ( % )is o ~ ~ t d i n from cqn. ( 1 0 . ~ 0 ) rr~ anti Tal~lc 10.2.
4. 'I'ho tlis~)lacer~~cnt t,liiclrncss, O , , anti thc s11o:~ring stress a t tile wall, to,are folrnd from rqn. (10.31) ant1 (10.32), respectively, togctllcr wit11 t l ~ c valucs in 'I'atjlc 10.2.
5. Tlic: I~or~titlary-hycr tlIti(~k~~css I'ollows rrorn ctlw (10.21). O(Z)
(i. I'inally, I,lle vclotait.y tlisLrib~~L~io~i is for~rltlfrom ccln. (10.22).

I'ig. 10.5. 15xnn1ploof 1 . 1 1 ~cnlct~lat~ion the ho1111of dary layer l)y t,hr npr)roxi~~lt~t,e c t , h oIIIIC t,n ~i~ d ~ ' ~ I I I I I : ~~iri(l1 lIoIl s l ~ i ~ i 1 1 - l ~ r ~ [8j.~SoIi~t.ir)t~ II~C lil~ i1 of
l.l~c cliKorenl.inl cqri:ition (LO.:!(;) by the ~~ict,l~otls of isac:lincs for I.hc uytit~~~ct.rirnl %Ittiltovsltii tiorofoil .I 015 nl. nti i~~cirlrticc a angle 0. See also Fig. 10.12
1

- point or separation

A. Walz [26] ~ o i n t r tout t h a t cqn. (10.36) can I)r rrtlrt~c~tl n simplc qu:~tlr:~trtrc l l,o by tllc it~troductior~ :I frtrtl~crapproxirr~al~iot~ of witltont, any xpprt:~i:~l~lo of loss nc.c.rtrnc.y. TTc forll~tlt h a t tllo function F ' ( K ) ran be approxirnatctl clrrite closely by llir str:~iglttline F ( K ) - - a - 0 I{.
\Vil,l~rr - : : 0.470 ~irltlb 6 t,llc aj~l~roxirnatiotr pnrl,ic:r~l:lrly c:losc Octwccti the is sl.:~gt~:l(.ir)~~ ntltl t,lir l>oint; or rnnximrrrn vcloc.il,y (I'ig. I0.fi) ,111 I.liix oinrttior point cqn. ( 10.36) rctlncrs L o
;

or, subst.itllt,ing the origi~lal values for Z and

X,

This differential equation for U 8,2/v earl bc integrated exl~licitlyt o *

214

X. Aliproxi~nnto mothotls for atcady eqnotiona

Tablo
10 3.

c. Compnrison betwcct~tho upproximutc and oxnct uolrlt.ion~

215

or, u ~ i n g h e ~lumerical t values for a and b given earlier:

Compnri~on exnrt nnd npproximnte vnlr~rs Lhr honndury-layer pnrurnctors for of of tho caso of ti~m-dimen~ionnl stngnntion /lout

I'hus t,llc solution of eqn. (10.36) is secn t o redrlre l o a simple q r ~ a d r a t r t rAn anal~. ogous q~tadrntllrcwill k)r I I S C ~in C!hnp. X X I l for t h r ~ o l u t ~ i oof t.l~crql~ntionsof n turbulent. flow.

In t l ~ c approxirnnt,~ ~ncthotlwc havc Z0 = R,/U1, and from cqn. ( 1 0 3 ) i t follows - -. t h a t t11r momentum tl~icknessis given by (T2 = dif; = i0.0770 = 0.278 . I t is seen from cqn. (10 81) t - f ~ a tile displacement thickness is approximatctl by t 6, JiF/v /,(~i,,) 1/ii,= 0.641 anti cqn. (10.32)givest0/p = =/ z ( K o ) l i R , 0 :132/0.278 = 1.1!) for tllc sllcnring slrcss a t the wall. 'rile ngrccnlcr~l bclwccn the approxirnnte ant1 exact values i s here also complet,cly satisfactory.

iVfi u - 4~ 7'

-0 R

-am -OM-am m

602

am onc m o m
K

Fig. 10.6. Tho ar~xilinry funct,ion F ( K ) for the colcr~lstionof lnminnr bor~ndnrylnyer by thc method of JIolntcin and Bohlen [5] ( I ) train* e q n . (10.35): (2) lincar nlrproximntioll F ( R ) -- 0 - 4 7 0 - 6 K ; S = a1,agnntion point: lf -- vclori1.y milximum

c. C o n ~ p n r i ~ obetween tile npproximnte nnct cxnct solutions n

3. Flow past n circulnr cylinder. A comparison of t h e result of t h e approximate calculation for a circular cylindcr wit11 t h e fiolut,ion due t o Ilicmcnz (See. I X c ) was given by I<. l'ohll~ar~scn I s ] in his original pnpcr. IIe 11sc:tl IIicrnenz's cxperirnen[ t,al pressure distribution function for the circular cylinder and compared the results wit.h Hiemcnz's solut,ion which takes ir1t.o account only the first thrcc t.crrns of t.lle I3lnsius scrips. Ilicn~cnz's solution irltlicnlcs tltat scpnral.ion occurs a t an :~nplc 4 -=R2.0, wllcrcns l'ohlhnuscn's npproxirnntc valnc was 4 = 81.5O. IIowcvcr, t,he a ~ ~ p r o x i r n n tmct,l~otllrntls t.o vxlucs for tho 1)ountl:~ry-lnycrt.l~ic:kncss rlcilr t,11(: c imint, of scpnrnt.ior1 wllic:h arc consitlcrnl)ly largcr ~.II:III 1,Itc vi~lucsnl)t~:tinr(l by Ilicmcnz. On t.ltc ot,llcr hand i l must be rcalixcd t h a t sr~clln comparison is not t*or~cl~~sivc, l)c:mr~sca 15lnsir1s scrics corlt,nir~irlg only thrcc t.crn~s in it,sclf inntlrql~atc is t.o rc~)rc~scrll, ~ c t l solution near t,llc poi111of s~:p:~r:ttion.

I. Flat plnte a t zero incidence. It is easy t o see frorn cqn. (10.22) t h a t the Polill~a~~ncn i~pproximnt~ion becomes cquivalont tjo 1Sxn.mplc3 in '1;nblc 10.1 for t h e case of a fI:~t. plnt,c a t zero inc:idcncc. l'his ease can also t;c obtainctl directly from eqn. (10.36), whcre I l ( x ) = U,, U' = 0 and hence R = A = 0, so t11at e j n . (10.36) givcs dZ/tlz = F(O)/U, = 0.4698/U,. Taking into accor~ntt,hnt Z = 0 a t s = 0 it follows t h a t R ~ 0 . 4 6 9 8 z/fJ,, or a, - 0.686 I/l.&/ii, ngrccmcnt wi0h T n l ~ l c in 10.1. l'ablc 10.1 contains ox.zct and n p p r o ~ i m n t ~ c values of the boundary-lnycr pnrnrnct.crs for tltc purpose of comparison. Tt is sccn tb'nt agreement is very satisfactory.
2. T w o - c l i n ~ c n ~ i o ~ ~ a l stngnntion flow. The c x a r t solntion of 1,he problem of t wo:(lirnrnsionnl stngnnt.ior~ flo\rr for wllirll U (r) = U' . r , was given irl Sec. V 9.
r

Ilte exnrt vnlnrs of displncrmcnt ll~iclzness,momentum tfl~ickncss and shcnring strrss at, tho wall, calrulnlcd wit11 ttllc nit1 of t h a t theory, arc given ill 'I'a1,lc 10 3.
7

\V,: now propose t,o give n comp:trison 1)clwccn a scl of cnlcr~lat.ions ol)t.:iinc:tl \vit,l~ aitl of Pohll~nuscn'sapproximale moll~ocl t,llc and rlumcrical calcnlat~ions which Ilnve bcen ~>crlormntlwill1 great accnracy on n. tligilal colnpr\lcr ~~rograrnrncrl to solve tlle clifferential equations directly. The e x a ~ n p l ecl~oscn for comparison is ttlat of a circular cylinder in the presence of a free-st re an^ velocity cornpl~tetl from pot,cnttial thcory, t h e boundary-layer vclocit,ics having bccn cal~ulat~ctl wilfll a 13lrtsin~~ c r i c s o n t ~ n i n i nt.crtns I I t~o x l l (SOC.IXC). This ~ o m j ) n r i s o r ~l t o w st.l~~tt, ~ g ~ tlle power-series method givcs very high accumcy up to tile irnmc4atc virinily of t h e point of separation, However, a t t h e point of separation itself, t h e series broken dff a t t11q term zll becomes inaccurate. I'ignre 10.7 shows a plot of tfhc l)oundary-layer paramctcrs, clisplaccmdnt thicknrss, dl, inomenturn thickness, a, and , It wall shearing stress, to. is secn t h a t t h e reccrit numerical calculations performed by W. Schoenauer [20] show somewhat dimerent trends in t,lle vicinit,y of the point of urparat,ion as fnr a s the variations in the displaccmcnt and n ~ o m c n t l ~tl~ickncsscs m ns

216

X. Approximato n~ethods steady eqllations for

d. Further examplcs

217

well a s in the shearing stress are concerned, a n d predict a n earlier point of separation. = 109.5' ol)t.ainctl with t11cnit1 of t,he l'ohll~auscn npproximalior~ and r$s = 108.8O sl~ggcsted by tllc series cxp:ansion cont,inuctl up to the term z". A cornparison between t,hc v c l ~ c i t ~ y tli~t~ribut~ions, 10.8, leacls t,o t h e conclusion t,llat there cxist,s almost perfect IGg. ngr~c~nrr~l. hr1,wcrn t,Iln exn.ct solr~t.ion and t.hc npproxin~at~ion t.11c m.ngc of angles in 0 < 4 < !)On,t,lrat. is in t , l ~ c range of acc:clcrat,ctl c*xt.crnal flow. I<y conl,~.asl,, o w n d st,rearn of the pressure rninirnltm the discrepancies increase very fast on approaching the point, of separation.

W. Schocnauer found t h a t thc separation angle is a t 4 8 = 104.5Oas

st,at,ed t,hat in regions of retarded potjent1inlflow t h e approximate solut,ion becomes somc\vl~nt, innccuratc a s the point of ~cpn.rat,ionn approacl~c-(1. i Thc posit.ior~of t.11~ poil~tof srparal.ion cnn only be calculnt.rtl with 11 col~l.:lil~ tlrgl.re of ~ ~ n c r r l , : ~ i l ~ t . ~ , parti :~ilarlyin cases whon the point of separation is sitr~atctf con~parativclyfar l)cl~intltJrr point of mir~i~nrrm prcssurct:. JCront l , l ~ rass1111i1)I,in11 I,IIC v(-lo(:il,y 1)rofiIt~s : o i ~ s l i l ~ ~ot~c.~):~r:~t~r(:l,(:r I.II:LI~ ~ n ~l~o frunily it ncccssnrily follows t l ~ a t , l ~ c point of' separation is tlct,erminccl solely by t,l~c value of t,l~is paramct,cr. I t was, I~owever, shown by I. Tani [22] t,11att l ~ c position of t l ~ cp o i l ~ tof scpamtion clcpcncls, in adtlition, on t l ~ cpressure gradinnt of t l ~ c' es1,crnnl flow.
d. Further exnrnples

No gcncral critmion regartling t,hc admissibility of t,he approximation has been givcn so far, nntl it scems t,l~at, t will bc difficult t o obtain. Judging by the i ahovc a r ~ tsimilar calcnlations a s well a s by cxpcrimental results it appetlrs, I~owevcr, l t o he rcnsonnbly ccrtair~ t , l ~ a tI'ol~lha~lscn'sapproximate method lcatls t o vcry snt,isfactory rcsnlt,s in regions of accclcrat,ctl potent,ial flow. Similarly, it may 110

111t,l~is sct:t,ion we propose t.o sumnrari7.c. some oxampl(:s illust.rat,ing {.Ire r : ~ l ( ? ~ ~ l n tiot~of 1)onnd:~rylayers by 1 . h ~ prccctling ap~~roxitr1a1.e mct,llotls \vl~ich wcrc: first give11 i t 1 a pn.pcr by 11. Schlicht,ing ant1 A. Ulrich II!)]. 'l'l~cfirst set of cxarnplcs is cot~ccrnctl wit,l~elliptical cylirltlcrs ~vhose1nn.jor axes arc pn.rnllcl t,o t l ~ c tlircct,ion of 1 . 1 1 ~s1,rcam. The rat,io of the major t,o t.hc minor axis of tho cylintlcrs ri~ngcd ovrr all) = 1, 2, 4, 8 and the potcnt,inl vclocit,y-clistril)r~tiorl fllnct,ions arc scen plot.ted in Figs. 10.9. 'l'he valnc of Llle vc1ocit.y rnaximcl~nis (J,,/U = 1 bla. 'rho charitcterist.ic parameter of the bonntlary layer, namely the tlisplnccmer~ttl~iclrness,d l , tlw S I I R J I ~fact,or, A , ant1 t.l~e shearing slrcss a t tllc w:~ll,T,,, are s r o l plot,l,ctl in Pig. 10.10. The results for t J ~ e flat plate at, zero iriritlencc havc I~eenplottccl in thc same figure for t,he pnrpow of colnpnrison. I n tlie case of a c:irc:ula.r cylinder separa(2 tion occurs a t 211' = 0.G09, i . c. at, 4 = 109.6O, as already ~ncnt~ionetl, 1' = c:ircl~rnfrrrncr) ant1 moves tlo\\;nst.rcam a s t8hc c1lij)sc bccomcs rnorc slrl~dcr.l'hc j)osit.ion of 1 . 1 1 ~poitit of separation is marked in the vclocit,y profile plots in f i g . 10.!). The rrsl~ltsfor nn ellipse of cr/b = 8 cliKcr only very lit,t,le from thosc fc)r a flat. pl:~t,c nt zrro innitlencc. Fig. 10.1 1 co~lt:ains vclocit,y profiles for the boontlnry 1a.yer on an cllipt,ic cylintler with a/h = 4. Calculat,ions concerning elliptsic cylintlers whose minor axes are parallel t.o t , l ~ e direction of thc stream as wcll as ellipsoids of reroll~t.ion may 1)c found in a paper by J . I'rclscl~ 117J.

+-

- - -.

. .--

for t.ho CRRB of n rirc:rllnr cylinclrr -- f l i s p l n r r n ~ r n lIltirknrqs: = n l n n ~ r s l ~ ~ ~ n 1I~i1.knr.s~: r. -- sl,esrllag atrvria a1 tlur wall
d, d.

lutiol~wit11 0l1c exact nolrtlio~~ for the rase of a cirrlrlnr cylirl~lrr;velority profiles

1%. ~ ~ I I I ~ 1.21L ~i~rnsurt.cl ~ ) < ~ s i lo,fi o ~ ~I I I I ~ I I ~of I I I ~ I I ~ I I I I I I I~I I I . I . ~ S I I ~ ( . S I : 1 I I ~ . ~ 1.11~1 1111: , a11 t~lli~~Lir:~l t!yli~~<lcrslc~~tlcr~~rss = 2,!)li : I ~11:icctl L 8l,rt!:~111 01 CL : 1) i11 : p:u-:illt~l L o l l l c 111:ijvv axis. Ile fotll~rl that it was located : ~x/b = 1.3 aritl tllat separation took place at x/h t 1.!)9. A mlculation 1)ased on J'ollll~a~~scr~'s apl~roxil~~ntiotl sllowetl vnry good a~rcrrncr~t with ~~~rnsrtrrr~~cnt,s for vclocit.y profilrs I I 1.0 lllc 1)oinL of n~inilni~tn ~ r~rrssurcIIIIL tt prrtlict.c:tl $10 stbpnr:~tiorl. hlrlcsy~~ tlnvrlopccl n rr~rlllodof ror~~l)~rl.nt.ic,~~I C : L ~ R to a. v:llll(' of 1). [I31 H.\I~(.~I r/h 2.02 li)r thr p o i ~ ~ t srl~nrt~tion tllr n l ~ n v coxn~~~l~lr:. i nt~lc.(.llo<l, I~olr~~cl:try. of in 111 l ~ t.lrc: layrr cqu:~t.ions arc? Lrxnsforlnwl illto orcli11:rry tliKcrr:nti:~l eqliat.ior~?l l ~ i o l:~rcrc.l:it.c.cl Lo w ~ F:~lknr>r Skitl~'~ :rntl cqllnt.iot~ (9.8). : ll(,rc it I I I :I ~ ~ N 1vorl~11I I C I I ~ ~ O I I l11:rt r~pproxi111:tIc I ~II~ i~~Lrgrail,io~~ IIII!LIIO~I of i ~ o ( ~ l i ~ ~ r x l).y tho i l l ro~~ncxiol~ I'ohll~a~rsrn'n wil.11 :ipproxill~atior~ in t l ~ e fails rrgiorl of large 1)rossIIrc gr:idic~~trq \slriclr ocrur for A > 12 (1i > O.O!IR), because the plot o f X agnillst A t.~trns tllis poi111 at, (Table 10.2) and cantlot, tl~rmlore,be contirlucd I)oyond K -- 0.0!15. Moreover. for /1 > 12 the vrloriby prnfilcs bcco~no r~nnrrcpt,al)le t.hry rolltniri poil~t,~ \ v l ~ i c tli~I I -.- I (Fig. 10.4). as for / 'I'l~rarcliffieillt.ira arc obviatcd wllcr~cqli. (10.37) is IIRO(I. I'or
cxan~l~lo: (:.
011

218

X. Approximntn rnet~liods shndy eqr~ntions for

d. Further oxnrnplea

219

-4 F ~ ~ r t hexample is shown in Fig. 10.12 which contains resl~lts a symmetrical er for Zhukovskii nerofoil a t zero incidence. The point of minimum pressure is a t x/l' = = 0.141 which is very far forward on t h e aerofoil. The pressure rise a t the rear is very gradual so that, the point of srpamt,ion lies very far downstream of the point of minimum pressure, i. e. zll' = 0.470. Since the Zl~ukovskii aerofoil has a cusped trailing etlgc t,hc potential velocity a t tho trailing edge is djffcrent from zero. For details of adtlitional systcn~ntic bountlary-layer calculations concerning nn extensive serics of Zhultovskii aerofoils with different thickness and camber ratios and a t cliffrrcnt angles of incitlcnre, refcrcnce may he made t o a p i p e r by K. nussmnnl~ and A. Ulrich [2].

A review of the very numerous approxi~natemethods which have been proposed so far is contained in the collective book entil.lod "Laminar Boundary Layers" 1181 nnd edited by 1,. Rosenhcad. .
I n a n effort t o improve t,he accuracy of the calculation of laminar boundary layers, many authors replaced the preceding single-pnrameter methods by oric employing tifio pramelers. This is acl~icvcdwhon t,llc encrgy intcgrnl cc11rnt.ion is sntisf e d in addition t o the m ~ m e n t ~ u n ~ intcgrnl equation (ace e. g. I<. Wicghartlt. [27]). Two-parameter methods have been extensively devclopcd by I,. G. Loit.sinr~slrii and his coworkers [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 141. Since such two-1)nrnrncter rncthotls n1.c vcry co~nplex, n ~ l n uincc t,l~cir nccrlrncy i~tliffic:tllt 10 nssc.ss, 1norlrl.n n u t i i o r ~ f~cvo11re.t~rrc.1 numn,erical methods cmployetl in conj~lnct,iorl with largc clocl.ronic con1put.crs; tlrcir principles have bcen outlined in Sec. I X i .

Pig. 10.0. Potcntinl velocity tlistrihution function on elliptical cylinders of slenderness o/h = 1, 2, 4, 8, tlic direction of t.he stream being parallel to t.110 major axis
R
; ; -

position or point o f srpnrrtion

Fig. 10.10. Ilrsillls of Llic cnlcr~Int,ion hor~ndnryIn.yers on ollipt,ic,zl cylinders of ~lcndorncss of n/b t 1 , 2, 4, 8, Jcig. 10.9. n) displnrrrnnnt, t,liickrirsa of tlre bonntlary layer, h) shape factor r) cliraring st.rr%q t11c~ ' n l f2. 1' -- rircllllifcrr~~~~c rllipsc; n/b -. 1 rircr~lnr nt of bht: cylintlcr; n/b = m flnt plate

Fig. 10.11. J'elorily profiles in t,l~c Iniiiinnr borttldary lnvor on all ellipt,irnl cyli~~cier.

1lat.io of axes

a,/()

Fig. 10.12. J'rlority profilrs i t 1 t,hc Inniinnr 1)ouiitlary I:tycl. and pot.entinl velocity f~lnct,ion for a Zl~ultovskii ncrofoil .I 015 of t11ic.knrss ratio dl1 = 0.15 a t an angle of inrirlrl~re u=0

220

X. Approximate n~etlroelsfor steady equations

e. 1,nmittnr flow wit11 nclverse pressure grndiertt ; sepnrntiotl

e. 1,nminar flow wii.lr ndveruc presnure gmtlient; sepnrclt.ion

22 1

Flows with :~tlvcrsopressure gr:itlic~ri.s (rct,arricd Ilo\vs) arc of great practical inrportancc. 111I.l~in conncxiolr it is always tlcsire~lto avoid ncpcr.m/ion frorn t,l~e wall, I)ccanse thin plrcnomeno~r in associatccl wit,h large energy IO~RCS. '1111~ flow a l ) o ~ ant nrrofoil in a case in point,. Owing b ~ t.lrc hcL that on the n~rcl,io~~ the prewrirc rnust, increase L it# free-st re an^ v a l ~ a tcthe txailing side o ~ edge, tlrc flow is always likely 1.0 sc:parxtc. 'l'l~c flow in a divrrgcnt channcl (tlin'~~scr) nfTords ar~ollrcrcxan~plc.'l'l~c objcc:l, in r~singthis sl~n.pc:of cl~n~~nr:llo convcrt. kincl.ic cnrrgy i11t.o is prr:ssurc energy, and if I.lre angle of tlivcrgrnco is ~ n : ~ d c large, sc*pamt,ionm:ry ooc~tr. t,oo l'hcoret,ic~:ll i~~vest.igat.ions tlre I)ol~nvio~~rtllc I)o~~r~tlary in tlrc virini1.y of 0l1c on of Ia.ycr point of nrparntion lravr been carried out, hy S. Goldsbir~ nnrl 13. S. Strni.ford 121 :rl. C / . talm pi] rcvirw I)y S. N. I3rown a ~ v l S b u ~ n r t n o ~ ~ 1C. I I). Ol~scrvat.ions slro~vt l ~ n ta Inl~~innr I)or~nclnry I:~gorwhir11 separates fronr a n.nll frcqr~ent,lg I)reolnes rrnt.t.:~rlrc~cl it, Iraving first h r r o ~ ~ t ~ ~ r l ) r ~ l c l ~ i . .Irads t,o tllo crent,iorl of a I a ~ n i ~ l n r lo ~c. Thin separ:~t,ionb~lbl)le.Fig. 10.13b, a.l~iclrpl:~ccnit.sclf bet,\vrerr t11e sepnratio~r point S I L I I ~1,110 rcaLt,~ ncl~tnent[joint, R. 'l'l~o flr~itl t l ~ e in bul)l)le 1)erfornrs a rircrllntory rotio ion. Accortling t,o 1%. lO.I:%a,tlre prrssllre tlistrib~lt.io~r nlong the wall can be represrrrtctl, in siml)lified fashion, by f i csonstant,vnlne brt,ivcen thr point of separatiotr S ant1 point I' of largest tl~ickncnsfollowed by a litrcl~rinrroasc fro~rrI' t.o the point of reattaclrment Phenomena of this kind have been deneril)cd in tlcl.ail l)g I. 'rani 12:IJ. More rccetrt experirnerrtal investigations into t l ~ e nnturc of I:u~rinnrscpnrat.ion I)III)I)I~~sV ~ I ) ~ C I I pcrfort~~rtl A. 1). Y o ~ ~ n g nl. [2R] as \r.ell an hy hf. II:L by rL Gnstcr 1481 and J. L. Van Ingen [GI. I'or theoret,ical contribr~tionssee [Zb, 3a, 5~1.3.

docs occnr. 12 nu~ncricnlexample will serve to make tlrin idra clonr. Anot.l~er~~osnibility cor~sisln in ontrolling tlrc bon~rtlnry Iayer, e. g. by s~rctionor by injecting fl~ritlinto it,, or by adclit,ion of -11 ac:rofoil a t a poit~twl~creils presence favoural)ly afictn t.lrc I ~ o l ~ r ~ d a r y in critical layer regions. Thrsc ~nct,lrods will l)c discrlsscd rnorc ft~lly Chap. XI\'. in I'olloaing 1,. 1'randt.l [I61 we sllall slrow I~owit is 11ossil)lc1.0 cni.i~nnLct.11~ pcrn~issil~lc rl~ngnil~~tlcl ~ c of t :~dverscprcss~lre grn.<lic~~t ~vl~iclr for scj)arat.ion is jnst. ~)rcvctrI.crl. 'I'llc a r g ~ ~ n ~ r n t will l ~ l):~.sccl I I ~,III: von I ~ & ~ ~ I I ~ ~ I I - I ' ~ I I I I I : L a I~ ~> ~~ ~ r o x i ~ ~ ~ : ~ t i~ ItI~ CXI). ll,\vill I ) ( : : I X M I I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ e O I ~ I clisc~~ssc~cl S : ~ . o l l ~ : i t .t l ~ c : I ) O I I I I < ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : i i y in i~c.lc~l 11[1r)t1 I1. t.11~: ~ I I . ( . s s I I ~ ~ (lislril~~~(,ion y : cIvtc.r~ni~~c~~l 11.(.1..51I . : I I I I I),y t110 ~ poLe~111i:rl flo\v 111) 1.0 :L point, \vl~i(:l~ w r y clclsr in t,lie poi111,of scp:~ration,sue11 as 1)1)i11t~ lirs 0 in Fig. 10.14. St:rr.Ling rvith i.l~is point, it will I)c a s s ~ ~ ~ n c d i.hc prcssllrc gratlic~~t,srtoh that t.ho that is s11:1l)cof I I I C vnloc.it,,y profiln T O I I I : I ~ I I R I I I I C I I R I I ~ ~ .~)roccc~ling ~~ eIow~~sLre:~n~, or trIl:~t,, ol,I~c~r in \r.~rcIs, I l ~ ofilial": f:~r:l~)r rc:~r~ainn A rol)st:~nt.; fiincc aL sc:lr:~ral.ion/I . - 12 a val~rcof A - 10 will be cl~osc.n. As sccn from 'I':tl)le 10.2 Llris lcadn t.o a clcfinite val~lefor t l ~ c second slrnpr factor, narncly I( = - 0.1:169, so L11:lt Il'(K) = 1.Tr23. Using tl~csev a l ~ ~ its is sccrr from rqns. (10.28) r the following relationsliip between tlrc vclocity and (10.29) that prevention of separation i~nplies U(z) of potential flow and the ~nomentumthickness d,(x):
-7

B,' 0.1369 - =z= v

-V ( x )

n.

I t follows that dZ/dz

0,1369 U"/U'2, or

It, \rill now bn shon~n wil,l~ air1 of srvrr:~Icxntnple:~that, a laminar flow can orrly support the very sln:~llaelvrrsc: Itrcssorr g r a d i n ~ ~ t . ~ wiI.lro~~t srl):lr;;t.io~~. Arlversc pressure gradients wlriclr exist in practiral npl)lic~xt.ionswonl(l, tlrorcrorc, nl~nontnln.ays Ic:ul L separation if the flow were o that rt rates of pressure increase laminar. 'l'lrc: circ~~msl.atrcc real flows c:ln s ~ ~ p p oconsitlcr:~l)le in n large nr~tnl)cr rnsrs \vitl~out of scpnr:~t,ionis elllo t.o t l ~ e f:lct that tlrc flow is mostly turbulent. I t \ \ r i l l I)c srrn later t.11a.t.t.l~rl)~llcnL arc r:~pal)le overe~otningn11lc11larger adverse pressure flows of gr:~rlicnts\vil.l)o~~t scl>:rral.ion. 'l'lrc Iwst known rx:~tnl)lcsinclutlc tlie cases of flow past circular e;yIi~~~Ic:rs SI)II~.I-OS, and \\.IIc:II srp:~rat,ionocr:rtrs ~nr~c:lr f~~rt.lrcr r~psLrcamin laminar tiran in turl)~~lent. 111 pri~cti(:t: V I I ~ I Ia ~ l v ~ r ~ c ~ S S gr:~dicnf.s 11o\\r. I s ~ I I ~ C exist, the lIo\v is aln~ost aI\\'ays tnrbulent l)c~cn~~sc, in atlelilion, f l ~ o cxist,c:nre: of an nrlvorsc prrssIIre gmclient favours the transit,ion from la~ninar1.0 t11rI)111e:nt. llo\v. 1t is, t~cvcrtlrclrss, 11sef111 clarify some of t,he frlnda~ilcntal to relations :~sso~~i:~lc~cl tho ~ ) r o v o ~ t t iof ~sc.p;;rntin~~ f l ~ c o.it.11 o ~ or1 cxatnplc of I ~ ~ n ~ i t flow, in particnlar, rnr I)c(.a~~sr I I I ~ I I : I ~ : ~ r c 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 1Inore rcaclily :~t~rc~~:rl)Ic I:I l10\1s 1 1.0 n~ntlrc~nai,icnl treatment than is tho c~tscwit11 I 11rI)111r>nt, lln~vs. 'I'l~e.rr arc. sc.vr.r:ll ~nrt.l~ocls ~)re:vcr~t,ing of scp:~r:ll.ion. T l ~ e si~nplcstof t,lrrnr consists in : r r r : ~ n g i ~for I I I ~;~~lvc.rsc~ ~g ~ 1)rexss11r(: r : ~ ( l i r ~ ~ i . s r n ~ i ~ ihrlow tile limit for wlrirl~ncpnrat,ie>~~ g lo r n

wlrere

Fig. 10.14. Devclopnrent of bo~indary I:~yerin the case when laminar separation is prevented

Fig. 10.15. I'otcntial velocity fi~nction for n laminar boundary layer \vitlr ar~tl witho~ltseparation

On the otlrer hand the succeeding vclocity proflcn are given by tlro ~ n o n ~ r n t u t n rquation (10.36)
for
3.

=. 0, or

U (le --dz

= F ( I < ) = 1.523,

(10.40)

I'j

-5

'j 2 V

R
I

Fig. 10.13. Sc~)ar:~t,ion br~l)l)lein a larninar bor~ntlsrg l:~yornficr I. 'l'nni 123). a) Shape of bubble (nchcnratir): b) l'rcssl~rodistrib~~tion hnbhle along t l ~ e in wall (sr!~rmatic). 'l'hc nrc'sn~lrchetwoen S and V in tlro I)r~l)l)lo

~ v l ~ c r e nr~~neriral the value for F f K ) which corrcsnontls to A - 10 Itas beet1 irrscrlctl. Igrom cqn" (l0.38) ant1 (10.40) i t follo~\~s the value of tlre .sh:b~)c that fart,or rrrnains constant :lt A -: - 10 if O.130!) n = 1.523, or if U U" 0 = = 11.13 z 1 1 , (10.41)
\

U'=

- -

.Llrc l~rcccdingargument slro~ssthat t l ~ ebor~ndaryI:lycr can st~pport,Llre atlvcrsc prrssurc gra.

a > 11 : no separation;

< I l : scpnr:ition .

(10.41: I )

11ienl.q if o > 11, wlrereas n < 11 in~pliesscparalio~~. a rrnrainn r o ~ ~ s t . a t~ n t= 11, n.it,lr If ~ A -- -- 10, t.11~ I)eu~~tlary lnyrr rc~n:lins~ I t.11~ I vrrgc of scl):~r:~t.ion.

222

X. Approximate methods for steady eqnations

lly way of n fr~rthercxam~)le retarded flow we shall ronnider the flow t.I~rorrgha of tlivergcnt cl~:inncl whose walls nro straight. This ca.qe in corollary to the cmc of the hotrndn.ry layer in a divcrgmt cl~nnnoltrentcd in Soc. IX b. The flow is nccn sketched in Fig. 10.16, where x tlcnotrs t11r rndial tlislnticc frorl~ t.11~ norlrrc a1 0. 7'110 wall is nsa~~rnccl I~cginnt, x . n \vl~crc to the entrnncc vcloril,y of the potrntinl strrarn is put cqnnl to U,. The poknt.inl flow in givcn by

Qnalitnt.ivcly i t is a t once possi1)lc to ~ n n k cthe following nt~atcmcntregarding the shape of [,he potential velocity f u ~ ~ c t i oU(x) which Icatls to no ncl)arntion. I n viow of cqn. (10.41) n

U" > 0
is a nrccndnry condition for n rctnrtlrd flow (IJ' < 0) t o xrlhcro t,o the wall. I n other words, t.lle ~nn.gnitudeof the advcrsr pressure grntlicnt, I I I I I ~tlccrrnsr in t,lic, flow direction. Ii'ig. 10.15. ~ , 11nsscpnrntion will nlwiiyu occllr il' ~ , I I c f~~rlt:l,ion J I/(%)i4 c;~~rvctI tlo\vnw:irtIn 1)chi11rl I I I R X ~ I I I I I I ~ its (11" < 0). In the opposit.~ rase, whim tho vc1ocit.y fr~nct.ior~ ~ r v r s ci i~pwnrds (U" > O), srj)aration tnny he ol>viatetl. 15vcn t.he li~nilir~g of IJ" = 0,i. e. Ll~crase of a velocity which tlccreanea c,we lir~carlywith the length of arc, always Icatls to scparatiol~.Tliin latter remark agrees with the rmitlt fonnd in Src. I X d ; i t was conccrnrd with the bootwlary lnyer aaaoriatcd with a potentinl flow vc1ocit.y which dccrcnwd linearly, ant1 t.he solution of thc tlil~rret~tial cquntiona wm q u o k d from a pnpcr by I,. IIowart,h. The su//icient condition for the absence of aepnration iu givcn by
%

Cornpt~tingthc vnlr~cof the qnantity a from cqn. (10.41), which is decisive for separation, we obtnin here o = 2. Applying the criterion giver, in eqn. (10.4111) we cor~cludetl~nt, scpnration occllrs in 1111 cnscn irrrnpcctivc of t.hc m e g n i t ~ ~ d e t.ho nnglo of divrrgence. This oxnmplc RIIOWR of very clrnrly t.lr:d c lwninnr nt.rm~nhas only n vcry li~nitctlcn])ncitg for n ~ ~ p p ~ r t n11g i n ntfvrrsn prcrrsnrc gr;itlirnt wit110116ncy~nrntion. Acror(lirrg t,o a c:alcrrlation pcrforrnctl hy K. Pol~lhnnscn[In] tho poir~t ~cpnrnt.ion of occrlrs n t xr/rl = 1.21 nntl is sccn to be indcpcntlcnt of tho anglc of divergence.

Wo RIIRII XIOW procrccl to cnlc111:itctho potential flow and the varint.ion of ho~~ntlary-lnycr tllickncus wllicl~ wnorinktl wiLh t,I~r are li~nit.ing cane of o I I, rvhm tho bonntlnry lnycr ro~r~ninu on t,lie verge of sep~raLiot~. I"rnnr cqn. (10.41) we Ilavo
... .

U' U" - I 1 x u, --

or, npon intrgrat,ing: In U' - 1 I In 1 -I- In ( - C,'), i. r . IJ'/CJ1I . 1 tlio constant of integral.ion. ltcpcntccl intagrnt.ion ~ i v c s
1 - U-lo
= C,' z

- C,', whero 6,' denotes

Fig. 10.16. J,nniinnr honnclnry layer in n tlivrrgent chn11nc.1. SrpnrnLion occnrs a t r,/n = 1.21 intlcpendcnt,ly of t.he nrlglc of tlivcrgence
-x
p-

:
I

+ C, .
lu,yrr

rc----,ys

) :

For z 0 wo ul~ot~ld hnve lJ(r) . IJ,. no that C, = $6Nn-'O. P ~ ~ t t i n g furthcr C,' UOl0= C,, we obtain frotn cqn. (10.41)
w.

Eqnat,ion (10.43) reprcsrn1.q the pot.cnlial vslocit,y for wl1ic11 cloparation can jnst be nvoidwl. 1 ' 1 1 ~ const,:~ntC, can IIC tlctnr~~~inccl the vnlnc of the bor~ntlnry-layer fro~n I.hickness do a t t.11~ origin z = 0. We hnvc A U' ( j z / v = - 10 or d 1/10 Frorn eqn. (10.43) we ohtain

The prcrrding concl~~sions npply only n long as t,he displaccn~rnt q . clTect of tllr Iioi~ndary I I I I I ~ be ~~rglcrlccl. Ilo\vevcr, this is trot the cnsc u l l c ~ l t.hc angle of divcrgcnco in stnnll. When thin nnglc is small, t.he boundary laycrs fill l h c whole c h a ~ ~ ncross-scclion aflcr a certain cl inlet length ( r / .Scc. XI i) and the flow gorn over nsytnptoticelly to that discussed in Scc. V 12 undrr the lieatling of channel flow. When the included angle does not excced u certain valnc which drprnds o ~ the Reynolds number, thet.e is no separation. ? Ilcccntlg, S. N. l3rown nnd I(. Stewnrtnon [I] 1)111,linhrtl nllninlnry rrvir\rf on ncl~nrntior~ n in \r-l~irhthe rnnthen~aticalqucst.ion cenbrcd on thr ning~~larity \vhich occllrn in 1.h~. tlifl't:r.rlll.i:rl eqr~*t.ionn t tho critical point llas been ernpl~nnized.Sccilso tho work of S. (:oltlst.ei~~ 11 Inore a 141. physicnlly inspircd revie\$. of thin problcln nrm II;M r c c c ~ ~ l lbeen pr~h)inhrdby J . C. \villi:llll. y 111 (291, n.nd by P. IC. Cl~ang [2c].

;q/(--D7).

and hrnrc 111 Rrorrn, S.N., nnd Stcwartrron, JC.: L n ~ n i ~ l srparnl.io~~. ar I\IIIIII:II I<rvirrr of Id'l~~itl illrt.11. 1 , 45-72 (1969). 121 I3rrss111at111, ant1 Ulrich, 12.: Syste~l~ntisrhe I I ~ C ~ ~ I I C iihrr I~ lIr~15inll11sn I<., IJ I I ~ I n~ I I c11.r I'rofilfornl nnf tlio 1,ngo tlos U I I I ~ C I I I I I ~ ~ I l1rv~)ritll.: R . ( I t . l , ~ ~ l l f t ~ l ~ r t f o r ~ l (1!).1:l ~in: : : I I I I ~ ~ ~,111. .I~~ ~~ 'rrv1111,lkvicl~tt!10, No. !) (l!bl3): K,I(:,\ Till 1185 (l!147). I. ~ I -I I C ~ I ~ \'.I Y.: I,r~ilsi~i~~nltii'n I , 111c1l1o(l I ~ o ~ ~ n d n r y \\.it11 st~rtion1111tl i ~ l j ~ . v l i o ~ ~ . for It~yt'rs ;\I.\,\ J. 7, 5fi2--5B:I ( IcJIiO . [21,] Ijrilry, W. 11. a r ~ dI\.Icl>onnltl, L). t I . : h'u~nerirnlprc-rlict.ion of i ~ ~ r . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l n . ~ B I I~ .iIlI) l t(-~ I I S(r t ~ ~ I !~ buhhles. J F M 69, 631-056 (1975). [2cl Cliang. P. J<.: Separat,ion of flow. Pergamon Prens, New York, 1070. [3] (:liir~crt, hf.J3., and Ligl~t,hill,M..J.: l'lle nxiny~nn~ctric hounrlary Inyt-r ~ I :I I O I I ~ thin I cylit~dcr.I'roc. I!oy. Soc. A 230, 188-203 (1!)55). [3n] Crinli, P., and Rcevcs, I%. I,.: Analysis of lending edge ncparnlion buhhlcs on nirfnils. Air\.\ -1. 14, 1548 --I555 (1976). [ 4 j Golclntein, S . : 0 1 1 In~ninnr honntlnry Inyrr Ilo~rnrnr n point of s r l x ~ r n t i ~()il;~rl. hlr~rll. ) ~ ~ . .l. ..\ppI. Mnt11. 1 , 4% -I!!) (19i18).
2

From 6 - ,!r n t x = 0 we hxvr C , - 10 rl/lJ, doZ,wl~icli gives the final solution for thr potcntinl flow nnrl thr vnrinl,ion of bo~~ntlnry-lnyrr thirkt~rsu

It, in arc11 that, t.11~ , n g ~ ~ i l . ~ ~ t l r ])rrmissil)lc dcrrlor:rt.ion (tlcrrmsc in vclorit,~) very small, n of l.l~r is Irring ~)roporlion:ilto . (1 1. I t s vnll~cis vcry nearly rcnlizctl for t,hc cnsc of constant vc1ocit.y I : n l o n ~ II:iI, 1)I:ilr at. zrro i ~ ~ r i t l r ~ ~ t.hc prcscnt. cnnr t,llc incrrnsc in hound:~r.y-lnyrr tho Jn r r . tl~icltncsn, 0, is ~~roporlionnl 3:I'.5" :his vnll~calso t1ilh.m h n t lit,t,lc frorn t.he rase of n fln.1. plate nt zrro to ~ I I I ~ ~ I ~ I . I I ( , ~ -\ v I I ~ I , I I 0 l'c~r 2+5.

224
.
.

S . appro xi mat,^ I I I ~ I . I I O ~ R alcady equation4 for

I'roc. 4 , 8l!) 854 ( I !IlKi). 1.51 Ilc>lslvir~, a11r1l1ol11011, 1 4 : i t l e i ~ ~ f : ~ r l ~ r s [I., 'I'.: \'erfaI~rt!r~I I V l%rrcci1111111g Z 1:1111ir1:~rrr I<t-il~~~ugssvl~irl~le~r, (ICIII K i i l ~ ~ - r ~ ~ ~ ~ g s v ~tO Ir fI<. l ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ gev~iigsr~, i l i ~ ~ ~ ~ l l ~ : ~ l . l ~ t ~ r i r l ~ t (lit! I ! I : ~ I'~IIIII:IIIS~II l, S. 10, 5 -- I0 (l!)40). [5n] Jlortnn. 11. I?.: 11 serlli-erllpiricnl tl~cory the ~ r o \ \ t l r lor and I~r~rstir~g of Iarllinnr s s p ~ r a t i o ~ l t)~rl)I)lrs. ,\rro. J<cs. (~o~rncil,~ ~ r r e r ~ t , No. 107 (l!)(;7). C 1':~pcr
( I !)is):

or^ I ( h r n ~ h ~ ~ , iil)rr I:r~~ri~r;lrr I ~I I I ~ I I I I I C I I I Ilri01111g. 'I'll.: I I I ~~ Z.\hlRl I . 2:j:t 252 (l!l2l); N1\(:,1 10!U (I!ll(i); src! also (!oil. \\'arks 11, 70- 07 (l!)5(;). 181 ~ < ~ I s c \ I ~ I I , :III<I N.,I., I,oilsi:~~~skii. I,.(:.: )o\~rr eirrc i ~ t ~ g r ~ ~ l i lhl~.l,l~o(It! I I ( ~ ~ C C I I I I I I I ~ ~ rrrlr (1r.r drr L i l r r ~ i ~ ~ : ~ r g r c ~ ~ z s r l ~ i v ,\lincl. Nnuli, SSSl<36, Ko. !) (1!)42):srr nlso: ;\I)ap],roxi1)olil. l ~ l , . 111:~tc rnrl.l~t)il rali~~rli~lit~glnrl~illnrI ~ o r ~ ~ ~ r l : ~ r yC o r ~ ~ ~ iHrlullls (I)oltlatly) do of IIIC I:tyer. lrn I'AvntlCrl~ic!c1r.s Svirr~c*cw I'UIISS 46, 2(i'L-~-2(ili rlr (I!)il'L). l!)J l,r~iLsi:~~~sltii, I , n ~ t r i ~ ~ a r ~ ~ y i I,.(;.: pogr;u~i(;Itr~yi I:in1118tgin Blosco~\~. ~ ~ I tIr : ~ ~ ~l),y . filoi. ( I . sl 11. l,ir~rI)cr~: l,a~r~ill:~rr (;rc~~~,sclricI~l,i:~~. ,\lca~lt~~~~ic:-L'erl;~g, I!Ni7. l<crli11. 1101 Imit-qi:insltii, I,. G.: Mckltatlika zllitlkosLci i gazov. Narrltn, Moscow, 1073. I,. ura ix pril>li~,I~r.~~ia I a r ~ ~ i r ~ t ~ r 1, trorii [I I I,oiLsi:~~~sltii,(;.: U~~i\,ersal'r~ye v ~ ~ c ri~l)ar:t~~~~!trirl~rsl~ie nyltlr p o g r ; ~ ~ ~ i c lsloe\,. I'rikl. hlnt.. i hlrlth. X X I X . No. I (1!)65). See also: 'I'll? ~~r~ivrrs:bl ~r~~ltl~ e q ~ ~ : ~ t inutl~pnr;lrllrt,ric:n~~ylroxir~~:~t~ir)r~s nt s i l l l l ~ tllc.org nf I R I I I ~ I I : ~ ~ r l)o1111d:1ry I:I~(*I.s. 1111111. J. Blath. Mcrll. (I'hlhl) 2 1 , 70 8 7 (I!fC,5). [I21 l,oilsia~~sltii, (:.: S t ~ la 1116t,I1oilr 1.. r l)ara1116l,riq11e I:\ tl~<,orir l:i VOIICIIO Iir~rilc (I(! (I(! I:irr~i~~:iire. I'roc:. I l t,ll I I I ~ ~ IC O I I . ~ A1)1)1. hlrr11.. hllll~irlr I!)li(i (11. (:iirllrr, rd.). Ql)rilrgt'r \'srI:lp. >~ ~ PSS I1rrli11,I!)l;(i, 7'22 728. I 1 I z s y 1 , I . : I I ~ I ~ O of II 1 0 1 1 l 1 r y I r : I I : ~ I rI . I S t . I 2J7, 5 55!) ( I !15(;). [I41 Onrrova, 1: I?.. ar~clSill~llt~i, 4 . J,.hI.: A11~roxi111:itr I.\vo-~):~rar~~clw O I I o f t11(%rqll:lt.i~ll ROIIIL~ for stc:~clv-sLa.t.s I:ilnirlar I,orrn(lnrv I:~yorn(.i r r Il~rssiar~). 'l'rudy I,cllillgr. I'olyt. Irlsl,. No. J1:I " .. (l!)70). [I51 I'ohll~:~usrr~, Zrlr 11al1rr1111gs11-~iric.n I<.: I~~tcgl;it.io~~ tlrr I)ifli.rrnl.ialgicic.l~r~ng Inrl~irlnrrn tlrr I l r i l ~ ~ r ~ ~ g s s r lZAMRI t I. , 252.- 2(i8 (1!)21). ~icl~ [ I G I l'l;~,r~~IlJ. '1'11~ J I I ~ C ~ I ; I I Iof ~ visrolrs fltricls. 111 \V. I?. l ~ u r : ~(~ ~ i .I)ArrocI,v~~a~i~ir I,.: ~ S ~1 : 'I'l~rory If I, 34- 208 (l!l:J5). [17 1 !rel.sc:l~, $1.: I)ir In.t~~i~\:rre I<eibrrngssc.l~iclrt. sllipt.ischen Zylir~drrn nn unrl I~ot,ntio~lsrllipsoltlnn I~oi~ y r ~ ~ t ~ ~ c t . r i ~ ~ ~ l ~ c r Ar~slriirr~rr~~g. I,~~ftfal~rt~forscl~lr~~g 18, :j!)7-402 (1!)41). (181 J t o s r ~ ~ l ~ rL. t l , ; ~ (rtl.): 1,:ilninar borcl1tlnry I;~ycrs. Clarcrltlor~l'ress, Oxford, I!)G3. 1 l!l] Srl~lirl~Li~~g, I I ~IJIricll. A,: Z~rrr3r.rrrl1111111g tJ~~~sc;l~lages~ i r ~ : ~ r - t ~ r rvJ1).~ r l o ~ ~ t . ti., : L clcs lar~ I ~ (it. I,r1fl.f:~Irrl.fol.scl11111g R5 (1042); star also: I,ilir~~tl~nlI, R Ijer-irllt.S 10. 75-- 135 (1!)40). 120.1 Sclrii~l:l~lrr, : I c i t l I)ilTt~n~nzr.r~vc;rfaI~ret~ \V. zur J,ijs1111g ( : r c r ~ ~ ~ ( : l ~ i v l ~ t ~ g I~ iis1:lt.io-~ ~ ~ g ilrr f r r I~~ c 11iirr. I : I . I I I ~ I i ~~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r~ ,s~ i l ~ l l11g.-11rcl1. l7:!--lR!l (l!l(;4). I: ~lc , S c s ~ I r I I I I I ~ .33, I 121J S ( ~ l ~ ~ ~ l )(:. ~ r r r . n 11.: Airllow in ;L srpn.rat,il~g lfirl~itlar I)ol~ntlnr,v layer. NACA l<cl>. 527 (l!)35). [21:11 SLr:~llhrcl. S.:Ir'io\r, i l l t,llo Inll~illar I<. boulr(Jnrylnycr r1c:l.r srpnra(.ior~. Al<(:, IbRI :1002. 1 -27 ( l!)57). 1221 'J'nni, I.: 0 1 1 t.11~ so111t.io11 t . 1 1 ~ 16 Inminnr \,on~~darg layer ccll~ations. I7ift.y yrxrs of 1)ollndnl-y luyrr rrsmr~:l~ (:iirl.lcr, ctl.), I1rn1111nolra.cig, (11. 1!)55, I!):{--200. I2:II 'I':r.tli, I . : I , o ~ Y RI)CC(I IIOIVR i l ~ v ~ l v i I)lrl)l)lesrl):irat,ion. l'rogress ~ I IArronnr~t.ic~:~l t~g Sciorlcm 5 , 70 I0:i (l!l(;4). 124j ' I ' r ~ ~ r l ~ r ~ r I >I<.: Nt ~ ,I I ~ ~ I I I I ~clrrI S t~ iS r ~I ~ ~ r ~ ~ s r I utlii ~ I ~ a ~ ) li ~<~ ~ i l t a l i s ~ ~ ~ c ro~l S ~ r i I ~ t I ~ g I ~ ~ r ~ illre ~ ~ l I > ~ I I ~ IhI'Ii I ~ .r l r r ~ ~ t l ~ AIrr~~ori:~l ~~ l'rar~(ltl 1,crtlrre. ZF\V 24, 177-- 188 (l!IiG). (251 \\'n.lz, 14.: 1Sir1 tlecrrr Annalz fiir rlns ( ~ c ~ s ~ ~ l l ~ r . i n , l i g l t ~ ~ ~ t t s Inl~~il~arrn i l ) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ s s c l ~ i c l l l . . tlrr P r o l i l I<r ~ . ~ I ~ P I I I ~ I ~ I - 141,C 8--1'2 ~ ~ I ~ , I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ (1!)4l). I 12(i1 1Valso11,1C.,1.. nlltl IFrcston, .l.Fl.: 1\11nlrl)roxi~r~ate sohlliol~of lsnw Hal, pln1.c I)o~lrltl&ry Inyrr ~ I ~ O O I ~ I I I RI.t M 2537 (1!351). AIM: 1271 il'icgl~~~rdt,, i)llor ri11(,11 I<.: I<r~crpirsaI,z I I ~13sr,:(:l11)1111g Z In,~~~irlarsrr c ~ ~ z s r l ~ i11lg.-~ l ~ c ~ ~ . (~ ~*l

171

Axially symlnetrical and three-dimensional bounclary layers

I n trhediscussion of boundary layers in t,he preceding chapter we h a v e consitlrretl cxclr~sivclyt,wo-tlitnensiot~alcases for wllicl~t h e vclocity componcttbs tlcpnr~tlotl011 only t w o spacc coordinates. A t t l ~ s a m e tirne t,he vclocit:y c o t n p o n c t ~ ill t.lto tlirrc(.iot~ c t of t h o tllirtl s p e c coortlinnt,~ (lid n o t exist. 'l'llc gcllcrnl t.ltrcc-tlitr~crlsio~~:~~Iof V:LSC a borrndary layer in w h i c l ~t h e t,hrce vc1ocit.y components dcpentl o n all three coordinates hns, s o f a r , been ltartlly elaborated bccansc of t h e cnortnous ~nall~crnxt.ical diftic~llt~irs nssociatotl wit.11 tile problem. W c sltall tlcscribc t , l ~ c first at2t,c:tnpt,si l l this tlirecl.ion nt t h e cntl of Lhc prcsc:t~tcllaptcr.
O n t l ~ c t l ~ r r11nntl t . l ~ etnat.I~ctnnticnltlifficttlt~icseticour11.crctl i t 1 1.l1c s1,11tlyof' o axi:tlly s y ~ r ~ t n r l ~ r iI)ortrrtlnr.y 1:r.ycrn nrc ror~witl(:~.rrl)ly ri~l fr\vc~r ntrtl 1111r(lIy r x ( . ( ~ c I t.hosc in t l ~ o two-tlirnorrsionnl cnsr. Axially sylnmct.ricnl b o ~ t n t l a r y i ~ y c r soc:cllr, c. g., l in flo~vsp a s t axially symmct.ricnl botlics; t l ~ c axially ~ y m m c t ~ r i c n l also belongs jet under this heatling. T w o cxatnples, t h a t of tllc rotat,ing tlislc nntl axially symmct,rical flow with st,agnat.ion, h a v e nlrcady I)cct~ discusset1 in t,hc r l t : ~ p t e ro n e x a c t solot,ions of t.11~ Navier-St.oltes equations.
W e sltall begin tltc prcscrlt c l ~ a p t c r wit11 n discussion of s o m e furbhcr cxntnl)lcs of st,ratly axi:tlly symrnct.rica1 flows w l ~ i c c a n b e solvcd with the aitl of t h c d i f i r c n t i n l l~ equations, ant1 will continue wit,l~ 1.11~ ~ t ~ c t ~ sofotile a.l)proxilnatsc c i r~ procctlnrc. \ v I ~ i c l ~ w a s exp1:~inctl i r ~t h e prccetling c l ~ a . p t c r o inclutlc t l ~ caxially sgrnmct.riral c:lse. t Furtllor, wc shall rlisc~lss t.11~ princip:i.l fcxt#uresof t,lrrcc-tli tnrt~sionnl bonntlnry layers. Norl-st,carly n.xi:ally symn~ct.ricalbotl~ttlary layers will bc consitlcrctl it1 (Il1:111. Xi' t,ogct-ltcr nit.11 nott-stcatly two-ditncnsional cxnmples.

n. I ~ X L I ~ o l ~ ~ t i ofors nxinlly ~ y ~ ~ ~ r l i r t rIirro ~ l ~ t d i ~ r y C~ ii nl Inyrrw

1. Rotntion rlrnr the gror~nd. In C l ~ n p V we 1t;~vcconsiclcrotl 1,11(: (~;ISO of Ilonr . in t h e ncigl11)ourllootl of a clislc w l ~ i c h rotntcs in a fluitl n t rest. T h e rase o f motion near a stsal.ionnryw:rll, \vl~cn 1.11~ lluitl a t n largo tlist,ancc al)ovc it, rotates : k t :L constant angular vrlocit.y, is closcly conncct,ctl with i t , Fig. 11 . l . 'l'his c x n n ~ l ) l o \v:~s st.udic?tl by U. T. Rocdewatlt [ O ] . One of 1.11~ essential cffect,s in tJte example of t,lre clislr which r o t a t r s in a fluitl a t rest consists it1 tltc fact tltnt in tllc 1,l1i11 lnycr trcar t,hc wall tllc fluid is thrown o r ~ t n ~ a r d s owing t o tllc cxist,cncc of ccnt,rifug:~l forcrs. 'l'flc flnicl w h i c l ~ is forcctl ortt~vnrclsit1 a. rntlinl tlircct.iori is rcplacctl b y a tl~riclst.rcnrn in t l ~ c :~xinl ciirect,ion. 111 t.hc case ~ ~ n t l cottsidcrat~ion,in wllicl~t,hc fl~ritlrot,at,cs ovcr t h e waU, er tfl~cro n sitrtilnr clTcct 1ntt its sign is rcvrrsrtl : 111(: 11nr1,irlrs\ol~it:lrro1,c~l.o rt, Iitrgc is nl,

220

XI. Axinlly symniobricnl nnd thren-di~~~el~sionnl bor~ndnry lnyers

a. Exact solr~tioll~ axinlly syrnmntrical borlndnry lnyers for

227

dist>ance from t h e wall are in eqllilibrium under the influence of the centrifugal force which is balanced by a radial pressure gradient. The peripheral vclocity of the particles near t h e wall is reduced, thus decreasing materially the centrifugal force, whereas the radial pressure grntlicrit directed towards the axis remains the samc. This set of circr~mstanccscauses the pnrkiclcs ncar the wall to flow radially inwards, and for rcasons of cont,inr~it,ythat motion must he oo~npcrlsnt,cd11y an axial flow upwards, a show~i Fig. 11. I . A srlpcrimposctl firld of flow of this nature s in which occurs in the boundary layer and whose direction deviates from that in the external flow is quite generally referred to as a secondary flow. It was first discovered by E. Grusc11wit.z 1451 whrn he nnnlyzcd the flow in a curvet1 cllnnnel, scc also E. Becker [R].

rotating tlisk, bccause the terms whicll are neglected in thc bo~~ndary-laycr cquntions vanish here on their own accord. 13y eqn. (3.86) we can write down the Navier-Stokcs equations as

arc The boundary cor~ditions

I t is convcnicnt to illtrotlacc thc dimensionless coordinate

Fig. 11.1. Itotnt.ion of llow near

the ground
Velocity component^: u radial; a - tan~ential: 10 - axial. Owlng

in place of z, as in tile case of the rotating disk (Sec. V 11). Wc assume t,liat the vclocity components havc t,he form

to

t h e tangential velocity sulTera deceloratlon in tho ncfghbourhood of the dlak at rest. Thls glves rise to a aceondary Pow which la directed radlslly Inwards

rrlctlon.

Thc ratlial prcsstlre grnrlicnt can bc con~pntctlfor t.lia frictiorllcss llow a l a large distancc from t.hc wall from tho c~rldit~iorl:/ @ ) . (aplar) = V 2 / r ,or, wit11 V = r CO, (I

The secondary flow which accompanies rotation near a solid wall and which hna bcen described it1 the preceding paragraph can bo clearly observed in a teacup: after the rotation has bcen generated by vigorous stirring and again after the flow has been left t o itself for a short while, the radial inward flow field near the bottom will he formed. Its existence can be inferred from the fact that tea leaves settle in a little heap near the centre a t the bottom. I n order t o formulat,e the mathematical problem, we shall assume cylindrical polar coordinates r, z, the stationary wall being a t z = 0, see Fig. 11.1. The fluid a t a large distance from the wall will be assumed t o rotate like a rigid body, with a constent angillar vclocity w . We shall denote the velocity componenh in the radial direction by u, that in the tangential direction b y v , the axial component being derloted by W . For reasons of axial symmetry the derivatives with respect to 4 may be dropped from tltc Navicr-Stokcs cquntions. The sol~ltiori which we are about to find will be an exact solution of thc Navier-Stokes equations, just as wae t h a t for the

I n the framework of the boundary-layer theory i t is a s s u ~ ~ i c h a t the same pressure td gradient acta in the visaoua layor ncar the wall. lntroclucing cqns. (1 1.4) and ( 1 1.5) into eqns. ( l l . l a , b, d), we obtain a system of ordinary dilrcrcntial equatio~is which is analogous t o that in Sec. V 11 :

+,

with the boundary conditions

>

228

XI. Axially symtnrlrir:~lnn(l tl~rrc.dimrn~ionaI botlntlary lnyer~

it1

a. Exact solntions for axially symmetrical houndary layorn

SIIC~I

Tltc pressure grndjrrtL

t.he z-rlircct,ior~rnny l)c nssr~mcd eqnnl t,o zero, ns

an ass~~mpt,ion comp:it.iblc with I)otlt~tl:~ry-lsycr is t,llcory. AItrrt~xt.ivcl~r, mtl i)e it,

cnlcr~lat.ctlfrorn rqn. ( 1 1 . 1 r ) , nft.t:r t,l~c prirlrip:~lsolution llatl Ijocn oht.:~itlctl,whicll t,l~rn rrs111l.si l l nrl rsnc:t solt11,ion of 1.11(- Nnvier-Sl.oltrs cq~~nt,ions. 'I'llr sgsl,cbn~ rrl~lnliol~s 1.6) \ritll l , l l r I)orttldnry contlit.iorls ( 1 1.7) was first, of (I solvc~l 11. 'r. T30c3tlc\rr:~dt. i r :I~ vcvy I:~l)ot.iorls I)y [!)I \r:t.v I)y IIIC:IIIS o f :1 I)OIVPI. scries cs~):unsirlnat[ = O : ~ t l t l:ITI :~syn~l)totic cxl):~ttsior~ [ m. IEecently this sol~ltion for was ~~rt.t:(.tc(I .1. E.Ny(I:il11[Sin] i l l nrl r~nl)rlhlishctl 11~1 I):l.l)cr.T l ~ V:LIIICR of t,l~(: fur~(:t,iotl~ r F,f:, 11 :~(-(*or(lit~g tx) Ny(l:~,Itl g i v ( v ~ 'J7:t,t~I(,I . I : L I I ~ Ii t 1 Icig. 1 1 .2. TIIP11orizo11t~:~l :Lr(\ in I vcloc-ily. i.c. I.l~r I.(~RIII~,:I.TII,:i1i(1 I ) , i~ :LIRO R I I ~ \ V I I plo(,tcd i l l n 1)olar tlingram in of IL Fig. 1 1.3. 'l'llc :l.nglo I)rt,wccn l,lrc I~orizot~l~nl vclority componrr~t ant1 (.he pt:ripl~crnl dircrtion tlrprntls only on t,l~nI~cigl~t,, arltl t,l~ovrclors irl Fig. 11.3 ititlicxntc t,llis tlircctiotl for varying Iltigl11.s.'l'hc tlcvi:~t.iorrI'rorn 1.11(! 1)cripltcrnl tlircction 1)rcst*rihctl a t n Inrgc? 11c:ight. is Inrgcst. nrnr 1 . h ~ grotrrrd alltl has n vnlue of 50.G0 inwnrtls. 'l'ho Iargcsl. tlrvixtiolr of 7.4O ot~twartfsoccurs for ( = 4-63 so t,llat, the largrst angular
I =

l'nhlc 11 1. 'l'l~r funct.ions for thr velocity tlistri1)ution for t l ~ rcase of rotation nvpr a slntiot~nry \v:111, nftcr J . E. Nytlahl [81a]

Fig. 11.3. IXotation near a uolid mall, after Boedewadt. Vector representation o the horizontal velocity component C

Fig. 11.2. Rotatior1 near a solid walh aftrr Soedewadt [Dl. Velocity rlistribntion in thc bounctnry layer from eqn. (I 1.4); RCO a180 Table 1 I . I

difference, i. e. t h a t between t h e ground and t h a t a t ( --= 4.63, is 58". It is ft~rtllcr remarkable t , i ~ a tllc axial velocity component w does not depend on the dist,nnce r t from t.llo axis bltt only on t l ~ c distance from t l ~ c grountl. Tllc motion a t all l>oir~t,s is llpwartls wi1.h la > 0. As alrcatly mcnt,iorlctl, this is catlsctl by the ii~wnrtl Ilow rlcar the grot~ntl, consequent upon tho tlecrcase in the rcntrifrigal forces. 111 a n y anse, as seen from Pig. 1 1.2, t l ~ i s compcnsatctl by n mdial flow o ~ l t w a r (at, n groat,or I~eight~, is I~ 1)1it or1 t,lic wl~olo,i.llc rntliiil flow ir~wr~rtls 1)rt:tlo1ilir1t~t,cs. 1.ot.11IV O I I I I I I ( ~ IIo\vi~~g 'I'IIc towartls (.he a.xis t,aker~ over a cylinder of radius R around the z-axis is

Tnscrtit~g thc nlrmcrical valt~c I I ( m ) from Table 11.1 we obtain of

Q = - 1.387 ~

r ,

R 2i n ) .
11

(11.8)

Tile volume of flow in t,he positive z-tlirection is of ~ - . mngnitudc. 'J'Jlc 1:lrgcst equal I I ~ ) w : I niot,ion oc(:tlrs a t [ == 3.1, wllrrr I I I = 1.80 $0) 1) . 1t. is nlso wort,l~ ~(~ not,itlg tl~nt,

230

XI. Axinlly symmctricnl and three-dinicnsionnl bonndnry layers

a. Exact solutions Tor axially syn~mctricnlboundary lnyers

23 1

t h e boandary layrr cxt,ends considorably higher than in the example with the disk rotatsing in a fluid a t rest (Scc. Vb). I f thc boi~&r?/-hyer thickness 8 is defined as the height for wliich t h r drviat,ion of t h c pcripltrral vclocity is c q ~ ~ta l 2 prr ccnt , wc o for t h e stationary Ruitl. shall obtain 8 = 8 v / w a s against 8 = 4

1/

d q

The pressure can here be regarded const,ant, a s in t h c two-dimensional casc. The system of coordinates will bc selected with itts x-axis in t,l~c axis of the jet,, the radial distancc bcing dcnotcd by y. The axial and radial velocity components will be dcnotcd by u ant1 v , rcspcctivcly. Owing t o thc assumption of a constant prcssurc the flux of momctltrlm in lhc direction of x is constar~t orlcc Inorc:

The cxa~njtlcof t,11cmot.ion of a vor1.c~ sourno ~1c1.wccr1 pzrallcl walls cont,wo siclnretl by U. Vogclpol~l[I201 is rcl:it,ctl 10 somo cxtcnt t o thc prcscnt casc. For very small ltcynolds numbers thc vclocit.y distribution deviates little from t l ~ c parabolic cllrve of Poisc~~illc flow. For large Rcyrloltls n~lmhcmthc velocity profile approacl~cs rcctarlgular tIistril)ntion, a n d a borlntlary laycr is sccn t o bc forming. a flow was tliscussed by C. I'fleidercr [85].I n this T h e corresponding case of t~lrl)ulcnt papcr hy R. Bccker [F1 may also be consulted. conncxion t,I~c Similnr phnno~ncnncnn bc found in swirling flow through n conical fnnncl-like channel investigated by I<. Garbsnh [:12]. The potential flow ia gencrntcd by a sink of strength Q placed a t the vertcx of t,lio cone and a potential vortcx of st,ffingtliI' plncnd along tho axis, Pig. 11.4. The solution to t h o bonndnry-lnycr cqrrnt,ior~s obtninetl by an itcrntivc procedure whicl~is is with r said to lead to n good npproxirr~ntior~ n srnall n ~ ~ t n bofr step8 only. Two pnrticulnr cnsra of such flowa have also hccn iuvcstigntctl with the nid of npyroximntc met.l~ods, and they will be ~nentioncdin Chap. X: A. M. Ilinnic ant1 L). Y. IJnrris [7] studicd pure sink flow (I' = 0). and G. I. Taylor rll I] nnd J. C. Cookc [ I 71 at.~~tlicd pnrc vortex llow (Q = 0). 111 tho lnttnr case, M shown in Pig. 11.4, the flow forms a hor~ndnrylaycr on the wall of the conical clmnnel. The flow ficld in thc boundary Inycr develops n velocity component w in the clircction of the cone generators,\r~I~cmas frictionless corc, bcing a prlre swirl, possesses only tangential velocity tho compononh u. The oerondnry flow in tl bor~ndnrylayer tranuporla some fluid towards the !e vertcx. The render mny further wish to a t ~ d y related palm by H. E. Wcbcr [121]. a
2. The circr~lnr jet. \Yo shall now inclicatc 11. Sclilinl~ting's[97] solnt,ion for tlrc laminar circnlar jct which is analogons t o the onc for a two-dimensional jet given i n Scc. I X g . 'Yhc subjnct of the i~lvcst~igal,ior~ is, thus, a jct which lcavcs a small circular opening and tnixrs wit,Ir t3hesurrountling flrtitl. I n most pract,ical cascs the circular jet i s also t.ur11nlent. 'l'l~ct,nrt)rllont circular j(:t will 1)e considcrcd in Chap. X X I V , b11t since i t lratls t o a tlilTcrcnt.ial oq~tationwlrich is i d ~ n t ~ i cwit.11 t,hat for tho laminar al case we shall ~ ~ S C I I St.11~ S Iat,t,cr in some grcat,cr (letmail.

I n thc adoptctl s y s k m of coortlinatcs thc cqrlation of moliorl in thc tlirrcfion of x, undcr the us11a1bor~ntlnry-layer simplifications, togetl~cr wiCh thc cquatiorr of motion, can bc written a s

ant1 lllc bonndary contlitions aro

As before, the velocity profilcs u(x, 9) can be assumed sirrrilar. Thc witit11 of the jet will he taken t o be proportional t o P,i t being furthcr assumctl t h a t

In ortler to determine thc exponents p ant1 n wc can use the samc two contlitions as in the two-tlimcnsional case. First the momcntum from eqn. (11.9) must hc irldepcndcnt of z, and secondly, the inertria and frictional terms in cqn. (1 1 . I o n ) must bc of the s:mc ortlrr of magnitr~tlc.IICIICC

Thus t,he followir~gtwo equations for p and

la

rcsult:
--

2p-4n

1-2n=O;

2p-411,

1==p--4n,

so tI1a.t p = 11. = 1. Conscqr~cntly,we rnay now put Fig. 11.4. Swirling flow in a convergent conical rhnrtnel, afb r G . I. Taylor [ I l l ]
1

y ~ = v z F ( q ) and

TI=

Y *,

from which it follows Lhat the vclocity componcnb are

C T

II = boandrrry lnyer on llie wall of L11o conical r l l n n n r l wit11 secondary flow lowardr llle vrrles

232

XI. Axially synimet.rica1and tllrcc-dimensional boundary laycrs

n.

Exact .solntionn for nxinlly ~ylntnrt,rical botnldary layers

233

Jnscrting t,hcsc values irlt,o cqn. (11.10a), we obtn.in the following equation for t h e strcam function FF' F.' FF" (F,, tlz tl tl dtl

3-

):

Figure 11.5 rcprescnts a strcamlinc pattern calculated from t l ~ prcccclit~g c cclrlations. The longitntlir~alvelocity IL is shown plott,etl togcthcr with t . l ~ ror,t,llc? two-tlirncn~t sionr11 jcl, in ]pig. 9. I :I,
r

1110 volnmc o f flow Q

7

= 272

/ u y tly
n

(volnmc per sccontl), which incrcasrs

whic~l~ be int,rgratetl once t o give can

FF' = F 1 - q F " .

The I)on~~tIary condit,jons arc IL = IL,,, ant1 v 0 for y = 0. I t follows t h a t F' = 0 and F = 0 for "1 = 0. Since TL is a n even fi~nct,ion r], F'lr] must be even, F' otltl a n d E' of evcn. I3ccausc of F(O) = 0 t h e constant tcrrn in the cxpansio~l F i n powers of 11 must . of
vanisll, which tlet,crmincs ono constant of intcgrat,ion. The sccond constant of integrat.iotl,whicl~ will be dcnot,etl by y , can bc evaluated a s follows: If F(r]) is a solution of rqn. (11.13), t11cn F ( y v ) = F(() is also a solut,ion. A p:~rticularsolnt,ion of the tlill'crcr~t,inlccl~~at.ion F d. F = d F - dZF . . -dt dt d ~ ' wllic:h sat,isfics t l ~ c hountlnry condi1,ion ( 0: F 0, F' -=0, is givcn by 5' 1+:t2.
1

(11.13)

with t l ~ tlist~anccfrorn the orificc owing t o t,ltc flow from the srlrro~~ntlings, rcprcr is scntetl by the simple cclnnliorl Q=8nvx. (11.18)

F
Ilcncc wc obtain from aqn. (11.12)

(11.14)

Fig. 11.5. Strranlline pattern for a circular laminar jct

JJere [ = y y/x, ant1 the constant of inlegmtion y can now be determined from the givcw valne of momentum. From cqn. (1 1.9) we obtain for t.hc momenttlm of t l ~ c jet

This equnt,ion should be comparccl with eqn. (0.48) for t h c two-dimensional jct,. It is secn t.hn.t,, nncxpcctrtlly, the volume of flow a t a givcn tlist.altcc frorn t,llc orificc is intlcpcntlcnt of thc morncntl~rllof t l ~ c i. r . , ir~tlepc~rtlc~~l, csccss of ~)rcssnrc jot,, oT t,l~c undcr wllicll t.11~ leaves tlrc orificc. A jet wl~iclllcnvcs under a large prcssure jet tliffcrcnce (large velocit,y) rcrnrtins narrower t,han one leaving wit,lt a srnnllcr prcssurc tliffcrcnce (small veloci6y). The latter carries witll i t comparatively inore st,at,ior~ary fluid, namely in a znanncr t o make the volunlo of flow a t a givcn distance fro111 tile orifi cc c q ~ ~ tol t h a t in a faster jet, provided tlrat t,hc kincn~:~,t,ic a viscosit,y is t,llc same in I)ot.l~ cnsrs.

l'inally, t.11~; at)i,vc rcst~l1,scan bc cxprcssctl in n. forrn t.o c61rtai11only the 1ti11cmnt.ic viscosit.y, v , ant1 the kin.ematic momentu.m, Ii' == J l q . 'l'l~ns

11. 1%.Scjnirc [106, IOG] was able t,o find solutions to t l ~ 1)orintlnry-1n.y~ e cqt~at.ions well as t,o the comp1ct.c Nnvicr-Stloltcs ccluatiorts ant1 t,o m:~ltcL con~p:~rison : bctwccn I ~ l ~ fi)r n . 1 1 ~r a w o f a conic:t.l jrl. \vllic.l~I)OSRPSSPR n.11 : ~ , t l t l i l ~ i oi.:~,li:tl I , t ~ l o t -(.otn- ~ r~ 1 ~l~~ ~ il.~ ~ I ~ I I ~ i~t )I I L : L I I I I ~twilit:~:. 111 1J1is l:~t,t,t%r of rt~tli:~l 1,110 vrlot;it,ics :IIY> I~:L~ clt~ss jtal,s :11so invcrsc?ly proportional t o t,llc tlist,ancc from t.11~ orificc. 'i'l~e t,lrcory can I)(: exto~rtlcd to t,r~rl)nlnr~t flows by rcplncing t.l~e kincmat.ic viscosit,y wit 11 t.l~c apparent kincr~latic visaosit,y of tlurbr~lc,rlt flow, wl~icllin t,l~is case rctnains constant, scc C:\I:L~. S XIV. Tlte cnsc wlren a jet impingcs at. right angles on a wall nt~tlis sprcntl along il, was solvctl Ily R4. 13. (:laucrt 1401, n.ho incl,rtlctl plnl~cns \vcll 11,s nxially syul~~~c~f.rit::~l, atltl latninar a s well :LS L \ ~ r b t i I ~(~ l0 ~ s . 1 t
:IS

The correspontling cnsc of a cornprcssiblc circular I:~tnirlnrjet was cvalu:~t.cd1)y

M. Z. JCrzywoblocki 1611 ant1 U. C. I'ack 1831. In the subsonic rcgitnc, tllc tlcnsit,y
on the axis of thc jet is larger, and the tempcraturc is smaller tltan o n its I)o~~ntlary. Tllese differences arc inversely p r o p o r t i ~ n a lt o the square of the distance from tile

23.1-

XI. Axially uynimet.rira1nncl tlrrec-dimrnuionnlhonnrlnrg laycrs

n. Exnct soll~tionq nxially symmctricnl boundary layers for

236

orifice. According t o 11. Goertler [4317 the case when a wcak swirl is sl~perimposed on the jet can also bc trcated mathematically, and t h e effrct of the swirling motion present in tho orifirc can bo tmcrd in the downst.rcam tlirecf.ion. J t turns out t h a t t-l~c swirl decreases fastcr wit,l~ dist,ancc from t11e orifice th:m tlrc jet vclocit,y on the the axis.
3. The axinlly symmrtric wake. 'rile flow in an axially syn~mctricwakc, SUCII as occurs downstream of an axially symmet,ric body ~ l a c c d a strream parallcl to in it4 axis, can also be tlcscribctl with tho air1 of tho system of equations ( l l . I Q a , b). Tho s o l ~ ~ t ~isoquit-c analogons to that, for the two-tlirncnsionnl case whicl~was tlci n scribed in dctail in Sec. I X f . Let U, denote the oncoming vclocity and let ~ ( r , y) be t,he flow vclocity in the woke. We assume, a s was clone in eqn. (9.20), that, tile vclocity differcncc in the wake, (11.19) U,(X,Y)= urn - ~ ( x , Y )

this form, too, being analogous t o that in eqn. (9.34) for tllc two-dimrnsional case. IIcnce, thc velocity difference turns out t o be

The val\lo of tlrc constant C must be tletermir~cdfrom thc drag with t11c aitl of rqn. (11 21); it,s value is

wl~rroc, tlcnotcs t.11~ drag cocficicnL rcforrrtl 1.0 t l ~ o frontal arra of t.11~ botly, ant1 R = 11, d / v . JIcnce we ot)tairr

is very small compared with U, far downstream. Consequently, we shall neglect quadratic terms in u,. With this simplification i t is possible to deduce from eqns. (11.10a) and (11.19) t l ~ e following differ~nt~inl equation for 11,:

The plot of tile velocity difference from eqrl. (11.26) is the same as t h a t in Fig. 9.10. Experimcnt.al data can be found in F. R. 1Inmn's worlc [4An].
4. Bor~ndarylayer on a body of revolution. Tho flow of a viscous fluid past a body of revolut,ion when the stream is parallel to its axis is of grrat practical importance. The bounrlary-layer equations have I~ecnadaptcd to this case by E. Boltzc [lo]. Assuming a curvilinear system of coordinates (Fig. 11.0), we dcnotc by z the current length measirred along a meridian from the stagnatron point, y denoting the roorrlinate a t right angles t o the surface. The contour of the body of revolution will bc specified by the radii r (x) of the sections takcn a t right angles to t l ~ c axis. We assume t h a t there are no sharp corners so t h a t d2r/dx2 does not assume extrcmcly large values. The velocity components parallel and normal t,o the wall will be denoted by u and v , respectively, and the potent.ial flow will be given by U ( x ) . According to Uolt,ze t,he boundary-layer equations will I hcn assume the form :

The analytic form t o be assumed for the dependence of the velocity difference ul(x, y) on t h e axial coordinate, x, and on the radial coordinat.e, y, can be discovered from the condition t h a t the drag evaluated from the momentum of the wake must become independent of z a t large distances downstream of the body. This leads to the relation

=2

n~ U,

/ u, . y
1 (rl)
x

03

dy = const,

(11.21)

which is satisfied by the form

U,

= ClJ,

'

where

This form is a n a l o g o ~ ~t s t h a t in cqn. (9.31) for the two-dimensional problem. o Substituting eqns. (11.22) and (11.23) into eqn. (11.20), we obtain a differential equation for /(q). This is (11.24) (?I/')' -1- 2 q2 i' -1- 4 q / = 0 , artd tho boirndary conditions arc
I

wit11 thc boundary conditions :

/'=o

4
and /=0 at

,.fi
i,

at

q = 0

q=oo
Fig. 11.6. Ilounrlnry lnyrr nrnr a body of revolntio~~. Syatcrn of coordinates

u",--1
(11.25)

It is easy t o vrrify t h a t t l ~ c solnt,ior~ eqn. (11.24) has the form of a n exponential, of

/(7) = exp ( - q2)
9

236

XI. Axially symmetrical and three-dimensional boundary layera

a. Exact solutions for axially symmotrical boundary layers

The e q ~ ~ a t i o n motion in the x-direction is seen t o remain unchanged compared of with two-tlirncnsional flow. An order-of-magnitude estimate of terms in t h e equation of motion in the y-direction shows t h a t the pressure gradient normal t o t,ho well ap/aly u2/r 1. Coii~equent~ly e pressure difference across t h e borrnda.ry layer th is of t01c ortlcr of the borrntlary layer t,hickncss S , and i t is again possible t o assrirne t,llnt, t , l ~ ~ ~ r c s s ~ i r e r gr:ltlicnt of the potential stream, ap/ax, is impressed on thc bonnciary I:~.ycr.

T h e body contour is given by the series

- -

the potential flow being defined by the series

The diaterico from thc wnll is rcprcuct~tetlhy 1.110tlirncr~sionlra~ coorclinnlo

Wc shall limit t.hc consitlemt,ions of this chapter to the case of ste:~tlyflow. 111orrlcr t o ir~trgratccqrls. (11.27a, b) for the axially symmctric.zl casc i t is oncc rnorc possible t o ir~troducea stream function l/~(x,y) given b y : and in analogy with eqn. (11.32), t h e stream-function is represented by the Blasius series

This t.mnsforms eqn. (11.27a) into

Substituting eqns. (11.31), (11.32) and (11.35) with (11.36) into eqn. (11.30) and comparing terms, we obtain a set of differential equations for the f~inct~ions /3, . . . . The first eqriation is

fir' = - 1; --I-- (/iZ - 1 ) , 2

with t h e boatitlary conditions

(1 1.35)

where differentiation with respect t o 77 is denoted by primea. The boundary conditions are :

Wc now procced t o give a brief account of the rnet,hods used t o calculate tdie bonntlary layer on a I ~ o d y rcvolut,ion. A tnore det,ailecl account can be found in a n of earlier ctlition of this book [ l o l l . The numerical results for a sphere, however, will be discossctl in more completpcdetail. The t~orrntlarylayer on a bod!/ of revolulion of nrbitrrtr?/ ~ h a p e .. - can be determined 1)y the same method a s that. used in See. [X c for the caso of a cylinder of arbitrary cross-section (two-dimensional problem). The velocity of the potential flow, U(z), is expantled into a power series in z and the s t , r e a t n - f u t ~ c t i o n ,is ~ , ~ assilmed t o be represented by a similar series in N, with coefficienta depending on the wnll distance (Blasius series). Following N. Froessling [29] it, is found t h a t here also the coefficient-functions of y can be so arranged as t o become intlependent of t,he parameters of any particular problem. In this manner the functions can bc calculated once and applied universnlly.
-

The first equation of the set is non-linear and identical with t h a t for threedilnensional stagnation flow which was considered in See. VlOt. A plot of /; is sllown in Fig. 5.10, where /; = #'. The equations for the terms in 1 3 and z5 havc 1)ccn solved by N. Froessling [29]. The succeeding ten functions of the term 2 7 havc been evaluated by F. W. Scholkemeyer [102]. Example : Sphere. cylinder in Scc. IXo, wc I n a manner analogous t o t h a t employcd for a circr~lar can use the preceding scheme to solvc the casc of the sphcrc. Thc cnrrcnt, rntli~ls for a sphere of radius R is given by r (N)= I1 sin x / R , and the velocity distribution a t the surface of the sphere we have U(x) = - Urn sin x/R = - U sin $, , 2 2
3
3

(1 1.37)

( 1 1.38)

The oq~mtion continuity can also ba snlisfied by an'alternative stream function @, such that of

where $ denotes the central angle measurccl from the sta.gnation point,. Comparing

'Tliix form of bllc st.rcnrn f11notio11 was 11scd by E. Boltzo when he calculated non-steady

axinlly symnictricnl borrndary layem, as tJnscribc!d in Scc. XVb2.

~h~ qtlation for /l(q) tron~fortn~ eqn. (5.47) for d(Q, i T it i~ rtotircd t,l~at into 1, tl/l/dq = da/tlt.

-=

~'~atrtl

I). A p ~ r o x i ~ n nsc)l~~t,ions nxinlly syni~nrlric tr for 1,onntlnry lnyers t h e t w o wries expnnsiclns for sin cocfficicrlt~sof cqn. (1 1.3) a s follows

2313

(%In)in eqns. (11.37) ant1 (1 1.38), we det,ermille t,he

introtlncetl certain ~nln~cricnl rorrrrtions. M. D. GI:ir~rrt rind M. J. LigI~Lhill [41] ol~tninrrl ~0111Lionq t l ~ c hy n~)~lication J'ohlliausrn's npl~roxl~nnta of method (scc See. X11)) ant1 of nn ~*)ynipt~(~tic axpnn~ion. ueries Tlin flow along the generators of o cylinder of arbitrary cross-srction anr, worked out hy .J. C. Caoko [IR] \vllo employeci a Blnsius seriw nn \\ell ns I'ol~lhn~~sen'n np~)roxitnnle procedure. Tllc nlnrc gc~~crnl msc of n con~prmsil,lr, nxi:llly s y n ~ n ~ r I .Iro~tnclnryI;~yaron :I I~ocly ri~ of rcvolr~tio~~ whosc r o n t o ~ ~ r a f~lnction or 1 . 1 1 ~ lo~~p,ilr~rlit~nl is c:oortlinnlc, a:, ill ~?:crlir:~l:ar, tl~c cnsos of n circrtlnr cylintlrr nntl n spllcrc, a.cro sl.otliccl by It. I". I'robstcin nnrl I). 1Slliot. [RR]. I1 turnrtl ont t,llnt thc trnnsvcrsc c ~ ~ r v n t u has the S ~ I I I O ~fli\ct, RIICII I l o ~ s rc on wit11 n. prcssur(: grnelicnl 1 s n R I I ~ I ~ I ~ C I I I I : I ~ ~ ~~rrssttrt! 1 fiivonr:iL)Io ~ ~ ~ , gr:~tIirnL.As 11 r~>snIt,, sI~(v~ring 1110 xlr~,sgis inrrc~wrclC I I I ~sc:l~rrrnI,ionis tlclayctl. I

Tlie resultzingvclocit,y dist.rit)rtt,ions for various v a l ~ r c s f t.lrc n.nglc $ nre seen o i n I'ig. 11.7; for t,l~eso graplrs t,hc vclonit,y ?L h a s been con~prltedu p to t , l ~ e e r m 27. t Tlic vclocitfy profiles for > 90 exhil)it a point of inflexion bcrausc they a r e associated with t h e rnnge of prcssnrc incrcnsc:. I n connexion wit,h t,llc prot~lcrna t I ~ a n t l , we can repeat o u r previous rernarlrs concerning t l ~ c gcnrral prnct.icahilitayof applying n B l a s i t ~ s series. 'J'llc cnlc~rlnt.iol~ of tthe fundnn~ent,al cocffiaicnt.~bcyontl t,lrc t,t:t.rn r7 involves a n unaccept>ablenrnogrnt of con~prlt,at,ion, n.r~d filrt,hertnorc, t h e calculation of slcntlcr bodics rcclr~ires o n s i d ~ r c al)ly Inore t,c:rnls. All t.11is pr~t.s very severe 1irnit.ntion o n this mettrod. F o r frrrther n resnlts concerning s p l ~ c r e s r ~ f e r c n c e , sl10111(1b0 rna.tle t,o t h e s ~ ~ c c c c t l isection. ~ig

b. Apprnxirnnte s o l u t i n ~ ~ s nxially crytnme~ric11o1111tlnry for lnycrs

I. Approxiniarc iolr~tioris Ior bou~iilnrylayers nn bodies w l ~ i c h(lo rant rotati:. 'I'llc npproxirnat,c ~ n c t l ~ ofor-Jltc s o l n t i o t ~ tllc d i k r c n L i a l cqnntions of bor~l~ilnr.ytl of Inycr f l o ~ o r t\vo.cii,rncl!sionn! f stfitly prhtlc~;ls wl!ici~ \ ; a s , p ~ c s c ~ ~ ~ , c ctlr(.:~ilin in l (:11n1). c : ~ n b e c x t c r ~ t l c tt,? t h. e. ., ,. . of a:i?!~y sy,ntn~c~tj:x~l , ~ ens: h ~ ~ $ ~ ) ~ ~ i i r t l ~ ofor t h e cnlculi~t.iol;'ortorlntlary iaycrs o n bo(!ic? of r c y o l u ~ i o n nxin.1 flow tl 111 a.ns -fil.s ifiiliEZtcd b j ~ . q.-'Milliltiiri [76J. I)OII~II~IISCII'Sr o x i m a t e nlcl.liotl of C' app c5l&llnt,ioti iLl;ikh was describiil in Chap. X a n d w l ~ i c l ~ bn+cl o n a polynomial is of 4 t h tlcgrec w x i ' dxt.cndcd by S. Tomotilta [116, 1171 t,o it~clutlo:I body of r c vti1iil.io11.

now:

~ ~ ! ~

'I'hc following n c c o ~ i n of t l ~ c t mot.hod a s applied t o 1)otlir.s of revolnt,ion is I~nsccl on t h e work of F:W. Schollrerneier [102], who used t h e m o d e r n version of t h e niornrllt,l~rn cc1un.t ion in a sin1il:~r a y t o t,l~nb w crnployctl I)y 11. 1lolslci11 t ~ t'I.'. J3ol1lt~n a l fix t\~c., cxsc of two-tlimensio~lal flow. 'Cite ~ n o m c n t ~ cc\nnt.ion fiw tllc axially ~m s y ~ n ~ n r t . r i c cnso is obtninctl in t,llc snlnc wn.y a s t,l~nt, nl 11sc.11in Scc. V J I l t l 1'01. t11(: t.\vo-tlin~t:tisionnl case. SLart,ing with r q n s . (11.27n., I)) \tro o b t : ~ i ~ r t

t 'I'l~cdrfi~~itiona r~nploycdfor t l ~ o tlin~)l:icc~nr~~t, I~l~irknrss, z111d 1.11~: I I I ~ I I I ~ I I ( ~ IIIl~~I i ( ~ l i ~ ~ ~ ' s s , (?I,

<\,, of n bon~,tl:w~~ y r olr n Irotly 01 rrvolr~tionnrc t.lle ~ : L IssIi~ 1:llc t.\v~~-clit~rrnsio~~:rI l r I n r:\so. ct111" (8.30) and (R.31), \vitl~ tlrnoI.ing thc coorcli~~nla right. nnglr.s Irr t l ~ c ! I at \v:III.So~nc:Iit~~c-s.

I~on.c.vc.r, slipl~lly tlifli-rrnt tlt~linitionsl ~ n v r ~ r r n11arel [122]: I Trnr~sversecarvnlure. We llnvc! statre1 rcprnt,cdly t.llxt the rqllnt,iolt of lllotion (11.27n) of an nsinlly syn~tnnI,ric: flow 11ns 1.11~ snrnc for111as tliat for t . 1 t , w o - d i ~ ~ ~ r : ~ ~ ~ i o ~ ~ : i I ~ mse o~ily011 contlition t,lr:tt bl~cl)o~~t~~lnr.y-ln.ytrr trlrirknms is cvcrywl~r!rcIIIUCII stnnllcr t11nn 1 . 1 1 ~r n t l i l ~ ~ t l ~ c of cor~l.o~lr tlir I)o(ly (R< r). 'Illis contli0iot1 is 11o1. ~ t v i ~in it ~ d~ of ~ f . 1 1 case of n 1o11gbut t.11ir1 cylintlcr or, for thnt ~nntt,er, t.lle c:n.sc of nny long and ~lcnder in f)otly of rcvolul~ion. 'I'l~cbor~nrlnryI:rycr on sr~rlt I)otly gro\vs ( I O W I I R ~ , ~ P ~ Iand i q I , l ~ i c ~ l ~ ~ l ~ ~ s s cornpZrnl)lc wit11 t l ~ c R II L bc60111cs rrltli~~s cvc~lt.onlly. 'l'ltis I~ringsint,o rvi~lt:~~ce rsnc:l~l.i:~ll.v. l ~ r c c - t l i ~ ~ ~ c ~~ ln ito ~r)fn ISlloI)o~~~ltl:lry tho I ~ n r ~o l r Inyrr on n I)otly of rovolr~I.ion\rrl~ie-l1rrs111Iafro111I,l~e con~~~:rrnl,ivcly cr~rvnb~rrc (he surfnro large of o l tho body in t . 1 1 ~trannvrrsc direction. R,.A. Srhnn ~ n t R. Jk)ntl [95] t,rmt,rtl I.lir mso of n nlcntlcr rylinrlcr, of rnrli~~n -- a = ronst, l r, plnccd in a nrriforrn axial S I ~ ~ C : ~ I I I .RRIIIO J)~OI)ICIII was sl,11dird O 11. 11. I<olly [ G o ] \vho 1l1c y

..

'I'llc f:ictnr ( 1 -1 ?//I) taltrs into acnonnt t.11~rirrnn~nl.n~~c:n I.II(. vrloc-il,y I! at. n rlisli~trrc: f.1111t fnrln f.l~c wall is aqsocinlcd with the volrln~cflow wllich ~rllssc.4 1.11rong~l sl,ri{~ \ v i t l l l l (I!/. n 01 '1711is~ O ~ ~ I is Ilarger by n factor ( 1 4- y/r) L I I ~ I I t l ~ n \vl~irl~ I ~ C t pnssrs I,llrongl~ flat. nrr:i of u.itll.l~ n 2 1 r.

240

XI. Axially symmetrical and three-dime~isional boundary lnyera

I). ~\pprt~xirnnt,c? solr~t,io~~nnxially nyrnrnrtric 1)01111rl:try for Inyrrs

241

The significance of r ( x ) m a y be inferred from Fig. 11.6. Retracing the steps of Sec. X b we obtain t h e following differential equation for t h e quantity Z = cJ,~/v:

'rile qu:mtit,irs I i , f l ( R ) , fz(lC) have the same moaning a s in tho two-dimensional case, eqns. (10.27), (10.31) nnd (10.32). Introducing E'(IZ) as before, cqn. (10.34), we 11ave 1 dr U (11.40) F(K)-2K--,I; K=ZUt. dz U r dz U I t is casy t o see t h a t the substitution

Some nunleriral examples have been calrulated .. F.-.-- Sc!loll~emcier [I021 by - W. -8i n llis tiles;s t-o tlij T-E"-----'-< n lnecrlng Univcrs~tya t DraunscIlwcig as w c ~ Ia s in7fli^oi)ai)er by J I'retscl~ [aij,"BlEailj; qiioX6d. 9 . Toinotika [117] calcnlatctl the bountlary lkyer on a s ~ > l ~ c r c foFaY$ii@ of Reynolds: numbers using l ) o t l ~ potrrit.ial ant1 ~ncnsurctl~ ) r t s s u r e distribntions,. A comparison with mcasurcmrnt is given \)y -- . A Fnge [27], ant1 frlrther results of mcasurcments akc cGnl,Si~iEdin a paper I)y W Moc-ll(~17(;] 111 conncxion it, is IISCI'II~ L ~ncntion A . Micllallco's 1741 t.l~rol,ct,ical o arid experinlcnt,;il invest.igat.ions on a rol.at.ionally symmetrical r:ozzlc.

pr;scrlkcd

7--.-

--

g=r2Z
transforms the prcrcding equation t o the form

This form is preferable t o t h a t in cqn. (11.40) because i t does not contain the derivative drldx. The point of separation is again a t A = - 12, i. e. a t Ii = - 0.1567, but a t the st,agnation point t h e values of tfhe shape factors A and K are now different. I f the body of revolution has a blunt nose, we have a t x = 0 , i. e. a t the tip st re an^ stagnation point,

With this value the terms in the bracket in cqn. (11.40) reduce to F ( K ) - 2 Ii. B y following the same argnment a s in tho two-dimensional case i t is found t h a t the initial valnr of Ii a t the stagnation point is deterrninetl by t h e condition F ( I i ) - 2 R = -- 0 , or, explicitly A, = -t 4.716 ; R, = 0.05708 . I l r n r r the initial valtrrs of thc intcgml rrlrvc (11.40) a t thc stagnation point l)cronic

7
'0

-! ..

ur,,

0.05708
1

u',

2. Flow in tile etttrnnce of n pipe. I n this connexiorl it, may be wor.t.ll tlrnwing attention to another axially-symmetrical boundary-laycr problcn~, namely t h a t associat,ctl wiLh larnirlar flow in the inlct port,iorl of a ~ t i p c Strictly sl)calti~lg,t.his , is not a problem in t~oltntlnry-layertheory I)nt il, has bccr~solvccl with the aitl of tncthods similar to thc ones now bcing considcrctl. 'l'hc initially rcctangltlar vclocit,y tlist,ril)ul.ion in the entrancc scction of t01e pipc (z -=0) is gradl~allyt,mrlsforn~ctl irlt,o a ~)nrnl)olic:, l'oiscr~ille, tlistril)r~t.ion11.y t,hc acl.iorl of viscous forces as sct:tior~s furthcr dowr~st,reatn arc consitlercd. %'he arlalogo~~s two-dimcr~sior~al prohlcni, narncly laminar flow in the inlet portion of a rectangular channel, has alrcady been consitleretl in Sec. I X i on t h e basis of the dilTercntial equations of boundary layer flow. The approximate mctliod tluc t,o L. Sr.ltiller (961 is basctl on a n oqunt.ior~ which cxyresses the condition of cqnilibrium betwcol momentum, pressure drop arltl viscous dm,g i n a manncr similar to thc momcntum cql~atioridiscl~sscd earlicr. 'I'lle velocity profiles in the inlet portion of the pipe arc approximated by a const,ant velocity near t h e n.xis of the tube combined with t,wo tangent portiorls of a pxrabola near the wall, so t h a t a t the wall t,lle vclocity becomcs equal t o zero. A t the inlet section the wiclt,h of the parabolic portlions is zero and increases downstream until they coalesce into a single parabola a t a definite tlistance from the entrancc. This dist,ance const.itrlt,es the t,hcoret,ical initial Icngth, and its nlagnitnde, as calculated ; by I,. Schiller, is given by x v/R2 1 = 0-115. Mcasurcmcnts j)crformccl by J. Nilruradse, Fig. 11.8, show good agreement with Schillcr's thcory for about a third of t h e initial length near t,lic ent,rance (about x v/R2 1 2 0.04). The act,ual transition to a parabolic velocity profile appears to proceed more slowly than implied in the approximate calcrllat,ion. Owing to tho accclcration impnrtccl t.o thc fluid near the ccnt,er khe prcswirc drop in t,lle cntrancc increases comparrtl with t h a t of a developed flow. 'I'hc addit.iona1 pressure tlrop a t thc entmncc is A p = 1.16 p 1Z2/2. An approximate solntion t,o this problem was also given by 11. 1,. I,anghanr [65].

r l i c flow in the ent,mncc rcgion of a pipe was st,ntfird by 11. l'l~nnis1891 in t,l~e l year 1947 and, more recently, by E. M. Sparrow e t al. [I OFa].

The initrial slope is zero for a body of r e v o l ~ t ~ i o n , because for reasons of symrnctry we must, have (I,,'' = 0 a t t.hc st:~grrat,ionpojnt. 'l'hc mctllotl of tlircct integration tlrscribetl in Scc. X b can hc cxtendcd t,o the case of axially symnictrical bodies, a s shown by N. l t o t t and 1,. F. Crabtree [931. Equation (10.37) for the momcntuln ~t.hiclrnessis now rcplacctl by

The flow 1)eco~nes much more complex in axially syn~mctricalflows in cases wl~cnthere cxist,s a tangential (whirl) component, in atltlition t o thc lo~lgit~utlirlal componcnt, which dccays in tlic downst,rean~ direction. This problem was invcstigated by L. Talbot [I101 and L. Collatz and 13. Goertler [14]. Assuming t h a t t,he whirl component of velorit,y is small compared with the axial vclociCy of 1Iagen and Poiscuillc, it is possible to comp11t.c the former by formulating a bountlary-value 1)roblcni in relation to a linear diffcrctltial equat,ion of second order whosc first rigcnval~lcs have bccn evaluatctl. According t,o Tnll)ot, 1,110 whirl cornponent

242

XI. Axially nymtnct.riral and tl~rrr-tli~rrrtrsio~~al 1)onri~l:~ry Inyrra

b. Approximate aolutiona for axinlly apmmctric honndary lnyer~

243

Pig. 11.9. Moment cocllicient on a rotating disk in axial flow, aftor Gchlichting and Truckenbrotlt
[98, 1 191

W4

WS

106

lo7

in Fig. 11.8. Velocity distribr~bion t,hc inlet port.ion of n pipe for the lnn~inarca.se; mennrlrcments perfornicrl by Nikuradac and quotrd from Pranc1t.l-Tiet.jen vol. TI. 'l'lieory drrc to Scliillrr (901 llns prarf irally tlrcayctl al, :I clistancc of 40 pipe radii whcn t t ~ c Rcytrol(ls nuntber has a \.alrrc of R = 10:' This is in good agreement with experimental results.

Reynolds number

R =g$

3. Rour~clnrylayrra on rotating bocliea of revolution. TIIF simplest cxarnplc of e bounclary laycr on a rotaling hotly is tli:~tconsiderod in Scc. V b 11, namely the
problctn of a dislc rotating in a fluid at, rest,. The lluitl p r t i c l c s which rotate with the bounda,ry laycr arc thrown outwards owing t o the existcrlce of centrifugal forces ('cent.rifuging') anti are rcplaccd by part,icles flowing towards the boundary layer in a n axial direction. Tlic casc of a dislc o f mtlitts I< rot.nt,ing with a n angr~lar vclocity o in a n axial sl.rc:~m of velocity U :~lTordsa simplc cxtcnsior~of the previous , problem. I n t<hclat,t.cr case the flow is govcrnctl I)y two parameters: the Rcynoltls number and the rot,af ion pammetcr, U,/Rw, which is given by t,he ratio of frecst.rcam t o tip vclocity. An cxact solution t o t h e problem l ~ r ~ d e r consiclcration was given 11y Mi* D. M. Ilannah [46]t and A. N. Tiffortl 1.1131 for tho case of laminar flow; IT. Salllicl~ting and R. Truckcnbrotlt [98] provided a n approximate solution. E. Trttclrcnbrotlt 11191 invcst8igaf,ed t h e case of tnrbulent flow. .Figure 11.9 cont,ains a plot of the torqnc coefficient,, C, = ilf/g e (2R in terms of the Reynolds " numbcr and rotation parameter, U,/ll(u, obtained from such calculations. Ilere M clrnotcs t h e t,orquc on tllc lcatiing side of t h e dislz only. When tlie clislz rotatcs we may stmillassumc Ifhat separation occurs a t t h e edge of the disk. 'l'he 'stn.gr~ant,' fluit1 Ilcllintl tllc clislr part,ly rot,n.tcs will1 thc,clislz ant1 c o n t , r i b ~ ~ t lit,l,le t o t,he rs tortlltc. Any such contribr~tionhas been lcft n t of account in 7 in Fig. 11.9. (, I t is seen t h a t Llie torque increases rapidly wi 1 U , a t constant angular velocity. 1

Thc flow in a circular box provided with a rotating lid shows a marlzcd rcscmblance t o t h a t between two rotating dislts mentioned in Scc. V b 1 1 . 7'11t! cnse of the flow inside the box was investigated in deLail by 1). Grohne [44] who discovered two peculiar features in i t : First, the flow i n the friction-free core in tlie interior of t h e box can only be determined by taking into account t,he inllncnrc of tlie boundary layers which form on the wall, in contrast t o normal cascs wlicn onc naturally assumes t h a t t,hc influence of tho flow in a bot~ntlarylayer rcsu1t.s at, most t in a d.isplaccment. Secondly, the bonndary laycrs arc u n ~ ~ s u iarl~ h a t they join car11 other. Siniilarly, in the arrangement consis1.ing of R rota1,ing channrl irivc?stligat,ctl by IT. 1,11dwieg [68], i t is possiblc t o discern two rcgior~s flow when the spc:ctl of of robat,ion is sr~fficic?nt.ly high, ttamcly a fric;l.ionlcss corc ant1 1)ottndnry layrrs which form on the side walls ancl which givc risc t.o a secontlary flow. 'l'hc t.hcory lcads t o a large increasc of t,hc drag cocfficicnt w l ~ i c l ~ dnc to rotation, ant1 this fact has is been confirmed by experiment.

Arl.~inlly 1381 solvm n rrl:rlr~lprol,lrrn i r r nrltic~l1t,lit! cxtcrnal ficltl in t.l~:ct, rluc to '& source rrf. a t it~finity.

Blunt boclies, sncli a s o. a. a sphere or a slcr~tlcrbody of rcvolut.ion, 11lacctl in axial streams, show a markccl influcr~ccof rotnt,ion on dmg, a s cvitlrnc.ctl I)y t.11~ mcasr~rements performed by C. Wicsclsbergcr 11231, ant1 S. 1,11t.I1:~ntlcr ant1 A. Rydberg [69]. Fig. 11.10 contains a plot of thc drag cocfficict~tof n rotating s p l ~ c r ein terms of the Rcynolds numbcr. I t is sccn 181iat Lhc critical Rcynoltls number, for which the drag coefficient dcrrcascs abrnpt,ly, depends strongly O I I tlic. rot,at.ion paramcl,er U,/Roj, and the same is trtle of t . 1 1 ~position of 1 . 1 1 ~ poitit, of snl):~ration. The effect, of rotary motion on bllc posi1,ion of 1,hc line of lan1irln.r sc.pnr:~l.iot~ on a s p l ~ c r r tl(;st~il~t:(l lhc grc~pli ltig. I I . I I ; 1,Ilc(IILI,IL ror it IIILVO I)~Y;II ~ ~ o I ~ I ~ ~ I I I ~ I ~ I I is by in by N. E. lloskin [50]. When the rotatmion para.mctcr 11:~s al,tdinrtl t,11c vnl~~c: Q = wR/[J, = 5, t>heline of sepnm.t,ion will have moved by about l o 0 in 1,hc 11pst,rean~ direction, as compared with a sphere a t rcst. 'l.'hc physicnl ren.son for this beflaviour is connected with the centrif~tgal forces act,ing on t,l~c fluit1 parLiclcsrolat,ing wit,]i tile body in its bour;tlary layer. Tlrc crl~l.rif~tgal forces have tlic sn,111c n i ~ n.s nn r t atltlit.ionn1 pressure gratlirnt dircct,etl townrtls t,l~c plntie of I,ltc erl~tn.t,or.

244

X I . Axially symmrtriral nnd tlrrcc-dirncrrsionnl borrndary lnyers

c. Itrlation hel:ween axially ~y~ntnctricnl t ~ ~ o - c I i ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ a i o ~ r ; r l and I,onntl;rry I;ryr~s ancl t.ho displacement and tnonrentum thicknesses arc defined as
m

245

- -

4
1,

5x105

Fig. 11.10. i)r:lg coefficirntr, o i n rotnt.ing spl~crrl l axinl i flow in trrtns of tlrc ltrJrrrolds number R and rotntion Imra~nrtrrQ - ioR/lI, . a9 111eaq11red hy I,uthatrdcr and R\ilhrrg [0!1]

R = O"D
h t.lrcorct.i(.:~l c?cpl;~nntioli t,lrc vrry conrplcx thrrc-di~nrlrsionnlcll'ccb in the boundary of 1:ryrrof rotating I~odics rcvolr~t.ion axi:~lflow is contained in the papers by H. Schlichting [00], of in IC. 'I'rr~cltrr~l~rotll~ ant1 0.I'arr 1841; tlrcse authors onployed the approxitnato method [I181
!:xplairrrd earlior. I t is l.rne that the borrndi~ry layer of a rotating body of revolution In axial flow still rctains it^ axial syn~mct~ry, n owing t o the rotation there appears a peripheral t~ t vc1ocit.y cotnponer~t adtlit.ion to that in the ~ncridional in direction. For this reason, the calculation for st1c.11a I)o~lntlsr,y layor 111usLint,rodrrce a ~nornentom eqnat.ion in the circ~~mferential direction (11-direr:t,ion) in atlclit.ion L t.lrat in tho nrcrirlional tlircction (x-direction). Assuming that the o al~gr~lnr vclocit,y of t.11~ I~odyis io, ant1 ilcnoting t,he coordinate a t right angles to the wall by y, wr ran writ.(: 1.11~l.wo erlr~at.i~lrs ~ I I ~ I ~ C ~ ~ in ItIhI ? for111 of , I I

In the procctling eq~~ntionn, local pcriphcrnl velocity w, the r u) Iraq 11,cen cl~onen n rofc!rcnr:c ,w veloc~ity the a7.im11talconrl~oncnt, for w,(x, 2). 'l'ho preceding oquatiorrs ~r~:rke possil)lr L pcrforrn it o crrlcr~lnLions Inltrinar as well as for turbulent flows, i t being necessary to irrtrodrrcc d i f i r r n t for expression8 for the shearing stress a t the wall in the latter (:me (see ref. [R4] and Sec. X X l l c ) . In some of the cases, it proved possible to evaluate the drag coefficient in addiLion to t,he t,r~rning tnomrnt,, the former decreasing as the parameter mR/Um is increased. In this connexion, the papen I)y C. It. Illir~gwortl~ and S. T. Clru and A. N. TilTbrcl [13] may nlso hc st,ndied. The appro[54] xilr~ate procedarc conceived by EI. Schlichting [98] was extenrlcd to cornpressit~le flows by .I. Y;rnlnga [125]. The preceding investigntions have been extcnded for laminar as well ns for t.nrl)ulent. tlows by theoretical and experin~ental investigation^ described in ucveral papers by ,Japanese nr~thors [29n, 10, 01, 79, 801. l'rohlcnrs connected with laminar flow nboet a uphere rotating in a flrlid at, resL IIGVO II(:I;II discirssed by I.. Ilowarth [51] and S. I). Nigam [All. An extension to the case involving ellipsoids of revoh~t.iorr wns provided by B. S. Fadnis p6]. Near tho poles, the flow is L11e same as on a rotating disk and near the equator i t is like the one on a rotatin cylinder. The acrorr~panyi~~g secondnry s t r e a n ~ causes fluid particles to flow into the boundary yaycr near the poles, nntl out. of it a t the equator. The rate of this secondary flow increases with increasing slenderness, the cqr~abrialarea and peed of rotation remaining constant. However, the phenomena in the plnno of the equator where the two boundary layers ilnpir~qcon each other and are thrown outwards can no longer be analyzed with the aid of boundary-lnyer theory, el. W. 11. If. Banks [5a]. Further theoretical and experimental investigations of t.his problem have been later undere taken by 0.Sawatzki [94] and by P. Dumsrgr~e t al. [21a]. Reference [94] describes n~edsurernenls d the torque exerted on a rotating sphere in the range of Ibynolds number 2.105 < R < 1.5 x 106 which goes far beyond the laminar regime. The invwtigntion of Ref. [21 a] included the vi~r~nlizntion the spiral strenmlines near the wnll on n sphere nnd on cones of various inof clntlod angles as they occur'in laminar flow.

r .

I hr romponent,~ the shearing stress a t thc wall are then given by or

I t has been observed that in axial turbomachines there may, under certain cireomstances, appear an extended zone of dead fluid in tho whirl bcl~indthe row of stationary blntles ant1 ncnr the hub. This 1,henornenon was described in great detnil by K. J3antmert and H. Klaeukens [5]. The origin of this dead-water area is conneckd wiLh the radial increase in prcssurr in l.110 ontwnrtl direction which i~ due to the whirl. Owing to tho whirl the axinl pressure inerrme nrnr llrc huh in the bladelorn annulus behind the guides is much greater tllar~ t the outer wall. The a itrfluent:~of tho houndory layer is here only ciecontlrrry. ALLonl,ion rrr!ly, f ~ ~ r t h eho (lrnwn L r, o an invc:sbigaLion tluo Lo I<. I3nmrncrt nnd ,I. Schocn [4] concerning 1.110 Ilow I.lrror~gl~ roLallinl: IL l~ollowshaft. I t is observed thnt n funnel-like free surface is forlned a t the exit, owing to I.IIc inbraction between centrifugal and viscous f o r m .

c. Rclatinn between axially symmetrical and two-dimensional boundary layers; Mangler's transformation
~ i g 11.11. Position of line of laminar . separation on a spllero rotating in axinl stream, after N. IF. lfosltin [SO]

The preceding considerations demonstrate that the calculatior~ of an axially symmetrical boundary layer is, generally speaking, more difficult than that of a two-dimensional boundary layer. That this is the rase (.an be npprcciatctl if i t is rrmembered that the flow field in a two-dimensior~al bol~ndnry layer, say on a rylintler

246

XI. Axinlly sy~nnirt~ric-nl tI~n~r-tli~nrrrsio~~:ll rind I)or~ntlnry I:iycrs

in cross-flow, tlrprntls only on lrhn potat~l,i:~l l o ~ i t ~ y vc tlistril)cltiot~,IJ(z). By ront.r:~st,, wl~cna n axially syrnmctrical I)ol~ndarylaycr is stutlictl, for cxatnplc t h a t on a rotating 1)ody of revolntion, i t is fortntl Ifhat t l ~ c contour r ( a ) of the botlg enters explicitly into thc corresponding rq~lations.Tile present section is clcvotctl l o x more tlot,ailctl invcst,ignl,io~~ 1 . 1 1 ~rolntion 1)ctwc~cn ir~l,o two-tli~nc.~~sit)t~:il axi:illy nlicl symmntric l~orrr~rlary Inycrs.

w11orr 1, ~ l c t ~ o t a sconst,arit I~tngth.I t c n ~ c ~ ~ i b c r i n g t r tha

In st,en.tly flow t J ~ cOo~~ntlary-layor rqrr:rt.ior~sfor Lwo-tlitncnsiond flow :~ntlfnr axially symmot~rical flow are giver1 I)y cqns. (7. lo), (7.1 I ) nntl ( I 1.278, h), rospectivrly. l'hc lnt,tfcrrcfcr t o a crlrvilir~cnrs y s t c ~ nof c:oortlin:~.l.c:s witall z tlolo1,ing t , l ~ cttrrrnl, r arc: Icr~gt~h y tlrnot,ing {,l~o nntl tlist,nncc from t J ~ rwall in :L tlirrt-t,ior~ normal t , if.. ~ The rcspcctivc vc1ocit.y componctits n.rc tlcnotctl I)y I L nntl v , and l,lln mn.gllit,rltlcs wit.11 a bar rcfcr t,o tho two-tlinicnsio~~d cnsr. Wit.11 these syml)ols, wo Itavo for tho two-tlinirnsional cn,sc:
caii

it, is rasy to verify ttllat 1.l1csyst,rm of c.clrt:iI,ions ( 1 I .GO) l,mnsfortns ir11,ooclns. ( 1 1 .4!)) I1.y t,lln rrsc: of LIto sr~bsl~itulions l .GI). (I

az

a/

aii = U .-

- dB .dli:

,-,,arii '

aii

a t- =o; T a?

8ii

' ~ I I c hountla,ry layer on a 1)otly of rovol~ttionr ( z ) having tho itlr:~l~)ol,rt~t.ial vc:loril.y tlisI,ril)clf.ion I J ( z ) nnn l)c cv:tltial.c:tl by t:on~l)nting ~ J I C t,\vo-(litllr~~sio~~:~I l ) o ~ ~ n ( l : ~ , r y for tt, vcloc:il,.y tli3l,ril)11l,ion l:tycr \vItc:ro / J r-: ZLII(IZ ti11(I :I:tire r(;l~il~(t(l , I)y oqns. (1 I . G I ) . I l : ~ v i ~ tc~alcrtli~t,rttl voloc.il.,y o o r n p o t ~ o l ~ l . ~ g I.llc ii, nrltl 6 for 1 . 1 1 ~l.\votlitr~ctl~iottal I)ortr~tl:~ry Inycr it is possil)lo tlo tlclcrrnine t,l~o con~poncntn nntl I T or I* tltc n.xinlly symmct.rical borlntlnry laycr $1i t l ~ tjl1c. nit1 of t11c t,mnsforlnnt,ion rclrrations (11.51). r 111r tnctl~odnl:Ly I)(: I)c~talfcr rlntlcrsl~ootlwiI.l~l , l ~ c of tlro following cx:~.mplc. n.itl Wc s11:~ll consitl~rroI.:~l.io11:~11y syrntnc:t.ri(::~lstagrlat.ion flow, for wltiol~

o(:?),

for t.hc axially symn~ct~ricnl vasr Iloncc, from r q n . (11.51), we Itavo

I l r r e ~ ( z dcnot.cs tJto (list,ancc of a point, on t11c \va.ll frotn I.llc axis of symmnt.ry. ) Tllr first eqnnfions of l)ot,l~ systems nro iclrnt.icn1, t.he tliffrrrncr 1)ring or~l,y t.l~c in npprnrnncy of t , l ~ r rntlirls ~ ( n . )in t.11~ rqrtn.l,ion of conI,innit,g. It, sc~cms1.1111s rcasot~nl~lc inqnire ~vltelllrrit, is gossil)lo 1.0 intlic.at.c a trmnsto fortnal,ion wl~icll~voultlpermit t.11c nsn of t,l~n soltrt.ions of Lltc two-tlirnrr~sionnl cast: 1.0 tlrrivc solr~f,ionsof 1,llc n.xinlly syn~rnrt,ricnlcase. Such n gc%ncmlrr:1at,ionsI1il) bctwocn t,wo-dimcnsiond nntl n.xially symmetrical I~ounrlarylayers Itas bccn cliscovcrctl by ITT. RTn.t~glrr [72]. I t rr(lrlccs t l ~ o calcnlat,ion of t,l~c Innlirrn.r 11orlntla.ry Inyor for a.n n.xially s.yinmct,ric.:~lbotly t,o tl~nf, t ~ cylintlricnl I)otly. 'l'he givcn hotly of o a revol~lt,ion nssocin.18rtl is wit.11n.11 itlcnl pot,cnl,inl vclocit.y dist,ril)ntion for n rylint1ric:ll t~otly, l ~ fr~ncl~ior~ rnsily calcnlatfctl frotn t,he cor11,ntlr:rntl tJlc pot,cnt,inl vcloci1.y t c Lcing tlist.ril)tlt,intr or t.11~ botly of rovol~tl.ion.Mnnglrr's tfmnsf'ormation is also valitl for coml)rcssil)lt: I)otlr~tlnryIn.ycrs, n.s well ns for t11c:rmnl boundary 1:iycrs in In.tnil~:ir flow. W r sh:1.11, I~owcvrr,consitlcr il, here only in rclat,ion to incornprrssil)lo flow. According t,o Manglrr, 1 . h ~ cqrin.t.ions wl~ic:l~ t.m.nsform tJle coortlin:~.t.esant1 1I1t: velocit.ics of t.hc xxinlly syn~mct.ricnlprol)lcm to t,hosc of t.he eqiiivalcr~ttwo-tlimcnsional prol)lrm n.rc a s follows:
Z

l ' l ~ c~)ol.rnI.ial flow of t l ~ c associat~ctltwo-tlimct~sionalflow bccornrs

J

- ---

U(2)

u, 113 L22 ,

so t h a t 0 ( ~ = C 5' , W ~ I C ~ ( dcnotrs a constant. 'rllc associat.~dtwo-tlitnct~) C : sior~a.lflow bclongs t o thc (:lass of w ~ t l g cflows disoussotl in Sce. 1 X a ant1 is givcn by I1 = C an', with m = for tllc present c x a t n ~ ~ l c . l'rom cqn. (9.7) wc find t.11~ wc~lgc nnglp P = 2 m / ( m-1-1) = 4. Tllc assocint,ctl two-tlimcnsiot~dflow is t.ltat past a wcdgc wit,h a n anglc n P . n/2. '1'11~ fact tllnt nxinlly symmct.rical stagnn,l.ion = Ilo\v rat1 11e rcdttced t o tllc case of flow past, a wcdgc whosc angle is n/2 wa.s st,nt,etl in Scc. 1 X a and is now confirmed.

11. Three-clin~ensio~~nl Lo~tntlnrylnyers

IJttbil now wc have restricted or~rsrlvcs allnost cxc:lrlsivcly L t l ~ e o consitlcra1,ion of two-tlitnrr~siond:mtl axially sylnmct.rical prol~lcrns.1'rol)lcms of t.wo-tlinlct~siot~al nncl of nsinlly syrnn~cl,ricnl flow havo t l ~ i sin ronimon l.ltat t,l~o 1)rcscril)otl ~)ol,c:nt.in.l flow tlrprntls o t ~ l y onr sp:~cr: on coortlil~:il.o,:~.ntl t,lro l,wo vc:loc:it,y con~l)c)t~ottls l.11(: ill Irortntlnry I:~ycrtlc:pcntl on t,wo space roortIin:~t,cs (\:LCII. [II I,IIc cnsc ol' n I , l ~ t ~ ( ~ ( : - t l i ~ ~ ~ t : t ~ - sional 1)orrntl:iry lnycr the cxhcrnal 11otcrtt.ial llow clcpcntls on two coortlin:r.I.cs in t,l~c w:~llsrlrfaco ant1 t.ltc llow willtin tllc 1)ountlnry laycr posscsscs all t l ~ r c cvcloci1.y componrnt,~ wllicl~,moreover, t l c p o ~ ( l all t,hrce spxco coort1irl;~l~cs t,l~c on in gcncr:~l tmc. 'l'llc flow abont a tlislc rot,nl,ing in a fluid a t rest (Scc. VI)) and rotnt,ion in t l ~ c nc~ig11l)ourllootl a fixctl wall (Scc. X l a ) cor~st,it~t~tr of cxarnl)lrs of t,l~rcn-tlimcnsionnl I)ol~ntl:~ry I:~yors,rrpnrl from Ijcing cxnol solr~l~iol~stllc Nibvier-Sl,ol<osccltin.l,io~~s. of

248

XI. Axially symmetrical and three-dimensional borrndnry layers

I f the streamlines of the potential motion are straight lines which either converge or diverge then, essentially, t h e flow differs from a two-dimensional pattern only in t h a t there is a change in t h e boundary-layer thickness. On t h e other hand, if the potential motion is curvet1 the pressure gradient across the streamlines of t h e potential flow impressing itself upon t h e boundary layer gives rise t o additional influences, such a s secondary flow: out,sidc t h e boundary layer the transverse pressure gradient is baln.nced with t,he centrifugal force, but wit,11ir1it t,11c cer~trifl~gal forces are clccrcasccl because of the decrcasetl velocities and, consequer~tly,the pressure gradicnt causes ms.ss t o flow inwards, i . e. towards the concave side of t h e potential streamlines. T h e rotation of air over a fixed wall affortls a n example of this bellaviour ant1 illustrates t h e existence of a flow inwards. A furt,ller example of sccondary flow is affordcd by the mot.ion on the sidewall of the channel formctl I)y turbine or compressor blades or by a deflector. The boundary laycr which forms on tthc wall dcvclops a sccondary flow from the pressure side of one blade t o t h c suction side of the next one owing t o the curvature of the streamlines in t h e external flow ficld. The secondary flow caused by t h e sidewall is further affectetl by the boundary laycr on the blades thc~nselvcs causing the flow pat,tcrn through a turbine or compressor stage t o become vcry complex. This prcsent.~ a vcry tlifficlllt problem to 1)ourldary-layer t,l~eorybcca~tsct h e three-tlimcnsional nature of Lhe flow is essential to it. For a long time problems of this kind hat1 been stutlicd by cxlicritncnt,al means only [471. 1. The Boundary layer on a yawed cylinder. Anottllcr important case of a threeclirnet~sional bor~ndary laycr is t h a t of a n aeroplane wing, wl~ose leatling edge is not pcrpcntlicular t o t,hc stream, as in the case of swept-back wings and ynwccl wings. I t is lrnown from cxpericncc tllat on the suction side considerable qunnt-itsics of the fluid move t,owartls t,llc recctling end, t h e phenomenon having a very tlet,riment.al elfcct. on t.hc acrotlynamic behavior~rof t h e wing. 111 two-tlirnor~sionalrnot,ion t,ltrorlgh a 1)ountlary layer, the gcometriral shape of t,l~cI)otly it~llrlenrcsthe ficltl of flow only irl~lirect~ly, e. tlirougl~the vclocil,y i. dist.l.il)ut.ion of t.11~ pot,cnt,ial flow which alone er~t.crs the cnlrulation. By cont.rast,, 1,ltrro-tli1nensio11nl t~ountlarylayers arc affcctctl by both: by tlle external vclorit,y tlist.ril~~~t,ion by t,llc geornct,rirnl shapc tlirectly. For example, in t h e case of ant1 a I~otlyof rcvol~rliotrt,lrc variat,ion of tllc ratlilts with tlistancc cxpressctl by tho f~lnrt.ion ( r ) nl'pcars explicitly in t,ltc dilTcrent,ial equations, see eqn. (11.27 11). n For tJtr I)tlrposc of rst.al)lislling tl)r I~o~~rltlary-ln.yer ccluations we shall co~lfino o ~ ~ r s r l 1.0 t~1 1 ~ v r . silnl>lrst,r:isc of a plane w:~.ll t,o a curvccl wall wl~icli tlrvt~lol~:tl~ln or is into :I p1n.n~(Pig. 11.12). T,ct 3: ant1 z drnot,e t,hc coortlinat,cs in the wall surface, 1, (Irnoti~)g (:IS ~ I I . C V ~ O I1,110 Y ) ~ S I coor(liti:~t.(? v l ~ i isl pcrl>en(licular t o t,he wall. 'l'l~r, ~ r ~ vrloc,il,y vrc!t.or of I)ot,cnt.i:ll llolv 1 will be assumrtl l o hnve tllc cmnponcrlt,s 1 ( x , t ) ' 1 nntl II'(r.z), so 1.11:ltin the st.catly-st,al.cm s c t , l ~ pr??srlrc d i ~ t ~ r i b u t ~in n pot2cnLinl c i o t.he

the corlclrlsion t,lln(,in bllc frictional terms of the equat,ions for the z- and z-tlircctior~s, re~pcct~ively, is possible t o ncglect'thc tlcrivat,ivcs with respect t o tllc coordinaLes it \vllicll are parallel t o the wall as against tlre derivative with rcsprct t o t,llo coortlinat.r a t right nnglcs t o it,. Itcgartling the equation in the y-tlirecliorr wc again obl,niri t.lrc result t,liat ap/i)?y is very small and may be neglectetl. Thus the pressure is sect1 t o depend on x and z alone, and is impressed on trhc borr~lda.ryIaycr hy the pot.ct~t,i:ll flow. 'lllo c-st,irnr~.l,iot~ ft~rl.l~c,r sl~o\vs t.l~at,, o ~ ~ c r n ls y c ~ ~ I < i IIOII(:, 01. t.Jl(: g lp t~g ivt' trrrrts may I)e ornitLetl. 'l'lle trllrec-tlilnensio~~aI liountlary-layer cqrrat.iotls arc, t(l1r11, as follows:
(.011\11~.f

\vit-li tile following boundary conditions:

Fig. 11.12. Sy~tem coordinates for of a t,l~ree-clinirnsiond boundnry layer

7'he pressure gradicnt,~ i)p/ax and aplilz arc known from the pot,bntial flow in accordY 0 ance with eqn. (1 1.52). 'l'llis is a system of t-hrecequations for qi,, v , ancl lo. For 1 and lo 0 t,he system transforms int,o tile familiar systcm of eqliations (7.10) a ~ l t l (7.11) for two-tli~ncnsionnl boundary-layer flow.

of U p t o Ihc prcscnt time 110 exact soll~t~iorls this gcncml systcm of cqnat,iotts for t,hrec-tlimensiond floiv Ilavc brcn found, apart from ttllo cxan~plcsw l ~ i c l\vc 11:lvr ~ ~ncnt,ionctl prcviorrsly. 7'11. Gcis [33, 341 invcstig:ttcd tho spcri;l.l class of flows whirl^ lead t o similar solut~ions. analogy with wedge flows, t h e velocity profiles arc now In similar in the direction of each of the two axes of coonlirl:~tes,\ant1 this :~llo\vsus to transform tltc systcm (11.53) into a set of ordinary diKcrenti/l equations.

I f wr now prrfortn l l ~ snrno cst,iniat,ion, ~lntlcr assu~npt.iot~ vcry large Iteynol(ls r tlre of n ~ ~ ~ n l ) crc,lalivc; t,o 1.11~ t.llrrc-tlimrnsionl Navicr-St,okr.s cqttnt,ior~s(:1.:%2),as ~rs, ?xp!ainrtl i t , tlot,:~ilin Sot. VII a in rclat,ion t o tile two-tlimcrrsiona~ casc:, wc sirall rcacll

A pxrticular case of three-dimensional boundary-layer flow wjlicll is consitlrr:~l,ly more amenable t o numerical calculatiol~ t h a t where t h e potent,ial flow depentls otl n: is b u t not on z, i. e. when U=U(x); JV=W(x). (11.55) apply irr bile case of a yawed cylinder ant1 npproxirnat.cly, in These contlitior~s trhc case of a yawctl wing a t zero lift,. 'L'hc syst,cnl of c!cl~lnt~ior~s (1 1.5:1a, I), r ) is silrlpli-

250

X I . Axinlly nymmet,rirnl nntl t,liree-dirnenaioridhonnrlnr.~ lnynrrr

= const and talritlg into

cl. Tl~rcc-dimensionnl boundary Inyers

25 1

fied in tjhat, t.hrre is no clepc~ntlcnccon z . With W = IV, account t h a t - ( I / @ ) . (ap/ax) = U .((lUplx), we obtain

Tt is frtrt,hcr asslrmetl t,hat the vclocity compot~cnt~s 11) and ~ ( zy) of 1.11is flow ?c(z, , stagnation points lie on a dcfinito lit~c) may also be oxprcssotl wiLh tho (in which t l ~ e nit1 o f n scrics i l l z with cocfficicnta dcpcntling on y (Dlasius ~crics), tho flow ~)ntt,crn bcirig i~ltlrl)cv~tlont, tho coordinntc z rncasr~rcctalong tho gcncralrix of tho cylinc1t:r. of '~'I~IIs, ~ t t i n g pr
(1 1.57)

with tho sanlc 1)oundar.y co~ldit.ions 1)efore. I11 this p a r t i c ~ ~ l a r the syst,cm is as case rcduciblc in t,he sense t h a t it is possible t o cnlcr~late nntl v from tho firsL a t ~ t l IL last cqunt,ion, tllc solr~t~ion bring iclentficslwiLh t h a t for a two-clirnensionnl cnsc, ant1 subs c q ~ ~ c n l , l t o cotnpl.ctrc lhc c:~.lcitlnl.ionof 11 from t,hc secontl c q ~ ~ a t ~ i owhich is, y, 1 rl, it, moreover, linear in lo. This rcndors such cases really simple. Tncider~tally, rnigllt be not,ctl t h a t t,hc equatiotl for the ~ e l o c i t ~component u) is identical with t,hat for y t h e t.mipcratnre distrihlltion in n two-clitncr~sional boundary Inyer when the I'mntltsl nmnber is ct111n.lt o unitmy (soe Chap. XTJ). Specializing t,hc syst,orn (1 1.66) still f ~ ~ r t h e r the case when TJ(z) = I J , = for ronst, we obt.ain the cxamplc o f t h c flat plaLc in yaw hilt a t zero incitlcr~ce.111 Lhis case tho prcssrlre term in the first, cqnnt,ion vanishes, and t,hc secorltl oql~at.ion becomes itlcr~t~ical the first wllen lo is rcplncctl 11yu. Thus t,l~c o l ~ ~ t ~ i ?~,(x, nnct ~ ( zy) wit,li s o n s y) , brcomc prol)ort,ional, w(x, ? = const. . 71 (x, y), or ) I

'Shr hlnct.ions IL.13, . . . satisfy t,hc diRcrrnt,ial cqunt,ions (9.18). 'l'llc rornln~t,n.t.ion of t l ~ c o n l l ) o ~ ~ cI& i t first given by \ill. R. Scars [IOB]. I t was Inter consitlcrenbly ex~ vras t.cntlctl 1)y 11. Coer(.lrr [42]. The frlnct,ions go, g z , . . . snt.isf.y tl.hcdiffercnt,ial ccl~~nt,ions

wl~oscborintlary conclitions are

Tltis ~ n e a n st - l ~ a in t,hc cnsc of n yalvrtl flat plate t.hc ~ ~ R I I I ( . : L I I of L ~ I C vcIocit,y t L in t,llc bor~r~clnry layer \vhic:lr is pnrallcl to t.110 wall is also pnr:~llclto thc ~ioLential flow a t :ill 1)ointa. 'l'l~o fact 1,liaI. trhe plate is ynwcd is seen t o have no influor~noor1 Lhc f'orrnat.ion of I,hc bor~ntlr~ry 1a.yer (ir~tlcpcnrlcnceprinciple). \Yhrn t.\ic llow in the honntlnry Iiryor on a yawed flat plate I)ccomcs t~crhvlort, t h e right,-l~nrltl sitlcs of t.11~ first two cclll:~tions (1 1.56) must Ile srtpplcmcntcd 1vit.11 t*l~c~ I,rrlns tlilc t.o t,l~rl)r~lcnt lLcyr~oltls~ t ~ r c s s (C11:lp. X I X ) . 'I'llrn, t,hc two cqunt,ions rs cnrl no longer be t,rnnsf(~rrnctl into rn.rh ot.l~cr the ~ u b s t ~ i t , ~ ~ t iIL n lu ant1 vice by of o for vrrsn. Cotiscc~r~t:nt.ly, t,l~cst.rr:~ntlillcs it1 ls11(: borlrldnry Iiyer ccnsc t,o l)o p:~r:~lIcI t,o 1,llc llow tlircc:l,ioti it: (,Ilc I'rcc sLrc-:l~n, ~ : L I I vcx~,ifictlOg tlircclj c:xi)t:t~irnctil, :ln bt: [Dl. 111:ttltlil.io~~, [:{I J~jlscs1nl)lisllctl t.l~:~t. tlisplncctnc!nt thic:ltrlcss of' n Lnrblllctlt, ref. I.l~r 1)ortntlnry lnger on n y+wc-rl plnfc grows so~ncwhnt, fn.st,crin the tlowrrsl,rm.~n tlircct,io~l t.11nr1 is I,IIC c:mc 1vit,11 I I I I J ~ : I \ V C ~p1:~lc.'I'his :1g:ti11tI(~morist,rat.csc i 1 1 t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 i c a I ~ i l i l ~ y n111 ~ t,11(! ol' I I I V intlrpantlcr~ccl)rincipla t,o t.nrl)~tlrl~l, I~or~ntltiry Inyrrs. 'I'l~cc : ~ l ~ ~ ~ l : l tof ol r1 1 ~I,I~rc~r-tlitnt~~tsio~l:~.l lnycr on :I, ynwetl cylintlor, .i . l borintl:~.ry rclns. (11.5(i), ran I ~ c r n r r i c ~ l I)y n. 111ct,hotlsin,il:~rt.o t h a t 11srtl in t,ho cnsc of olit, t,wo-.tli~nrr~sionnl llowlnl)o~lt cylit~tl(~r a \vl~osca.xis is n.t righl, nnplcs t,o 1 . 1 1 ~ sl,rmtn (Sco. TXa), i. c. I)y a s b ~ ~ m i n gscrirs oxpn~~siotl rcspcct t o the lengt,h of arc, X, n with tncxsr~rcdfrom 1.11~ .st.ngnn.t.ionpoint,. For n syrnnict~ricn.l cylintlcr we may p u t

As irltliralrtl Ly L. Prandtl [801 tfllc eqila(ion for go can bc solvccl by dircct intogrntiorl, t h e reslrlt bring
J 'exp !{

go(

v) =

(-

f j,dl~)j
0

dv

OZ

- - -- O

--

(I I 60)

j 0

j ' ~ , d ~ dl) )

Fig. I I. 13. I,nniir~nrhorlndary Inyer on n ynwcd rglintlrr. The functions ge nnd gz for the vclorit,y ron~porirnt. nlorig t 11eaxis of the rylindcr, cqn. 111 (11.58~). t the ntngnntion lilw wc have lo/ll', A
= go (11).

252

X I . .\xi:rlly ~yrnrn~triral r l t,l~rce-ditncnsiot~al an bonntlnry layer3

d. Three-ditnensional boundary laycrs

253

wl~erc tlt~t~olcs solr11.ionfor t,l~c the t,wo-tlimnnsior~d st,n.gnal.ion-point flow accortlirlg t,o ccln. (5.39) n.ntl 'I'able 5.1 ; hcrc i l ( q )- = - @ ( ? I )'Shr frtnctions go ant1 gz which . a.ppr:Lr in t , l ~tlirT'rrcnt,ial c y r l s . ( 1 I .Gla, 0) arc sern plobt,cd in Fig. 1 1.13. A t,aOulatiotl r for I)ot.l~ ft'rlr~c:tio~~s be fot~ntlin ( 101 1 Chap. XI and in [42]. can Approxi~~lntr trtr~l~ntl. I'r:~.t~rlt.l 1,. 1721 laic1 tlowtl a. ~~rogr:~~rltnc:o t ) t , a i r ~ i l ~ ~ for soI111io11s i l l ~I,IIc nifl of ~ I I Vtnonlct~t\t~n \v t~I~t!~>r(~tn,l l :L wajr \vl~i(:J~ i. r. i is siniil:~r I 11:tt. r~sc.tli l l Sro. X'1 11. In l)art,iclllar, t-tlcset of rc~nnt,ions 1.45) t o ( 1 1.48) 1.0 (1 t r : ~ ~ ~ s l i ) rillto ~ I I ; I ( Iiw : j1:~wc:tl cylintlcr when it. is ass~rrncclformally t h a t tns L const :111tl w l ~ c t1,ltc n.zitnr~ll~:llI I O I I I ~ I I ~ , I I I I tlliclctr~ssr j ~ ? is~ r r ~ ) r r s c ~ ~ t cv t)l~c o r ~ n ~ l l a . ~ I I . 11. d f
:I.II~II~~X~III:I~(*

The respective streamline is shown a s a broken line, and the potential streamline is seen plotted for comparison It is noticeable t h a t thc flow direction in the boundary layer is t,urnerl by a large angle t,owards the r~recling end of tho cylinder. This rirrumstanre is very important when flow patterns on yawed wings are obscrvcd with the aid of tufts
Swept wings. The cxistencc of cross-flow which occurs in 1.he boundary laycr of a yawed cylinder is important for the aerodynamic properties of swept wings. When yawed or swept-back wings operate a t higher lift values t h e pressure o n the s u c t i o ~ ~ side near theleading edge shows a considerable gradient towards the receding tip, t h e effect being due t o the rearward shift of the acrofoil sections of the wing. This phenomenon can be inferrcd from Fig. 11.15which shows the isobars on the suctibn side of a yawcd wing. The fluid particles which become dcaclcrat,cd in the boundary layer have a tendency to travel in the direction of this gradient, and s cross-flow in t>he dirc:ction of the rccctling tip rcst~lts. d c ~ r ~ o ~ ~ s L rby . t o ( l As ~ ~ in011~11romo1it.s~ r r o r ~ n o ( l li by R. T. Jones [58] and W. Jacobs [55], tlic bountlary layer on t,he recetlirig portion thickens, the effect leading t o prcmatnrc scpnration. I n aircraft c q ~ ~ i p p c d sweptwith back wings separation begins a t the receding portion, i.e. ncar the ailerons, nntl causes t h e dreaded one-winged staU to occur. It is possible t o avoid this kind of sepamt.ion, and hence t o prevent one-winged stalling, by equipping the wing with a 'boundarylaycr fence' which consists of a sheet-metal wall placed on the suction sidc ill t h e forward portion of the wing, thus preventing cross-flow. An aircraft with swept-back wing.? and x boundary-layer fence on each half of the wing is shown in Fig. 11.16. W. Liebe [66] reported on the improvement in wing cl~aract~erist~ics which earl be t attained by these means. A paper by M. J . Queijo, B. M. J a q r ~ e and W. 1). Wolhart [90] t1cscril)cs ~xt~erlsive mcnsurcrnent,s on models providctl with 'hor~ridary-layer fences'. The papers by ,J. Black [8] and I). ICi~ccl~emann (641 contain morc details

=7

A I)ro('rtl~~rc: wllic.l~ I~:~sc%tlt . I ~ f ~ s c~ ~ a l . i o r ~ s ~)rll~lisl~c:tl \V. 1)icnrm:cnn 1.211. is or1 r(l was I)y

A sititil:tr :t[~l)roxit~~at,(, rncl,l~odwas usrtl by J. M. Wild 11241 for the solution of thc prol)l(:rn of the ynwocl cylirttlcr. I'igrlrc 11.I4 reprcscnt.~ pn.t.tern of st.rcamlines the for :L y:~wctlrllij)t.ic cylirltlcr of slrtldcrnrss ratio 6 : 1 , placctl at, a n angle of incitlcnce to 1.he st.mn~n. 'i'hc l i f t corfficirnt has a valuc of 0.47. The arrows s l ~ o w n the sketch, ill intlic:at.c~ Ll~crlirrct,io~i flow of t-hn velocity con~porlentpan.llcl t o the wall in its of i~nmctlial~c c i g h l ~ o r ~ r l i. o o the value ~~ ~ e. t l , A

Il'ig. 11.14. I~ortn~l:~l~y-l:~yrrabor~La flow y:rwrtl ellipticnl cyli~ldrr with lift., nf'tar .I. M. Wild ( 1241

Vig. J1.15. 15xlrlnrlation of origin of c:rousflow,on a ynwcd wing nt an angle of incidcnce. Curves of constant pressure (isobars) on t,he ~nctionside of the wing. Near t.he leading edge on the uppcr snrface of the wing there is n harp pressure gradient a t right angles to the main stream and towards the receding end causing cross-flow

Fig. 11.16. Jet fighter De ITavilland D. 11. 110 ~ v i l . l lswept-bac:lt wings and a. Irvr~ndnry-layc:r fence at edge of encll ailcron; from W. J,icl)c [66]

c,or~c-t.rnir~g t.11(: v r r y romI)lox llow l ~ a l . t , c r r ~in I ) o u n t l n r y In.yers 011 ~ w c p tw i r l g s . s lSxl)rri111(:111.:11 1.c~sr11l.s ol)l,:ritlc,tl l)y A. I):rs 120) ir~(lic::r.l.n t , l ~ n ( a I ) o 1 1 l l t l n r . ~ ~ - l aPVII~C . . ~ C1 (::I,IIS(Y : ro~~si(lrr.:~l~l(~ I , ~III~~I~~)v(:III~~II~~ ill I,II(> l l o \ v o ~ il,s i1111rr s i t l r ill n t t ( l i l , i o ~ ~ l,11:1,t, i I,()

,I III.r:~sc!r.il.l~ 11: (.OIISI., cclr~.(1 1.55). is 1101. 11 1 o n l y otrr \ \ , l ~ i t s l ~ 11:in I)CCII nt.l~tlJ,ion. .1: give11 11. (:. Jdoos 1671 ~ L t ~ c l i cI.llc cnsc of Ilom pnsl, n l l n t plntt! w l l c ~ ~ free ntrcsrn in rlencrib1:~lby cl l.l~e rJ -- r o ~ ~ s l .11' - n,, -4- n, x , !\.llcrc:~s A. (:. I l a n s r n n ~ l d14. %. l l o r z i g (451 corisitlc~rerl t l ~ c . gr~~f.r:~lixc.tl (.:~sc: \r.il.l~
t

11

:-

oonsl;

11' --

2
I

n, .z."

.
Fig. 11.17n

Si~~rc: s11c.11r x 1 ~ ~ r n :flows ilrt. 1\01, irrul,:~licn~:~I. vcIot:ilry i n l.11(: l)olind:~ryI : ~ y r r r a n Ircconlc iI l11c Inrgrr III:LII I.lln1 ill t.ltc: frv~.sl,rc;l~n. 'l'l~n cxc:css ill vclocity is r l t r r ? t o the sc:ro~rtlnry Ilorv i n I.llc I ~ n ~ r ~ ~ t 1;iyrr \ v l ~ i r lr:~t~sli.rs l:rry l~ inln) if, l l t ~ i t lp:~rl.it:lrs fro111rrgionn of I ~ i g l ~ cncrgy. I t . s o ~ n c t i ~ n r s cr also II:II~)~IIS i r ~ i l i : r l\~eloril,y1)roIilt~si n 1.11~l ) r i ~ ~ ( ~ i r llo!v t l i r r r t i o ~ rsI1o1v rcgiot~so f ~,II:L~, I.II(\ nl l ) ; ~ r k - l l o ~ v l ~ i c l ~ ,~ c ~ v c r l l ~ r l (lo snot, s i g ~ ~ i s y p ; ~ r ~ i l i o ~ ~ ; t ~ n ~ ~ : i .tIis:rppo:~r f ~ t r l , l ~ e r \ ~ cs , fc t,11cy lly t101r.nsLrrt~111. 'l'l~is t,yj)c o f br11:lviour can also bc o x p l n i ~ ~ c t l bcing tluo to n trnr~sfero f rrlr?rgy b y an t,llr srrontlnry flow. ' r l ~ cr r n d c r w i l l recognize from the p r e c c d i ~ ~ g exnrr~plct l ~ n t,llc t l e l i n i t i o ~ l t o f sc~~):~.rnI.ionhcscl. \r,it.lr clifficrrltics \\~11ciithree-clin~rnnior~:~l is 1)ounrlnry layers arc Ijcing consitlrrr(l. 'l'l~isin c l ~ ~ c the fact I,l~ntt.110 relnI.ion b r l w c e ~ ~ 1.0 I~nclt-floxv t ~ d h c a r i n g a ~ strrss has ceasrtl trr :IS sitnplc nn i n t.11~.t . ! r ~ o - t l i ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ raac ~[4!), 771. A scp:\rot.ion o f tcrms itlcnt.icnl will1 sior :~l thf: o l i r t ~ ~ ~ c ~ o ~ ~ n c~ot~l~c!xion 1 . 1 1 ~ i ~ ~ t c : r c t i wiLh frco s t , r r n ~ n (1c~cril)rd y cqn. ( 1 1.55) call I)c srrcccssb f t ~ l l y r l ~ i t ? v r t l:~c.rortling 1 16. 1 ~ o g : ~ r [24], m l ~ c n n , 1.0 , . ly considcvit~g n infiuitely l o ~ r g n wing \vl~iclr is 111:ttIt: 1 rrrl,nle nl)ouL n vcrl.ical axis ( I ~ r l i r o p t e rrotor). I t is fount1 t l ~ n t ,tho r o t a r y m o t i o n 0 c1oc.s n o t nll'rct, l l ~ cl~ortln.iso vclocity co1111~oncnt r ant1 so I.llc incitlencc o f scparat.ion rclnnitln 1ln:r~li~t~tcsd. I1oI.:1lio11~ n n r c l ycntlscs 1.11~ nppc~:lr:%nrc f slight r:idiaI vclocit,y roniponr11tr4. o

A f t ~ r l , l ~sprri:tI c:rsr o f I11t: gr11cr:11~ i r c ) I ) l cr1cscriI)cd l)y c q t ~ s (11.53) and (11.54) \ v l ~ i c is rr r~~ . l~ ntnrtl:1I)I1' 111r : ~ l r ~ ~ l n lorwcrs B.II~II 1111: c x l c r n n l flow consisls o f a t1r.o-tlin~rnsionnlbasic p a t l r r ~ ~ .in~~ OI I \ ~ l ~ i i . l ~ is s t ~ l ~ c ' r i t ~ ~ i ) o swr:~lz t l i s t , ~ ~ r l ~ n n c r1.11~k i n d tlrsrril)rtl I)y t11rr.en ~'d of
(1 (.r,z) = [ l , , ( x ) I lJl ( y . 2 ) , ll'(.r,z) = I \ ' #( r , : ),

Uc1 ,
ll.l < [lo .

.I.

Irr- I i o t ~ ~ ~ ~ l : r r y - l :(lo\\.* (::I.I ~yt r I.11tx1,~ : r l r ~ : ~ l ll)r s011:lrntrrl i n t o n t n ~ o - r l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ n sii o n t~ca n y, I ~ s r ~ t rl p l v i l l ~:L \ \ t * : ~ l < p ~ - r l ~ ~ r l ) ns11l)t:ri1111)ost*(l Iit,. 'J'l~c rcr{~risitc I i l T c r c ~ ~ l i atll ~ ~ n l , i o r i~ I Ionce l.io~~ ~ I ( r s , 111111.1>. 111, 1111rot1111(:~1 l i ~ ~ t : : ~ r i % : ~ l i o t ~ . 11)' ICX:IIII[III>S o f this kitr(l \v(!rc giv011 I)y A. M a g r r 170, 71) :IIII~ ll. S. 'I':III[ l lOaJ.

I:~yrrs 011 n ~ l ~ I~edies. ' I ' l ~ r r ~ c : - t l i ~ ~ ~ rl~ ~ t ~ o~ t:l~ ~ r ~ ' - flr)!r.s r r cr ) ~i t n ; l I n . y hrronrc n v r n \VII(.II II* f ! x I ( ~ r ~ 1 1:0~ l~ I S ~ 1 1::111110l, I)P( : l ~ r t : s i ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ I 01e s11l1t-rr xi11111ly Ipy ~ ~ t s i l (PI' ~ VOIII~)OIIC.IIIS. i oI.\CO ~ '1'110 Iiil1,t.r IYISI: orrrtrs, li)r ~:x:I.IIIII~(-. 0 1 1 n y:~n.c.ll I ~ r ) ( l y f tr.vol~ll.i<rn. o 111 :II.I.:IIIE~~III~~II~S lS1i9 l<i11<1. of 111~: 11irwI,io11 vrlo(,il,y (,OIIIJIOII(~II~,S of' ill I,II(: l)ot111t1;1r,y 1:~yf.rt I r \ ~ i : ~ l c a v o ~ r s i ~ l c ~ ~OI)I l ~l.l1:11,ill (.IIv Srr(: SI~~AIII I'I. . a l ~ :itI I,IIc I)o~IIL,; i n oI,ltrr ~ ~ o r c l s . sIro11g s t ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ l : ~ r y - l I o r v : I livI,l is ~I-II~~:II,IYI. : ~ IIC r r y (;o~npli(::tLrrlll~rcc-tIi111c11sin11n1 ~ :lItI r ~ n SIIVII AII i t l r 01.1 v Ilo\v s i~ Otit~n(I:~ry l : ~ y ~ > r sY I I I \ ~ I . ~ C * ( ~ b y l,l~t:~ ~ l t o I o g r : ~ ~ ~ iln liig. l1.17l); it \vns l,alzc>r~ ) ~1 . A. lCit:l~rIl)rcn~~cr is ( SIIO!VII ~ 1 C n ~ ~ I c l 011(1:1rl, 2 2 011 1 1 1 ~ \. 1 tll)l)tbrsiclo o f a yntvcxl ~llii)soitlo f ~ . ~ : v o l ~ t t . ito l ~ ,llo\v r ) : ~ l , t r r l ~ n \ ' i l ~ g , Ilr I II~,I-I)III:I(I(! visililt: l ~ st,r(!:il~o f tiye iss~ring y fro111 d r i l l i t ~ g s t l ~ c 011 srrrkhcc t)f l,lrt: I ) o ~ l y 'l'l~t> . ~111otogr:11)11sl~o\vs,ill p:trl,it:~~l:~r, III:II. l . l ~ t :[):il,l6~11 f :I, l~l~rct~-~li~~~r~isio~~nl o 1)o1111tInry layer \!I1ic11 csisls i11 :LIB :t(lvrrst: IIK~SSII~(: ~I.:I(I~~:III, ~ n : i r l ~ c t I lclili'rrrnt frolit III:II, itr a t ~ v o - r l i ~ r ~ c ~ ~ s i o ~ ~ : ~ I i8 y I)ot111<1:~ry 1:ryt-r. 'l'hf: p r i ~ ~ c , i l )tlilli.rc~~c.o f.l~is:i n t l ~ c ! t . n . o - t l i ~ r ~ c ? ~ w cnsc,~ : , ll~ o :~l is i ~ ) ~ l ~ flrlitl i n I l l o 1)ountlnry 1:tyl.r is g r r ~ c r : ~ l lforrrcl i11f.ol . l ~ n ~ s l n : r ~ Ilr)rvl i f l.l~rr r s s ~ g r~ v i c t ~ is s l ~ l l i r i rl y ~ ~l . ~ o I I ~ ,~.IIIIS y c ~:~ p ~ nd t ~R ~ : I I I S ~ I I ~ s r p : ~ r n l , i o ~~) ~I ~ C II l.l~r . : ~ l (.r / . Fig. 7.211); ~ I I I . I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ I ~ I I I C I Ic:rsrI Il ~l I~ c ' ~ l 1)art.iclra ~r l I,IIC S~~ ~~i(l ~,:III ~:;C.:~II{: s i ~ l f > \ v : ~ y s long l l ~ e v n l l .' 1 ' 1 1 ~ p l ~ ~ ~ l , o g rill Fig. lI.1711 rlvarly c:xl~iOits l , l ~ i sy p e o f ~ :~pl~ t ~ ~ ~ ~ I I : I ' ~ I ~ I I ~ :1,111: III~~~II~II~II~IIC)~(I 1111- slrv:~l<s ill o f I,II,:r r : ~ rSI:I~II:II~~II i. c. i n IIIc.rrgio11 o f point, : sl r c t ~ ~ g I :~clv(.rsr.Iirl.ssllrc: g~.:~(li(wI. irlsti Iiig. 1 1 .I (sf'(. 7n), ; ~ r o elrnl-ly S I ~ ~ I It o l)o clrllt:rto(l sitla\v:iq.n; I l \ v > (\<I. lro\\vvrr. S~III:I~II ~ , l i ~ ) g i111l igt . SII~I':IIV. slrr;11111i11(~s llrc SII~I.:IP~! l l l ~ i ( ,arc. SIIO!VII ~) l 'l'l~r nl. l~ i t 1 ls'ig. I I . 171.:IIIII t t l ~ i e 11:1vt~ ~ l ~ l1t.1~81 ~ ~ I : I lI I Ir:tl1~111:1lio11 goo(l t i t ~ : ~ l i l : ~ l : ~ ,g : r r r ~ ~\sit11 t , ~ ~ (Y~ y sl~o!ri tr e~~
III~II.~~ ~ ~ l ) l i , . : ~ l t s ~ L S ( ~ S (.o ill ~ : I

2. I~<IIIC~:I~J.

) I ; Sclrrn~nl,icl i n g r n ~ n f s t , r m ~ ~ ~ lvio\vrtl sitlnn.:~ys r o i~~rs I)) I ~ l ~ o l , o ~ r otf l t~ l~ o : l ~up1icr siclr o f llrc ellipsoid o f r t ~ v c ) l ~ ~ l ~ I I rv;~l,c?r I ~ : ~ n n(11~IIC. 14:1<~1 , i cI,IIc n~ r cl ON ill (:lrstillon-sorrs-Ungnc~~x(l'sris). Rcynoltln IIIIIII~C~ (Iin1 / 1 1 -= 2 x 1 0 1 '1'11e l l ~ r vp i ~ t t c r l t was rnntlc visil)lc b y sI,rcnk~01 (lye issrrir~gfro111 l 1 1 r 8urf:lc:c o f I . l ~ cI)otly. 'l'hc ~ I ~ ~ P ~ L I I I ~ ~ I ill tllo Inycrs ill tlrr: r~c!igl~lrourl~ootl 1.11~ rr:tr st:~gn:ll.ion p l ~ i n t , of sllow n ~ n i r r l t r t clt:llrxion l Ri([C\v:LYs,'rllis ( : O ~ ~ ~ S ~ ~ O I1.0 ~scpnr:ltion i n n. I l ~ ~ ~ e c - t l i n ~ r n I,o~~ntl:iry I( R s i o ~ ~ : ~ l 1:lyc.r c) SlrenlnJinrs a, tile wall, rn:lrltccl 8, ol)t,ninr~tl y c n l c ~ ~ l : ~ t:III~~~ r w r r t i c : ~ lo ~ x i r i ~ l ilitlf', ~ t h i o ~ ~ ..l l s ti~ nlnrlcctl RC; t l ~ o r cis snt,isfnct,ory qr~nlil.nlive ngrcc.rnt~111. \vilh 1.11~ pnl.l,ern 111t! ~)l~ot,cigr:~l)l~ of \ v l ~ i r is s l ~ o \ v r n I)) l~ i~

256

XI. Axinlly ~yn~motricnl tl~ree-dimcneionnl and boundnry layers

tl~o oxperi~nent,nl pnt,tnrr~in Pic 11.17 b. It is, tllcreforo, not at all eaay to establish a critorion for scparat,ion i r ~a thrco-clirnc~~siol~nl boundary layer, if proper weight is given to this type of bel~nviolrr.A t l,l~is point, we wish to drnw tho render's ~t~tention the investigations on yawed to cmwn (lnc to W. ,1. Itninbird, It. S. Crnbbe and L. S. Jurewicz [91]. It, a111)rarsL bo possible to attempt, n theoret,icnl analysis of t,hree-dimenaionalboundary o layers w i l h t . 1 1 ~aitl of ir scheme snggcsted by L. Prnndtl [RBI who proposed to introduce a c~r~rviiincnr systrrn of coordinatm in which the potential lines and streamlines of the free stream aol~lclplay t.11~ ])art of coordit~ntos. This progmmme wns cnrrictl out by E. A. Eichelbrenner n ~ ~A.l 011flnrt[22] whon Ll~cycnlmllnlad tho Inlninar cmo ment~ioncdearlier. I t hna already t Iwrn rncnt.ionccl l . l ~ n tgood qr~nlit,at,ivc ngreerncnt rrsultetl. as shown in Fig. 11.17c. See also It. 'I'i~ntnnu I 141. [ 'I'he mcl.l~otlof c:nlculnt,ion proposetl by L. I'randtl r86] was recently tlcveloped n~~merioally W. C:cisslcr 135, 36, 371. Figure 11.18 illnstrntes the resrllt.s referring 1)y t,o t.lrc t,hrcc-tlilnrnsional l ~ o u n d a r ylayer on a yawed ellipsoid of revolution. I n acldition t80 t,llc pot,ential lines and st.reamlines of l l ~ e external flow, Figure 1 1 . 1 8 ~ shows the sepnrat.ion line rS; the latter has a course ~ i m i l a r o t h a t in Fig. 11.17. Fit gures l l . 18 11anct 1 1.18c represent t,he v ~ l o c i t ~ y distribution in the boundary layer nt various st,sLions on a partpicnlarpotc,nt.ial line. T h e la~nirlarI~oundnrylayer on a ynir,ad rotating circular cone in a snpersonic streart1 was rnrlior invcst,ignted by R. Sedncy 11041, whereas ,J. C. Martin 17.71 irivrstigat.ecl 1.11~ Mngrlns eKect8on bodies of revol~tt~ion R, small angle of incidence. at, Fig. 11 .I!). \'rloc.ity clist.ril)ution i11 1.11r J I I I I ~ I I ~ L)~( > I I I I c ~ I I nry Iitycr along a corner, nflrr Vasn111.n Itan1 1921. I,iue of vo118t,11nt v e l o ~ i l , yi l l tl~cI)ot~~~(lnt.y,o ( r ) = a/(i const. Frce-stre:wn velorit,y (J" (l) C Z"I

Another import,ant, example of a t,hree-clirnensional bountlary laycr can 11efor~ntl in the corner Sormctl by two ~ n u t u a l l ypcrpt-~~dicnlar planes in a sf,rcarn p:~rallrl t,o t,lteir line of intersection. This flow config~rat~ion invrsl,igat,ed t.llro~~rl~irnlly was 1)y V ~ ~ s a ~ l1dn.m 1921. 'I'lie: rst.rrnnl rcloc:il.y nl, fnr t1ist.ntlc.c11:)s1)c.c.n nssr~nrc-tllo IIr of t,n Ilnrt~.co's l,ypc., i . c!. given by

It, is recalled from See. TXa t h a t this type of exterrlal strrn.ln leads t o sirnil:tr vclocity profiles in tile boundary layer. This feat,ure c o n t i ~ u ~ t,o holcl in the casr of flow in a es corller. Some of [.he resltlts of these strldics arc given in Fig. 11.19; t,llis shows t.110 vclooity distril)utions in the corner for three cliflkrcnt v n l ~ ~ c s tlie prcssnrc paraof llletcr nt. A comparison between t h e distribulions for different values of ns tlrrnonstrntes t h a t the boundary layer in s corner t l ~ i c l r c ~ ~ s apprrcia1)ly in t,l~c prcsrtlce of a pressure increase in the external flow.

Fig. 11 .lR. \'rloc.il.y cli~trih~~lion. 1 1 ~ in t t,hrco-di~r~cnsio~~ni bor~ndary-lnyer an ellipsoid of mvoon 111tior1 n x i s mtio L I I ) - 4 nt nn angle of inci~lcnco = is0,after W. Geisslcr 136, 871. a) SysLc~n or ? of ~)otrnt,inl I I I I ~ linrfi st,rrn~nlinm outer flow; S = sopaintion lit~c. Primary flow velocity proin b) filrs. ~ r / l J , ,i l l t,l~r clirc,c.t.ionof the outer flow strcanilii~e~.Secondary flow velocity proBles,iu/Um, c) nt ripl~tnnplr~to t l ~ r clircrtion of t,l~e outer flom strcan~lines.'rhc velocit,y profiles arc given for l,ot.r~~t.inl 1 (13)nt, diKorrnt st,ntions111, \vit.h a7,il~~~it,l> 4 alld st.nt,ionx as pcr table above line nliplc (6 - 0" - ~r.ir~dxr.arrl sytnn~rt,ry)

Expcrimcnt,al ol)scrvat.ions [82, 391 suggest t h a t t,ltr flow in t,lle corncr S(:~I:LI.:L~,~S carlicr than t h : ~ l llic por(,ions of t01c walls a t a larger dislnncc frotn it, cvcSl1i t 1 t,lic on prcs[:ncc of sn~nllntlversc pressure gratlicnts. 'J'l~ispliysit:cllly r ~ r ~ t l c r s t ~ r ~ . ~ ~ t l ~ ~ ~ I ~ I ~ 111011(: of I)t:linvior is fnlly conlirrnetl by Lllesc thoorctionl r ~ s r t l t 0 1.1 a flnt plrtl,c: ~ t - j ) : ~ ~ . : l ( , i o ~ l ~ occurs a t m = -0.091 (see Fig. 9.1), separ:rtion in a riglit-nriglcd corncr occrtrs a s cnrly ag for m = -0.05. At na = -0.08, Fig. 11.19, t h e flow in t h e nciglll)oll~.lrootl of t,he corner displays a separation region wit11 revrrse flom (IL < 0). By oontrnsl, a t a large distance no reverse flow occurs. M.Za.mir and A. 1). Young [120, 1271 carrirtl out extensive experiments on t h e laminar bomndary layer xlot~g right,-anglctl corner a a.t zero incidence. See also S. G. Rubin [93a].

258

XI. Axi:~Ilysytn~nrtrirnl nncl tl~rrr-~liri~msionr\i borlntlary layers

rl. 'rl~rro-clin~or~sior~:il 1)ounclnry I I L ~ ( V H

%5!)

11r1 r ~ I . ( ~ n s iof ~~i ' ~ J I I I I I ~ u R ~rictl~od rot11.tinghodieu \vns given by G. J~rngclaus[40]; n ~ ~ I ' ~ 1.0 lie :~l)plir(l t.o tl~c:ir~vrsLignt.ion rclnlivo ti~olionthro~tgh cr~rvcd it of a chnnnel which is important it1 t,llc Clrror,~ rrrilriftll~.nl11111111)s. of 1.110 LI~roryIcnils 1.0 ~~rcdirl,ioriu regarding scpamtion which wit11 nrr: in goocl :igrcrn~r:~~t, ti~ras~~re~iirnI..r. 111 cc)nrlr~sion, attention nlny I>r: drn~vnt o t.lir mlc~ti:~tion t.lie 1101111clnry of layer on two ~ n n t ~ ~ ~~ )l~ :y ~ ) r f ~ d i flnl. l~)lalcs znro incitlt:ric:c pc:rfortnctl I)y (:. IT. Carrier 1121 and I<. Gcrn l r c~l nr a(. ~ I C I I [.:Hi]. 'I'II(:s a ~ i ~ o 1)rol)lrnt \viLlr s ~ l ~ ~ r r s nIIOIVnn(1 lirnt trnnsfrr Ilns IIDCII nic dc::~lt. \ v i t . I ~IJVM. Z. von I<rxg\vnl~loc:kiwho n~:~.krn of C . 1'. Cnrrirr's enrlirr work; c / . 11. A. Ilwj-cr [21bl. rise 'I'lie so-rnllctl "q1lnrt~r-11I:~tn 1)rol)lcni" is closrly rrl:rt.c:d to tllc above. 111it, nn invcsl.igal.io~i i.s rnntlr of t , l ~ r *flow n l o ~ ~ g n II:rL pI:rtc: a t zero ir~~*itlenoc ~ i r l ~ \vl posqcssca n niilo etlgc! parallel to t l ~ c !ilrr~a~rl :~(ll1it,i0ll 1110 I(>:ldil)g in to cdgr. ~ ~ ~ l l r i l ~ ~ I . Ii. ~ I ct.llcorcti(.nl treatment of 1,llisprol)lcrn for ~ l l s nrr tlrlr to I<. St.rwart.son a.1it11,. I l o ~ v : ~ r[IOXI. n ~ ~tol I<. Stewnrt.son [10!#]. T l ~ sitle edge cnr~scu tl~ t e Ll~rn~)pc:~r:i~t(~? s r ~ p ~ ~ l r r r ~ t ~ t ~ l n r y n ~ n t i o rin tlln I)onndary layer which $reduces, of' a sccor~rl;rry ~ ntnong 00I1rrs. 1111 ii~~r(::~s(- the s11eari11g st,rcss. 'I'lris rcs~rltagree8 \vitIt ~ I I C ~ r ~ e a s ~ ~ r e ~ t ~ e ~ r t s in prrfc~r~nrcl .J. \V. 1':ldrr 1251 on n plnln o r linile width. IIowover. the flow at t l ~ o I)y siclo edge, likr I.II:IL i l l lire itii~nrtli:~tc trr~igl~l)onrl~ootl1,110 I r a d i ~ ~ g of crlgr. is not. yeL mn~plclcly ~ n d c r ~ t . o o d . ~ M a n y I.llrcc-tlirnensi~~tal o u n t l a r y - l a y e r flows a r c s o physically c o ~ t t p l c xt , h a t b Ilrey will, n t o s t probnl)ly, r e m a i n inarccssiblc t o a nnnierical trcat,~nerrt, for a long timc:. An cx:rlnplc of t,lris t,ypc is illust.rat.ctl witll t h e a i d of' F i g . 11.20. T h i s d e p i c t s srhernnl.icnlly t.lta t , l ~ r e e - t l i ~ n e n s i o n hollrltlary l a y e r which f o r m s in t,he n c i g h b o u r al hootl of a. scluat eylintlrical b o d y (small hoigllt c o m p a r e d t,o l e n g t h ) p r o v i d e d wit11 a blllnt nose. The 1)otly is plnccti o n a flat, p l a t e . 011 t h e plat,c, a n d at a Iargc d i s t a n c e f r o m t0re cylirtd(,r, t,llc 1)ountlnry l a y c r is trwo-tlirnensional.A s t h c c y l i n d e r is spproacll. c ~ l nrltl o u t . ~ i d c , tlrc pla7re o/ .~?/ni.melry,h c r c f o r m s i n t h e b o t r r ~ d a r yl a y e r t a region t a lilre t,hosc ill Fig. of sc,contlary flow in wlricll t l t c vc.locit,y ~)rofiles r e sltewcd, r a t l ~ c r

ITig. 11.21. Srparat,iotl of a t,l~rcr-rlit~~rnsin~~nl I,ountlnry layer in stngnntiotl lln~v;S ~ I I ; I ~~yIi11~1rr ~ ~nottlllet1 on n H:rt pltrtr, nfl,cr 'I'li~vnilrs ( 1 12nl; srn n l s ~ Fig. 11.20

1 1 .] . TIlf I)ollntlnry layel. in tllc plarle of s y n ~ m r t ~ lntlst o v e r r o m c a s t r o n g I)rc~ssllrc ry increase in t.hc stngnnt,ion region of t , l ~ aylintlcr. T h i s Ira(ls t,o s e l r n r a t , i o ~ ~ p o i n t S. c at. ill a m a n n e r si~nil:tr t o t,hat i n t,lle dccrlcrat,ctl st,agnat,io~i Ilow of I'ig. 2.15.

ncoming boundary loyer

Woll 511wmline5

Ill t,lte r l c i g l ~ l , o ~ ~ r h o oft l t,ltis separat.ion region, t . 1 1 ~ o llo\z, tlcvclo1)s a ~ c . ~ ~ n ~ n t c . c l v o r t e x sllcet whicll c ~ l r l su p a r o u n t l tltc cylinrlcr n.t, its I):~sr lilt(: a Irorsrsltoc. 'I'lrr pllot,,grap~l of Pig, 11 ,21 w a s t : L l z e ~ ~ t , l ~ e \vit,It inicel,ioli of S I I I O ~ Z ~ l)~.o\~ialr k) \risll:lli~n ( i o l l . I1rl.c it is l,~)ss~[)[e Ilo(,i(:cl,ltnt i n atltlil iorr t,o 1,!1(: prilllnrjr vOl't,(;.X \~!li('I1lOt:lt('s t.0 c:loc:l~wisr nllrntl 01. t.l1(- cylintlt~r t . l ~ r r ef o r ~ n sa.n a.dtlit.io~r:~l, stn:~.llc~. vor.Ic.x \vl~ic.lt ~ . ~ li l l ~(.Ilrt s a l n r ~s r n s r . 'l'lro primat.y vol.I~c~x , ~ ,liiT(.rs ~ I I I I ~ I : ~ ~ ~ I 1'1.0111I I ( : I I I ~ (~ its Itvotlilrlcrlsionnl n.ltalog in t h a t it. is n o t formctl Oy t,lr(. siirnc llrtitl ~rn~.liel(.rr:I I l11(% (.onO t m r y , it. accel,t,s oortt~inuo~rsly freslr rnat,t:r,i:~l fro111 t.l~(: n p s l r e a m tlirvct i o ~ t: ~ n t ltlis~ ; l l ; l l ~ lllat~~~ri:Ll, ( : o t t t i n ~ ~ o n s l y , g~~s also iltt,o t,l~(: Y,OIIC~ of s r l ) : ~ ~ . i ~ l , i o ~ t rottli11v(1 i n s i ~ l vtlto , ~ ~ ) ~ t . ~ x t is very (lifficult t,o rnast,cr snc:11 a c:o~nl,iox flow I):L~,IVI.II iby c.:ilv~llnf ion, s]lcet,, I IKlr(,irlll:lrly IIccnllse it is p r c t l o m i n a ~ ~ t lt11rl)lllrnt in tnost r : ~ s r s cv(.ll ~ ~ I I O I I ~ it I ('all y , I 11r Ia.rnirlnr near t.lrc nail.
~ o l 1 t r m l ) ( ~ . a rrcs(-arrlr invt:st.ig:~t,ions inI,o s c \ l ) : ~ r : ~ l i o i~1r l l 1 1 . c ~ c ~ - t l i 1 1 1 c ~ t t s i ~ i n : 1 1 y t Ilo\vs a r e cxtcllsivcly tliscnssctl in t.lrc A(:AIbI) (:c~nli.~,cs~~c,v . o c , c v t l i ~No. s I(iX I I ) . I'~ ~~ S1lllllll:lry 1):11)1-1.s n I I ~ r ~ ~ ~ : - : l i ~ t t r t ~ s iI o I I~I :~~II:tyc\~.s\ ~ O I . g i \ . r ~1)). \\'. Ib o ~)I I~ l: I I . ~ C ~ S o a r s I IORa.], F'. I<. M o o ~ . c1781. .T. C. Coolz(> :11t,I R1. (i.II:III 1 I!)), :IS \vc.il ;IS I,y I1 Scl~liehtirtp 1100(.

Ia'ifi. 1 1 .20 (svI~r~ti:~t,i~').r ( ~ ~ : - ~ l i ~ ~ ~110\111<lnry l f ~ r ~ n indt,lw corllrr 11rt~1vcr11sqt~:it, 'l'I~ t~~isint~:~ Inycr r x

~.,vli~~:lrir,:~l ~~l:~,c,c.rl :I flab ~)lat,r, ~ l l-1.r 1'. .1011nsl~011 571. TIICst.re:~~iili~~rn I)ody on ~ r I5ri. arc (:~trved ~ n ~ t s i c l ~ .~ ) I : I o I ~n y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~n rrs~rlt. t Iir I f' ns ( ~ t . r y ; t.hrr1. F O ~ I I I S t,l~r ~ o ~ ~ n t llnyrr n nrco~rdnry in I nry flo\v, :~ntl tl~c:vc.ln1.it.y 11roliIr-N I~~:c~onrc skrwrtl. 'I'lrr I ) ~ I I I I C ~ I:ryrr~ i l l l.lie 11l:11)e sgrnritt:try ucpnr:~tos nt, JI~. r~f ~ ) o i n l in 1.Irr sl:~gr~n.tion I'? region. 'rllr flow for111sn ~urfnc~k: srpn.rat.ioll; see also Fig. 11.21 of

\\'t. (I(*scril~(* ty111* (lo\v in c . o ~ ~ j ~ l l ~ wit11oour r l i ~ c r ~ s ~ i o n In1ni11:ir I ) o ~ ~ n ( l : layers IIli* of (.li ~~ on ~ry rvrn I l ~ o ~ l s11c*11r ~ ~ v:rrc: t l ~ r l ~ ~ t l rln t~tlostc:mcbs. I)c:c:nnse 1.li1:ir c,hnrn,:tc:r in, f~~~i(l:~tnrnt~uIIy gl~ fl u i l , slrralti~tg. 111: satiic.. 1

260

XI. Axially syrr~lnrlrir~al II~rrr-tli~~~c~t~sio~~al Inyrra nntl bonndnry References

References

261

[I] i\GARD Cor~fcrcncc Proccedir~gsNo. 168 on "l'low Rcparat.ion" (1975) containing 42 contributiolrs. [2] Andrndc, J':.N., and Tsicn, TI. S.: T l ~ vclority distribution in a liq~titl-into-liquid Proc. c jet. Pl~ys.SO(.. Imndon 49, 381-301 (1937). [3] '\shkcnna, 11.. and Itiddoll, F. R.: Invcstigntion of t11c t11r1)nlent bonndnry layer on a yawcd flat plnk. NACA 'J'N 3383 (1!355). [4] 13nmrncrt, K., and Sol~ocn, Die Strij~nr~ng Fliissigkcitcn in r o l i c r c r ~ d e ~ ~ ,J.: von FIohlwcllct~. Z. VllI 90, 81-87 (1948). [5] Bammcrt, K., ancl Kliiukcns, H.: Nabcntotwauscr hinter Lcitriidcrn von axialen Stro. rnungsmaechincn. 1ng.-Arch. 17, 367 -380 (1940). [Sa] Banks, W. H. H.: The boundnry lnyer on a rot,nting sphere. Qunrt. J. Mcch. Appl. MnLh. 18, 443-454 (1965). [6] Bcckcr, R.: Bcrcchnnng dcr Roibungasclrichtcn nit schwaclrcr Scl~undiirat~riin~~~ng nac11 dcm I~npnlsvcrfnl~rcn. ZFW 7, 163-175 (1!)50); EM) nlso: Mitt. M n ~ - I ' I n n c l ~ - I ~ ~ s ~ i t u t fiir SLrornungsforschung No. 13 (1956) nnd ZAMM-Sondcrhcft 3-8 (1956); Diss. Ciittingcn 1954. [7] Binnic, A.M., and HnrriR, D.P.: The application of bor~ndarylnycr thcory to swirling liquid flow through n nozzle. Qunrt. J . Mcch. Appl. Math. 3, 89-106 (1950). [8] Block, J.: A note on t l ~ c o r b x patterns in t.11~ v boundary lnycr flow of n awcpt-bnck wing. J. b y . Acro. Soc. 56, 279-285 (1952). [0] Biidcwndt,, U.T.: Die Drchstromnng iibcr frstem Grnnd. ZAMM 20, 241-253 (1940). [I01 Boltzc, IF.: Gron7~chichtcnnn 1toL~tio~rslriirpcr11. Iliea. (:iittingcn 1908. [ I l l Burgcrs, J.M.: Somc cor~sidcrationaon thc dcvclopment of houndnry lnycr in the caee of flows having n rotationnl component. Ken. Aknd. van Wctenschnppen, Arnsterdnm 45, No. 1-5, 13-25 (1941). [I21 Cnrricr, C.F.: Tho b o ~ ~ n d n r y laycr in n corner. Quart. Appl. Math. 4 , 367-370 (1946). [13] Chu, S.T., and Tifford, A.N.: Tho compressible laminar boundary laycr on a rotating body of rcvolut,iorr. J A S 21, 3 4 - 3 4 6 (1954). [I41 Colintz, I,., and Giirtlcr, H.: lbhratron~ung schwnchcm Droll. ZAMP 5,95- 110 (1954). mit [I51 Cooke, J.C.: 7'110horrndnry laycr of a clnss of infinite yawcd cylinders. Proc. Cumbr. Phil. Soc. 46, 645-648 (1950). [IG] Cookc, J.C.: Pohll~auscn'smethod for three-dimcnsionnl laminar boundary layers. Aero. Qoart.. 3, Pnrt 1, 51-60 (1951). [17] Cookc, .J.C.: On l'ohll~anncn's n~cthodwith npplication to a swirl problem of Taylor. J A S 19, 486-4!N (1952). [I81 Cookc, J.C.: Tho flow of fluids nlong cylinders. Qrmrt. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 10, 312-331 (1957). [ID] Cookc, J.C., and IInll, M.G.: n o ~ ~ n d n rlayers in three dimensions. Progress in Acroy nautical Sciences 2 , 221-282, I'cgamot~ Press, London, 1962. [lDn] Crabtrrn, L. F , Kiichcn~nnn, . D., nnd Sowcrby, L.: Three-dimcnaionnl boundary layers. Clrapbr in: L. Itoscnhcad (cd.): Lnminnr boundary lnycra. Clnrcndon Preea, Oxford, 1963, p. 409-491. [20] J)M, A.: Untcrs~~chungcn den Einflnea von Grenzachicl~tziiunen iibcr auf die aerodynamiachen Eigcnschnften von Pfcil- und Dcltafliigeln. I)iw. Braunscl~weig 1959; ZFW 7 , 227242 - .- Il9R!II. .. ,1211 I)irnrn~nnn. \Y.:15erechn1111g Wiirn~riibcrgnng~x In~ninnrr~~nstrijn~ten dm an 1Ciirpert1mit konatnntrr n r ~ dorlnvi-riintlerlicllrr Wanclten~l)rr~~tur. I3raunschwcia I951 ; ZAhlhl 1)i~s. 33, 89-10!? (1953); w e also J A S 18, 64-65 11951). [21a] Dnmnrquc, P., Iaghovitcr, G., and Dagucnct., M.: DBtcrminntion drs ligriea dc courant pari6talea sur un corps de ri.volution tournant nutour dc son axe dans un fluidc nu repos. ZAMI' 26, 325--336 (1975). [21h] I)wyer, JI. A.: Solnt,ion of n thrm-dimensionnl boundary-layer flow with scparation. AIAA ,I., 6, 1336-1342 (1968). [22] 14;icl~clhren~~cr, and Ondart. A,: Mi.t,hode dc cslcul de la couche limite tridirncnuioE.A., nrllc. Applicntion A un corps fi~mlhinclini: snr Ic vent. ONERA-Publication No. 76, (:l~nt.illon. 1955.
I - .

1231 Eichelhrenner, E.A.: D6collement laminnire en troia dirncnsions aur un obstaclc firti. ONERA-Publication No. 89, Chatillon. 1957. [24] Eichelbrenner, E.A.: Three-dimensional boundary layers. Annunl Review of Fluid Mech. 5 , 339-360 (1973). [25] Eldcr, J . W.: Tho flow poet a flat pin& of finite width. J F M 9 , 133-153 (IDGO). [26] Fadnia, B. S.: Boundary layer on rotating spheroids. ZAMP V, 156-103 (1064). / [27] Fagc, A.: Expcrimcnta on a sphere a t critical Iteynolds-numbers. ARC 1tM 1760 (1036). , [28] p g n r t y , L. E.: The larrlinnr boundary layer on a rotating blade. J A S 18, 247-252 (1951). [29] triissling, N.: Verdunstung, Wiirn~ciibcrgang und Geacl~witrdigkcitavcrtciinngbci zweidimc~lsio~~alcr rotationusymrnetrischer lnrninarcr (2rcn7ficl1ichtnt.riimung. 1,nncln. Univ. und Areakr. N. F. Avd. 2, 35, No. 4 (1940). [29n] Furuya, Y., and Nakarnura, I.: Velocity profiles in the skewed boundnry lnycrs on aome rotating bodies in axial flow. J . Appl. Mcch. 37, 17-24 (1970). [30] Furuya, Y., Nnkamurn, K., and Kawnchi, H.: The cxpcri~nent the skewed boundary on layer on a rotnting body. Bullet.in of JSME 9 , 702-710 (1966). [31] Furuyn, Y., and Nnkelnnra, I.: An cxpcrin~ontnlinvcatigntion of the skowod bonndnry layor on n rotaling body (2nd Rcport). Bullotin of ,JSME 11, 107-246 (1!)08). [32] Garbscl~, Ii.: Ubcr dic Grenzschicht an dcr Wnnd cines Tricl~tars inncmr Wir1)cl- nnd mit Radialstriimung. Fifty ycnrs of boundnry-lnycr research (W. Tollmien and H. Giirl.lcr. cd.), Brannschweig, 1955, 471 -486; six also: ZAMM-Sondcrhcft 11- 17 (1956). [33] Ccis, TI).: Ahnlichc Crcn7~chichknnn Rotationskorpcrn. Fifty ycnrs of bonnil:rry-layer rcscnrch, (W. Tolln~icn, and H. Oortlcr, ed.), 13rnunschwcig, 1955, 204-303. 1341 Grenzsclricl~ten.J. Rnt. Mccl~.Annlysis 5, 643 - - . - Geis, Th.: ,,Kl~nlichc"drcidi~rre~~sionnle 686 (1056). [35] (:cisslcr, W.: Rcrccl~nt~ng I'otcnlialstriimung unl rotntion~~yrnn~ctriucl~c dcr Itiitnpfc, 1Utrgprofilc rind '~riebwcrkscinlii~~fc. 20. 457-462 (1072). ZFW [36] Geiealcr, W.: Ucrcchnung dcr drridimcnsionnlc~~ Inn~inarcn(:rcnzechicht an nngwklltcn Rotntionskorpern mit Ablosnng. AVA-Bericht 74 1 I0 (1074); Ing.-Arch. 43, 413-425 1 (1974). [37] C:ciwIer, W.: The throe-dirncnaior~nllaminar boundary lnycr ovcr a body of revolution s t incidence and with separation. AVA-Bcricht 74 A 08 (1974); AIAA .J. 12, 1743--1745 (1974). [38] (:ersten, K.: Corncr interference c f i c h . r\GARD Rep. 290 (1959). [39] (;er~ten,IC.: Die Crcnzscl~iclltatron~ung cincr rccl~twinkligcr~ in Eckc. Zi\MM 39,428--429 (1959). [40] (:lnucrt, M.B.: The wall jet. J F M 1, 625-043 (1956). [41] C;lnrrert, M. B., and Lighthill, M. J.: TIIC nxisymrnctric bonnclary Iaycr on n long t l ~ i n cylinder. J'roc. Roy. Soc. London 1 230, 188- 203 (1955). 2 [42] (Xirtlcr, 11.: Dic Inn~inarc Grcnzsrlricht ant schicbcnclcn Zylincler. Arch. Math. d, F I L ~ C . 3. 21(i-231 (1952). 1431 Giirtler, 11.: 1)ccny of swirl in an axially sy~nmctricaljet, far from t l ~ e orificc. Itcvisla Math. Hisp.-A~ncr. 11'. Scr. 14, 14:)-178 (1054). [44] Grohnc, I).: Zur lnrninarc~~ Striim~rng cincr krciszylindriachcn Dose nit rot,icrendc~~~ in I)cckcl. ZAMM-Sondcrhcft 17-20 (1956). 1451 (>ru~rl~\vitz, T u r b ~ ~ l c n tRcibungsscl~icllte~~ Scknndiirstriimung. 1ng.-ilrclr. 6, I(.: e mit 355-365 (1935). H a n ~ a , It., and Peterson, L. F.: AxiaymmcLric laminar wrikc behind n slcndcr body of F. revolution. JIPM 76, 1- 15 (1976). tlannah, I1.M.: Forcrd flow agninsh n robling disc. AltC JtM 2772 (I!)52). 1Iansrn. A. C;.. Hcrzie. 1I.Z.. nnd Costello, G.lt.: A visunlizalion stndy of sccortd:iry flons in cascddcs. NI\CA 2947 (1953). Ilnnsrn. A C.. and Ijrrzie., 1I.Z.: Cross flows in lan~ioarincon~pressiblc bor~ndaryIayrrs. . . .. . . . . < , NACA TN 36.61 (l!)58). Hayes, W.D.: The three-din~ensional boundary laycr. NAVOItT) Rep. 1313 (19.51). Hoskin, N.E.: 'rlre Iatninnr boundary laycr on n rotating sphcrc. I'ifty years of I)oor~dary lnycr research (W. Tollmicn and H. Giirtlcr, ed.), Brnunachrveig, 1955, 127-131. IIowarth. L.: Kote on the boundary laycr on a rotating sphcrc. Phil. Mng. VII, ./2, 1308 -- 1315 (1951). [52] Flonarth. I..: The boundary layer in three-ditncosionnl no\\. Pnrt I. I'hil. Mag. VII, 42. 23!1 - 243 (l!)51).
7

'FI;

[5!)1 JIIII~~~~IIS, :.: ( ~ r ~ : ~ ~ z s r l ~ i r l ~ t ~ ~ill r oit l~ri c rsr ~ i~ llcr :~~~r ~ % l r~~ ii g l)ri s ~ ~ I ~ r r r ~ ~ ( l c r ~ f ~ ~ r c < l ~ ~ ~ III\(~ ~ ~ ~ ~ St,rii111111igr11. illill.. l : ~ x . l ' l : ~ ~ ~ r I z - I ~ ~ sfli .i rI Slrii~n~~ngn~o rscIi~~~~g h i .~rl No. I I, (!iit.liligrli (l!)55). I(iO1 l < t ~ l l y , I < . : I ~ i o011 ~ I : t ~ l ~ i t i : ~ r 11. \ l I,II(: 1)01111(l:iryn y r r 011 n cir(311I:~r, y l i ~ ~ ( l cn n x i n l i11ro111. l r ir l)rrssil)l(r flour. JI\S :21, K t 4 (1054). I ( i l 1 l<rzy\r,ol~Io~.lti. h1.Z.: 0 1 1 sI(%:~(lg, I:ir~iillnr r0111111 jr1.s ill r o ~ ~ ~ l ~ r r s sYi ~ ) l( r ~ I I ~:ISPS far lS ~ S l ) r I i i ~ ~I,lir IIIOII~II, tl ()sl,(rrr. 111g.-Ar(;l1. .?. 373 383 (l!14!)). ( ( i 2 I I ( r z y \ v o l ~ l o ~ ~hl.Z.: 0 1 1 I I 1 r 1101111tln.ry y r r i n : r o r n r r I I Ilsr o f t . 1 r~ l n x n l i o l i ~ i i r l l ~ o ( l . lii. ln I ~ r ( : > \ N l ' r ~ \ I ' l l . No. 2, 77 112 (l!)5li). I W l l < i i r l ~ r ~ i ~ I).: ~ ~ ~ , : ~ t rIirr.r:lfI, s l ~ : ~ l ) r s :ultl t.lir:ir : ~ c r o ( l y ~ ) n ~ ~ ~ i c , a for fliglll, nt. sr~pernoriicspredrr. ,\(IV:III(TS i n 1Irrt)11:111lir:i1 i ( % ~ i r 3, 221 252 (l!)ii2). Sr rs I(;'Ij I<~~(~~IcIII:~IIII, I ) . : 'I'~I(*r t . o r visrosit.y 011 1 1 1 r t y p r o f IIo\v 011 s\vcpt, willpa. I'rnr. Sylllporlk S~IIIII Nnt.'l. I'l~ys. 1,:tl). (NI'I,) l!)55. l l i 5 l 1,:111gl1:1:tr, 11.: Sfrncly llolv ill t,lir t . r : ~ ~ i s i t iIr11gt11 r a s l r : ~ i g l ~tl,,~ ~ t )J. tll)pl. Alrvli. 9, o~~ o c. I 55 ' 58 ( I !).12). \ I [GO] I,irl)r, \\I.: l)rr ( ~ ~ ( * I I ~ s ~ I I ~ v I I I , ~ . : I I I I I . l ~ i l c r : t v i :7, 215 217 (l!)52), ~ [ti71 IA)(IS, I si111l)lrI : ~ l l ~ i l l n~ o u n t l n r y : ~ y r r II.f:.: \ Ir l n.il.h s e c o ~ ~ t l n r y Ilo1v. J A R 22, 35- 40 (1955). l(i81 I,~~rl\r.icg, H.: I)ic :r~~sgr*l)ilrlol.r: a n : ~ i s l . r i i ~ nill~r~ n g t ~ ~ l< ~ i ~ e rotirrellden Syntc~ii. I n g . - r \ r r l ~ . 19. 296- 308 (I!l5l). [(;!I] I . t ~ t l ~ i l ~ ~ ~ l ( . r:11ic1 l?yc1l~rrg, . : Ex1)(:ril11~11trllrI!II~C:~SII~~IIII~~(~II S., . A i i h r r ( 1 ~ 1 1I , ~ ~ f ~ \ v i r l r r s l : ~ l l ( l111.i villr*r 11111 C~IIP 111ii d(:r \ \ ' i ~ ~ < l r i ( . l j~:rr:~ll(.l(? ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ A1.11~11r o l i r r r n t l c ~ I<ll::r\l. g l I~llys. Z, .'<I;, 5V2 558 (l!):$5), l i t ) ] hl:~gvr, I\.: ' ~ l ~ r ( * ( ~ - ( l i ~ ~ ~ ( ~ ~ ~ s i l)o1111(1:1ry ~ y r rwit11 s111:1llrross-llo~v.,l,\S 21. I:IIII~I~:IV ~ l o~i: l: H:I5 845 (. l!I54 ). . l i t 1 h1:lgt.r. '1.: 'l'l~il.l< I:IIII~II:I~ I ) o ~ ~ l ~ c i :ll:r~ y ( - r111iiI(.r SII(I(I('II y II(~~III~J):I~~OII. Il'ifl,y ~(.;II.s IIIIIIII(~:I~~ rcs(~i1rvl1 lily(,r (\I1. r~'O1lllli('ll :11111 11. (:iirl,l~:l.. (.(I.), I<~:LIIIIS(.II\~(\~~. I!I55, 21 :):$. 171:i 1 hl:~grr.;I.: 'I'i~rc~r-cli~~~c~~isiol,;tl bolltidnry Inxrrs. I ' r i l ~ r c l . o U ~i i v r r s i t y Sr.rirs. Tligli Spretl ~r ~ I f ~ ~ . o ~ l y ~ t ~ i nl ~ ) i i~ '~ o p t ~ ~ s i ol r'l r i ~ ~ r c l o ~ ~ i v e r sI'rcss. \'ol. I Y , 2SG - :j!)4 (l!)(;4). : ~ ( ,let ( r s . ~~~i il~y 1721 AI:111glrr, \\'.: ZIIS:IIIIIII~,II~I:LII~ ~,!~is(d~o~i (>I)~:II'II r o l : t l i o ~ ~ s s y ~ ~ ~ ~(~r~ ~ ~~ztsr :il s i~ ,~l ~ ~ r ~ i 111111 : r~ t ~ ( l. t c . ~ill I < o ~ ~ ~ [ ) r c ~ s s i l ~ l c . ~ ~ ~ I<'I~issigkri~c~n. Zi\hIhl 28. !)7 I():$ (1!)48). 1i:iI h I : ~ r l i l ~ , .I.('.: 1 1 IIIV 0 ~I:I~IIIIS (~Il;*rls (.:IIIS~(I 1110 I)OIIII(I:I~~-I:I~(~~ 1 l ~ i t , l i ~ ~ ( - s s l)y (I~S~II:IC~II~~II~~ 011 I11r l)ofiirs 01' rrvo111I~io11 SIII:I~~ :bl :III~~(*S o f :~l,t:~vlz. .lt\S 21. 421 42!) (l!)57). 174) hli(.h:~ll<t.. I\.: ' I ' l r ~ : ~ ~ ~ ~111111( :~ ~ l(~ rc ~ i i ( ~ ~ i t ( ~ I l r ~ l i s xj~ r i UII~C~~SII(.~IIIII~ (*ilivr ~ ~ o t , ; ~ i i o ~ ~ s s y ~ ~ i ~ i ~ t ~ t r i . st,I1r11I:IIII~II:II.(~IIi ~ s ~ ~ ~ ~ g r ( ~ ~ ~III~.-,\IY~~I. l ~ 268 27!) (I!Ki2). l) ? , s ( : l ~ i t 31. l . ~ 17" h I i l l i k : l ~ ~ . . I { . : '1'111* I)OIIII<~:I~YI ~ (' I : ~ y r r: I I sl(i11 r r i ( . t , i o ~ ~ ~ :L l i g ~ ~01 rrvo111Ii~>11. fo . rr 'I.~:IIIS. '\ShI 1 51. %!I 4:) (1!):12). 5 171il hlitll~-r.\\:.: ~CX~IC.I.~III('IIIC.II~ ~III~P~SII(~~IIIII~~~II 7,111. Il~~~1ro11~11:1111il< 111'1. li11gt4.l > l ~ y s%. .1!). . 57 so (l!):!H). 1771 hloorv. It. I < . : ' l ' l ~ ~ . ( ~ ( ~ - r l i ~ ~ ~ I :~l l ls iilo l:l~ r o ~ ~ ~ i ( ll i:l~ y. r rIlo$v. .l,\S 20, 525 5:l.l (l!)5:j). r l ~ I) l :~ ~ y ( 7 % hlool.~., I". I I\.: ' I ' ~ I I . ~ * c * ~ ( ~ ~ I I I c ~ I I s ~ I)OIIII(~:II.~ ) r ly\ .~ l \ l : ~ ~ ~ill r ,\1)111. Al(>(.l~.I r . oIII:~~ 1:1) (\r I l ~ ( ~ (. s / IS!) 228 ( l!l5(i). (7!11 N:I~<:IIIIIII.;I. I . : 'l'11(' I:~III~II:I~ ~ l ~ f l 1:1y1'r 011 : S ~ I ~ I I ! ~ ~ I1)011?' 0~:1rl)ilr:1ry I)o~ :lry I I~ s~I:I[>(~ :isinl ill I .I < s : I l i No. , 1 , I 45 (1!)72). 1801 N:I~<;IIIIII~:I. I.. \':III~:Is~I~~:I. S.. 111111 I i ~ ~ r l ~ y\'.:. 'I'l~r :~ iI~ivl< 111r0111c111 l)o111iiI:11.y l:ly(>rs 0 1 1 ~ . i ~ l : c . y I i~l~~ill :IX~:II ~ii ~ (l l: rs ~ (Ion.. S(.vo~ltlIIII~~II. S~IIII)OS~IIIII l i l r ~ i t lh l : ~ r ~ l ~ i ~ r:111tI I"llli(li,.s. r.ry 'l'ol<yo. SI*III. l!)72. [ S l 1 K ~ ~ : I I I IS. I).: h'olt, OII I,~I(> . ~1ot1111~:lry OII :I r o I : l l i ~ ~ g ) I i ( ~ X;\hl I' .5, 151 I 5 5 (l!!54). I:lylsr ~[ rr. lH1:1l Nycl;~Ill. .I. I<:.:~ v ~ t Il Ir:~llsf(-rfor tllc: Iliiclrwntlt ~ ) l ~ o l ) l r lIl)~ s s c r t : ~ l i o ~('olor;~rlo ht,ntc i. ~. I ~ ~ ~ i v r r s il i o r,i ( ' o l l i ~ ~ s , ty (;olnr:l(lo 1!)71.
~

1821 OIII~II, It.: '~IIC i r e r . ( ~ i ~ ~ ~I c ~i ~s ~ i l)o1111(1:1r.y I,~ a l i i i ~: ~ r ~ a ~ I:t.y(*r :11o11g:L c:ol,tlrv'. Sc:. 1). 'I'~I(~SIS, ~ M I T , Caml)ri(lgr, Mnss., I!l6!). [8:11 I'nck, 1l.C.: 1,wninur flow ill rill nxi:l\ly sylnlnrl.rir:~ljrl. o f c:o1111)rcssil1le Ilrlicl. f:tr fl.ol11 I.llr orific.~.I'ror. (:n11111r. I'l~il. Soc. $0,! H - I 0 4 (1!)54). 4 (841 1':~rr. 0.: Ilnt.c.rsuc:li~~~~gc~i r o i t l i ~ ~ r ( . ~ ~ s i ~ ) ~ ~ u l c ~ ~ n.11 r o ( . i r r c r ~ ~ ( lI)r<:lil<iirdrr d (:rot~xsrlric~I~t, ~:~~ p r r ~ ti ~ c axinlrr A11st.rii1i11111g. i I)iss. I ~ r : t l ~ ~ ~ s ( : I i \ I!)(iLt; III~.-I\~(.~I. :$!Kt 413 (I!)(;:!); vrig 32, set: n.lno: I)ir S1.riill11111g rillrll i l x i : ~ l: t l i g ( ~ s I . r i j ~ ~ ~ I . ~ : ~ ~ 11111 roI,irro~i(lt:~)) r r l ~ l t i i r p r - r.IO. S ~ , l ~ i l l I . I)~II~,(x~III.(:cs. 5.3, 2(iO 271 (l!)5!)), n r ~ d I ~ l o i v I,IIc ~ , I I ~ C ~ - ( ~ ~ I I I I : I I S ~ O l)o1111(1:1ry : ill II:I~ 1:lyc.r 011 n ~ [ ~ i ~ i t i i ~ ~ fgrcvnl111 l)o(ly o io11. A I A l \ .J. !2. : % ( i 2 ~ - :$I\:! ( l!)li4). r 8 5. I'llrirlcrrr, (:.: ~ T J I ~ C ~ S I I ~ ~ I I I I I ~ ~ I I l n r ~tlrlii (:rl)ir!l ( l r r I < r t . i s t . l r : ~ c l ~ ~ ~ : ~ s \'1)1-~ I~"(o ~ s ~ ~ ~ I I I : ) ~ s f cl~i ~~~. . heft No. 205 (1!)27). 1861 I'rn~itll.l.. I,.: (Il)c*r I<ril)~~ri~sscl~icl~t(!~~ c ~ i t l i ~ r ~ r ~ ~ s i o S~~~~IIIIIII~(.II.~ ~ I z - I ' . ~ ~ s l 11c.i c l r ~~:~I(-~r I< . . 2, sclirifl, l!)45. l:I4 141, o r (:ill. \ V < ~ r l < s G7!) 681; ( l ! l ~ i l ) . [X7] I'rtrtsoh. . I . : I)ic, lamina1.r I < c i \ ~ n n g s s ( ~ l ~I I r lIl~lt~ t , i s ( . l l r ~ ~ :i ~ ; i ~ I ;Irylill(l(:r~iI I I I ~< . O ~ . : L ~ ~ ~ ) I I S ~ ~ J I ~ ~ ~ I iclcli I ~ c s y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~1I11strii1~1111ig.~ f I f : t l ~ r l ~ l i ~ r 18,~:{!I7 ~ ~ ~ ~ g i tris(:lir:r l.l s ( l ~ 40'2 (I!Wl). [88] l ' r o l ) s t c i ~ ~I<. n11(1 ICIliol. I).: '~IIc , I?., I~:IIISVO~S~ l v i ~ lill (~OIII~II.(~SS~I)I,~: ~ l l y (.II~V:L~II~I: rl , :ixi ~ y n l r ~ ~ o l 1a111innr11o1111tlnry-lnycr ,ric Ilo\l,. .IAS 23, 208 2 2 4 (I!)5(i). 1891 I'I~I~II~S. I<.: ~ l3c.rccl1111111gr r l : ~ ~ i ~ i t i alr'c i ~t ~ l : ~ r ~ K q l r~III~ ~ r . ~ i g (:iil.l.ilig(~l~ Zt r tl :~ i i ~Iit o l l ~ I)iss. 1!)47. I!)O] Qllcijo. h1..1., ,Il~clr~ot., 13.R1.. n l l d \ \ ' o l l ~ ~ ~W.. I).:\ \ : i ~ ~ t l - l , ~ ~~ ~ v (~ r~ I ~ i g:&I.1.1i1i ~s 1~ ( ~ ~ 1 rl i t ~ ~ -l : ~1l > t 1 o f tile r f l c ( ~ l s f (!l~orcl\visc o 1vi11g ~CIIC:C?R:I,IO l ~ ~ ~ r i z o ~ i l , : ~ l - l , n i l 011 l,li(!l , : t v I~II~~I,II~I~II;II posiI,io~t ~ il utnl)ility cl~~~rnc:trrist.ivsan rtirl)lnnc- 111otlc.1 n.it.11 :L 35" s\vc~l)l~-l):rc:lc of wing. N A ( !\ I{I.II. I 12o:t ( 1954). l!)l] l < n i ~ ~ l ) i r \V.,T.. C r n l ) l ~ r ,R.S., n1111,111rcrtvicz. l,.S,: 'I'll((l, flow S(:[I:I~:I~~~III :II)OIII ~.OIIIY 111, i ~ ~ ( ~ i ( l cN a~ .c I<rs. c!o1111(.il( h t l : ~ ( I : t % l)hllCN~\lC(2,11:1rt,.I<IIII. l!)li:t (2). ~ t r. [ { J I n J 1<n.j11,I<. It,., J.ocsrr, . J . , UII~ l'lntc, IC. .I.: c l o ~ i I l~rofilcs C,I~I: (:. V ,~ f r ~ for ,t ~ ~ I III~IIIII(*III, : )Jorl~~rl:~ry 1nyc.r nlong sn)oot.li a n d r o r ~ g l ])lntrs. .lk'hl 76. :18:1 - :t!)!) (1!)7(i). i 1021 l2:111i. \!:ls:uil.a: A l ~ ~ ~ l i c I A i r ? ~ t ~ g ic r clic (:cs(.ll\r.i~~cligl<(:il.n,l~sr f i~~ IIII~I' r ~ ~ ~ l ) ( ~ r : ~ l ~ ~ r v ( - r I f : 'l i t 1 dcr i l i k o ~ ~ i ~ ~ r r : s s i I:~111iti:1rcli l,Ir~~ (~~~:IIZSCII~(:II~, 1~11l,l:t11gri111.rr ( * ( . l ~ l . \ v i ~ ~ l <I':i,I<(\.~1~ i l 1 lig~. S ( I ~ r o r r t . i s r l i r r I { c i l r : ~ g~IIIII I'rol,lc~n t l r r I r ~ t . r r f ( . r r ~VOII ( : r c . ~ i z s ( . l ~ i ~ . l ~ ( c . ~ ~ . I{I.:IIIII~z I)iss. 178 (l!)(ifi). sc-l~!vrig I!Kifi; .Ill.bV(:l. 151; [!l:tl IZott, N . , n11(1(!r:ibt,rec, I . , I?.: Si11111liIic:clIn111i11nr l)o1111(1:1r.y l:~y(,r ~:II~:III:II~~II l)o~li(,s fol. o f r r v l ~ I i ~o r y v i s I 1 5 5 5li5 (I!)52). [!):In] I<III)~II, (:.: l ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n1(111g i rl o r ~ ie r .,111'hl 2fi, !I7 -- 110 (l!lfi(i). S. llolv r r s sn ~ l r [!la11 S:i\v:tlzlti, 0 . :SI.rii1111111gs1a~lql (!ill('roli(.r(\~l(l(. 11111 I<II~:(*I. ,\(.I:I hlr.(.l~.!I. Is!) 21 I (l!)70). I!)5I Sc11:ul. I{.,\.. :111(11<01111. I<.: Slcill f r i v l i o ~:I:I(~ III-:LI-I~:IIIS(~~~ ~ (.I~i~r:~<.l.(~risli(.sI:~I~I~II:II. (11. i t llo1111(1:1ry l:~y(:r or1 : t.yIi11~1cr : ~ x i : ~ ~ ~ ( ~ o ~ ~ i j ) r ( : flo~v. .II\S I S . (i7 I li75 ( l!)5l 1. I ill il ssiI~l(~ (!)lil S,,llilll~r.I,.: ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ~ I IIII,~ ~ 1I? 1 1 l ( ~ 1 1 i i Sl,ri,lllllllg. I"(II.s(.!I~. 1111:. \\If's. iil~i%r I:LIII~II:II(*I I I I 1111 I . Ilorl. 428. (1!)22); ZI\RIM 2. !Ni It)(\ (l!l22); l'l~ys. X. 2;J. I 4 (l!)22). 1971 S c l ~ I i r l ~ t . i ~ 11.: 1,:1111i1inrcS l , ~ ~ l ~ l a ~ ~ s l ZAhlhlt ~ . ~ g . 2li:i (l!I:t:$). )g, ~ r r i l 1:j~ 260 [!I81 S r l ~ l i c l i t i n g ,[I., n ~ l t 'L'rr~c~krnl)rotIf.. l I<.: S ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I I:IIII ~ ~ i ~: I~I I( ~~~ r~ ) ~ ~ s r o I i( t~ ~I. i > ~ ~ i l l ~ l ~ I)ir: II t ~I .I Scllrihr. Z,\Rlhl .?2. !)7- 11 I (l!l52). (!)!I] S c l ~ l i ( . h l i ~ ~ g . I)io I : I I I I ~ I I ~ ~ ~ 11.: Striil111111g r i l l v ~ nxi:ll :III~C~S(~~)III~(~II l ~ r ( w l rI)v(.II11111 l roti ~~ I<iirprr. 111g..Arrl1. 21, 2'27 244 (1053). 1100J S r l ~ l i r l ~ l i n g , ' ~ l ~ r ( ~ r - ~ l i ~ ~11r11111(1:1ry ~ i : ~ l 11.: ~r~~sio 1:tyrr 1101v. I , ( V ~ I I ~ II~ ('IIII~~~II~~OII :I[. IIIV XIII o f I h r III~C*~II:I~~~II:I~~I<I>S(*:I~(,\I l ) ~ ~ l ) v o v ~ ~ i l < / , l ~ ~ g oS Il ~~ ) ~ i : ~ . >\ssot,i:~tio~~ l l y ( l r ; ~ ~ l i ~ ~ :II for s : I\ . l!I(il. l'ror. N(-l~vi;.l~)(r ASS(,III~)~(Y: (;i.~~Cr:~lv l ' ~ \ s s o r i : i l . i o ~ ~ (I(. IIII,I~I.II:II,~IIII:II(~ < ~ ~ ' l ~ ( ' r i ' l i ~ ~ ~ (I(* l l!)5 II~cI~:LIII~~~II~~s. . l2!)0; SVI: :11si1 l ) F l , - l < ( ~ l ~ . ( l ! I f i l ) . l)~~l)rov~~ilz 1262 [ I 0 1 1 S r l ~ l i c h t i n g ,H.: (:rrr~zs~:liic.l~~,t,I~eorir, 51.11 (.(I.. 11r:11111 (:. \'(-rlitg, I<:lrlsr1111(..I!)li5. ,;IlW21 S c l ~ o l l w ~ ~ ~ r i ( * r . 1)iv ln111i11:1rc ~ ~ ~ i l ~ ~ ~:III ~ ~ o l~ : v~ l l ~ o ~ ~ ls ~s lI<,,I~I)PI~II.~ ~ F,\\'.: l ~ ~ g s i i ~ ~ y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I)iss. I<r:~n~isl:l~\vri:, 1!)4:$. Sl~ot.lc.~~rtl \,c.l.sio~lill ~ I r v l R l .; ~ l l ~ 1. 270 277 (1!)4!)). ~ . 52 (l!)48), [10:11 S(,:~rs. \V. I<.: I!c)IIII(~:I~~i ~ ~ f l ( : r s . I : ~ y v ro f yl~\v(:(lc y l ,I,\S 1.5. e l ! ) IIO:I:II , S(~1l.s.\ \ ' . I < . : I<oIIII(~:I~\. I:~y(.rs ill I ~ I I ( ' ( ~ - I ~ ~ I I I ( * IIlolv. O \ .).~ ~~ .I t * ~ . l ~< v v . 7 . 231 2x5 I S ~ i ~l ~ l I l h I. , . . (1!)51), [ IO4j S r ~ l ~ ~I<.: r y . I,:~II~III:I~ I)ot111(1:1ryi l y r r 0 1 1 : S ~ ) ~ I I I I ~ I I ~i.11111. ill s111:111 :IIIKI(.S : ~ l l : I, t111 :I l I 01' ~ s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ llo\\. ~ l i c 2.1. 430 4:Ni (l!b57). r s o J,\S :<?!I ( l ! l 5 l ) . [IOT,] S(luirc:. 11. 11.: '1'1i(, r0111111 I:ltllili:~r j r l . ()II:I~!. .I RI(Y.II. ; \ l ~ l ) l . RI:IIII. 1. :!2I [IOOJ S c l i ~ i ~ 11. 13.: l<:~(Ii:ll IW'ly y r a r s o r IIOIIII(I:I~~-I:I~~C~~ r. jcls. I.~~SV:I~(~II :III(I 11. (\\'. 'I'I>IIIII~~:I (;ijrllrr, rcl.), l $ r n ~ ~ ~ ~ s c l 1!)55, r 47 . 54. ~~v ig IIOIin] Sp:~rro\v, 1S.RI.. I,ili, S., :111d I.IIII(~~~~II.( r l ) ~ ~ ~ill l 1 1 1 ~ ~II.O~~~II:IIII~I, '1'. S. : 1i10\1. ( I r \ . c . l rn 11) ~111r:i11rr rrgioli o f tl~l)('snntl c l ~ ~ r t s . I'hys. F l t ~ i t l s . :$:I8 347 (I!Ni4). 7
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264

XI. Axially ~ymmctrical and thrm-dimensional boundary layera

1,

1 '

[107] Steinhcucr, T.: Three-dimensional boundary layers on rotating bodies and in cornera. AOARlJograph No. 97, Part 2, 567-611 (1965). [I081 StewartRon, K., and Howarth, L.: 011the flow past a quarter infinite plate using Oscen's equatior~s.,lFM 7, 1-21 (1960). [I091 Stewarteon, K.: Viscous flow pnst a qr~nrtcrinfinite platc. .JAS 28. 1- 10 (1961). [I101 'J'nll)ot, I,.: I ~ m i n a r swirlinl?.pipe flow. .J. Appl. Mcch. 21, 1 -7 (1954). [1]():r] 'rrrn, S.: On lnminirr bou~~dary lnyer over a rotnt~ngblnrle. .JAS 20, 780 -781 (1953). 11I I j 'J'nylor, (. 1.: 'J'ho h o ~ ~ n d e r y : layrr in the ronvcrging nozzle of n swirl ~rlorr~izc.r. (211rtrt.-1. Mcch. Appl. Mal.11. 3 , 129- 139 (1950). 11 121 Tetervirt. N. : Bonndnry-layer momentu~nequations for t.hree-dirncnsional flow. NACA . . TN 1479 (1!)47). 11131 l'iiford. A.N.. and Chu, S.T.: On the flow around a rotnting disc in a uniform stream. JAS 19. 284-285 (1952). [I 141 Timn~nn, R.: Tllc theory of three-di~nensiotialboundnry layers. J3011ndarylayer eiTecle in acrodynamirs. Proc. of a Sympouiutn held a t Nl'l,, landon, 195.5. [I 151 'I'i~nman.It., and ZturL. J.A.: Eine RcrIicnmet.hode fiir dreidi~nensior~alc Ia~ninnre Grenzschichten. I'iftv vears of boundnry-layer research (W. 'l'oll~nien and II. GBrl.ler, cd.), - " Ur~unsclrweig, 1655, 432-445. [I101 Ton~otika, Ihrninar bonndary layer on the surface of n sphcro in n oniform stream. S.: ARC 1tM. I678 (1935). , [I171 I'oniotika, S., and Imai, I.: On the transition from Ianiinar to trlrbulent flow in the bounclary lnycr of a sphere. Rep. Aero. Rea. lnst. Tokyo Id, 389-423 (I9:SR); and Tomotika, S.: l'roc. Phya. Math. Soc. Japan 20 (19:38). [ I 181 l'r~~ckcnbrotlt., ]$in Quadmtnrvcrfnhren zur Bcrcchnung der Reib~~ngsscl~icllt E.: an axinl angestriin~br~ rotiercndon I)rolikiirycrn. In&-Arch. 22. 21 -35 (1964). [II!)] Trr~ckcnl~rodt, Die turbulente S t r i i n ~ ~ ~ r l g E.: an eirier angeblancnen rotiercndcn Scheibe. ZAMM 34, 150-162 (1954). [I201 Vogelpohl, G.: Die Stromrlng dcr Wirbclquelle zwischen ebeuen M'iinden mit Reriicksichtigung dcr Wandreibung. ZAMM 24, 280-294 (1944). 11211 Weher, 11. E.: The boundary lnycr inside a conical surface due to swirl. J. Appl. Mech. 23, 587 --592 (1950). 11221 Wieghardt, I(.:- ISinigc Grcnzscl~icht~ilr~~s~~~igc~~ nri S<ot.nt,ionskiirpern.SchilFstccIinik 3. 102 - 103 (1!)55/5(i). [12:3] Wieselsl,orger, C.: Uber den L~~ftwitlerstand gleichzeitiger Rot,ation des Versochsbei korpers. Phys. Z. 28, 84-88 (1927). 11241 Wild, .J.M.: The bountlary laycr of yawed infinite wings. JAS IS, 41 --45 (1940). 11251 Va~nnpa..J.: An npproximatn soInt,ion of t.he Ianiinar ho~~ndnry layer on a rotating body of rcvol~~t.ion nr~iforr~~ in co1111)rc~niblc flom. I'roc. OLIi .Japiln. Nat.. (:orrgr. Appl. Mecl~.. 295---298 ( 1956). 11261 Young, A. I).: Soruc special boundary-lnyer problems (20th Prarldtl Motnorial Ixcturc). ZFW 1, 401-414 (1977). [I271 Znrnir, M., nntl Yonng, A.D.: Expcrinlcntal invcsl.igat,ion of the boundary layer in fl strca~n\visecorr~c?r. ,Icro. Quart,. 21, 313- 339 (1!)70).
>
L ,

Thermal boundary layers in laminar flow t

n. Dcrivntion o f
r
7

the

energy equntion

.Ih c transfcr of llcat bctwcen a solid b o d y ar~tl liquid o r gascocls flow is a prohlcm a whosc considcrnt,iorl involvcs Ll~cscioncc of Illlid nlotion. 011 ttlc pl~ysic:alm o t i o r ~ of tile flt~itl t h e r e is srrpcrirnposed a flow of h c a t a r ~ t l , gcricrally s p c : ~ l t i ~ ~tllc g, t w o ficltls i r ~ t ~ c r a c111ortlcr t o tletcrminc t h o t c m p c r : ~ t u r c t. clistribntion i t is rlec:c:ssary to cornl)inc t,l~e q ~ ~ : ~ t i of~nlotion wit11 thoso of h c a t condnot,ion. 11 is int,r~it,ivcly c o ls cvitletlt t h a t 1,llc LcmpcraLr~rcdjstribution arountl a h o t body i r ~ fluid s t r c a n ~will a o f t c ~ lJI:LVC t h e s a m c c h a m a t c r a s t l ~ c vclocity distril)utior~ n bor~ntl:try-1:~yor i flow. F o r axample, if we irr~aginc solid botly which is placcd in a fluid sLrcam : ~ r l t l w l ~ i c h n is I ~ e n t c d o t h a t i t s temperature is maintaincct a b o v e t h a t of t h c surror~ndingst,hen s it is clcnr tllat t l ~ c : t e m p e r a t u r e of t l ~ c sCrcam will incrcasc only ovcr x t l ~ i r ~ 1:~yc:r i n ifllei n ~ ~ n c d i a t - e i g h b o ~ ~ r h o o d t h e b o d y ant1 ovcr a narrow w a k c bchintl i t , Fig. 4.2. rl of ,I,h c m a j o r p a r t o f tllc transition from t h e t,cmpcraturc of tllc h o t botly t o t.llat of Cl~c
coltler surroundings taltcs placc in a tl~irllayer in tllc n c i g l ~ b o u d l o o dof the l)otly wl~iclr,in analogy wit,lt flow phenomena, m a y b e termctl t l ~ cl ~ c r m a k)onrld;iry I;~ycr. t l It, is cvitlcnt, tllnt flow phenomcna a n d t l ~ e r m n l pt~cnorncnainteract, to n higll clcgrcc. T o 1)cgiri t . 1 ~ investigatiori of s t l c l ~ ) h c n o m c n x , L is rlecossary t o cstablislr tlrc ~ i cncrgy bal:~ncc for :L llnitl clcmcnt in mot.ion a n d t o consitlcr it in atldition to t , l ~ c ctl~tai~ions rnot.ion. For a n inc:ornprcssiblc fluitl t.11~ of crlcrgy b:~lnr~cc clctorr~~ir~ccl is b y t.llc int,crnal o l r r p y , t,he condr~ction Ilcat, t , l ~corlvcct,ion o f l t c a t with tllc st.rc:ani of c nntl t , l ~gc~lcr:~tiorl llcat through friction. TII s comprossil~lc r of llr~itl h c r e is a n ;ultlit,iot nal t,crtn tlnc i.o t h c worlc of cxpansion (or comprcssion) wtlcr~l.hc volnrnc is c11:~ngc:cl. I n all r:lscs m.diation m a y also bc proscnt, b u t it.s c o r l t r i b ~ ~ t ~isosmall a t mot1cr:rtc: i r~ t,on~peratures, anti wc shall neglect i t complctcly. W c shall now proccctl t o establish t,l~is cncrgy b:~lancc o n t h c basis of ttlc F i r s t Law of Tl~crmotlyrlarnics,consitl(:ring an rlemcnt.xry volume A V = dx dy d.z of mass AM = P A V a s it flows along iths ~ ) : i t , l ~ . l ' l ~ cqunnt.ity of h e a t dQ a d d e d t o t h c volume dr~rirlg a11clcn~crttof tirnc tlt st:rvcs t o jnrrcasc it,s int.crna1 cncrgy b y a n amorlnL tllg,, arltl t,o pcrli)rrn work tl 14'. I lc~ncc:

cncrgy

- work
-

: Ilcrc a.nt1 in \vl1:11, follo\vs, we e~nploy t l o ~ ~(Ir ,1011lt-t,I~c l

as t.l~c nnit of work ant1 ct~crgy).

1 a111intlcbtctl f.o l'rof=%wr I<. Ccrslcn for l l ~ c rcvisrct v r r s i o ~ ~ t . l ~ cli:q)tc:r. of i~ I Nt~\vl~on~~it~lcr or I .I

I NIII)

206

XIT. l'l~rr~nnl bo1111r11iry lnycra i n Inminnr flow

'1'111- t.t-r111l lC7./tlt rc:l)rt:srnls n sr~l~st.arrt tlcriv:~tivcwlricl~ consist,^ of a local ant1 t i:tl :I t.or~vc.t.l.ivrc . o ~ ~ l . r i l ) l ~ t . i o ~ ~ .

Tho nrgst,ivc sigr~ a.tltletl in order t o follow t,11c sign corlvent,ioll of cqn. (1 2.1) accortlis i11g t o w l ~ i c l ~ work adtlcd t.o t.11~ fluid from t,lrr! oui,sitlc is rlcg,zt,ivc. T l ~ c tol.:tl work j)erforrnrcl by t.11~o r ~ n : ~ l sl~csring n :rntl sl,rrssrs prr unit! t.itnc rsrl trow l)c writ.t,c:r~ :IS

r:~.I.tlrc gratlirtrt.. I l r r ~ c c ,I,lto a ~ r ~ o ~of n l . t,ra.nsforrotl ir~t,o o l ~ ~ l v r 1' i , l ~ r o ~ ~ g l r ~ I~rnl, v A SIII.I':I~(~ I I I ~ I I ~ \vl~i(:l~ ~IC S arc normal 1,o t , l ~ c2:-dirccl.ion (I'ig. 12.1) is rclr~al t,o ( h i ) '/'/r?:r) tl!/tlz. 1Zy oo~rt,rnst,, a r n o r ~ rIc:~virlg1,llcv o l ~ ~ l isrfiivc~l l(k'3 ' / ' / r 3 ~ : ) 1l.l~o ~t n by ( i ' / i i . v ) (k;)7'/tln.)tl.r](I!/ tlz. 'l'l~rrs, t,hc arrlorlnt. of Itcat. atltlcd I)y oor~tl~lr(ion tlnr.irlg l,itnr. tll 1.0 n, v o l ~ ~ r r ~ o c:n.n I)r \v~.itt,rll Al'

JIrrc a,, n,), . . . , s,, rlct~ol.c tho rlorlnn.1 ant1 s l ~ r : ~ r si.rc~sst:s i ~ ~ g itil.rot111rctlr:~r.lit*rl l i eqns. (3.20) and (3.26). Substituting eqtrs. (12.3), (12.4) nl~tl( I 2.0) into cqlr. ( 1 2.1 ), nntl pcrfnrnring s 11uln1)crof obvious simplificst.ions, i ~ ~ c l ~ l t l tllose it~l.rotl~rcc,tl ing Oy cqn. (3.1I), we ol~t,airl, after some calculnt,iorl, t,l~c:followilrg oncrg.y o ( j ~ ~ : ~ I . i01' r ~ s o 1,l1(! flow:

Jlcrr @ rrpresrnts the tlissipatiorl firnct,iol~ give11 I)y

Rgr~at.iot~2.7) enjoys gcnrral valitlit,y, I)ut i r l most ~,r:r,c>t,irnl (1 r:rsrs i t is ~ ~ o s s i lt.olsirn~ c plify it st,ill furtOrcr. Jrl doing so, it, is ncccssnry carcfrtlly t.otlist,ir~g~~islr l)ctwcc~r . 1 1rnsr 1 ~ of a pcrfcc:t, gas n.ntl t . l ~ s of :LII incom~)rc~ssil~lc 'I'll(- l.l~c~r~notlyt~n~rric? t Ill~itl. proprrt,ic,s of t , l ~ c Int,t,rr/lo ~ t o l ronsl.itnt.e n lirnit.i~lg m.sc of 1,lrt: ~,rol)c.~.I of t . 1 1 ~fi)rl~lc-r. li~c.t., irs 111 t,lic va.riat,ion in i,l~o int,crn:~Ienergy of :L prrfrc:t gas is clc c,, ti'/', \vlrcrrns l,l1:11~ 01' it,s o ~ ~ t l ~ a lis ltlh. c,,dT. Tlin corrcspo~~tling l y v:rr.iat.ior~sfor nrl int-orrrl)rrssil)l(~ fl~litl :1ro tic = c (17' a,ll(I (I/& r (17' -1- (l/@)tlp .c .
I--

: l'tlt. ill 1 . 1 1 i~ltcrtr:~l p,,l ~ c~~c.rgy anti n c.l~:l,ngci r r Iti~~t,l.ic: oirc:rgy I,y nrl ntno~lnt, { 6 0 LI I'(~L' 1- 11' 4 i ( 1 2 ) } , if (1 l l ~ t x( , I I : I I I ~ V i l l 1l1r l)oi~(~~rI.ial ~ g y crr( (IIIC to (lis~)l:~(:crnr~rl,l ~ c irk t gr:tvit:~t,io11;11 Iirl(1 is 11rgIrt:1(~1. I l(kt~cc
3

I Ilr c,l~ntrg(rr:l t . l ~ f.ot.nlrt~c.rgy.l l C T , (:orr!iist,s of a chnngo tllg il r t

gas i , l ~ n t ~

M'itlr 1l1c nit1 of' Illis rclr~:tt,io~r ~ r tof :~ l

c , ( I T - c,, d '1' 1 (1

268

XII. 'I'hcrrnal borrnrlary lnycrs in lnrninar flow

b. Tclnpernture incren.9~through ndinbntic cornprcssion; stagrlation temp~rat~ure 269

(1 J = 1 Nm;

IIcre c,[d/kg (leg] represrnt.~ t11c specific: Ilnnt a t const,nnf, pressure per unit mass. I n general, c, clepcnds on tjcrnpcmtfnre. 111 tlte case of a constant thermal contlr~ot,ivit,y, we obtain the sirnplcr form

Table 12.1. Physical constants 1 IrJ/kg dcg lo3 m2/sec2 dog)

Tcrnpernt~~re

Specific
hent
Cv

In tltc ca.se of an incomprcssil)lc fluid, wc liavc tliv wit.11d n . c tb7' yields -

rct

= 0, ant1 cqll. (12.7) togrtllcr

["CI

T [Kl

[lcJ/kg Kl

[J/"

80"

K1

I
1

[niz/mcl

I
1

[kg/'n nec =PnoJ

Mercury

I he tan~pnmt~nre changes brought, about by thc dynamic: prcssrlre variation in a comprc:ssil)le flow arc important for its heat balalice. I n particular, i t appears useful t o cornpare t.11~ tc~nperat,rlrc diffcrcnccs wliicli result from the heat due t o friction wit,ll t.liosc cattsctl by comprcssion. For this reason wo shall first cvnlrrat.c t.110 tcrnpcra.t.ttrc increaso due t o compression in a frictionless fluid stream : 1 f the velocit,y varies along a st.rm.tnlitlc t,l~otcmpcr:~t.l~rc must vary also. In order to simplify t 1: - .. 1 ; argrrtncrtt it, is perrnissi1)lo t o assumc t l ~ n tthe process is atliabatic xntl rcvcrsiblc bcca~tsct,hc small value of conductivity and t,ho high rate of change in t h e t8hcrmotfyttatnic propcrtics of state will, in general, prevctit, ally appreciable cxchange of h m t wit.11 t.hc sr~rrot~ndirlgs. partic:rtlar wc propose t o cale~rlatethe tempcmtfurc In increase ( A T ) , , 7 , - ,7 which occlrrs a t t,lle stsagnation point of a botly in a ' ' stream anti wlticlt is tlue t,o compression from p,, t>op,, Fig. 12.2.

20

2931

0.138

9.3

-5

1560

0-115

10.023

1,uhr. oil

Air (ntmooph.)

-50 0 3-60 100 200 300

223 ' 273 323 373 473 573

1.006 1.000 1.006 1.009 1.028 1-048

In an analogous manner, thc complete Navicr-Stokcs r(1nalions (3 26) lent1 t o the I%ernoalliequation when viscosit,y is neglected in them and whcn a n intagrnl along a streamlinc is talren:
l'ig. 12.2. Calc~~lat~ionbltc tctnpcraturc inc.rmno of at stagnation point due to adiabatic comprc3sion (A7'),,, = To - 7.m

so t h a t the tempcrature increase T For the case of zero heat condnc,tion i n frictionless flow the energy equation (12.11) givcs t3hefollowing relation between temperature and pressure along a strcamliric (coor<linatje ) s
-

T,

1 = - (wW2 w2), c~

(12.14a)

anti, in pnrt,icular, the temperature increase a t the ~tngtiat~ion point ( w adiabatic contprcssion becomes

0) t111cto

wl~crc o ( s ) d c n o t c ~h e vclocity along a streamline. Dividing by e y and integrating t t u along a strcamlinc we obtain "

IIere w dcnotes the free-stream vclocity (Fig. 12.2). The temperature T, assumrd 1)y , the fluid when the velocity is reduccd to zcro is known a s the slagnntio~t te~npernlurr, sometimes also referred t o a s the total lernperature. The difference (AT),, = T o - 1'brtween the stagnation and the free-st,rram temperature will hcre be called t h e ndiczbtrlic trmprralitre incrrosc

270

XIT. 'I'l~rrtnalbo~~ndnry layers in leniinar flow

l $ ( l ~ " t i "(1 2.14%).~v'.llir:ll a l s o i r n o w ~ ~t,hemmprcr.ible B e r n o ~ l lcgurt,inn,has ~ ia :~s i b r r n t l r t l ~ ~ ( . r ( l t l ~ c n s u ~ n p t ~ i t11:~t on a o ~ l t,l~o flow in t l ~ e strertm is rev~niible,i. e. t h a t t'he er~tn,p.yremailm c:or~st.:~nt along n st.rcnmlir~c. ac:tr~alfact crln. (12.143) in more 111 ge~lernlt11:tn this nrgumcrlt would suggest, a s it applies t o arty o n e - d i r n e ~ ~ s i o r ~ ~ l st,rcam, sric:l~a s Ll~oflow t.llrough a slentlor nozzle, on col~ditiont h a t there is no cxtjrrrlnl excl~nngo ofllcat, Imt irrcspect.ivo of wJ~ct,I~or crtt,ropy remains constant the or not,. Tllr erl11nt.io11 can bc sl~ownt o bo approximat.c:ly t,ruc : ~ l o r ~a sl,rcaI,~linc g i l l st.c:t(ly t~l1rcr-(lin1r:r1sional llolv1.. F o r air wit.11 c, -- l.OO(i k.J/kg drg the ac1iabatic tc.rnprr:~t.~lre incrcwso a t n vrlonitpyot'ul, 100 ~ r ~ / s o r a value of has

I n rnot,iotls wllore t.cmperatnro tlilTc~renrcsbring at)oul. dircrcr~crwin dcl~sit~y it is necessary t,() inr.lIldc buoyancy forces in t.llo ccl~~nl.ions 1not,io11(33.29) R I I ~ 10 of ~ trc,:lt t,llcnl as Ijotly forc:cs irnp~~cssnd t l ~ rl i c l r l i t l nr gas, I'lrc,ir 111ngl1it.rltlc. on I)(,itig

'I'he %di:th:~tir: ~ m p r r a t ~ r ~ r e t inr:re:lse c n l ~ ~ ~ ~ l nfor :kir from eqn. (32.1413) is sllown f.eti ~)lot,tcd 14'ig. 12.3. T l ~ o ill spcoifir: hcnt,, c:otltluc:t,ivitjy,arid other t,hrrmnl ,)roperties for n number of s110st~:~ncrs list,ed i r ~ are Table 12.1.

I[cre p tlc.l>ot,os rorffi(:icn(, I,llrr~n:~l t,llr of cxpnnsiot~nl. l.r~ml)c~r:r.l.~~~~c t,llc rn.ti() 'I'm, 1' is "1' t,llc t,wo sprcific Iir:r.t,s, antl cm is t . 1 1 ~ s1)rrtl 01' so1111tl t I ~ ( s l l i l i t l . ol' a~.n\rita.tio~~. 'I'l~is r I > IlC Inst t.isrm (:all 1)c nrglrrt,ctl in flows \vliivlr n1.c nfl'c~c,t.c.(l nlrnns, gellrl~ally L ) r a l ~ i l ~ g . t.l1c t1cj~crltlrnc:rof tlrnsit,y o n ~ ~ r c s s r ~ l . c t)c: ig~lol.c%tl. s (lint. can ~ ~ ~ ~ we srlbtl.act (,he ~ , grad p , ~ p, g, gct~crnt,etl I J 1.11~ t d i o ficltl, wc t , l ~ ~ t,cr~n = ~ s oljl,ain from erllls. ( : J . ~ ' J.zll<l(3.30) t,llc followi~lg ) rno(lific(l form of t ' l ~ c a r i c r - S t * ) l ~ c ~ N e ~ ~ ~ ~ : t1lr tst.c~ntlyflows of a con~prcssil)lc for ~ ~ i ~ ~ fluitl of const.a.111viscosit,y: a(e.) a ( e 4 ?(PIO) --0 , (12.1~)

ax

4-

a~

az

Fig. 12.8. Atli:rl>nf ic tcnlp.-ratrlro inrrmmo at stngnntion point for air frorrl rqn. (12.1411) (r,, = 0 24 l%t~i/Il)i) I<

111 arlllition it, is nrcrss:r.ry t o consitlcr t.11~ energy cclr~:tI,iot~ (12.12), :l.lso 1111tlvr l.llc :~ssnrn~>t,ionconstant propcrt,ics: of

ilvrr t.11~; tlissipat,iorl f r ~ n c t ~ i o@, ,is given I)y oq11. (12.8). For ~)orf(xct r~ gnsrs t i o l ~ st.a.t,ecan be writ.t,en an of -P . R T . =
CI

1110

cqlln-

(12.20)

272

XII. Tl~ern~al boundary layers in laminar flow

c. Theory of sitniI:~rit,yn 11c:ttt,ranafrr i

273

I n tile general case of a compressible medium, eqns. (12.17) t o (12.20) form a system of six s i m ~ ~ l t ~ a n c o u s equations for the six variables: u, v, w , p, e, T t . F o r incompressible media (liquids) t h e last equation a s well a s t h e trerms u ap/ax etc. wllich represent, cornprrssion work vanish. I n this case there are five equations for u, v, w , p, 1'. 1t is noccsnnry to ernphnsizo t.llnt tho sytnl)ol p does not donotc tilo sarno physical quantity in eqnu. (12.IR), (12.19) ancl (12.20). Wherens i n tho lnut t.wo cqunlionn p stnntls for tho thorrnodynamic property, the uy~nbol in eqns. (12.18) represents the difference between the actual prcup sure and the static pressnre of the modinn1 at rest when it* density is em (cf. remark concerning fluid8 without free surfaces in Sec. I V a). In the cn.908 treated in detail in the literature so far, tho pressnre term has been included either only in eqns. (12.18) - the case of free flows - or in the pnir of eqrlationa (12.10) and (12.20) for compressible flown. Before proceeding t o intlicate solut,ions of t h e above equations, which we shall tliscnss in tho sl~ccccding sections, we propose, first, t o examine them from t l ~ e o i r ~ t p of view of t11e principle of similar it?^ [10B]. I n this way we shall discover the dimensionns less groups on which the s o l ~ ~ t i o must depend. W e begin by introducing dimensionless quant,il,ies illto eqns. (12.18) ant1 (12.19) in the same manner as in Sec. I V a , when Itcynol(1s's similarity principle was deduced from the Navier-Stoltcs eqr~xtior~s. All lengt,l~s will be referret1 t,o a representative 1engtJ1 I , the velocities will he made dimcnsionlcss wit,l~ reference t o the free-stream velocity U,, t h e density with respect t o e,, ant1 the pressure will be rcferrctl t o e, Urn2. The temperature in t h e energy e(111at.iorlwill be madc dimcnsionlcss wit11 reference t o tt,~et,empcrat,ure dircrence (Al'), = T,,, -- TW between the wall and t01e fluid a t a large distance from t h e body; t,hus O* -- (7' -- Tc,)/(A' " I)rnoting all climcnsionlcss q ~ ~ a n t i t iby a star we obtain 7). es from eqns. (12.18) anti (12.10) for the equation of motion in the x-direction a n d for t h e energy equation in t h e two-dimensional case wit11 g, = -g* cos a:

I t is recognized t h a t the solr~tions eqns. (12 21) nntl (12.22) tlcl)cntl on Ll~cfollowof ing five dimensionless groups:

'l'hc /irst group is t l ~ c alro:~tlyf:tmili,zr Ilcynoltls n r ~ n l l ~ cT .t ~ c r fo11rL11 ant1 fifI11 groups differ only Ijy {,hefactor R, so t.l~at, all, t,l~crc only /out. inrlrpe7arIe111 in arc di?itcit.?iol~l c ~ qua,i~lilies. s The second group call be rcl)rcscnlctl as

This gives t l ~ c Grashof n111n1)cr

. -

q /? 1:' (A 7')0----

v2

'i'hc third quantity m.rl bo wrilt,cn as

e* jU* au* 4- . $;; *

ao *

4;:)
ao*

= -' p . ax*

Q* (u* h*

-i- V* a y * )

e,r,

"
*

+ I C!K)L o * cos a + Urn2

azo* a20*

,*

e,U-l

"--

(""'
+

is the tl~erinul dilluaivity [m2/sec or fL2/soc] and

! (: , ?!) ay*2
(12 21) is the dimensionless Prandtl number. It will be noted t h a t i t depends only on tho proprrtirs of the metlinm. For air P = 0.7 npproxirnatcly anrl for watcr at 20C P = 7 approximately, whereas for oils i t is of the order of 1 0 0 0 t owing t o t l ~ r ilarge viscosity r (see also Table 12.1). The Jourlh dimcnsior~lcssquantity leads clircctly t o the tcmperature inrrease tllrougli atliabatic compression as calculat.cd in cqn. (12.14b). We
1 1 % ~ ~

1-

1-

The tlimcr~sionlemd i s s i p a l i o ~ ~ function is here givcn b y wl~cre is Irnown as tllc dirnensionlcss Eclrcrt nn~nltcr. l ~ quantiLy E = lJm2/c1,(A71)0 E T c

. .. . .

- . .-.. . .

sine(?the viu~onityI wn.8 aflsllnled c011sta11t above system is valid only for moderetc changes / the in tcni rrnbrlre. I n the rmc of large temperature tlilTerences in gnscs (over 50" C or 00" F), o r rnocfcmtn ones (over 10" C or 18' F) in liqnids, / I ~ n ube f,aken to vary with tcnlpcmtnre. ~t I n tllin c:rse t.110 cq~~ation motion robins the form (3.29).The six equations under consideraof tion nlnst he sn()ple~nenbri the empirical viscosity law /c ( l ' )eqn. (13.3), and, ill all, we by , hnvo n syutrn~ nevcn uirnnlt.nncoun cqnnI.ioncl for tho seven functions I t , 11, 111, p, e, 7. 11. of '

is sorncLirncs used. It in related to the Prandtl number hy t.hr equation P,

PR

: The ratio of tho two tempcrat~lrc dilTcrcnces Itas, 80 far, not received a separnk nanle. k'ollowing

n snggcstion by l'rofessor E. SrhmidL it 11m bern proposed in nn rarlinr edition to call it, after I'rofc?u~or It. C:. Eeltort,,ant1 to give i l t.l~e IF. name of t.hc 1Srkrrt. nn~nbrr, E.

car1 I)r rc>t.nilrrvlin inrotnl~rrssil~l(~ :IISO. I)rit, I l ~ c flo\v irrf~cr~~rctnt~ion reference t o wit11 ntli:~l):rt.ic: c:ott~l)rc~ssiotr c.cnsr,s l,o I)(: vnlitl. It is now possil)le 1.0 conclutle t h a t frictior~al hc~11, IICRI, ( I I I C 1.0 ( : O I I I ~ ) I . C S S ~in11)ort~nnt. the c:n.lcnlnt.iorr of t,hc temperature nncl :Ire ~ I I for fic.ltl ~ h r n tltr I'rcv--st,rrn.tn vc,loc:ity 11, is so lnrgc t.l~n(, ntlinhntic t,crnl,er;~ture t,lro in(:rt~:~sr ol' l,lt(, S:I~II(\ is ordvr nf ~ n ; ~ g ~ ~ i l:ISt (I,lrc pr(?srril)c~l t l(\ I~~:~r~pt>rnt,~trc (lifT<:rcr~cr l ) ( ~ l , \ \ ~ ( l,lt(, l Itot ly :I 1141 l.lt(, sl~r~~:llll, ~~~ l

I f l.ltis ~)rt~sc~ril)c.tl I I I ~ I ( ~ ~ ; I ~ (lill'+rr~~(*c I.lro same ortlt:r of rnn.gr~it,tltle s I.(. II~o is of a (.It(: nl)soltift~ I,rnrl)c~r:~.l.t~rc f'rcc: sI.rr:r.trr, wl~ic:l~ for cxnrnplc, tho cnso with a of !.I:(: is, roc-l<c.l :I(. vr.1.y l ~ i ~ nll,it,t~tl~~. 1Srkc.rl. r~rilnl)c,rI)rromc:s ccjl~ivnlcnt~ t,llc Mnclt l t 1,Irc: t.o I I I I I I I ~ ) ~ * ~ , s(*ebrt ' r o r ~I~ I I ~foIlo\\,i~rg : t l ( ~ t ~ I : ~ l r0111 (,Ire cq11nt,io11 :IS l , r f'i o ~ ~ : of stsate of a 1)(.rliv.fK:IS

I n most npp1ic:~tion.swe (lo rrot rcqtrirc t o lrrtow n.11 t,hr tlct,nils of 1 . 1 1 ~ t.?rn1)c.1.;~1 ltrc. arrd velocity field, b u t we wish, in the first, plncc, to know t.hc tjt~n,nI,it.y I t r , : ~ l . oxof chnngctl lwt,wcen t,lle body nntl t,ha strcnln. 'l'lris cl~lnnt,iI,y I)(: c.xl)rrssrtl \vif,lr I Irr c,nn aid of x coefficient of hcnt l,rnnsf(:r, a, wl~ichis tlcfinctl ril,lrer as :I lorn1 t~l~:r~rIil.y or ns n mcnn qt~nttt,it.y over t,11c srlrf:lcc of t.lto I)otly ~ ~ n t lc:ot~sitl(:rntiorr. rr r I hc rocffic:iollt, of II(::L(, t,r;lrtsf(:r is rc:l'crrc~tll,o I.IIc t1irvrc.11c.c: I~rt.\r.cv.n I I V Ir~rtl)c.I r ; ~ l , l ~of tile wall :LII~] of't , l ~ t :I111i(l, t , l ~ l:il,l,(!r 1)vi11g re t,lraI, c I,:L~<(\II : 1:11,g(:l i s l , : t ~I'I.I)III ~ i ~ :LI, L ( ~~ (,he wall. If q ( r ) tlcnot,ss t,hc clr~nrrI,it~y Itc:it r x c l ~ : ~ ~ ~I,(-r l I I I ~ I nrr:b :III(It , i r l r ( * of get I ~ ( = h<:nt,flux) a t n point r , tlrctl ac~ortling NC.II-/OII,'S I 01 cooli~l!~ is : ~ S S I I I I I ( Y (,II:I~,, 1,o I~I J it ~
1

.lhc cocfficie~~t. I~cnt, of t,r:~~rsft:r t , I t t ? ( l i n ~ ( ~ r r sI.l/n~%r(: 11:~s io~~ tlvg]. I\(, (II(> I ) O I I I I I ~ : I I . Y between n solitl botly nntl :I l l ~ ~ ithe I.mttsrc:r ol'Itr:~t, t111osolt:ly to c.o~~tltic~Iiot~. tl is In nccortlnnce wit,h Fot~ricr'sInw t,lle nt)soll~t.c vn.ll~e ~ . I I ( , I ~ c n tI I I I X is. (:(In. (12.2). of

~.u"

y 17'~../0~., T o , c,, ( y --

- -

1) . (.'or~rl)nri~~g I I S (12.20) a,trcI (12.30), :t11(1 inl.ro,Ir~rir~gI i ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~(~ts i ~ , t ~ II l~ r~ .s s ~ , ~ , ~ l ~ ; o ~ i vr(> i s ol)t,nili n loc;~ltlin~cl~sionlcss cocffic:icl~t of lrrnt f.mrrsl'c:r n.ltic:l~ is l i t ~ o \ ~ t ~Ilto :IS Nrissclt number N [ B l ] :

No\v

w l ~ c ~ rM - 1 ' . ./c... is I,Itc- hl:~c.ltI I I I I I I ~ ) ( * ~l.. 1 1 ~ \vorlr of cornpr~ssio~r tlrnt tluo t,o r~ ' nntl frit-lion I)rc.ontv i ~ t ~ l ) o r t . :wlrc,~~ I'rc~.-strc:~lr~l o i : i t is comp:trnl~lowit,l~t,l~at, ~ r ~ I ~t,Iw ~r .~ of' SOIIII(I. :11tt1 ~ I I ~ S I ,II IIv l)r(~s(~ril)(,~l I I I ) ( ~ I ~ ( l i l~l I~ * r ~ ~ t ( ~ r I~(*~ ; I ~ I ~ ( v I)IY~OIII~:S of 111,- orclrr of 1,111, : ~ l ~ s o I tI t ~l ~~I ~I I ) ~ ~I ~ I.V: I of l , l t t * l'tv(> ~ , ~ ( , : L I I ; I l~is C C - I I ~ iSl l l ) r : ~ ~ ~ li , li c ( ~ lligl~t, , I I I S I O l I.II,\ of'ro~!l~ttLs : i t , very ltiglt : ~ l l i l t ~ ~ l t ~ s . r I I t ( , prcrc~tli~~:! tli~nc~t~siorr:~l nnnl,ysis lrntls 1.0 t.ltr corrcl~lsiorrt.Irnt 111c s o l ~ t f ~ i oft ~ ~ o t,lrc?:~,ltovr syst.c-rn of c:clc~nl,iot~s t.11~ for vrlocily nntl t,cmpcrat,r~rc firltls tlcpcr~tlor1 t,ha foIlo\\ring fo11r ~li~ttrr~siottl(~ss grollps:
1

--

k
1

N ( T , - T) ,

=-.

k I N ( d l'),

(l2:11)

111

Urn 7' - l'm

(A?')(,

= /, (s*;R, P, G, E ) = 1, ( s * ;

R, P, G , E)

N = / (s*; R, P, G , E) ,
'J711c sccorl(l cql~nl,iorrst,nt.cs t.lr:~t,silnilnr procrsscs :&re:~lsocl~nr:tcl.rrizc~(l t h ~ . Ily fact. t,l~n,(f;)r t.lrr111 I.hc rnt,io 7'm/(A'/')n IIIIISI. I~nvt, I.II(' sntn(: \J:IIIIC (c/. I:!(;)). 'l'lrc syrlll,ol s* tlcrlolrs l ~ e r ct.11~ l,l~rco dirnc~nsiortl(~ss s1):lc.c cnortlinnl.c~s.If :L l l l t L : l l l v:rluc of the cosfficicnt, of 11cnt t,mnsfcr is ft)rmctl l)y int,t>grnt.ingovor t . 1 1 ~\vl>oltr sl~rfnrr, the spact-: coort1innt.c will ccnso t,o nppe:tr and

I f (AT'),, w l',.,1 . 1 1 ~ ICrltcr13 1111tn1)cr tlrlS~~rrnirrctl t,hr Mar11 ntln~l)erit1 nccoris I)y cqn. (12.27). '1'11~ ])rol)lcrn of cl(:t,c.r~~rining dirr~er~sionlrss 1,ltc grorrl)s \ \ , l l i r l 1 govchrn 1lon.s wiI.lr 11r:lI.I,r:t.r~s~nissior~ is l,rr:~l.(\(l n pnpcr 1))' P. Pis(:l~cr1361. it1
r l : l t ~ c , c > \vil.lr

276

XtI. Thermal boundary layers in laniinar flow

d. Exact aolutiona for the problenl of temperature distribution in a viscoua flow Fig. 12.4. Velocity and temperature distrib11Lion in Couette flow. a) Velocity distribution. b) Temperature distribution with heat generated by friction wl~en the temperatures of botl~ walls are equal. c ) Tcmperatrlre distribation wit11 heat gcncnted by Friction for tho cast when Lhc lower wall iu non-conducting
T-T,

277

Whrn sprcial solr~tionsare consitlerctl thcn, in most cases, one or more of the tlimensionlrss groups will disappear as the problem will only seldom be of this most general nature. As srrrl from eqn. (12 27) t h e temperature field and, hence, the coefficicnt of heat transfer tlcpcnd on the Eckert number only when the temperature cliKcrences arc large (50 to 100 C or 100 t o 200 F ) and whcn, simultaneously, t11e vclocitics arc very large and of the order of t h e velocity of sound. With moderate vclocitirs the ten~peraturcand vclocity fields depend on the Eckert number when temperaturc differences arc small (several degrees). Further, even with moderate vrlocitics, the buoyancy forccs in eqn. (12.21) caused by temperature differences arc small comparcd with the inertia and friction forces. I n such cases the problem ceases t o dcpend on thc Grasllof number. Such flows are called forced flows. Iience, for forced wnvrdio7t N = f (R, P) (forced convection) . , The Gmshof nr~mbcrbecomes important only a t very small velocities of flow, motion is caused by buoyancy forces, such as in the stream particularly if t l ~ e whicl~riscs along a heatcd vert.ica1 plate. Such flows are callctl natural, and we refer In to thc prohlcrn as one in d u r n 1 co~~vection. w c h cases thc flow becomes inde~)cntlrnt. the Rcynoltls numbcr, and of
N = f (G, P) ,

where

(natural convection) .

1. Coucttc flow. A pnrtic~~larly simple exact solution of t,llis systcm is obtainctl for Couette pow, i. e. for the case of flow between two parallel flat walls of which one is a t rest, the othcr moving with a constant vclocity U 1in its own plnnc, l'ig. 12.4. The solution of the equations of motion in the absence of a prcssurc g r a t l i c ~ int the ~ x-direction is

Examples of prol)lcms in forced flow are given in Sccs. c to g of the present chapter; cxan~ples problems in natural convection are contained in Sec. h. of
(I. Exnct solr~tionsfor the problem of temperature clistributinn in a visco~lsflow

A very simple solution for the temperature distribution is obtained when i t is postulated t h a t the temperature is constant along the wall, the boundary conditions being y=O: T=T,; y=h: l'=T,. (12.35a)
I n this case thc dissipation function reduces t o the simplc expression @ = ( a ~ ~ / a y ) ~ , and the equation for temperature distribution becomes consequently

We shall now proceed to solve several particular problems of temperature distribution. The examples to be discussed will be sclected from t h e Iarge number of possible cases on the ground of mathematical simplicity. We shall begin by discussing several cases of exact solutions, as given by H. Schlichting [ l o l l , just as we have begun witli the discussion of examples of exact solutions of the equations of flow with friction in Chap. V. For the case of incompressible two-dimensional flow witli constant properties the system of equations for the velocity and temperature dist,ribution in steady flow along a horizontal z,z-plane we obtain from eqns. (12.17) to (12.19):

With thc boundary conditiorls (12.35a), thc above equat,ior~ has a solution which is independent of x. Since, with v = 0, the term v aT/ay on thc Icft-hand sitlc also vanishes, all the convective terms on the left-hand side of eqn. (12.34) become equal t o zero. The resulting temperature distribution is, thercfore, due solely to the generation of heat through friction and to conduction in the transverse direction. Prom eqn. (12.35b) we obtain d2T k-=-p dy2 (12.35~)

(:),'

and, substituting dultly, we have

'UIC solution of this cquntion which sntisfics condil,ions (12.36n) is

d. Exact ~olrltions tho problem of t,ernpornture dist,ribrlt,ion it1 a viscotl~ for flow

271)

r ,

I llc tlitnrtlsionlrss ~ ) n r : ~ m r I r r
/I

v
ll1Z

0.8
06 .

(Fl - T")

r:111 also l)c wriI.t,rn a s

if \vc: pillf - - 'I1, (A7'),. 11, is sccn t,llnt i t cat1 I)o oxprcssctl i t 1 t,orms of 1.11~ 1'rnntll.l 1111in1)t:r 1111(1 l.llr 16c:ltcrt. n~rtnt)cr fro111 ccln. (12.28). I n t11c cnso ~~rlclcr consitlornI,iot~, i. c. \vl~rnt.lirrc is no convection of I ~ e i ~tth e temperature distribution is seen t o , cleltond o n tile protluot P x E. If, finally, t,hc ilbbrevintion rl = ?//it is introtluced, ttllo followin,n vrry dtiiple eqrlntion for tcmperatrlrc tlistribution is obtaincd:

Fig. 12.5. Telnpcrn1,rlre distribntion in Cor~ettc flow for vnrions temperaturea of both walls with lleet generated by friction (7'" = tempcrnturc of the lower wall, l', kmpcmlrlrc of t,he upper wall)

0u .
0.2
0

Tltis tlistributior~is seen plottetl in Fig. 12.4b. Tlic Iligllrst tcni[)ernturc by frirt,ional hcat occurs in t h c ccntrc ant1 llas a v a l t ~ o givcn by

T',,,c:rrnt,ccl

t.t\~~ij)(:ral [list ril)~~I.ion t~r(, consists of' a. lincnr t.ortn whic:ll is the snmc as in t h e r;~s(? n flr~itla t rest wit.11 no fricf.ionnl Ilcnt g e n ~ m t ~ o tSnpcriinposc!tl on i t t,llcro of l. is n par:~l)oliotlistril)lll.iorl wllic:l~ is tlllo t,o ltllc llrat genorat,ctl t.llrorlglt frint,ion. r I II(: Lc~nll)rr:~l,rlrt; tIist,ril)tltiotl for \,:~riot~sX I I I ~ ~ Sof' tllo ~ ) r o t l ~P c t E is SCCII plot,t.ntl V ~x i l l Id'ig. 12.5. It. is worl.lly of not.c t.llat for n g i r r n vnlt~c of the tenipcrn1,urc tlilrerent:~ or' (.It(: 1.n.o w:tlls - 7',, 0 Ilrnt fIo\vs I'ron~ 1 . 1 1 ~ 11p~)cr wall t o tile flrtitl only a s lorlg :IS I l l ( : vc*lot~it.,v of 1.11t: 111)l)rr (Il \\.all (100stint. c x c t ~ a ccrt.nit1 vnlnc. A rcvcrsal ~l or' t . I ~ t . t1il.c.c.l ion of' IItr Ilo~vof 11c:iO nl, t.11~ t~l)ltc-r.~)lal,c oc:ctlrs wl~rtr t,ho t,cn1l)t:r:~l,t11.(: g r ; ~ t l i ~ ~(l ~i I, t>11:111g(\s :I , t sigr~. 11, is S ~ ~ I'I.~III I I rt111. (12.36) t , l ~ a t ((I'l7/t1?/)!,.,, --: for 0 I 2 k - - 7 7',,. 111~11t.t: 1 1 ~following r111o n.pl)lics t o Ll~otlirrrI.iot~ of 1ir:l.t. t. llo~va!, t , l t t \ tll)l)tbr\v:III:
'I'llr
7

tl~c case of coinprcs.ribic! flow for wllicll tho al)ovc solt~t.iot~ remains vitlid provitltrtl that t,l~e viscosit-y may I)o assumrtl t o be ilitlcpcndc~itof tcrn~)cmturc, eqn. (12.38) cnn be put, in t h e following tlimcnsionless form
111

cvl~cro M =F [ J , / C ~ clcnol.cs I11c M:~ch nrilnl)c~.:~ntlc,, is t.110 vclocil,y of s o ~ l ~ l :tklt I e ~ n l ) c r a l ~ r l',. I t is rcmarltal~lot.llnt Lhc n~nxirntlmt.ctnpcrat.r~ro ~rc tlocs not tlcpcntl on t,llc tlist.ancso bct,\vccll t,llo wn.lls. 'l'llo q l ~ : ~ ~ t t . of. y i t 11c::~t grnrrat,ocl 11.v fric:l,ioll is disl~ril)utedcvcnly bctwcen t.hc st,at.ionary ant1 t.hc moving \v:~ll. Tlie tcmpcrnturc distril,~~t,ion t.11~ in ltrcsetlt c:xa,~lll,lc is import,:lrll. for I.llc flow in the clearance bctwccn a jorlrnal a n d it,s bcnring a.ntl was tliscussctl i t t t1ct;ril by G . Vogclpol~l[143]. Tllc flow in tllc clcnmncc is 1anlinn.r in view of t.11~ ~ n a l l s tlitnonsions of the latter ant1 of the Iligll visr~sit.y t1I1r oil. '1'11~ t 1 t ~ ~ ~ ~ l ) r r : riso ~ r r c of t.I. tluc t,o frict.ion becorncs consitlcmblc cven :tt, ~llotlrrat,c: vclocitics, as sllo\v11 1 ) ~ ' t,llc following cxanlplc: Viscosit,y of oil at, motlcmtc t,crnl)c~rnt~t~rcy ROO (1) fro111 (m Table 12.1 : ,L = 0.4 I<g/mscc; contlr~ct,ivit,y oil k of 0.14 ,J/m s r c tlcg. I l r n t ~ c !'rot11 I0 III/Rc(:: eqn. (12.38) wit.11 U , = 5 inlscc: T,,, - 'I1, 9 (leg C, ant1 for lJ1 :-T,, - To= 36C. The ternpcraturc rise in the Inltricn.t,il~g is so 1:t.rgc t.11n.t oil ills tlcpcr~tlnnccon t,cmpcmt,r~rcbccorncs itrlr)ort,:~nt,.I t . N:~lllno 1901 t:xt,c.nt 1t:tl t11c prccc(ling solul,ion t,o tllc cnsc of tcl~~pcr:~l,~~rc-tlc~)t:~~tIc~~t, vist:osil.y ant1 li)tltltl l.I1:10 the velocity distril)ut,ion a t right angles t.o tsllc wnlls censrs to I)c linczrr.

'l'l~iss i t t 1 1 1 1 t ~~ X : I I I sllotvs I,II:II. t i l t , g(*titb~.:tl of' IIC:II, I ~ I I ( : lo r'rict~io~t II~~~\ ior~ rxcrts n 1:1rgc rbl1i.c.t. 011 IItr 1)r.oc:c-ss of' rooling :111tl l,11:1.t. :I(, lliglt 1-rloril.irs the: \v:trlncr wall Inny I ) I Y . O I I I I ~ 11(~:1(('(1 inslt>:~tI I)rin!: (:ooI~rI. 01' 'l'llis t-l'Ii~'t. of ( . I I I I ( I : I ~ I I ~ ~ I I I : I I is ill~l)orl,:lnc.c lor t I I V c.o~rsi~lt.t.;~t ol'c~oolitlg I~iglrvt:loc.il ivs. I t . \vi,II r.c:c-~rr. t,ltc. ~)l.ol)lt>tns iorl :11. in c~ol~tlc:ci,t.tl tvillt t l ~ t ~ ~ I ~:o r ~ n t l : ~ r y n ~l l:tjrt~~.s :111tl will I)(, ~ 1 i s ~ ~ 1 1 s s ~ ~ ~ l l:~.t,c:r.

A further importrant so111tion for tho t.cinpcmt.urc tlistribut,ion froln rqrl. (12.n4) is obtained wllen i t is postulatctl tltat all tho llcat d t ~ c friat.io11is t,rnnsft:rrctl t,o t.o one of thc walls only, whoreas no Ilcat t.rnnsfer t,xlrrs ~tlacc t,l~c n,t otallrrwall (:~.Ilial):~t,ic wall). I,& i t bo nssnmed t h a t t,Ilc lo\ver wall is ins~~laI,otl, t,llat t,llc 1)otintl:~ry so

280

X11. Tl~ermal honndary layers in laminar flow

d. IPsncl, solrttio~in thc problrtn of totnpcraturc tlisLril,~~bion a visoons flow for in

281

conrlitions for tcm pnraturc bccomc : Ass~iming,again, equal t~cn~perat~urrsthe walls, i . c. 7 -- l',,for of ' obtain from cqn. ( 1 2 . 3 5 ~ ) the solntior~of which is it, is seen plotted. in Fig. 12.312. Thus the temperature increase of the lower wall is given by T (0) - To= T , - I, = , UI2/2 k . ' u (12.41) The value T, is callctl the adiabatic wa.21 temperature as already mentioned; i t is cqual t o the reading on a thermometer in thc form of a flat plate. Upon comparing cqns. (12.41) and (12.38) i t is seen t h a t the highest temperature rise in the centre of tltc channel for the case of equal wall tcmpcratures is equal t o one quarter of tho adiabatic wall temperature rise
=

,I h , we

The solution of eqn. (12.34) with the above boundary conditions is

The t,cmpcrat,uro distribution is reprcscntcd by a parabola of tltc forlrtd~ degree, Fig. 12.6, ant1 t,hc mnxiln~ilntcmpcratrtrc rise in I.llo ccnt,ro of t.11~ l ~ i ~ n nisl c r

The criterion for cooling in the case of different wall tempcratnres given in eqn. (12.37) can be simplified if the adiabatic wall temperature T, is introduced. W e then have

11. M. de Groff [48] generalized the preceding solution for Couctte motion t o incluclc the case when thc viscosity of the fluitl depends on temperature. The further extension t o a compressible fluid was given by C.R. Illingworth [68] and A. J . A . Morgan 1871.
2. Poiseuille flow thror1~11 chanrlel wit11 flat walls. A fitrt,hcr and very simple a cxnot solrttiorl for t,e~npcral,ure tlist,ribution is obtained in the casc of two-dirncr~sional flow t~l~roltglr cl~annclwith parallel flat walls. Using t11c symbols explaincd in a Fig. 12.6 we note with I'oisc~~iUch a t the velocity distributiori is parabolic: t

An extension of tlte solrltion to the case of tempcrat,~trc-clcpnnclcnt viscosity w:~s given by IT. l~ausenblas1631. The corresponding solrtt,iort for a c i r c ~ ~ l n r pipe was given Ly U. Grigull [47]. A furtl~erexact solution for the thermal bounclary layer mn bc ol~txincclfor the flow in a ronvergrnt and a tlivcrgcnt cltannrl alrcatly cortsitlrrrtl in Sro. V 12. The solution for the velocity field due to 0. Jeffery and 0. Iiamel quoted in that section was utilized by I(. Millsaps and K. Pollhausen [86] in order t o solvc thc thermal problem. The temperature distribution across the channcl is seen plotted in Fig. 12.7 for different Prandtl numbers. Owing to the dissipation of energy which is particularly large near the wall, the resulting temperature profiles acquire a pronounced "boundary-layer appearance". I n fact, boundary-layer-like appearance becomes more pronounced as the Prandtl number increases. The velocity distribution u/us from Fig. 6.15 has been plotted in Fig. 12.7 t o provide a comparison.

Fig. 12.6. Vc1ocit.y and tcrnpcraturc distrihr~tionin a channel wit.11 flat walls wit11 frictional Ilmt. fx7.l<rt1 int,o anconnt

E x -

Fig. 12.7. Tcmpcrnluro distributions in a convergent channel of included angle 2 a = 10" at varying Prandtl numben P, afhr I<. Mill~aps and K. Pohlhnusen [go]. Reynolds number R = 1342 Velocity distribution from n g . 6.15.~ Owing to tho dissipation of cncrgy which is particnlarly large near the wall, the resulting tcmperatrlre profile~acquirc a pronounced "boundary - layer appearnncc"

Rotntirig rli~k:(:II:I~I. in pnrt,icular Pigs. 5.12 and 5.13, ~ o n t ~ a i t i ra solrtt.ion V, d 1.0 t>lwflnw prol)lr~n aror~ntla n infinit.cly large disk rotat,ir~g a fluid a t rest. l ' l ~ i s in wns n solnt,ion of' t.lrr syst,cln of eclns. (5.88). 111 order t,o tletermine t,he t.ernpern,t,ure ficltl in tPhcr~oiglrl)o~rrIrt,otl a hcni,c-(I.rot,at,ing disk, it is necessary t.o expand the of pre<*cvlirrg syst.c,m of'rqr~xt.iotrs inclrrding t,lrc eqnat,ion for t,Ire t,emi)eratr~rc l)y distribut.iorr it.sc.lf (c-ncsrgy c-clt~nt,io~r). Sntah cn.lctt~ln.t.ions have I)ccn prrforrnctl Oy I<. Millsaps and I<. I ' O I I I I I ~ L I I S ~ I I IXCin] wlro :~.lso inc.lrltlc*tlin them t.l~ottllcots tlissipat.iorr. Several of acl(lit,iorr:rl stvlrtt,iorrs of tlrc Nnvier-St.olzcs orjt~at~iorrs t,ogrtlrcr with t h e energy equation wl~iclrI(t:~tl sirnilar solrtt.iot~s t.0 wrro given I ) j r 1). 1,. Tlcevcs and Ch. J . ICippcnhan 1!)7).

J 110 ~ l r ~ lr~ x v c s no\v 11ct:n orniI,t,t:tl :I,S s ~ t ~ ~ c : r l l t ~ o t ~ so ~ ~ l v ofs I I I : I ~ I I ~ ~ l ,. lI tI* I ~ ~ ~ '1'11~ . r of ~ vnriorts t,crms in tlrc two cqnntions whic:h lravc I)(.cn cxt.i~n:rlt:cl\ v i l , l ~t,Ito :lit1 of' I II(. v r locity bountl;bry-layer equat,ion (7.2) arc slrowrr ;~l)ovc. 'l'l~c osscttt.i:rl rc~sr~lt~ t.lrc> ol'
3

prcvio~~s estimation was t , l ~ ntth e viscor~s forccs wcrc of t,lrc sarrrc: o~.tli!r tn:~gtril.rtt~o of as t l ~ c inertia forces only if t l ~ o vclocit,y borrr~tlarv-l;~.vc~r t.lrirIc~~~ss, s:~t.isfit:clt r l ~ ~ ! OS,

It, l ~ a s alrnatly brcn stfatfcrlon sevcral occasions t,lrnt i t is ir~tuitivelycvidctit

t,l~a.t, ~ r i many cases t , l ~ e tc:mpcrat~~rc field arour~tia hot body i r ~ fluid stream is a of t.ltc hou~ldnry-ln?/sr 11yps. 'I'lris means t,llnt t.11~ tcml~eraturefield wllich spreads from the body cxt,cntls cssnnl.inlly only over n narrow zone in t h e inirnodinte neighbonrlrood of tlrc s~rrf:coc, wl~crcnst h e regions s t a larger tlistance from i t are not m:~tcrially a f i c l ~ c t lby Cl~cl ~ i g l ~ c r botly ton~pcratnre.I n pnrticr~lart l ~ i sis the case whrn t,Irc cor~tllrctivit:y,k, is small, as for g;lacs ant1 liq~~itls. s u c l ~ In cases t,l~ere is gm.clicnt at, riglrt, angles t o t , l ~ c wall and thc l ~ c a tliux a vcry steel) t,c~rnl)crnlr~ro t l ~ l c conclt~c:t.ion of t.l~o 1.0 is satno ortlcr of ~ r ~ a g n i t ~ ia sc t e : ~ t ~ l h due t o cor~vect~ion only across L t,lrin layer n r a r t,lre \rrnll. On t,Irc other hand, it is t o t)c c ~ p c c t ~ rt,hat t.he : tl tctnpcr:~t.urrincrc:r.sc rlcnr a n nnhcntctl botly in a fluit1 stream flowitrg at. a l~iglr IZ,rgnoltls I I I I I ~ ~ J ~ : ~ , is dnc 1.0 t , l ~ gc:nerat.ion of frictiorlal heat, is itnportar~t n.nc1 wlricl~ c only i r r t l ~ c t,hirr 1)01111tlary layer, l)ccnusc t,lrc rj~~ntrt,it-.y tncclinnicnl energy w l ~ i c is of l~ t.r:rnsformrcl itrt.o I~c.xl. t.lrrot~glrfriot,inn is signific:l.t~t.only t,l~cre.ITcnce it rnny bc c*slwc~tt,tl t,l~:it ronjnnnt.ion \r.il.l~ I.lrc \,c,locit,y hor~rrtlnr~r. in . layrr t.hrrc: \ \ r i l l I)r forrr~etl :I, t,lrc.rrrrnl I I O I I I I ~ ~ : ~ .across \vlric:l~ t.l~etletnprratrrrc gmdinnt, is vcry Inrgr. In?jcr ~ ~ It is. t,liorcforc, possil)l(? t,o t.n.ltc atlvnntngc of this fact ant1 t o it~t,rotluccinto t l ~ c cric?rgy cXqunl,ion,\\91ricl~ govcrrls t.hc tcrnl)c,r:~turcc l i s t r i l ~ ~ ~ t ~siniplificnt.ions of a ion, sirnilnr rrn.l.t~rr thoso i 11Lrotlt1cct1 (.o cibrlicrr into Ll~c rtlt~:~t,ions rnotiot~(Cl~ap. I ) . of VI L)i~iiensiorrlossfi)rtrls of t.11~ nquat,ions of motmion and energy were given in Scc. c of t.Iris rlrapt.rr wlrcxrc n. rcprcscnt,n.t.ivo velocity, [I,, a roprcsent,at3ivelertgth, I , a,s ~vcll a s n. rc1)t.c:sc,nt.:1.t.i\~c t,ernj)rr;rt.~~~.c tliflrrcnce, (A7')0, were .rlscd t.o render t h e rrlovn.nt c l r ~ : ~ ~ ~ l , i t . i ccli~irt:t~sionlcss. :s Por t.lrc sake of sitnplicity we. sh;lll mst.rict orlrs c l v c ~t,o t.ltr t.wo-tli~nrrrsiot~n.l case wil,l~constant flttitl proj>rrt,ies allti wr sha11 nlroosc: t,lrc n-n.xis along t,ltc tlircct,ion of t.11c. mnirr st.rcani. Untler t l ~ r s e ~ s s ~ t m p t , i o t ~ s ~ t.Irt: c q ~ ~ : ~ t iof nn ~ o t i o nin t.llc z-clirt,c:tiot~nntl t h r energy rclt~:~t,ion. o oqns. (12.21) ant1 (12.22), c:rn I)c wril,t,ctr in t l ~ cli)llo\\,ing foyrn:

As a consequence i t provctl t o I)c possil)lo t.o ncglcc:l. F2tr/iis2 :&gainstiJ%re/i)!/' i l l 1 I 1 t first cqt~nt,ion rnot.ion nntl 1.l1osocontl rclt~:r.t,io~~11ro1,iotrtlroppctl out. :rlt.ogc*t.l~r?r. of of 'I'l~is was conrrectrtl wit,l~ f;~cL tlrc tlrnt t , l ~ trnnsvcrsc pressure gmtlit.rrt i)71/i)!/- Os, SO e . t h a t tho pressure coul(l be assr~mrtl o tlrpcntl on z alone. As secrr froln c:qn. (12.4Ga) t the body force wlric:l~is tlr~ct o the buoyat~c:yof t . 1 ~~ o t t ~ Ilt~itlp:~rLic:lcs, i. c. 1.0 I rr their t,I~ermal x p ~ n s i o n , of t,he: s a m r ortlrr of ni:bgr~it.utlc:IS t.lre i t ~ r r l ~: iI : ~~ visr is II c o ~ forces if ~s G % R" whiclr occr~rsonly \\,it11 vcry small vclocit.ics a,11<1 c011sitIer~1)Ie I c n ~ p r r ~ t . t(lift ~rc fcrcnces. I t is now possible t o make a similnr rst.irnnt.io~~ tCrnrs in t,lrt. rnorgy cclr~at,ion. of

i. e. t , l ~ e mnlt.iplicat.ivc fa.ctforof tlrc t,hrrmn.l contlrrct,iorr t.t:rtns, is :I.IRO a srn:l.ll qrtnnt,ily a s far as liquitls ant1 gases ar(: c011~0rr1ed ~ , I I cItcy 11oIc1sI I I I I I I ~ C Pis 1:1rgc, l)eif cause the Prandtl nllmbcr for gases is of 1,lrcortlc:r of I, :r.trtl for l i c l r ~ i t l sit, m.ngc:s I'ro~n 10 t o 1000. Ilencc it, is scerl t h a t t.11~ cor~duct.iorrt.t.rtr~s c:n.tl I)ot:orrrc: 01' I.lrc S:IIII~. ordrr of ma.gnituttc a s t h e cor~vcctiorltcrrns only if i)l)/;!!/ vcry In.rgt:. i. c., o t ~ l y is if in t h c vicir~ityof tire sr~rface t,he botly t l ~ r r c a I:tyrr ~ i t 1 a S L C C ~ t,rat~svt~rst: of is 1 t,crnj,cmt,~~rc gratlicnt,: tire ther~n,tclho1~1rrlrrv?/ lnyrr. 'l'lrc order of n~:~gnit,r~tlot,l~t: of convectional and viscons t m m s can now I)c csli~nntctl. t is shown r~r~tlnr rc111nlion I i,l~o c ss t,l~crnlal I)on~td:wy 1:~yrr.t.'I'hc i . c r n ~ and t * i ~syrnbol 0 , denotes t h e t h i c l r ~ ~ e of t l ~ c a20/as2 can be neglcct.ed against a20/ay2 nntl t.l~r contlr~c:tion tcrrrl lvacotnc-s of the sn.nle ordnr of rnngnil,ntIe n.s t,he convcct,ional t,nrm only i f t.l~e tjlricktrc~ss I.lro t.lrc:t.~n:rl of

- ---Since t.hc Proncit,l nnmbcr may vary frorrr fluit1 to llrtirl by ~evcrnlortlrr~ tnng~~it.r~clt: of (sen Tnhle 12.1), the prasent estimate cannot bc expected to Ilold in thc two lirnit.8 P -* 0 or P -+ a. In sucli cases better cst,imaks result from the solrrt,ions given in eqnc1.'(12.58) n.ntl (12.62n).

284

XIJ. Thcrninl bor~nciary layers in laminar flow

f. General properties of thermal boundary layer

285

Regarding the differences in the significance of p in eqn. (12.50b) on the onc hand end in eqn. (12.GOd) n thc other, we rcfer the reader to thcremark made in Scc. X I 1 c just after eqns. (12.17) to (12.20). 111 view of t,hc dary layer 8, obtained estimation for the thickness of t.hc vclocity bounI
N

/ l / ,~wc obtain

For the incompressible case (Q = em = const) and for constant viscosity these equations reduce t o

I t follow^ that the ratio of the thickncsses of the two boundary layers is independent of the lteynolds number. If energy dissipation through friction and the buoyancy forces are omitted, the ratio of the two boundary-layer thicknesses becomcsdcpende~~t. on a singln characteristic number - the Prandtl numbcr. I n this case it is possible to givc a vcry good physical interpretation of the Prandtl number, a s will be shown in Sec. XI1 f 4 in more detail. Rstimnt.ing the rrmnining tcnns in thc: cnrrgy rcll~ationi t is concllrtlcd that, in the expression for tlrc tli~sipat~ion function only the tcrm (i?u/L~y)~ rcmains signifirarlL, and

giving three equations for u, v , and T.

f. General properties of thermal boundary layers

l'hc l ~ r a clnc to friction is sccn to be important only if t

Jn the case of gases t,hc hcat gcncmtcd I)y friction bccomcs important only if thc temperature risc clue to adiabatic compression is of the same order of magnitucle a s the difference in tempcraturc bctwccn the body and the fluid. The same rcmark applies to the work of compression. Reverting t o dimensional quantities and taking into accol~ntthe dependence of viscosity on temperature, wc obtain tho following simplified equations for twodimensional compressible fluid flow:

Since in thc fr:rmcworlc of bountlary-laycr theory thc pressure may be rcgardctl ns a given, impressed force, we havc hare a system of five simultaneous equations for tho five unknowns e, IL, v, T, / r .

1 Forced and natural flows. Thc diffcrcntial equations for the velocity and . thermal boundary layer, eqns. (12.51b) and (12.51c), are very similar in structure They differ only in the last two terms in the equation of motion and in the last term in the temperature equation. I n the general case the velocity ficld and the temperature field mutually interact which means t h a t tfho tcmperaturc distribution depends on the velocity distribution and, convcrscly, thc velocity distribution depends on the temperature distribution. I n the special casc when buoyancy forces may be disrcgnrdccl, and when thc propcrtics of thc fli~iclmay bc assumcd t o be independent of tcmperaturc, mutual interaction ceascs, and the velocity ficlcl no longcr depends on the temperature ficld, although thc convcrsc depcndencc of the tcmperature field on the vclocity ficld still persists. This happcns a t large vclocitics (large Reynolds numbers) and small tempcrature tliffcrcnccs, such flows being tcrmed forced (cf. p. 276). Thc process of heat transfcr in such flows is doscribcd as forced convection. Rows in which buoyancy forces are dominant are called natural, t,hc rcspcctivc heat transfcr bcing known as n a t ~ ~ r convrction. 'l'llis casc occurs at, vcry al small vclocitics of motion in the prescncc of largc tcmpcrnLt~rctlifrercnccs. 'rho sl,at,c of motion which accompanies natural convection is evokctl by buoyancy forces in the gravitational field of the earth, tlrc latter bcing due to tlcnsity dil'fcmt~ccs and gradicnt,~.For cxamplc, the ficld of motion which cxist,soiit,sidc a vcrtic:al l ~ o t plate belongs to this class. Porcctf flows can be subdivided into t,l~osc with rnotlrr:tt.c and those with high velocities depending on whcthcr thc hcat tluc to friction ancl comprcssiorr nccd or necd not bc taken into account. I n I)ot.h cascs tJlc tcmpcl-aturc: ficld depcnds on the ficld of flow. A t modcratc vclocitics, wl~cnt11c heat clue C o friction and comprcssion may be neglected, the depcndencc f tJre trmpcratrrrc ficld on the vclocit,y finl(1 is govcrncd solely by t,hc Prantltl nn1111)cr.To r a e l ~,~ita!/le vclocit,y ficl(1 thcrc corrcsporltls a singly irrfinitc fntnily of l,onl[)rrnt,l~rtr clisl.ril)~~l,io~ls with thc I'rantltl rruuibor as it8 paramct,cr. A t lrigl~vclot:il,ics work clric I)ol,l~ to friction and comprcssion must be irrcludcd. Whether this is ncccssary or not dcpcnds on tho Eclrcrt nrlrnher E - 2(A7'),,/(A7'),,, i.c. on wlrct,lrc-r it, is compn.r:il~lo~ \ ~ i t . l i

286

X11. 'rl~rrlr~al bo~~ndnry layers it1 laminar flow

11nit.y. 111 ot,ller worcls, t.11~ \vorIz clue t o frict.ion arid compression must he talren into accol~nt, wllcn t h e t,crnpnrnt.~~rc increase drlc t o friction nnd cornprcssion is comparable with t,llc: t8~mpcr:~t.urc tlilTcrcrlcc prcscri0ccl a s a bourlclary contlition (t,rmpcraturc tliffrrenco I)ct,\r;rc:11 I)otly ant1 fluiti). I f t,hc prescribed tenlperatlire difference is of t.ho ortlcr of t.11~ m n at)solrrt2ct.r~npcrat,l~rc, worlc duo t o frict,ion arid cornprcsm t,hc only if t , l ~ vr1oc.il.y of llow is compnr:ll)lc wit,ll f.l~at, sol~ntl. c of sion 1)rcorncs ilnl~ort.nllt,
11, is il11port:rnt t.o 11o1,c:1,11:~t, t.llc t . c t n ~ ~ c r ; ~ cqrra.t,ioll is lincar, unlike t . 1 1 ~ t~~~rc t:clunt,iorl of rnot,ion. 'l'llis Icnds t,o cnnsitlcrable sirnplificat,ions in t h e process of int,c.grnt,itlg, nlltl s~~pc:rl)osit,ion known sol~lt~ions of beconlcs possil)lc.

If t . 1 ~ work of compression a s well :IS t , l ~ c cvolut.ion of 11o:~t. l t r o ~ ~ g tlissil)at,io~l t ll c:tn be neglect,ecl, tile same reasoning s l ~ o w s tllat, rtll solltt,ions of oclr~:~t.ions (12.51 P ) \vIlit~l~ clcsrril~c: t,l~c: i,I~rrtn;tl I)o~~r~cln.ry l;~,yc:r,nll~st, of t.t~cf o r ~ r ~ : I)(:

2. Atlinlmtic wall. I~itl:~II,y is I I C C ~ - S S R I . t,o m ~ n t . i ~. n~ i ~ t . vi~rict~y ~)ossiI)Ic it, ~ t l tI1c of s d s of 1)ounclary c o ~ ~ t l i t ~ i o n s~ n n c l lgrontcr for the ttcrrlpcratnre ficltl t,llarl for is t,hc? vrlocit,y fieIt1. Tllc t,cmpcmt,nre on t J ~ esurface of t h e body may bc constant or v:triablc but., moreover, i t is also possil)lo t o encount,cr pro1)lcrns for wllich tho hr;~t flux is prescribetl. 111 view of eqn. (12.30), tliis means t h a t t,lle t,crnperaturc gmtlirnt a t (,tie wall may appear as a bountlary condition. T h e so-callctl rtrliobalic ~tvrllconst.iL~ltosa pnrtic~tlnrrxn.nlplo of tllc Iatt.er class of cases, since i t rnnst be post,l~lat,cd thn.t t,llere is n o Ilcat f l ~ l x :from t,11c wall t o tfhe fluid, i. e., the borlr~clary c:o~~tlit.ion t,ho wall is at,

Iloncc, tile h c i ~ tflr~xfrom rcln. (12.30) cntt I)(; \vrit,t.cn

1 his case c:Ln 1)c visrtnlizotl Ily ilnagir~i~lg 1,hat the wall of the body is perfectly it~s~llatctl against I~cst, Row. 'I'llc heat generated l)y t h e fluitl througll friction serves 1.0 11f:n.t1,llo wall 11nt.ilt,llo contlil,iotl (a7'/an),,. = 0 is reacl~ctl. Thus tile t.crnperat~rrc of t.llt, wnll wl1ic:ll we rnny :~lsocall t,llc r~tlirtbcclicunll tempernlure 1)ecolnes higher ~,II:I.~I t,llaL of t,ltc ll~titlat, sornc clist,nnco fl.orn it. Srtcll contlitions are satisfied in pr:~ct,ic*c \vIlrr~a so-called p1at.c t.hcrlnornct,c:r is usctl, i. (:. \\,lien t.llc ternperat,nre of :I, f l l ~ i t l st.rrntn is rnc-asl~rctlwit,l~t.11~ aitl of a flat glat,c which is placed parallel t o t,Il(. sl.rc.ntrl 1. 'l'hc P X C ~ S S t . ( ? ~ r l l ) c r a t ~ ~ ~ r c plnt,r const,it,~lt,c*s 0 1 1 1.110 t.llc rrror of t . 1 1 ~plnt.c t . l l r r n ~ o ~ ~ ~ c'I'llc~ r . t . c error 1nns0 I)c tlrtl~lc:t.t-tli l l ortlrr t.o ol)tnin t.hc 1,rnc t,empcrat.urc of t.I~c: tnovirla I l ~ ~ i t 'l'llis tlifkrcnc:c is sornctitnrs c~nllctl tllc kinetic. lempernt?~re. l.
1

'l'llis very imporlnrlt rcl:tt.ion st,atfcst h a t for rrll 1:~lnirl:~r I)o~rntl:~.ry I:~.yc:rs- :~I\v;~.ys on ttlle nss~~n~pt.iorl c:otnprcssion \r.orlc nlltl t'ric:t.ionnl Ilc:;rl, :Lro rlcgligil)lc: - I , l ~ c ? thnt N~lssclt1111rnbcr propori.ional t o t l ~ c is sclnnrc root of 1.11~I<.t~y~loltls n11111l)rr.I I S ~ ( ' : I ( ~ I of the general rclnt.ior1 I)ctwec11 the N ~ ~ s s c :111cl ~ I I OIlvyt~oItIs~lnml)t-rs lt irnl)litltl by eqn. (12.32) on t,l~c basis of tllc full Navirr-St.okc-s rcl~t:~.t.ioi~s, I)or~~~tl:rry-I;~yc*r 1,11c si~nplilic:at.ionslead t o this special, more csplic,it. r c l ; ~ t i o l ~ .

1<tluntion (12.62a) :~llowsus t o write tlo\v~l1I1t: follo\vit~g o r t n ~ l l ; ~ 1I1t- loc:;~l f for shrarine st,rcss :

3. Annlogy brtwrcr~llent tratlsfer ntlcl skit1 friction.

1'01. I)onntln~~y-l:~.ycr flow

iil

i l~cbro c?sist,sa rc~~n:~.rk;tl~l(: rc~l:lt.iorlsllipI)ct,\vccn Ilc,at t,mnsfc,r i~ntl slzin frict,ion ~ l ~ i ~ h ,

in i t s simplnst. form, w:l.s tlisc:ovc.rtl I)y 0. Itc?j~noltls [!I81 t.llis rc:l:~.t.iot~ l r ~ l o w tn.s l,llr I<,c~y~)oltls is ~ :~n:~logy.

1874. I4'or t,his rm.son,

I t , l ~ n si)c.cn sllowtl i l l St,(:. VI 11 :I t.llnt nlk sol~~l.iorls t.11cr two-tlirncnsional of I)ol~ntlnry-l:tycr ccl~~;l.t.iorts :In inronl~)rc~ssil)lc for flnitl I ~ x v ct.hc form
As :ilrr;ttly statctl, this mostgrncrnl form of I<c~y~loltls's :tn:ilogy is valitl for ,111 I;l~llit~.rr 1)onndnr.v Iagrrs. In j)nrticlll:ir, if there exists a class of si?nilar solutions, t~:irnrly t l ~ : ~givcw t. 1)y rxtrrnnl flo\vs of l h c form U ( X )= 11, x ' t11r11tllc- ror~siclcrationsof S r t 1S:l ", nllow 11s t,o writr

288

XII. Thrrn~al boundary layers in lnminar flow

f. Gencrnl propcrI.ien or thcrmal bor~ntlnrylnyrr

289

and

be neglected. Ne~ert~l~eless, preceding rcsnlts can t)c cxt,o~tlctlt,o incl~~tlc thc other cases, R U C as that of a flat plnto with frictiorlnl heat (sect oqn. (12.81) n t ~ dioot.tlot.t?on ~ p. 2 ) ) or that with compression work (sce Sec. X l l l c ) . I t is l):rrtfioulnrlyr~ot.c?\r,ort,lty !9 t h a t thc Itcynoltls analogy earl bc rccovcrctl in tr~rbolcn flows wl~crc t it.plnys:tn rssc~~~l,i:~l part in the calculation of heat-transfcr rates (c/. Chap. XXI [I).
4. Effect of I'randtl numher. The cor~siderat~iona this c.haj)trr c~onvint~cs of 1 1 t h a t thc J'randtl number conatitutcs t h a t parameter wl~osc vnluc i~ dc.c*isivc Tor ~ I I P extent of the tllermal boundary layer and, thcreforc, for thc rate a t whirl1 h r a t is transferred in forcctl or free convection. According to its tlrfinition

It follows immediately from the temperature equation that

I n analogy with eqn. (12.53), t!le local Nussclt number formed with the coordinate z assumes the form

N,=-r
where

(1 1

=1/~,-F(~,P),

(12.55)

The function F ( m , P) will be discussed in more tletail in Sec. X I 1 g 2 (see eqn. (12.87) and Fig. 12.14). Thus between the local skin-friction coefficient

a n d thc Nusselt number there exists the relation

thc Prandtl number is equal to the ratio of two quantities: one of t,l~ctn (viseosity) charactcrizcs the lluid's transport propcrtics with rcspoct to Ll~ctmrlsport of nlornentum, t h e other (thermal diKusivity) doing the same for the transport of hcat.. If the fluid possesses a particr~larlylarge viscosity, i t can bc stated looscly that its ability to transport momcnh~~rn Inrgc. Const:q~rcr~l.ly, tlnst,ruc(.ior~ ~ n o t n c f ~ t . ~ ~ n ~ is t,hc of introduced by the presence of a wall (no-slip condition) extends far into the fluid and the velocity boundary layer is comparatively large. Similar statcmcnts car1 bc: made with respect to thc thcrmal boundary layer. I t is, thcrcforc, nr~dcrstantlal~lc that the Prandtl number serves as a direct measure for the ratio of the tl~icltnesses of the two layers in forced flow, a s already demonstrated in eqn. (12.49). The special cwe when P = 1 (already discussed) corresponds to flows for which thc two boundary layers are approximately equal in extent; they are exactly equal along a flat plate a t zero incidence whcn its temperature is uniform. I n addition to this, thc two limiting cases whcn the Prandtl number is either very large or very small arc also worthy of attention; they are representcd schematically in Fig. 12.8

The simplest type of flow, t h a t on a flat plate a t zero incidence, is characterized b y the value m = 0 and b y the fact t h a t eqns. (12.51 b) and (12.51 c) for the velocity ficld and t h e temperature field, respectively, become completely analogous if the Prandtl nnmher has the value of unity. I n this c~ase, solutions themselves acquire the identical algebraic forms, and we have

Very small Prandtl numbers: It is clear from Fig. 12.8 t h a t in the case of very small Prnndtl numbers, such as occur in molten metals (for example in mercury), it

Consequently, Z(0,l) = 1 , and eqn. (12.56) simplifies to N = 4 c, , f' (m = 01, P = 1) , (12.56 b)

a) P-U(liqu/d metals)

R ,

when applied to a flat plate. This is the simplest fonn of the Reynolds analogy; i t was, as elready stated, first discovered by 0. Reynolds himself. The preceding argument is applicable, so far, only to laminar, incomprcssiblc flow^ a t constant wall tcmpcratura and on condition that energy dissipation may

6) P --( liquids,oils)

Fig. 12.8. Comparison between the tcmpcmture and velo~it~y fields for bonnclnry lnyrrzl wit.11 vrry amall and with very large valr~esof Prandtl r~a~nbcr

290

X l I . Tl~rrnmal hor~ndary layers in lnminar flow

f. General proportics of tl~crmalbonnclnry Inycr

2!) 1

is possil)lc t.o disrcgartl t l ~ e vc1ocit.y borrndnry layer in t h e calculation of t h e t,hcrmal

bo~untlarylayer. Conscqucnt.ly, t h e velocitty components ?L(x,IJ) and v(x, y) can be th replaced by U ( x ) anti V ( s , y) = - ( d l J l d r ) IJ, respe~t~ively, e approximation for V stemming from t h e continuity cquat,ion applied a t the wall. The energy equat,ion (12.51~) then assumes t.ho particnlarly simple form

Very large f r a n d t l numbers: The secontl limiting casc when P + oo was solvccl for t h e first time many years ago by M.A. 1,evi:clue 1701. Jlc inLrotlucotl t#he \,pry reasonnble assumpt,ion t,hat the wholc of the ttcrnperat,urc ficltl is confi net1 inside t,hat. zone of the velocit,y field where t,he longit~ldinalvelocit,y c.otnl~onent,, is st.ill pro?I,, port.ional t,o the trnnsversc distance y. The snmo circ111nstanc:cscan also oc:c.rtr a t int,errnccliat,cvalrlcs of t l ~ c I'rantlt.1 n u m l ~ e r cascs w l ~ r n tllcrninl 1)ound:try I:tycsr in t,lto starts wibh a temperature jump a t t,he wall a t a: = T o ( c f . Vig. 12.17) itlsitlo n clcvc-lopctf veloaitly bountlnry Inycr. Accortlingly, in t,llc enrrgy cqnctI,ion, C Y ~ (12.51 v ) . II. SIIIIposc t.llnt the velocit,y tlist,ribution in tile velociby bount1nr.y layer is rcprcsc-11t)ccl ) ~ 1 11 = (to/p) IJ. I t can then be verified t , l ~ a t in accordance u.it,h refs. [7(iJ ant1 I(iYa] , (see also refs. (1 111 and [I 121). the substit~~t,ion

partvial d i f f ~ r e ~ ~ cqnn.t8ionfor temperatr~ra tinl ~listribut~ion into we can trnr~sfortnt,l~c! an ordinary onr. 'L'l~is,in tarn, Icnds to the following utiivcr~nlexpression for tile Nrtsselt, nr~trll)cr

tmnsforms t,hc cnrrgy cqnation into t8hc following orclinnry clifferc.nt.inl t-cln:~Iion:

15c,nations (12.59a) ant1 (12.5gb) are special cases of this general equation. In t,I~c casc of a flat plate (II(3:) :- [ I , . in (:ltap. V, cqn. (5.17). 1t.s solr~t~iorl is
T.

Ilcrc 2, dcnntcs tlra coordinate a t whicll tfllc t.cnl~~c?r;ttttrc jt11nl1 at. tlto w:~ll 11as bcen placetl, i l I)cirrg rcmembcrcd t,liat the cffcct of fr.rictiott:~lI~ont.has I)ccti ncglcc1,ctl. l'ho solution of this ortlirlary differentin1 cql~:ttior~ 1)c cxprcssetl ill c:~n closed form in t,crms of t11o incomplete gamma f'rrr~ctions. I'orfor~nittg 1,111:rrcll~irrtl calculation, we worlld obta.in t , l ~ e Nussclt number

const) wit11 a l~niforrn wall t,ernpcrat,ure

7',,,, obt,ain tllc satnc tlini:rt!nt,inl cqll:&t,iotl t h a t encor~nt~erecl anot,her corlnexion we a8 in

In l . l ~ c pnrI.ic:rtl:~lcasc of n Iltat 1)I:~to:LL front cqn. (7.31) Arcsort ling t o rqn. (12 31). t h r cormspontling Nussclt number is anti obtain

z(:t.o

iltc.itlcv~c:c.wit.11 r,, . - : 0, \v(* s1111sl.il.11l.c:

r0 = 0.332 I' (Iw

I/ 'g x
s

N, = 0.33!) P I I ~ R , (11:~l~ plntc ,

111

>PO)

(12.(;2:1)

111(, cnsc, of st~agt~al.iorl-l~oi~tl. (11 (3:) flnw

L-=

u', r ) , i t follows that,

It is s11own in Fig. 12.14 l l ~ a t t.11is ccluat.ion rrprc~scnfsn very gootl approsin~alion

292

XIT. Tl~er~nnl I~o~n~dary in laminar flow layers

g. Thermal boundary layers in forced flow

293

evcn in the case of moderately-valued Prandtl numbers. A t the stagnation point, the corresponding cquation is N = 0.661 P1I3 ,

1/%

(stagnation point,

P -+ oo).

(12.6213)

If the frictional heat is neglected then a temperature field exists only if there is a difference in temperature between thc wall and the extcrnal flow, e.g., if Tw- T , >0 (cooling). Hence it follows t h a t for a flat plate a t zero incidence in psrallcl Row and a t small velocities the temperature arid velocity distributions arc idcrltical provided that the Prandtl number is equal to unity:

Analogous, simple asymptotic formulae can also be established for the case of frcc convect,ion on n verlical flat plate, [73], see also eqns. (12.118a) and (12.1181)). Thi~ result corresponcls to eqn. (12.52) which Icd 11s 1.0 thc f~rrnulat~ion Ll~c of important Iteynolds analogy between heat transfer arid skin friction. 11. Blasius introduced new variables for the solution of t.11~ flow rqna1.ions, sce oqns. (7.24) and (7.26). (y) is 1110slrcnm f n n c l i o ~ ~ ) :

g. Thermnl bouoilnry layers in forced R o w

I n the present section we shall consider several examples of thermal boundary layors in forced flow. I n solving thcso problems, us0 will bo made of tho simplified thermal boundary-layer equations. J u s t as in the case of a velocity boundary layer, the general problem of evaluating tho thermal boundary layer for a body of arbitrary shape proves t o be extremely difficult, so t h a t we shall begin with the simpler example of the flat plate a t zero incidence.
1. Parallel R o w paet a Bat platc at zero incidence. We shall assume that the x-nxis is placed in the plane of the plate in the direction of flow, the y-axis being a t right arlglcs to i t and to the flow, with the origin a t the leading cdgc. The boundarylayer equations for incompressible flow and constant properties (i. e. independent of temperature) have been given in eqns. (12.61 a, b, c): assuming t h a t the buoyancy forces are equal to zero as well as t h a t dpldz = 0 [18, 941, we obtain

'rhc diffcrcntirrl <:quation for f(tl), cqn. (7.28) bccornos f f"

+ 21"'

=0,
L -

wit11 tllc boundary conditions: rl = 0 : f = f' = 0 ; 1 =- c : 1' 1 m of these equations was given in Chap. VII, Table 7.1.

I . 'I'l~esolution

Including the eflect of frictional hcat, as secn from eqn. (12.63c), the temperature distribution l'(r]) is given by the equation

'I'hc: I ) o ~ ~ r ~ t l a r y ronclitaions arc:

1 =0 1
:

u =v =0 ;

T == T,,,

or

aT/8g = O

I t is convenient to represent thc general solr~tioriof eqn. (12.65) by tho superposition of two solutions of the form:

'I'l~e vrlocit8y field is it~tlcpcntlrr~t, t,l~ct c m p r r a t ~ ~ r c of firltl so t l ~ a t , tflrc two Ilo~v equations (12.03a, b) can be solved first and the result can be employed t o evaluate t,he tscml)cmtnre field. An important rclatior~shipbetween the velocity distribution antl thc tcmperat,ure distri1)ution can bc obtained immediately from eqns. (12.63 b) : ~ n d( I 2.63 c). Jf 1;hc hcat of friction p ( a u / a ~ may be neglected in eqn. (12.63~). )~ t.he two rquat.ions, (12.03b) and (12.63c), become identical if T is rrplaced by 76 in the sccond cqr~at~ion if, in ad(lition, the properties of the fluid satisfy the equatiori id

ITcrc O1(r]) dcnotes tllc grncml solnLion of thc l~ornogcncouscq~~:~Cion 02(t7) and denotes a particular solution of the non-homogeneo~~s equation. It is, further, convenient to choose the boundary conditions for Ol(r]) antl O , ( q ) so as t o rnakc 01(7) the solution of the cooling problem with a prescribed temperature diKcrcnce betwecn the wall and tlic external stream, T , - T,, with O2(l;l) giving the solrition for the adiabatic wall. Thus 01(7) and OZ(r])satisfy t h e following equations:

294

X 11. Tlrrrnlnl bo~~rrdi~ry in lan~inar layers flow

with 0,' - () at, r] . 0 ant1 0, = 0 a t q -= co . 'l'lic value 0,(0) pcrmit,s us t.o rvalnntc t h e constnttt C from cqn. (12.66) in n manner to satisfy f.lie boontfnry nondit,ion 1 - T,,, for 7 - 0 . This yic,ltls '

Table 12.2. Diniennionlcss coefficient of heat transfer, a,, ant1 ditncnnior~lcnsadi:~ltnt,ic wall ternpcmture, b, for a flat plate a t zero incidence, fro111eqnn. (12.70) and (12.76)

(,'oo/i~~g prohlcnt : Tlte solut,ion of cqn. (12.67) was first given by 13. l'olllhnnsen [94]. I t rnn Ijr wvrittcn a s

IIct~cofor P = I : 0,(q) = 1 - / ' ( q )= 1 - ?c/U,, nntl for P = 1 the temperature dint.riltc~t,io~~ bccomcs itlont.icn1 with t.11~ vclociLy t l i ~ t ~ r i b l ~ t iinn accordn.nce \rritit o cqn. (12.64). 'l'he t.crnpcmt,r~re grntlicrit at, t.11~ w;~ll,a s calculated from eqn. (12.60), wil.ll /"(O) = 0.332, bccomcs:

- ("'I)

= a, (P) = (0.332)'
0

dtl

Tltr corls(,nnt r t I is s c o l ho tlcpcntl solcly on t,ltc PrantltJ tir~rnbcr, (P). Some valr~cs a, c:~lct~l:~t.r(l 1 I'ollll~nr~srn rcproclnccd in 'l'ablc 12.2. They can bc interpolated hy .: arc witlt goo(l nrrrtracy from t,hc formula

Fig. 12.9. Tempc.rat~lre ~list,ril>r~tion :I I~catrtlflnt plate a t zcro i ~ ~ c ~ t l r r ~ r11 > , on I\ 11 ( stn:i11 vrlo(.~fy plotted for various Pralltltl nrln~hersP (friclionnl 1lr:it ~lrglrrtctl)

For very stn:tll I'l;~,ntll,lnllmbcrs, cqn. (12.59~1) givcs

rs,
-

For P = 1 we Irnvc: 02(?]) = 1

)I)

0.564 ;/-P

(P -- 0 ) ,

wllrrrns for w r y Inrgc: I1r;ct~tlt.l 1111nll)rrsaqtr. (12.62n,) lcatls t o

'I'llc t.cnil~cmt.r~rc \vlliclr is assr~mctl t,ltc w;111 owing t o fri(:l.iortnl Ilml. 1 . 1 1 ~rrrlirthrtlic by ~tlnll/~nr~?ern/?t,rr. is t.liiis, by eqtls. (12.00) nrttl (12.72): 'l',,
l'?,,, = I
r
l

- T,,

--

Urn? b (P)
rP

(12.74)

l'ltn t.c~~nl~c.r:~l.~~~.v rlist,ril)~~t.iot~ c;~l(~r~l:t.l.c~tl c-tin. (12.69) is sl~owlt ~)lol,t.ctl f~.orn in I'ig. 12.9. As :~lr(\;~(Iy ~nanI.ionctl, t,llr. c r ~ r v e for P I givcs also t,lrc: veloc.it.y (JisOriI)rrf.ion. 1For v:llnrs of P 1 1 1.11~ tsl~rrrnnl 1)ortntlary lnyrr is t,l~innrr than t.hc valocit,y I ~ o r ~ t t t l ;I:~.~c*r. c-x:tnrplc, For oil wit11 n I'rnn(1t.l rirttnhrr P = 1000 the tl~errnnl ~ . r ~ I'or I)on~lil:rry Inyc-r is otlly ono l.crit1lr of t,l~t: vc~1oc:ifyl)o~~ritlnry 1n.yrr.
I

/Irlinhn/ic 119r1lb:'1'11t. solrtl.iori ol' ~ 'v:lri:lt,io~t ol' t,llc 1)nmrnrt.rr'. Itzis

~ I I (12.(i8) I .

can.tiIIC ol)t.:iinctl by t.11~ mctltotl of

fro111cqn. (12.72). I'or a consl.;r.nt 1'rantll.l nntn1)cr t,ho :rtli:r,l~nl.ic: \v:tll l,c-tril,rr;r.l,~tr(~ is prol)orI,ionnl t o l , l ~ cn(lin,l)ntsict.ctn~~(~r:~I,~tr(: ~ 1 . i ~ 1!,v,2/2rr, \vlti(:l~ \V:I.S ~ ) l o l , t . i ~i~ ll l Icig. 12.3. Sotnc rtrlrrlc.ric:al v a l r l c ~of I,It(: I;~cl.or ( P ) ; ~ r og i v c , ~ i~l 'I':IIII(. 12.2; 1'01. h l motlrmt,c: Prn~ttlt~l riumbcrs them vn.lucs ]nay 1 ~ : in(,cl.l)ol:rt,otI\ \ r i t , l ~ sr~lIinionb;I(:(:IIracy from tllr. forninl:~,1 1 1 / P . Tltc valttcs for 1:1rgvr 1'r:111tlt,lI I I I I I I ~ ) ( ~~ S : I I IIV in~. f'crrrtl fronl l'ig. 12.10. 111 1.11~ bmil.ing m s r , wc! I1:1vc (841

296

XI]. Thcrtnnl boundt~rylnyrn in lnminnr flow

I'ig. 12.10. Adiabatic wall tc~npcrnturc7 of ' " a flat plate a t zero incidrnce with velocity Ua for v:irio~lnv n l u r ~ tho of l'ra~~rll,l1111ni1)(;r; r k r a 1':. 15ckc1.tanclO.llrcwitz [IB] as w'cll RR D. Moksyn [84]. I'or large I'rnndtl nlltnl)rrn, according to D. Mcksyn [84], we havc 0 = 1-0 PI13

g. l r l ~ c r l ~ ~ n l bourltinry lnycrs in rorcccl flow

207

I t is remarliablc t h a t for P = 1 wc havc cxactly b = 1. Thus, for a gas with P = 1 flowing in a parallel stxcam with velocity U , past a flat platme t zero incidence a the temperaturc rise due to frictional heat is equal to the adiabatic tempersture, i. e. t o t h a t which occurs from velocity U , to zero. The adiabatic wall temperature [16, 201 measured st various Reynolds nrlml)ers U , x / v is seen plottcd in Fig. 12.1 1. Thc agreement, is vcry good in thc laminar region. A t the point of transition from laminar t o turbulent flow in thc boundary layer the temperature increases suddenly. The temperature distribution for a n adiabatic wall represented non-tlimcnsionally is
t l ) - Too ' 1'2,.- Tm

T , ( T I- Too = OJtl, P) )
T,

- 'I'm

b(P)

'

and is seen plotted in Fig. 12.12 for various values of the Prandtl number. From eqns. (12.74) and (12.75), we obtain that the constant C from eqn. (12.68a) is

c = ( T , - T,)

- ( T , - T,) = T , - T ,

The general solution for a prcscribcd tempcraturc difference between the wall and the free stream, T,#, - II',, eqn. (12.66), is thus T ( 7 ) - T , = [ ( T , - T,) - ( T , - T , ) ] 0 1 ( 7 , P ) with T , -- II', comes

uz + ---- 0 2 ( 7 ,P )
cP

(12.76)

from eqn. (12.74). Thc dimensionless temperature distribution beT - Too --- - [L- ) E b (PI1 8 , ( r l , P ) 1' -Too -

+ h E 02 (vtP ) .

(12.765)

Fig. 12.1 1. Measuren~cnt of ndiabatic wall ternpcrnturo on n flat plate in n parallel air strenm a t zero incidence in a lnlnitlar ant1 trtrbulcnt boundnry Iayor, nfter Eclzert and Weise [20]; theory for laminar flow and P = 0.7
,05
2
$ 5 6
I ,06 3 7

4 5

It is shown plotted in Fig. 12.13 for various values of the Eckert number E = Um2/c,(TW T,), from eqn. (12.28). For b x E > 2 the boundary layer near the wall is warmer than the wall itself owing t o the generation of frictional heat. I n such cases the wall will not be cooled by the stream of air flowing past it.

5. .

Heat transfer. As scon from eqn. (12.2) the 11c11.t flux from plate to fluid at, station x has the value q ( x ) = - k(t3T/ay)v-oor

Thc rate of heat transfcr per unit time for both sides of a plate (length 1, width h ) is Q = 2 b / q ( x ) dx, so t h a t
1
I

a ) Neqkdir~g/rictioml heat : I n this case T ( q ) - T m = ( T ,- T , ) ( 7 ) by eqn. (12.69) wit11 ( ~ l l ' / d q ) ~ a , ( T , -- T,). With nl from cqn. (12.71a ) we have = -

o1

Fig. 12.12. Temperature excess in the laminar boundary laycr on n flirt plate a t zero incidence in s parallel strean1 wit11 high velocity in the absence 01 hrolinq for vnrions l'rnndtl nrtmbcra (ndinbntic wirll)

The cnsc of turbulcrit flow can bc approximatcd by l h c equations

N = 0.0296 ,

'fi., O ' ~ t u r b u l c n t ), R

(12.79~)

which we quotc here for complctencss, b u t without proof. 'l'hc preceding forrnr~li~e for t h e rate of lieat transler a r c in good ngrccmcnt with t h c n~rasnromontn h ~ o o t t 1'. Elias [31], A. Rrlwarcls nr~tlB. N. 1'urt)or 1271 ant1 .J. J(c:stsin, ID.1'. M~tc.(l(*r ILIHI 1%. Wang [66J. E. b) With frictional heal: I n this case with T ( q ) from cqn. (12.76) we obtain

~linlril~rrt,ion a l:rn)irinr I~ounrlaryIaycr on a Iicnbrl ( E > 0) and in IGg. 12.13. 'rrnrl)cr:~tr~rt. cooled ( E < 0) llat plntc: nL zcro incidcncc i n ti parallrl st,rcnn~ the case of a Inr~iinar for hoiitidnry layer nrrd \\~iI.lr frict.ional Irc:r.l accorrntctl for an calcrtl;~bdfro~nrqn. (12.70). I'mntlt,l nrrtnber P 0.7 (air). 'l'llr Icnrpc!rnt,t~re the w r ~ l lis nraint.airrctl corrst,nnt a t y. (:rrrvc: h x E = 0 for of ,. zrro rrict,i(tn:~I Ilr-ilt,;rttrvc h x E = 2 corrcs~)o~id~ ntliabalir wall; E = 1Jm2/c,,(7',,- 7>,); t a11 o b . 0,835. I'or h x E > 2 l.hr lrot wall ccb:tsrs I*, I?c coolctl by t,lrc strf:n111of ~ooler RIII(.C air, t,l~o 'l~ral, c:nnliiori' providctl I)y fricl,ional Irrnl. prc!vrtit.s c!ooling

wherc T, is t h e adiabatic wall temperature. It is identical with the wall tcmpcrature in t h e thermometer problem a n d follows from t h e equation Urn2 - Urn2 T,-T,=b(P) - - - - - z i p ---. (12.80) 2 c, 2c IIere b(P) can be takcn from Table 12.2. Iritrotlucing t h e Mach number M = U,/cw from (12.27), T, may also bc taken from

T h u s we o b h i n the following expressions for t h e local and total h e a t flux from cqns. (12.77) ant1 (12.78) respectively

IVIII.

l ~ ~ [ r o t l ~ r c itli~nr.nsionlcss coofficienf,~in the form of t,hc Nlrssclt ~ l u r n t ~ c r rig from (12.31) instoatl of t,lic? locnl ant1 total Iicat flux, rcspcctively
1 .

q ( ~ )

.c

N ( 1- 2 )

; ~ r ~ c lQ

-- 2 h 1
P-+O,

1.

N , (T,,- l',)

N,=O.564

I / P - ~ Rfor .

I t now ceascs t o bc useful t o basc t h e cocfficicnt of h c a t transfer a(x)on thc t.cmpcraturc diffcrcncc (Tw T,) from eqn. (12.29) o r t o clcfinc tho Nnssclt nr11n1)trr i l l :rx eqn. (12.31) because t h e heat flux is no longcr proportional t o t h a t t c m p c m t l ~ r c diffcrencet.

t E. 11:ckert and W. Wcisc [17] Iinvc, therefore, ~t~ggrnLed introclr~co N I I R Rnnnrl)cr N* to a C~~

based on the difference (T, - T,). We migliL tlicn cxpcct to obtain ns a 8rnt approxiina t.'loll, even in compre~ibleflow, the mmc forrnu1.w for N* a in eqn. (12.79a. b). If, on llic otllcr 9 hand, wc retain the Nomelt number b a d on (T,- T,) tlrcn eqn. (12.81) Icnds to tlic following exprcasions instead of (12.79a):

300

XI1. Tl~rrrnnl borrndary layers in laminar flow

g. Thcrmal boundary layers i n forced flow

The cooling action of a stream of fluit1 on a wall is considcm1)ly rctluccrl because of t,hc hrxt gencmtrd by friction. I n 111rnbsrr~cc frirtionnl I~eat,, of heat will flow from the platc t o thc fluid ( q > 0 ) as long as T, > II', but in actr~nlfact,, if frictional hcat is prcsont, a flow of hcat persists only if T, > T,, eqn. (12.81). Taking into acrortnt thc valuc tlcdr~cctl T,, we obtain the condition t h a t heat flows from wall for to fluit1 (nplwr sign) or in tho reverse tlircction (lower sign), if

then satisfies t.llc? equation

0"

.t ."!-l-L01 - It pif 0 = - p~ x 2 m - n 1""p/

2

antl thc sol~rtionmust satisfy thc boundary cotltlitions 1 7 ~ 0 :

a:=];
17=03:

O-:()

A numcricnl cxatnplc may serve to illust~mtctfhe signifirancc of cqn. (12.82): 111 a stream of air flo\ving a t TJm = 200 m/scc, P = 0.7, cp = 1.006 k.J/kg dcg wr obtain P 1JW2/2 = IF tlcg C. The wall will begin L be cooletl whcn c, o

1/

If tltc tenipcrat,urc difference bctwren wall and stream is snlallcr than t,ltis value the wall will pick 11p a port,ion of thc hcat generated by friction. I n particular this is tho case whcn thc tcmpcraturc of the wall and stream arc cqnal. An ec~uatiorlfor thc rate of hcat transferred from n flat platc a t zcro incitIcnco but with variable material properties was derived by H. Schuh [110]. The temperature field on a platc placed in a stream with a linear temperature distribution w54 studicd in ref. [128].
2. Additional sinlilar sol~ltionsof t l ~ eequations for thermal boundary laycrs. I n the casc of a flat platc a t zcro incidence, the velocity and the temperature profiles t~lrnctlout to bc similar among themselves. This means that the distributions a t tliffcrcnt clistar~ccs along tllc platc co111clhc mn.tlc congrrrcnt by a s~tiLahlc t r c t c l ~ i t ~ g z s in the y-direction. Since i t is lcnown t h a t tltere cxist velocity boundary layers other t.11an those on a flat platc for which t l ~ i s true (e. g. the wedge profiles discussed is in Chap. IX), it, appcnrs useful to stucly the possibility of tho cxistcncc of additional similar solutions of t.he energy equation. This problem was investigated in detail in ref. 11351. At, tho prcscnt time, we sha,ll start with t.hc class of velocity boundary leycrs on wedges anti will awnme t h a t t,Ilc cxtcrnal flow is of the form U(z) = tc1 x"'. 111 at, analogous manner, we stiprtlatc {,hat tho wall-tcmpcraturc clistribution also sa1,isfies n power law, say one of thc form T,(x) -,Y = ' = TI x". Walls of constant t,rtnpcrat,~~re inclutlctl as thc casc n == 0, and t11c valuc 12. = (1 --711,)/2 are c ~ r r r ~ p o t ~ t l s COIIS~CIII~, to :I, brat flux q . 1nt.rotlucing tlic sitnilnrit,y variable

It is clear from cqn. (12.84) t h a t its right-ltat~tlsitlc vanisltcs in tltc al)scncc of fric:tiotlal heat and that all solutions arc then of tlrc s i t ~ ~ i l a r typc. IIowcvcr, if of frictional hcat is includcd, similar solrrt,ions arc rcstrictctl to tltat t:ombinatio~~ pnratnct,crs for w11icI1 thc right-halld sido becomes intlcpcntlct~tof z. 'r11i.s oc:t:~trs when 2 ~n - 7 t = 0 , tltat is, whcn thcrc cxists a firm cor~l,lit~g 1)ctwco11tltc vc1ot:ity distribution it, thc cxtcrnal flow antl tho tcmperatarc tlistril~r~tion :&long1.110 w:ill. According to this result., thc casc of a c o ~ ~ s t ~tcmpcmt,r~re ant lratls to similar sol~~t,ions otlly on a flat plate (1i1=1t =0). 011thc o l l ~ c r hnt~tl,if 1,110 contli1,iotl 2 111, - - 11. - 1) is satisfied, thcn for every pair of values of m and P t l ~ c r c cxists oric tlcfinitc valur: E, for which there is no flow of ltcat (O'(0) = 0). Jn this rasc, the tctnpc:mt,~~rc distribution along the wa.11, once again lcrtown as tfhc atliabalic wall-tcmparat,r~rc: distribution T,, is given by

Numcricnl valucs for t l ~ c frtnction b(m,P) havc bcnn romput,rtl by 1%A. 1lr11r1 171. I n the particular case whcn m = 0, the numerical valucs of l'ablc 12.2 arc rccovcrctl. Wlicn thc cffcct of dissipative hcat is ncglcctccl, wc obtain tho simpler equation

whose solutions for different valucs of thc parameters m, n, and P have bccn published by a number of aut.hors [79, 121, 32, 33, 89, 1401. E.1E.G. Eclrcrt [I91 has dcmonst,ratcd that for n = 0, the local Nusselt number is given by thc equation

wr ol~tnintlic f;~tilili:irrquations (0.8~1) the brlocity u = i J ( . z ) . / ' ( q ) ,or for

Eerc

N
%

ax =-=k

i---y
U ( x ) . 1:

O' (0) = -

id,

0' (0) .

( 12.88)

The frinctiot~F ( m , P) is seen plotted in Fig. 12.14 on thc basis of the numcriral data provided by 11. 1,. Evans [33]. Jn addition, thc asymptotes for very small and vary large I'randtl numbers, cqrts. (12.57) nritf (12.01 n), rrspccl~ivrly, 11avo also

302

XJI. Thorninl boundary layers in laminar flow

g. Tliernial bonndary Inycrs in forced flow

303

F ~ R12.14. 1,ocnl Nta~clt . nl~mher a fnnction of tho Prandtl nii~nber of the flow parameter as and m for flows wliosr f'rre-stroam velocity is distrih~itedaccording to the law U ( z ) = u, zm = = v , z P l ( 2 - 0 ) (wctlge Ilow) hut for a constant wnll kmpcrature and in the absence of dissipation Asymplot.ic approximations for P -t 0

I\riylilpt.r)tinapproxiinations for P .+ cm and P P + u ant1 p = - 0. I!)O: ,

+ - 0,100 according to eqn. (12.61a), and for

been indicated (see also [119]). F o r thc Rat plate (m =0) the earlier rclntions from eqns. (12.69a) and (12.62a) are, ~laturally,recovered. The caso of stagnation flow ( m = 1) leads to eqns. (12.69b) and (12.02b). I n tho special cnsc of a separation profile (m = - 0.091) i t becomes necessary to adopt a different asymptotic approximation for P -t oo,as shown in 1321. The thermal boundary laycr associntcd with tho thrcc-dirnc:nsional vc:locity boundary layer on a rectangular corner a t zero incidence is also of tllc sclf-similar type when the external velocity distribution is of thc IIartrcc class given by U ( r ) -C x m . The velocities a s well a s the temperature distributions for this case havc bccn worked out in a thesis by Vasanta R a m (ref. 1921 in Chap. XI). Figure 11.I!) givcs an idea of thc vclocit-y distribution for dilTcrcnt vnlrics of tlic ~)rcss~~rc-grntlicnl, 1)nt.nmctcr m. I'lrc tliagrnnl in Fig. 12.16 supplc~ncrik ~)rocctliilg in t,l~rtt, c : t ~ ~ ~ t . r i i t i x tlic onc il, an example of the associated temperature distribution. For a uniform cxtcrnal Ilow with U(x) = Um = const and in the case of a hotter (i. e. cooled) wall for which T, > Tm the solut,ion nevertheless exhibits a zone near the corner itsclf, shadcd in the figure, in which ( T - Tm)/(T, - Tm) > 0, that is in which T > T,,,. 'l'l~is zonc occurs when dissipation is included and corresponds to a condition where thc local fluid temperature exceeds the wall tempcraturc. Thus, loca.lly, the heat flux is reversed and proceeds from the fluid t o the wall in spite of the fact t h a t a t a largc distancc from the wall the temperature of the fluid is lower than t h a t of the wall, Tm < T,. The physical reason for this seemingly anomalous behavior is rootad in the increased local ratc of heating due to dissipation which occurs near thc corner. Phcnorncna of this kind are important in the liypcrsonic flow rogimc. 'l'lic rcslrlling Inrgc inc:~.cnscs in temperature which occur in such cases can cause burning of the surface of the body in the stream (ci. Sec. XI11 e).
3. Thetmal boundary layere on i ~ o t l ~ e r m a l bodies of nrbitrary shape. N. I'rocss' ling [39] carried out calculations on the tcrnpcraturc distribution in thc laminar boundary layer about a body of arbitrary shapc for tlic two-climcnsionnl ant1 axially symmetrical cases. I n his calculations, in which friction and cornprcssion work wcrc neglected throughout, he assumed a powcr serics for the potential vcloc:ity clistribution around the body expanded in terms of the length of arc (Blasius serics), similar to Sec. I X c , i. e. of the form:

Approxilnation for inbr~ncdisto PrnntitI nurnbcrs and /' 0, according to eqn. (12.71a). i=

U = u, x 4- u, 2" -1- u, xk "

... .

The velocity distribution in the boundary laycr is wsnmctl to llavc the form: Fig. 12.15. Tornpcrntnre distributioli , along a lienkd wnll (T,,,> T,) it1 a right-angled corner in n laniinar boundary layer with a constant ex(inclusive ofdirisipntioli),aftnr ternal velocity Urn ~n.qnndRani (1441. 1,irictn of cot~st.nrit tc~nper:~.t,nrc: P = 0.7 nricl E = 2.1. The local temperat~lre for exceeds the wall t~rr~lwraf.i~re).,'- i n 1.11~ ( 7' ; l' hntcl~r:clrcgion; conseqnent,ly,in that region heat flows fluid + wall i n spite of tlie fncl, t,liat t.11~ wall tmnperatnrn exceeds the free-stream t.aniporntnre. Tlie reason for t . I ~ i nproccm licri in tlis~ipnt,ion. Rckert nnnibcr E -- IJ&/r, (T,,, 7',)

dist,ribut,io~iwas of tlic form : Correspondingly, the assumption for thc tcmpcrati~re

I n a manner similar t o t h a t for the velocity boundary laycr in Scr. TX c it, is found t h a t the functions T I (y), T3(y), . . . satisfy ordinary diffcrcntial cqnations wliicl~include thc functions f l , i,, . . . of the velocity distribution. I n this case, howcvcr, tllc fr~nctions T,, . . . also depend on the Prandtl number. The first arlxiljary frlrlctions TI(?/) T,,

30.4

X11. Tl~ort~lal boundary Iaycra in lerninnr flow

g. Thermal borrnclnry lnycra in forccd

flow

305

for t,hc two-tlitncnsior~alant1 axially syrnmctricnl case were evnlnnted numerically for n Prantltl nllmber of 0.7. 'rile met,hocl under consideration is somewhat cumbersome I)y its natnrc, ns was t,hc case wit11 the velocity boundary layer, particularly for slcntlrr I)otly for~iiswhen a large number of terms in the power expansion is rrqnirrd, as sl~o\vn l l 1281. i Nurnrrol~ss o l ~ ~ t , i ofor s self-similar thermal 1)oundary layers inclusive of the t~ elTrc.t,s of blowing and suction can be found in [34, 44, 134, 101. In t,lw sprcinl case when P = 1, ant1 when the Ilcatf duo t o friction is ~ieglccted, the tfiKcrcnt.inl ccll~at,ionfor the temperature clistribution in the boundary layer a r o ~ ~ n an xrbit,r:sry cylintlcr is itlcnt.ica1 with that for the transverse velocity tl coml)oncnt (volocit,y componerit in the tlircction of the generatrix of the ynwetl rylirrtler). This r a n be seen upon comparing cqns. ( 1 2 . 6 3 ~ and (11.58). The relation, ) w l ~ i c lhas already t)ecn discusscd in Scc. X I d , was ut,ilized b y I,. Golancl [46] for ~ t,lro e v a l ~ ~ n t ~ of rt.he temperatlure distribution in the boundary layer around a io ~ aylir~tlcr s~)rc:ial of form. I n tile ~~eigltl~ourhootl a stjagnation point, where t h e velocity distribution of is r ~ ~ ~ r c by oIJ~(z) == ~x dwith nz =.. /? = 1 , thc Nrlsselt number dcfincd in ~ ~ t ~ eqn. (12.87) ran be rcprescntad by t h c cqrlation

'I'ablc? 12.3. Thc coti~t,nnt in the equation for the cnlcnlat.ion of tho rorffic:irnt, of I~cnt, A t.ransfi.r i n t,he ncigllborrrltood of n st,agnnt,ion point, nftm H. 11. Sqnirc []:ti J

on contlition thatf oncrgy dissipation is neglected. T h e character of the function A ( P ) emerges from Fig. 12.14 and Table 12.3. I n thc former, the curve for /? = 1 corrcspo11tl.s t o t l ~ c function A . For .z circulnr cyli~ldcrwe p u t U(z) = U, sin ( x / R ) ,so tfl~at. I 91 4 fJ,/D. lrcncc

Fig. 12.16. Jmcal rate of float translcr trro~rntl circt~lar n rylindrr. Coml,arison brtweon tl~eory antl expcriment. Nuamlt ~~nrnbern and Jtcynolcls nnmN I~rrR,, rrfcrrcci to rylincler dintncter I ) = 100 111111. Mmsurcn~ents pcrformcc\ by E. Scll~nidtnnd K. Wcnner [107]. l'l~rorytine to N. Froeasling [XI] ant1 W. l)ie~~einann [Ill. Systelnatic infl\lcncc of Rcynolds number due to vnrying froe-stream turbulence, Scc. XI1 g 7

Tllc al)ove rxl)rc.ssiol~ agrcrs reasonably wcll with t h e mcasi~rementsperformed by R. St.llnliclt antl I<. Wcnncr [107] a t lowcr Rcynolds numbers, see Fig. 12.16. I t :~ppt-ars, I~owrvcr,t,hat t h e ratio N,/~/R,, drpends systematically on t h c Jtcynoltls n l ~ n ~ l ~this; s y s t r n ~ a t ~infll~cncc not acconnl,cd for by the tl~eory. cr ic is For cxamplc at, R - 1.7 x 10" tho m m s ~ ~ r cVRIIIC c x c r ~ t I s t,heorot,i~a1 at. the .st,:~g~int.ior~ tl t,l~o onc poitrt by 10 to 16%. We s11:~ll rcvcrtt t.o t,l~is point in Scc. X I J g 7 whcrc i t will bc RIIOWII t , l ~ a t l ~ e discrepancy is due t o the rffcct, of varying free-stream turbulence procll~rrdhy a rhangr in the Jtcynolds number. Whcn ~,crforniingnrrnierical cnlcnlat,ions on ' thermal bountla.ry Ia.yers, i t is Sorttit1 t l l ~ tnpproai?ndc rn,etko(L~ muell simpler l,11a1i tho preceding exact metlrods. , arc Such n.pproxin~:~t,e mcl,hods arc based on nclrlatioris modclled on the integral moment,r~rneqnnt.ion for t,l~c calc~llntionof velocity bountlary layers wliicli was considcrcd in tlct.nil in C11:l.p. X . Ncglrct~ing frictional heat; and tile effects of co~npressibility it, is [)ossil)ln looinfngrat.c: t,l~c:crncrgy cquat,ion (12.51c) from y = 0 t o y = oo and SO 1.0 ol)Ia.ill t.111:hrcst-llic:,: rq~rrdion

(T- T,)]

dy = - o ( C T ) ac~ ,-0

wllcrc a .=. k/p c, is t,l~e tllcrinnl t1iff1tsivit.y ir~t~rotl~tcotl in cqn. (12.25). Tllc prnct:tling rcl~~al.ioll, somrt,i~nrs :11so c.:~llotlt,l~c c:~~crgy-i111.rgm.I c?cl~~nl.iorrt, clt~ito~I.IIII,~~!:OIIS is to t . 1 1 ~ r~lo~l~c~it.r~nl-irltcgr:~l (8.32) for t,llc v c l o ~ i t ~ yo ~ ~ ~ ~ tlayer. rclrrn(.ic~n b lnry From among t l ~ c numcrous proccclures wl~icharc avnilal~lcfor thc soll~t.iot~ of t.lrc 11catflux equation (12.91), we propose 1.0 tlcscribc t h a t tll~o IT. B. Sqrlirc [IS21 to ill ~ 6 1 1 tlct.nil I)(:(!~IIsc it is partir~~l:~,rly 1~ sir111)lt: t~,n(l IK:~:I,IIS(: it, i~ II rln,l,~lr:~l t-o11l,i1111:rt.ior~ l'olrlllauscl~'~ of i~l)~)roxit~\:~t.c Ibr t,l~c mct,ho~l sol\rt,io~~ t,111> ol vclocit,y I)o\rntl:lry layer clescribetl in Cl~ap.X. I n orclcr t o ovi~luatot,l~c ilitcgral on the Jcft-l~:~ntl side of cqn. (12.01) wc introtfucc 1 . 1 1 va.riables ?I -- y / B for t8hovt~loc:itry ) o ~ ~ ~ i t lI:tyrr antl ~ I ary

Not to be confnscd wit-h the encrgy-integrnl cqnation (8.35).

306

XII. Tllcrrnal hor~ndarylayers in laminar flow

17T = ?//Or for t . 1 1 ~t.hc:rtnal layer. We tlcnoI,e, furt,l~er, t,l~cir mt,io I)y A = BT/d, ant1 we ;Lssulnc: ~ , I I : I ~ ,t-llo vrlorit.y : L I I ( ~ t.on~l)crat,t~rc clist.ribr~l.iot~s, rcr;pcct.ivcly, havc the fimns (12.92~~) 2 11"1?i4] IJ (x) F ( 7 ) , == I =U( ) 2
--

Upon dividing eqn. (12.95) by eqn. (12.96), we ohtain

A2.

H ( A )= 4

1 i-4

U~~UII.(I~
-0
z
O

(12.97)

H JUQI x
,I .l l t r vt:loc.it,y tlist,riln~t,ion st.il)~~l:~l.ctl c:orrcspontls 1.0 t,llc: I'ohlhnuscn assumpIlcrc? t.ior~ in otl11. (10.2:1) : ~ . t ~ c l t , I ~ t : liwm of t.110 t.cml)cr:~t.l~rc clist,ribt~t,ionf11nc:tion is so srlrc:l.ctl ns t,o c:nsllrc? itlt.nl,ic::tl vclocil.y : ~ n ( lt(:n~~)cra.l,ltrc~ t ~ r i l ~ l ~ I for nBT ---- 0 , (li .io s
as rcrcl~~ircrtl y t,Itc Jtc~ynolclsanalogy for n flnt ~)l:~t.ct P = I, cqn. (12.64). 11. a srll~st.it,ut,ing cclns. (12.!)2:1, 1)) into ccln. (12.91), wo obt,ain
011
I

Since H ( A ) is a known function, Table 12.4, the preceding equation can bc used t o tloterrninc A ( x ) . T h e calculation is best porrorrncd 1)y u~lc~~cssivcp r o x i ~ n a t i o ~ ~ n , nl) starting with the initial assumption t.11at A -= r o t ~ s l ~ . Jltwrc wc obtain

u4 Lu CIX

Jlc~rt. / / ( , I ) is n rl~tivors:~l ~ ~ ~ ~ c t iA ~ l O,./fi f of o -

wl~icli turns out l o l)c given 11y

The resulting value of A is now int,rvtlucctl into t,hc 1t:ft.-11:~ntl sitlc of ac111. (12.!)7) thus leading t o a n improved value of A. I n general, two stst*psin the iteration nrc found t o be sufficient. The local rate of heat transfer becomes

Performing the intlicatcd integrations, we obtain

140 180 3 - - - +- -- -- - - 3- 1 3 1 2 1 ~I(A= ) .
15

II(A)= 2 A -

? /In"+

'

A4

for A

<1
a n d hence t h e local Nusselt number referred t o a characteristic length I is

and

,,

10 A

15 A2

140 A'

+ - 1-

1 -180 A6

orA>,

Some numerical valrlcs of the function [[(A), calculated by W. Dienemann[ll], havc been listctl in Ta11lc 12.4. Tablo 12.4. Nlrrnoricnl vnluw of tllo function H ( A )

T h e steps to be taken t o evaluate the thcrmnl boundary layer, and in partficr~lar, to determine t h e variation of t h e N~lsseltnumber along a body of preseribcd sllape are thus the following ones: from eqns. (12.97) and (12.978) 1. evaluate A (2) 2. evaluate d (x) from eqn. (12.96) 3. steps 1 a n d 2 give dT(x); finally, t h e local Nusselt number follows from eqn. (12.98).

The integration of cqn. (12.93) yields

I

Flat plate at zero incidence: The preccding approximato method will now be compared with t h e exact solution in tthc case of n flnt plato at zero incidence. Insert= , ing U (z) U into eqn. (12.97), wc obtain
I

'I'lle vclocity l~onndary-layer thickness cJ can bc evaluated with thc aid of cqn. (10.37) wl~c,r~ is rcmoml~crt:cl from cqn. (10.24)t t h a t n/d2 = 316/37. T l ~ n s it
I .

The expression A = P-ID constitutes a n approximation t o the soInttion of this equation which is in error b y n o more t h a n 5 per ccnt. as compared with t h e exact solution. The boundary-layer thickness from cqn. (12.06) is

Fttr IIir ankt. o f ~ i n ~ p l i f tlic~ i l . rdalci~lalion bmcd throughot~t the flat-plate relations ( A = 0). is on

X11. ' I ' l ~ r r ~ ~ ~ n l hotrnclnry I:ryrrs in lnn~iunr flow I1enc.r 01c loc.:~l N~rssrltrtumbrr rcfcrrc-tl t,o the cnrrrnt Icngt,h s alone; thc plate, !Is), I)vc-o~nc.s

g. Tl~cr~nal bo~~ndary layers i n forcrtl flo~r,

:lO!)

V ~ I I( 1 2

w11c~rrn.s t,l~c c,xn.c.t sol111~io11, cqn. (12.79a), showed t h e n ~ ~ m e r i c a l coefficient t o b~ eq11:1l l o 0.:1:12. Alt.rrn:~l :~pproxirnnt,c ivc proccdores for the calculatfion of-the tjhcrmalq!o~ndary 1j1,ycron 1)otlit:s of n.rl)itSr:r.ry l ~ a p c s s have baeq intlicnlc;i_Ly...E..lj;ckert [l-)j a n d Gy I{>.I<Cclirrti nt~tl* J . N . 13. jivin&mtl [23, 251; t.he latter require a somewhat larger ~ I I I O I I I I of I I ~ I I I I ( % ~ ~ C : I . ~ ~, \\,orlc, b111 t,hcir BCCIIT:L~Yis improved. 111 this connexion t,hc p n 1 ~ ~ tI)y \V. I)ic.nrniar~n1 1 I], 11.J. Merlc 1851, M.B. S k o p e k [I181 and A. G. Smit,ll .s n.11t1 1). 1%. Spnltlit~g In] rnny I)? usrful t,o t.hr rcadcr. 111ror~f,ra.st. 1.1 with 11. 13. Squil.~'s, t.11~:I:~t.ltsr pror.c.cI~~rrs rn:~.lco us(: of t.11r rcsr~lt,s t , l ~t,hcory of similar I,hcrn~:il of c I,o~rr~tl:rry I:~.yrrs l.linc*t in t . 1 1 ~)rrnctli~ig 011 l ~ scc:tion. 'I'l~isimprovt:~ the accuracy of tlle calclllntion. r I11n v:irio~~s :~l)lrroxirnat,n nlct.l~otls I~nvn ~ o r cxaminctl crit.icnlly and comparctl wit,ll I r~ rxch ol llor in n pnprr 1)y 1). 13. Spnltling ant1 W. M. P u n [I221 : their accumcy has beeti jlltlgrtl I)y pc:rli,rtning c:ornpn.risons with t.he cxaot solut,ion for the circular cylintlcr proritlt.tl Ily N . 1~rorssling. Accor(lil1g t.0 t.hns(: stlltlirs, trhomethods due t,o IT. J. Mcrlc /85] nntl A . G . Snlit.ll and D. R . Spnlding [ l l n ] t,ul.tl onl, too I)c rclnt~ivclyt,hc I I I O S ~ , ~ c c I I I .in ~ ~ ~ of l.l~rir : sl>iIlt: silnl)li(:ily. ' ~ I I c Iattcr relerencc s11ows t h a t a t a PrantU1 nl~rnl)cr P :-= 0.7, t.hc similar wctlgc profiles satisfy with good accuracy thc relation of

calculat.ion mllc:l~Inore tlific~tlt,. n p a r t i c ~ ~ l at,11c prccc[ling a ~ ~ l ~ ltnii(I(: ( I ( ? l . : ~ i l ~ ~ i I r, ~ors calculalions for t,lrc thcrmal I101tntl:wy I:l.yc:rs n~socinl~ctl will^ lllc wctlgc Ilows wl~ic:lr corresporltl to U ( z ) = ulx"' and whose vclorit,y I)onndary Inycrs, cnl~:~~l:it.c~tl r:trlicr by 1). It. Jlart,rcc, llavc been clisc~lssctli t 1 Sca. I X n . 'I'll(: tllcrtnnl I ) o ~ ~ n t l : ~:r yy r r I ~ for wcdgc flow is also tliscussctl in a paper by A . N . rl'ifTort1 11391.
4. Tllern~nlb o ~ ~ ~ ~lnyers oti walls witli nn nrbi~rnrylenipernt~~re dary distrihl~tion. \+'it11 1.110 oxcept8iot1 t.hc si~nilnr of solrlt.ions for wcdgc flows tliscussctl in Src. XI1 g 2, :ill t.l~crrn:tl) O I I I I I ~ : I ~ ~ I layers discussctl so far were cnlc~~lnhrl the x.ssun~ptio~~ t l ~ c or1 thnt tc~nl)ornt.urc: dil1i:rcnrr l)~:l.\\W I I wall and frcc s t r c : ~ rwhich creates the heat Ilux rcn~ni~~cd ~~ constant. The onlculation of Lhc tmnpcratt~re ficlrl nntl of t.11~ of heat t,rnnsrrr i n thr: prcscnrc of n tc~r~l)rrnt~uro \vl~ic:l~ rate 7',,,(3.) is dislribr~lati alol~g 1.11~wnll prrscnt.~ many cliffin~llics. 111nny mscs, t.l~cscarc c.l.r:ttril hy In t,l~c fw:L t,I~at, 10t~:il l~(::it,flux i8 hy no I I I ~ : L I I ~lcl,cr~~~ir~rrlIjy t.11r: ln(!:~l t,Ilc ~ sc)lt?l.y t~c-ti~lt~~ntl~~ cliIli.rc,nc.c! '/',,,(:r) 'l'<w,. , 1 1 r o v 1I~o I)(: ~l,ro~~[cl,yI I I - I I ~ C : IlI ~ y "~I:I!I~, It , ~IIII III~, l~i~lc,ry" 111,. l t o 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 : ~ r y l:ly(!r. , he cxtcnsir,~~ t.11~ J of exp:insion in n J%liisiuss0ri08 1.0 i t ~ r l l ~ ~ l e :trl)it,r:iry clisfril~llt~io~~s of wall tcmpcrntr~re wrts worI<cdout by C . It. (;r~l~n (!. S. Yih [:!HI : ~ wrll :is I)y N. Icr~)rssli~~g n11(1 s [40]. The specinl rase when the velocity profilcs in thc I~ontltlnry Inycr cnn I)c rclircscntotl in the form of a power law nntl when t l ~ c tetnpcrntt~re distrihr~tio~~ Lhc aell ci111I)c ~ C ~ I ~ C R O I I ~ I I nlong as n power series w.w invcstignhd by D. It. 1)avie~ nnd 1.1':. llournc I.!)]. P I I ~ O X ~ I I ~I O ~~C~( I I I ~ C S ) A ~I I for t l ~ e cnlc~ilation tlirrnmnl boundnry lnycr along non-isot~l~crmel of ~rrnlln vverc elnl)nrntctl I)y the following n~ltl~ors: I).Jt. Cl~npmnnnntl W.M. Itr~l~osin J . 1tlci11 181. nnrl M. 'l'ri1111~ IXO]. L'.L. I)onoughc and N.B. Livingood [12]. M. J. I,ightl~ill[13:3], H. Schuh [Ill], G . S . Arnl)rolc [2], I). I?. Spnl(1ing [120], E. Eckert. J.P. Hertnetk nnd R. Dirkcbnclc [2C,J, 13. J J ~liur 174. 751 and i4. Schlirlit.ing 11021. The ~chenie provided by If. 13. Squire, nnd clisc~~mcrl rnrlirr ~::III nlno I)o cxtentlcd to inclrlrle non-isothermnl walls [13:)]. 111 no st cases, thc ni~thoru~~eglrot. cvol~lt Ihc ion of frictiontal hcnt ahcn incon~prcssibleflow^ nro being st.11dicd.
-

11 (x) 'I(,$.=) .ir dx

=- 48.72 - 2.87

43= -- clU
v

'I'l~ist.cl11at.io11 rx:ic~t, /3 is for 0 (plnlr) : L I I I ~/3 -- 1 (stfagnat,ionpoint). If i t is supl)osctl (I~nt) rcln (12 100) vnjoys ~ ~ r ~ i v r r s : t l vnlitlily, it, is possil)lc immetlintcly t o writ.? down

dr

Since tJ~c climcrc~~l.ial rrlnot,ion for tho t.l~rr~u:~l bouutlnry Inyrr is li~~rnr, is possil)l~* ib L o writ(: clown t.lic! gctternl solut.io~~ t . 1 ~ to ~)robln~n 1.l1c: fornl of n li11r:ir C O I I I ~ I ~ I I :~ . ( %~ ( , I I ~ ~ ill of L ~ . r ~ a i st.:inrlnrcl sol~~tions. Soc.11n st,n~~tlarcl solulion is c~l)t:iinr(l cot~sidrri~~g 11y :I w:~ll. I'ig. 12.17. \vltosf: It.n~l)rrat.r~reequal to t.hnt of the free strca~n, i8 'I1,, from z -= O t.o s = r,,. At x = r,, t.lir: \v:iII trt~~lwrnt~lrc is strdtlcnly c:l~a~~grdn vnlrlc 7Is. prodrlcing the s k p functio~~ L o skrtrl~ccl i l l I'ifi. 12.17. I f the solutir>r~ this proble~n is tlc~~oletl t.o by

4672-1'

(
0

'

) [I,,,

)I ( )

(for P = 0.7). (12,101')

I lrrt: IT,, nntl I tlt:r~ol.cc . o n s l , : ~rcfcrcltcn valncs. This equat.ion corresponds t o eqtl. ~~t (10.37) \vhic:h \r7:~s tl(%rived A. Wnlz for t,hc rnomcrlt~nmtjl~iclrncss. I)y The local Ni~ssclL ~ ~ l l ~ n l )is: r t n.gnit~tlt:l,c:rrni~~otl cqn. (12.!)8). At, t.he st.ngnal,io~lpoint we ol)t.:~it~ I)y

.
,. ,

-. -.

~ , ~ ~ i ~ ~ j ~ l(lorj IJ :,i <1(7/0

: :

0.7)

1.
, '
Fig. 12.17. Uevrloprnc~nt, of --L I I I ~vc-locity n~itlIr111prr:it.urc I~ountlnrylnyrr in l.lic ~)rcscr~ccn sts11-likr of jl1111l) i l l aa11 tc~nl)crnt.nrc st,:i:it, lion z - r,, (stanrlnrtl pro. I~lrm)

UfxI

-+ ; J.

----~
<-

.~~

_ ----- OJI/?Icdqr 01 dynamic

hni~ndaiy ldvcr
OUlPI CdgP O/ /helm~/

bnundafy layer

I)rnst.ic.:~lly \ii~n~~lili(:(l l)ro(:(:(Il~rcs tS11ecalcrllntion of t l ~ e r m a l for bountlxry 1nyc:r-s oil pl:ii,cs nnrl rot.;~.tionnlly y ~ n m e t ~ r iI)otlics were indieatreti by IT. J . Allen ant1 s c I<. (!. I,oolc 1 1 1. :111!11)y If:. !':(-lz(:rt, n.ntl \I. Woisc [17]. 1: IC(,I<(:rt,:III(I0 . I)r(-\vit,z [181 ~)rrfor~~ic(I~(:n.lcr~lat~ions t.ernl)c~r:~.t,rrlc: 4 . on t,he t l i s t , r i l ) ~ ~ l ilo ~ ~ I~r,l~tttl:~ry l I.II(. I:tycr allowing for t h e rKect,s of compressi1)ilit.y and fricI.iot1:1.1I~r:rt,. 1 1 g c ? ~ ~ o ri:t ~ gnscolls ~nol.ion 1 1 l, t.hc work of coniprcssion is of the satnr o~,tl('r I I ~ : I C I I ~ ~ .I(' I , :IS I.II:I tlissip:tt,cvl I.l~roltglr of I I. visrosi try. t is then no longer possi\)lc I l o ~ , Y I I I ~ 1 1 1 ( x ~ l ~io11~for t(,~r~l~(:r;~.t,~~r(:i l ) ~ ~tto i n. n T ~ ~: l ~Iist~r , o diffnre~it~ial equat,ion of t.Itt: fivst or11t.r. :IS \ r : ~ st,It(: c;~st. wi1.11 t.llc flat, plnt,c, xntl t.Ilis c i r c u m s t a ~ ~ c n renders t,llo

310

XJI. 'I'hrrmnl boundnry layers in laminar flow

g. Tlicrmnl boundary lnycn in forcrcl flow

31 1

topnite asmethod, too, fniln a t the point of ucj)nrnt,ion bccauso the funct.ion ~ ( z , z , , bororncs thin ) in 0.
rO -C

sitnil:~rtllatrnrr. thr I~rritflux q ( r ) mn IIVr o n l p ~ ~ t r from thr known distribr~tion tl ~ / ( ~ , r c , )q* (r.rfl)(7's - 7'm) = for lhr stnrltlnr(1 ~~rol)lrlrl PI^. 12.17. 111 this cnsr of
111 n

A comparntivcly acctlrnte method wliich, ill nddition, mnkw nti n.llo\vnncc for frirt.ionnl heat, has hecn indicated by 13. JA Fur 174, 761. This nlet,lld \vaa cxtcndcd t o include cornprcssible flows.

q (4 =

q* ( ~ , r , ,(171.5(x0) )

(12.105)

Ilc*rr, P ~ I I R . (12.101) nncl (12.105) c n n t a i ~Stit:ll.jr*n inlrgrnln. When t.ho dintrihr~t.iotls7'.<(r) nI. ~ r - . O rirc c:o~~t.i~~t~ol~w. i t is ~~ossiblc xi11111liljr 1.11 lhc rrhovc cxl)ron~iol~ to
' '/ I 'I1,, =

i
{

0 (.r.!/,r,,)

(1 ' 1 I , (IX,) ( l ~ , ,

(12.10(i)

5. Thermal boundary layero on rotationnlly symmetric and rotating bodies. Tho cnlc~rlnt.ion of rolitionally nymnlctric t.liermnl bolrtiilrii;ji lnycrs jiFcncnIi no priit-ictilnr ~liflic~~lticn l~rrn~lsc: tho encrgy cqrrntion is 1 1 snmo a for tho two-di~nc~~siot~nl C O I I R P ~ I I C I Ino .st, ?111ct.l1~1c1s 10 q cllno. ~ ~ ;. which havc bccn cvolvctl for two-ditncnsionnl prol~lcn~s bo oxtc.r~clctl nlr >ly to rokrtic)~l:rll.i cnn tc) sy~ntnotric s~~rfncos, fnr c~ntnple, l , 17, 1111. k ' u ~ t l ~ c r ~ ~ 1.11~rot.iLlio11ilhjR ~ I I I I I I O t:nso ~ ~ RCC, [ ~ore, ~ . ~ cnn IICrcclr~retlto n t ~ o - ~ l i ~ l l c ~ ~ ~ i hy ~ n l a/~pliontiol~ ~ I I CMnnglrr trn11sfortnnI.iotl17 1 I. onc o r l.llo of scc. X LC.
Tllcrmal boundary Inycrs on rotating rotationally syrnmctric ~urfaccs have bocn invcslig.tlcd in a n ~ ~ m h e r publications. Solutions for a disk which rotalcs in st.ill nir (cl. Src. \' 1 1 ) arc of contained in [120, 130, 511: Lltc corresponding pro1)lcrn conrornil~g rnl.ttl.i~~g e slthc>ro Svc:. S I I,%) (rl. was nolvccl by S. N. Sing11 [I 171. A. N. TifIbrd and S. T. Chu [I411 cxnniirictl tlic casc of a rotriling clink placctl in nn axial stream, whereaa the problem qf a aphcre rotating in an axial strcnm forms the snl)jcct of a s111dy by J . Siekmann [IIB]. Additionnl solutions for rolnting bodies can be found in rck. [%] [138]. and A generally valid approximate method for the study of thcrmnl boundary Iaycrs on botlics rotating in an axial strcam was developed by Y. Ynmagn [I451 who bawd himself on 11. Schlichting's procedure mentioned in Chap. XI (ref. [0!)] of Chop. XI).

and to writr r111 n ~ ~ n l o g oversio~l cqn. (12.106). ltcforving to cqn. (12.61 b), it is now posnible r~s of to ol~t.:ii~l the f~llo\vingox1)rrssion ftw 1 1 1 ~hrrll, IIIIXalong n wall providctl with n varying trtnlwrnI.urr T s ( r ) wllic.11 was first tliacovcrtd Ily M. .I. I,igl~thill(80) This in
m -

* -

(r) = 3

)!

I.

Strictly speaking, the prccoding equation is valid only for the asymptotic cnso when P + m. Accortlirlg to M. J. Lighthill 1~801, greater meaarlre of agreement in the range 0 < fl < 1 can n be R C C I I ~ W ~ hen the fnctor 0.5384 is replaced by 0.487. The same equation, but with a factor of O.VZ3, wa.q also ohL3inod hy H. W. Liepmnnn 1781 who cmploycd a different mode of reasoning. As intlirntntl in tho caption to Fig. 12.14, the general, asymptotic approximation is not valid for tho ~ r p a r a t ~ i oprofilc. I t is, tllercforc, clear that Lighthill's equation (12.107) munt n brcak ilo\vn a t the point of separation. An improvement in tho computation of the rate of heat trarlrrfc.r wnu inclic~ntctlh?; I).13. S p a l d i ~ ~ g [120J. According to this method, the distribution of the heat, flux (br the standard problem of Fig. 12.17 milat he obtaincd by iteration from tllc fnllo\ving two rqllat.ions:

6. Mensuretner~ts on cylinclers nn11 o t h e r Iwdy sl~nlics. R l m s r i r r m r n l s o n t,l~e coefficient of h e a t transfer by forcctl cot~vcc:t.ion,mosl.ly f r o m rirc111n.raylirltl(:rs, r a n be f o u n d in p a p e r s by R. I I i l p c r t [50] ant1 E. S c l ~ r n i dn ~ l t I<. W c ~ ~ r l 1.107J. 1L. IIilt l cr

Tho ft~r~ot.ion x ) urnnt.nltrv~ F( ovor from the known claw of similar solr~t,ions is givcr~ roc[ 1201; and in a few ri~tt~~rrinnl I I C ~ hnvc hce11 rc:l~rocinned here in 'J'ablc 12.5. 'l'hc iteration starts with VIII F'(,y,,) = 6.4 nncl 1c:~cln to q,*(z,z,,), frorn cqn. (12.108). This, in turn, allows us to ealc~ll~rlr X ~ ( T , Z from rrltl. (12.10!)) n~rclto inscrt it onc:o ngain int,o cqn. (12.108), nnct so on. Unr~,rt.l~rin,~)

I ' l l 2

Vnlt~rnof t.l~e fi111ct.ionF ( x ) for tlw cnlcrllnt.ion of n thcrmnl bon~ldnrylayer on a ~ioninothrrmnlwall; n l k r D: R. Spnlding [I201 11r11n11or, in t r r ~ n s Ihc Ilny~~oltls N of 11itt1111cr [or (.irt.t~lirrvylitit11.r~ R lcig. 12.18. 7'110 N~tssclt. after It. Flilprt [56]. Snrfacc kmpcraturc IOO" ( npprox. A c:c)rnl~;lrisc)~~ 1.111: ~no:mt~rorrli:t~t~~ : \vil.Ir duo to J. Kcstin and 2'. F. Macdcr [07] srrggostn th11.1Ilill~c:rl,'s ~ I I C I ~ % I I ~ C ~ I I C . I I ~ . ~ w:rc 111:rfor111c.d in a strcam of 0.9% trirbulcnce intensity

312

S I I . 'I'hrr~nnlI~orlntlary laycrs i n Inntinar flow

g.

Tl~ormal 1,oundary lnycrs in foroctl flow

31 3

pert prrforrncd measurements on circular cylintlers in a cross-flow of air covering a v c r y witlcmngcof Itcynoltls numbers. ITigltre 12.18co11tninsaplot oftlle mc:kn Nussclt nulnbcr N,,, tnlrcrl for the wholc circumfcronce of t h e cylinder against the Itcynolds number R. 150th N , and R arc base11 on the diameter of t,Ile cylintler. As n first , crr~tlc a.pprnxiniation i t can be a.ss~lmccl h a t N is p r o p ~ r t ~ i o n t,o R'I2 as confirmod t , al by 1.11~ tllrorct,irn.I calculations for tllc f1:i.t ~)lnt,c zero incitlcncr, orlrl. (12.79a, b), c1.t and for t,he flow nonr a sbagnation point, eqn. (12.90), in laminar flow. The loral cocfficiolt of hcat transfer varies considerably over t,lle surface of cylintlers nntl ot.hcr botlies; mrn.s~lrcmrnl.s circrllnr oylinrlcrs tlnc to R . Schmitlt on ntitl I<. \Vcnncr 1107j 11.r~. sl~own Fig. 12.19. I t is sccn 1,Ilat in t,llc Inrni~lnr in bountlnry Iaycr t . 1 ~ corflicic:nlt of hcat transfer tlccrcascs wit11 tlistance from the stagnation point, ant1 rcnchcs a rnirlilnllnl in the ncighhorlrl~oodof t l ~ e point of s c p ~ m t i o n .Jn t,ho LIo\v bc~hintlthe point of separation its value is about cqua.1 t.o t h a t a t the lentlirlg rtlgc in t h r Iaminar layer. Similar worlr is reported in refs. [72] and [99].

on unhcat,ctl cylirldors in parnllol ant1 in cross-flow covering a rnngc of nir vc?locit.ic:s rlrnrly up t o sonic. I n the case of n st.rram p:~r:~llcl Ollc axis of f,l~o l,o aylil~tlrr t,ltoy ol~t:iincda mean value (T, -Ti,) 2 ~ , , / l l , , ~0.84 wd~icll was ir~drpt?ntlcnt the = of Mnt:Il nr~mbcr,in good agrcemcr~t\vit,ll 1.11~ v:~lucfrom rqn. (12.80) for a Il:ct I ) I : L ~ . ~ ~ . I n cross-flow t.Iloy obt.aincd a v a l l ~ c 1~ct.wc~cn and 0.4 wllic:l~was ; ~ l s o 0.6 rt:nsorl:rl)ly intlCpendcntof t,]lc h.lach number. A summary of rccrnt work o n the t.ol.nl Ilc.at,-l l,n.tlsfer rate from a circr~lnrcylindcr is contair~eclin n papt'r I)y IT.'I'. MOI.~:LII 1881. It. lCiclll~orn,E. Eclrcrt,, ant1 I\. I). Anrlcrson [30j ~nc:~surc:tl tllc rn1.c of I~rnt. t,rar~sfcrrctlalor~gIL c:ircr~l:l.rcylintlnr ~)lnc:ctlin n.tl axit1.l st,ronnl, tho S I I ~ ~ I Lt.e~n~ C l ) r r : ~ t ~ to f l.Iit: (:yli~~tlt!r rc 1)t:ing v:~ri:~l)li:. 'J'l~t~y t11)t:iint:tI gt~otl :~grt:rtn(:111, \vil,l~ l,l~t;or(:l,icnl onIc~~lnt.ions wllc-n :~llowanccwas rnatlo For t.llc cllkal~of t,llc crtrvat~rrc:of 1 . 1 1 ~surfare. l<.c:vic\vs ol't:i~rrc:t~l~ j)n.l)crswhic:l~ corlctsl.rlt.11clrlsc:lvc.swil.ll I I ~ ~ ; Il,r:~nsli:~. ~, ~trol~lt:r~is arc j)llblj~11~t1 froin t.iln(: t o titnc in t,hc I?~ler~ralio~ccrbu r ~ t n l01 lletrl t s ~ r t 8 llf6ts.u Jo Tra7zsfer.
r I h c t11crrna.l 1)oilntlary l:~ycrcan 1)c convcnicnl~ly~ n a t l cvisil~lcwit,ll t,l~c ;hid of int.crfcrotnct~ric pllotogml)lls. J'iguro 12.20 rcprcsrnts tho llow past a t.~rrl)inc c::rsc:r~lc. Thc shift in the lines is a measure of tho tliffcrcncc bct.wccn tllc local tlrnsit,y and tllat, a t a rcfcrcnrc s t a t e (e. g., with rcspcct t o t l ~ c undistlrrbctl strcam). 1'1112 c11:~ngcs in densit.y in t l ~ c region of pot,cnt,ial flow arc tluc lnainly t o prcssurc cl~:~ngcs,~ u in I t t h e 1)ountlnry 1:~ycrtho I ~ c a d u c t o friction co~lt,ributcs t grcat.ly t o t . 1 1 ~ clt:rngc in tlcrlsity. 1Jpon close cxamit~atior~ is possible t o tlisccrn i n Fig. 12.20 s u r l t l c ~ ~~ t ~ Itinks it sl rp in the lincs. 'l'hcsc arc rluc t o the conaitlcrablc atltlit.iona.1c:llatigr in ~1ct1sit.y 1)rotltrccd by frictional hcat. T h u s t h e kinks trace t h e oulcr cdgc of t h c tllcrmal bounclary layer. I n natural convcction it is even cosier t o rcndcr Chc bountlnry laycr visiblc ILS i t i s possible t o use a Schlieren method for this purpose, first described by I<. Schmidt [105]), cf. p. 314.
7

t.rnn.sfcr for a circular cylindcr nt varying Ilcynolds ~~umbcrs Incan u nnred by R. Scl~~niilt I<. Weriner ancl [107]. Curves ( I ) and (2) refer t,o the rcgion below t.lio crit.ical ltcynoltls nuinh~r, crlrvrs (3) and (4) were moa4111.0d i n 1.110 crit.irn1 range, and c:urvo (5) nl~ovc:l.11~ critical rnngc

Pig. 12.20. Thermal boundaryleyer on a turbine cascade, made visible with the aid of the interferometer method, after E. Eckcrt. Anglo of flow a t inlet /3, = 40"; solidity l/t = 2.18; Reynolds number R = 1.97 x lo5 The shift of the interferometer lines is proportional to the change in density. The eudden kinks in the linea near the waU show the outer edge of the thermal boundary layer, since the heat of friction produces a large change in density in that rcgion

A rotn1)nrisorl 1)ct.wcorl tho ~ncasuretlval~rcs t h e forwartl porLion of t h c cylinder for from Fig. 32.19. i. c. for trllc portion whcrc t h e flow is laminar, a n d theoretical cnlclrlnt.ions has nlrcatly bccrl givcn in lpi'ig. 12.16"~11c tlleorct.ical curves were based $1 on I.l~cnct,nal, ntcas~lretlvclocity tlistrrib~~tion t,he external flow. As is known, near the forward sl,n.gnntion point t h e Iatt.cr agrecs very well with t h a t given by potent,inl tlleory. Tllc agreement, a s already stated, is satisfactory. I). Johnson and .J. 1'. Ilart,nc-t.t, 1023 pcrformrtl mcasl~rcmcntsof I~eat--transfer rates on a circular t.ylinc1t.r \vil.ll 1)lowing (sweat,-c,ooling). kc. 15cakert. ant1 W. Wcise [17, 203 published t III- r r s l ~ l l s 1.llrir rnc-n.snrcnlrnl,son tilr mcan ant1 local adial)atic wall temperatures of

7. EUeet of free-stream turbulence. In all previous considerations concerning laminar boundary layers it was tacitly implied that the cxbrnal stream was alm laminar. Ilowevcr, in the overwhelming majority of crrscs, particularly during wind-t.unnc1 h k q , tho cxkrnnl stmnm carries with it a certain dcgree of turbulctirc wllich mcnrls thnt a t every point in it, Lhc vclori1,y fluctuates, changing its magnitude and direction. Whcn the velocity is shady on the avcrage, there are superimposed on it three fluctuating velocity conlponcnts wl~onetime nvcragcv over srrfGciently long intervals of time vanish. The eflect of such flucti~otionson t.hc vclocity bonndary layer will be oxamincd in greater detail in Chnp. XV which dcnla with non-shady boundary layers. Jn thc present section we ehall cxaniinc the cUect of s~lch free:-stream o.srillations, ~~nrticulnrly those duo to turbulence, on thermal bonndary layere and on ratcm of hcat transfer.

314

X11. Thermal boundary laycrs it1 laminar flow

h. Thermnl borrndnry Inycrs in nnbitral flow

31.5

I t iu rccognizcd that, t l ~ e r eexiutr, a diffici~ltyin providing nn rrneqt~ivocaldescription of ~ucb Iloct.rietirig ntrenma. Since torbolence involvca atochnstic finctuationa, ntrictly epcnking, 110 two t~rrhttlctit utrcnrns can ever bc ~imilnr.1Iowcvcr, it is found by experinient t h a t certain nvcr:rgc propcrlit:~of tho osrillatiods arc adequate to dwcribe them. Tlirse nre: the intensity T, in of of titrl~r~loncc, tlcfit~ctl Scc; XVI d 1, ant1 I.ho ~ c n l c b~trhulcticc,L, definetl in See. XVIIltl. It, is found, frtrtltcr, that in cnaca when ttic scale of turbulcnm is small comparcd with the din~etinions of I.lic I)orly. wliinlt occrtrs in most cmm in prnctice, ttic dngree of turbirlence alone sr~fficca lo ~-l~arikrtd.rizc Ilow. I t in, t.hcn:fore, b bc cx]xcted t.hnL lhc N I I R R number for gconlctrically t.l~c C~~ uitnilar, isot,licr~ti:~l l~odics wlti~liarc placcd in f l ~ c t ~ n n t i parallel, isolhcrtiial streanis, depc~icls ~~g, on 1.Iir tttrl~rtli:~icc ititensiy, T , in ndtlition to its clc~~cntlcncc lltc l'randt,l and l<ey~~oldn or1 rlt~tnl)eru. 'I'ltt~e. for t.ltc: local or 1.11~111c;111 Nussclt ntrn~hcrwo may write, rc~pcclively,
NZ
/I

Nm

(R, P, T) , /*(RI P, T)

(12.1 Ion) (12.110b)

Fig. 12.22. l3lTnct of ti~rholencc intrtisit.y of t.lw' exl.crnnl sl,rct\~n on 1 . 1 1 ~rnto of ltcnt brtrnnfcrrrci i t 1 tlio stagnal.ioti poir~t a cylinclcr, after of I,. l<aynlnr [63]

An i-irrrnse in t.11~ iriten~ity t.i~rbt~lcnce tllo free at.renm must produrn two e~scntinlly of of tlifL.rrnl cll'(:Is. I'irst, RR will 110 RIIO\VII in Chnl). XVI, an i t ~ c r r ~ ~inlc~ioit~y in e nnuncs enrlinr tmtisit.ion In) L~trl~rtlcrico the boi~ndnryIsycr ant1 I~cnno incrcnso it1 1.110 r h of liont I.rnnefcr in nn n whicli is characterielic of a turbulent as compared with a lnminnr boundary layer. This clTnct will Ite tliscrl~sctl in more dclail in Chap. XVI. J n addition, there e x i a t ~ sccond elTcct wliicli a can become parlicolarly pronouncecl in the prwcnce of a larninar boundary layer. Tho diagram in Fig. 12.21 tlcpicta the variation of tho local Nuwelt number on a ci. 2ular cylinder a t different valuen of the Itnyr~oltlo number nncl of the intenuity of turbulei~ce the external stream according of to nir:~m~rcmont.u ~wrrortnedby 3. Kmlin, P. k. Mw,dcr anrl f i . 11. Sogin [A4]. These memure' m c n h have been compnred in tho diagrani with N. J'roraqling's [39] theoretical calculations which correspntl to LIie cwe of a turbnlericc-free extarnal stream. These resultr, are quite aimilnr to tlicmc reproduced in Pig. 12.19. I t is n o b d that tho clTact is rcmnrkably high, a turbulennt inblisit,y 01' n b o i ~ t2.5% producing an increnso in the local heat flux by nomething liko 80%.

in tlic N ~ l s s c l t i u ~ n b e r t.11e trtrbrtlcnce in(.cnsity incrcnscs, r ~ c tn. l ~ o ~ t.ht. lillt:~~c~:csc ns ~g ~ is not. a s large as t.l~at Fig. 12.21. 1,. ICayalar at.t,emptetl t o c.xplnirl t.his l)l1t~t1ornc.nor1 in t,lleoretically. I I e a s s u m e s t.hat t h e st,agnat.ion stprcam (ser Icig. 5.9),c l ~ a r a c t c r i z c t lIly st,renlnlir~es whiell a r c r o n c n v e o u t w a r d s , dcvclops a syst.cbrn of stnt.ionn.ry, c.oi~nt.c:rrotat.ing vortices wllose a x e s a r c aligned wit,h t h e principal Ilow c l i r c r t i o ~ r:~.t.llcrliltc ~, t.llose on a c o n c a v e wall s h o w n i n Fig. 1 7 . 3 2 b (Gocrt,lrr vort,icrs). A s a rcsrllt., (,Ire flow becolnes highly three-dimensional i n t . l ~ eb o u n d a r y I:~yer wllich c x p l a i n s t,llr i n c r r n s r i n tile 11cnt.-transfer rat,c. 111 t.llis connc:rt.ion, rt~lt~vntlf.o t ~ s i t l r t ~ r ~ l:I.I.(>o t ~ s ~ ~i cotlt~ainctlin t h e p n p c r s by 11. GoertJrr 14.51, 11. Sclllic-l~t.ing 110:11, J . K r s t . i t ~1051. F;. A . B r u n et n1. [4], G. W. I m w e r y a n t i R. J. Vacllorl 1821 a n d ,T. I<est.i~l I,. N. nntl I'ersen [68a]. S e e also ref. [I181 o n p. 549.

Uncx~~ectedly, Irowcvcr, tile prccedi~igc h c t in nbscr~l011 a flat. plnla nl. zcro i~tri~lrt~cr:. Mena~rrct~terita performed by J. Kestin, 1'. Ir'. Macder :rt~cl 11. 1':. Wang [IiHj on n fl:tt p1:rto ahow no sensitivity to frec-stream turbr~lcr~rc t,ho lariiirinr rnngc. 7'110 clnrtlr r r s ~ ~ l t , obl.:iiltc?tl in wnn by A . 13dwnrt18 ant1 N. lr11r11cr[27]. S ~ t r l irrs111Ia n ~ t g ~ r sl,l1:1,1, rxI~rrt~:il, ~ I V I ) I I I ~ * I I ~:~ll'r.~,lx l, I Y1.110 local lieat transfer only it1 the presettce of a pressttrc gratlicnt.. Tlic cxpcri~ticnts qrtotctt i t 1 rcf. [(iij provide a certain confirmation of such a sr~pposition. i~nlwsir~gpressure grndirnt artificially Ry a on a flat plat^, i t was found possible to incrcasc Ll~clocal Nt~sscltnu~iiberby increasing tlle turbulence in tens it,^. A qualitative explanatiori of t.his brhavior cnti t)c obtai~ierlwith Llic air1 of C. C . 1,in's thcory dcscribcd i r t Chap. XV, a s poinI.ct1 o u t in ref. [OR]. 'I'lrc clTcct of frccstrrsi~nti~rl~ulcncet ~ o ltent trnnsfer 11.1.9 been stlltlietl also in referri1i.r~ 412. 43, 54. 83, IfM). 113, [5, l:)O]. ;\ lnotlerri anlnlnnr?. can he found in 1881. Fig. 12.21. Variation of locnl Nuasclt number NDorr a circular cylinder wit11 turbulence intensity T niitl angular coordiriato 6, after J . Krstin, 1'. 1' Macrlcr and If. H. Sogin I641 (Valr~es inkti. of sily of ti~rbillcnreT npproxirnalc only) - - - Theory after N. Frocasling 1391

11. Therrrlnl borrr~dnrylnyers i n nntltrnl flow (free cor~vection)

I n niore recent. t,inlc*s I,. JZnyalnr (0.31 investigat,rd b o t h theoret.icnlly a n d e x prrirnent.ally t,tlc i n f l ~ t c n c eof tr~rbrilenec int<ensit:y o n t , l ~ a r a n s f e r of h e a t f r o m a t e i r c ~ t l a c y l i n d r r . 'l'lie cxp!:rimcnt,n.l rcslllt, is sllown in Fig. 12.22. T h e s e measurements r also s l ~ o w t,lln(, for i ~ ~ t . e n s ~ t .betwuen T = 1 anrl 5% t h e r e occrlrs a s t e e p increase ics

Mot.ions wllicl~ r c causcd solcly b y 1,llc t l c ~ l s i t y a grat1icnt.s crcnl.ctl 11y t,c:tnl~rr:rt,tlrc difTercnrra n.rc tcrtiiccl ' r ~ n t u m l ' a s disLinct f r o m t.hosc 'forcctl' o n f.11~ slrr*nttl I,y e x t e r n a l causes. S ~ r c l ~ nat.r~m.l a flow e x i s t s a r o n n t l a vcrtficnl hot, 11l:lt,c o r nroltlltl a 1iorizont.al h o t cylintlcr. Nat,ur:cl Ilows also (lis~)Iay, most, cnsrs, :L I ~ o ~ I ~ I ~ ~ : ~ I . ~ in struc:I.clrt., p:rrt.icr~lnrly if ~ I I ( . viscosit,y ant1 t~on(111cLivil.y ( I I C ( I t l i i l :tt.t. SIII:~II. of ,\ comprt:l~ensive review of t h e field w a s prepnred b y A. J. Etlc 1281.

316

XI1. Thermal boundary layers in laminar flow 't'lie vc1ocit.y compo~lent~s become now U = ~ V X ' ~ ~ C V = V ;C Z - ~ ~ ~ ( ~ C ' - - ~ ~ ) , ~ ~ ' a n d t h e tc~tipernt~urc tlist.ribut,ior\ is tlct,rrmit~crclby t l ~ c f~lnctionO(7). Equnt.iot~s (12.1 12), (12.1 13) a.ncl (12.1 14) lcatl t.o Lhc followi~)g clini:ro~t,ialcqunt,ionn

I n t h e casc of a verlical hot plnke, tho pressure i n each horizontal plane is equal gravitational pressure and is thus const+ant. The only cause of motion is to fi~rnisl~ccl t h e differctlcc? between wcigl~t n d buoyancy in the gravitational fieltl by a of t,Itr earth. l'hc cquntfion of mot,ion is obtainetl from eqns. (12.61 a , b, c) wit11 clp/tlx 0 ant1 = 1/11',. Nrglccting frirtional heat we have
, :

I J r r e n k / c,~ i3 the thrrmal diff~tsivit~y and 0 -- (7'- T,)/(I', - ) , is t h e di' Z mc~t~siortlrss lorn1 tc.rnprrntt~re I n n theoretical invcstigntion conccrnirlg t h e cxperiinrrli,ally drtrrrninrtl trmpcraturc and velocit,y fieltl of a casc involving r ~ a t u r a l convection on a vcrttcal hot plate, due tro E. Schmidt a n d W. Beckmann [104J, E. P o h l l ~ a l ~ s etlrrnorlstrntctl thaL if a strcani function is introdnccd b y putting n IL - &play ant1 v = -- atl)/ar, then t h e resulting partial tlifferential equation for y~ can be mtlucrcl t o a n ortlinnry diffcrent,inl rqriation by the similarity transformation
2

wit.h the bound:~ry contlit.ions 5 = 5' = 0 and 0 = 1 a t 77 -- 0 and I;' =- 0, 0 = 0 a t q = 00. I'igl~rcs 12.23 and 12.24 illr~stratcthe solrttions of tll~csc cq~rnt.ions for (:dvarious values of P. Figures 12.25 ant1 12.26 conL:~ina t:otnl~:rrisott Ijct,wc:t:ri t,I~t: culatccl velocily and t.crnl)craturc dist.ribrltiorl ancl those nlcns~~rctl 11:. Srl~lnitlt. by aritl W. J3ccktnann 1104].'l'he agreement is sccn t,o be very good. It, is sccn, f n r t l ~ c r , t h a t tthc velocit,y ancl tfhc.rmal bountfary-laycr thickness a r c proporlional to r ' l J .

Fig. 12.25. Tempcmturo dislribution in the laminar bonndarj laycr on n llol vert.icnl fhbt plntn in Im1.nrnl convccliort in air, mcasnrrtl by I<. Sch~nidt W. Iscckant1 inann [104]; z = distnnce from t h o loaor etlgr of the plate

Fig. 12.26. Vrlocity distribnt.ion in t.1~ lanlinnr bortntlnry lnycr on n vertical plntc in natural t:onvcction in air as rnmsurcd by E. Sclttnidt and It7. 13cckn1ann[I041

laminar honnrlary Ixyrr on a hot vcrt,iral flat plate in natnrni ronverliorl. Tl~rorrtirnl rnrvrs, for P 0 73, n h r J':. I'oI~II~~nscn [!)dl and S. Ostrnrh I!)3]
1

x(G~)v4 x 7

I l o n l trnalsfcr: 'L'ltc cl~lnnl.it.y 11t:11.t, ~ ( z=) - - k(27'/i:y), l.t~:~t~sli-t~t~t-tl ~ i l . of 1,t.r. ~ r i time and :wca from t . 1 1 ~ plntc t o t l ~ c fluitl nL scct,ior~ 1)ccomcs z

GI-

,.

*a

T,,, - l',., Tm

- Ornsltol

tt~~trilrrr

Pig. inar flat Fig.

12.24. Velocity distribution in l l ~ I:mr

boundary laycr on n hot vertical plate in nat,ural convection (RCO also

12.23)

wil,h (aO/aq),

- 0.508

for P = 0.733. l ' l ~ c total h r n l t,mnsfcrrrd I,y

iL

pI:ttc> of

318

XIT. Tl~crninlbonndnry layers in lntninnr flow

==0

h. Tliermnl bornidnry Iaycrs in nnt-urn1 flow

3 1 $1

lcrigt,li I a~ttlwitlt.11 0 is Q

/ q ( ~(Iz, )
0

and hence

Tnblo

12.6. Coefficients of heat trnnsfer on n heatod verticnl plate in according to refs. [93, 94, 109, 1261

nntrirnl convection (laminar),

'rho nlrarl Nnssrlt rinrnbrr tlcfinctl by Q -- h k N m ( T ,- T,) thus hecomes N,, = = 0.677 c PI4, or, i ~ ~ s c r t i n g vnlue of c from cqn. (12.1 14): the N,, = 0.478 (G)'14 , (12.110)

in tho is t,hc Grnsliof t111tn1)cr.Tt m n also h r writken as G = g I"(T,-T,)/I~~ casc of litlt~itls. 'l'lie tli:tgmm in Pig. 12.27 gives a comparison hetween tlieoreticnl resulb on free convcction wiLli measr~rernentson Ileatad vertical cylinders and flat platcs pcrformcd by E. R. G . Eckert and T. W. Jackson [22]. When the product G P < 1 R 0, 1.11~ is laminar, and for G P > 101 the flow is turbulent. The agreement hetween flow theory and experiment is exccllcnt.

E. Polill~ausen'sralculations have been extended by IT. Schuh [I091 to the case of I:trge I'mncttl numbers such as exist in oils.
The casc of very small Prandtl numbers is treater1 in a paper by F.M. Sparrow arltl .T. I,. Gregg 11261. Tlie limiting cascn whcn P + 0 and P -zoo were exambled by E. .I. Lo l'cvre 1731, according to whom we may write

Some numerical values for intermediate Prandtl numbers are contained in Table 12.6. Calrolntions with n hmpemt~~rc-clcpcn(lctitt viscosity were performa11 1)y '' Tllirn l. [50]. The olI'c(:L of suction or blowing on tho rate of llrnt Lrnnshr from n vcr1,irnl plat,e in naturul cortvrction is tlcscribctf in refs. [29, 1241. Atltiitiot~alrlassrs of similar solutions in natural {lows were discussed by I<. T . Yang 1146). Thils, tcmpcraturc distributions on the surface of the plate of the form T, - T = TI xn also produce , similar solutions, but the diflkrential equation (12.115) is now rcplt~cedby

Solutions t.o l.lirsc equations were found by E. M. Sparrow and J. 1,. Crrgg L127J. Reference [I261 discusses similar sollltior~sin the simultancor~spresence frec and of forced convection. I n such cases, the velocity of the external stream must be proportional to xm (wedge flow) and the temperature distribution on the plate must be proportional to xZrn-l. Mcnsrrrcmcnt,s on n vertical hot plntc in oil pcrformctl I)y 11. 11. Tmrcnz 1811 gnvc: the vnlue N = 0.555 ( G x P)'I4 which constit~ltesvery satisfactory agrcelnent , with tlieoreticnl calculations if i t is considered that the theory docs not take into account the dependence of viscosity on temperature, which is important precisely in the case of oils. The laminar thermal boundary layer around heated bodies in natural convect.ion can bc convenicntJy rnadc visible with t,he nit1 of a Schlicrcr~ninl.liotl tlcviscd by E. Schmitlt [l05]. A parnllcl bcarn of light is pr~uscdt.hrol~gltt,ht: I)our~cl:~ry layer in a direction parallel to the plate and produces sllatlo~ on a screen plnccd s a t a large distance from the body. The density gradient in the air a t right anglcs t o the surfacc causes the rays of light to be deflected o~~twartls. dellexio~iis Tlle largest a t point,s where the den5it.y gradient is stecp, i. e. ticar the botly. Wit.11 n sufficiently large distance between screen and body thc space taken u p by tho heated layer remains dark so t h a t in the Schliercn picturc the shadow of tho body is surroundetl by a sliadow clue to the thermal b o ~ ~ n t l a rlayer. Tltc rays of light. y which are deflecl,cd out of tho temperatltrc ficld crcatc 2.11 illl~rnin:~l,ctl zouc n.ro1111tl thn clark shatlow. 'l'he oritcr cdgc of this zoric of light is forn~rclby 1.ltn r:r:) s wltic!lt just skirt the surface; consequcr~tlythcir dcflcxion is proportional to tllc tlt:r~sit,y

Fig 12.27 Average Nitsselt nombrr for frre convcction on verticnl plntes and cylinderti, nftcr E. R. ( 15cknrt and T W. Jnrknon 1221 : . .
t'urvc ( I ) lnniinnr . N m 0 556 (GP)'I';

GP < 10a
GP > 10'

VII~VQ (2) 111rl1111rnt.

Nm

0 0210 (GP)'l';

n P 4 '

m7

ma

W '

on

mn
GxP

w*

mn

320

X11. Thrrn~nl bor~nclnrylayers in Inminsr now

= 2 x 10Rt o 4 x 101): N =0.726 ( P x G)lI4 f o r l a m i n a r flow, arltl ( P t o 9 x IOIL): N = 0,0674( G x P1'20)-11Vor t u r b u l e n t flow.

x G -:4 x

10J1)

F o r t h e s p h e r e J.I. Shell [115] calculatetl N = 0.420 Gl14, whirl^ n-a.s c o n , firmed by m e a s u r e ~ n e n t sin a i r . S u m m a r i e s of r e c e n t w o r k o n nntrtr:rl c o ~ i v e c t i o n a r e containctl in ref.?. 165, 961.

g r a d i e n t at (.he surface, i. e. t o t h e local coefficierlt of h e a t transfer. F i g u r e 12.28 rep r o s e ~ ~a s t Selllieran p h o t o g m p h t a k e n o n n heated v e r t i c a l f l a t plnto. T h e c o n t o u r of t l i c p l a t e is s h o w n by a b r o k e n w h i t e line. It i s easy t o recognize o n the s h a d o w t h a t t,hc b o u n d a r y - l a y e r t h i c k n e s s increases as d4.h e e d g e of t h e z o n e of l i g h t sllows T t(I1a.t the local roaflicicnt o f h e a t b m n s f c r is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o z-'I? T h e p i c t u r e in Fig. 12.2!) gives a n i n t c r f e r o g r a m f o r t h e s a m c t y p e of bounclary l a y e r ; i t w a s o b t a i n e d hy E. R. G . R c k e r t a n t l E. S o e h n g e n (13J.

Fig. 12.29. Intcrferogra~nof a thermal boundnry layer or1 n vcrt,ical I~cntedflat platc, nftcr R. 1%. Iklzrrl C. nnd E. Soehngcti [10]

,/

Otl~er ttllnpes: 'I'IIC mot,ion (111ct o nat,rlral chnvcction s r o r ~ n ( a I~orizortt.:~l I IIC:LL(:(~ c i r c u l a r o g l i ~ ~ t l cw a s t,rcn.t,cd i n an a.na.logous w a y by R.I l c r m a n n 1551. t i c r F ~ I I I for P := 0 - 7 a Inenn l l c a t t,mnsfcr coefficient N,, = 0.372 G ' I ~ , w h e r e G is I~ I ~ a s n do n t,llo clinmct.er. blcasc~remcnt.si n air p e r f o r m e d by I<. J o d l b t ~ ~ c[GI] g a v e r N,,, I- 0.395 G114 at, G 1 0 ~ v h i c h hows s ~ a t ~ i s f a c t o r ygreement w i t h t l ~ e o r y . s a M r n s u m ~ n r n t . o n vrrt,iral cylindcrs[142].ir1 w a t e r a n d c t , l ~ ~ l r ?glycol g a v o ( P X G =s ne

,/I I] AIIc'II, lI.,l., ILII(I l,e~olz,Is.(:.: A ~ n c l , l ~ r ~ ( lrvtlvr~Ii~t,ing for ht:ot, trmnsf(*r in l,l~c: ; I I I I ~ IfI oI ~ I l: w rcgic~ns Iiotlic?~. of NIICA Itep. 704 (1!)4:)). 121 An~hrolz,(.:.S.: 'l'llc rffcc:t, of slrrfnco t,cnlpcratrrre vi~ri:~l~ility I I C R ~ ,C X I : ~ I R I I ~ ( i:l l l i r ~ ~ ~ i t r i ~ r 011 flow in n hol~nclitry I:~,yer.Soviet I'l~gs. 'l'ccll~l. I7hys. 2, 758. 748 (I!)57). r l ' r ; ~ ~ ~ o(.l : ~ . ~ i ~ Zli. 'rekl~.liiz. 27, 812- $21 (1957). I:!] I3j0rlzl1111eI.(:. S., i~ntlICnys, W. M.: Ilnnt t,r:itisfor I)ct\vc~et~ conccnl.ric~ rot:rti~lgc.ylit~(lrrs. J . Jleiit 'l'rnnsfcr 81, 175-- 186 (1!)59). [4] Urnn, 1'3. A,, I)iep, A., antl I(estin, J.: Sur Itn nouvcnrl t,ype d r s t,or~rhillons longitrltlinnnx dnrl~ I'i.cortlen~crtta~rt.onr d'rtn cylinflm. C. It. Ar:ntl. Sci. 263, 742 (1!)0fi). [R] Iliiyiikt,iir, A.lt., ICcslin, J . , nntl Mi~etlor,1'. 17.: 111llucnc.eof con~l>inr~d prcsstlt.t: gr;i(lic~tlt and turbulence on tlle transfer of heat from n plate. Int. .J. Iloat Mass Trntlsfcr 7, 11751186 (1!)04). [(i]Ten I l o ~ c l ~ . Die WBrrnriil)ert,rngnng. Brrlitr. 19:l(i. M.: [7] Isrr~n.15. A , : Sclcrkcl eo~nl~rtsI.io~~ prol)len~s.Vol. I I , 185 l!j8, A(;A ltl), ~'l!~K:~lllfIll I+(*ss, 1,011~l~~11, ]!)!xi. [8] ~ h n p n ~ a n . I).Jt., atid It~thesin,hI.W.: 'l'rnl[)crnttrrr nntl vrlorit,y profilrs i n the ('Olil[~'rSsthlc:, Inlninnr borrndi~ryInyrr \viLll nr1)ilrtrry tlirtt.ril~l~tio~~ of s~~rfnc.o tc:tnl~rr,~t .I .\S I / ; . Itrr.. 547 --50!7 (1!)49). [!I] J)avico, T).lt.. nntl 13ourne, D.E.: 011the cnlculnlion of Ilont, ant1 nlirss trnnsfrr in I:til~itlnr and t,urbulrnt houndery layers. 1. 'Chc In~ninar ca.se. Qrritrl,. .I. Mcctl. Appl. Mirth. I), 457- 407 (1956); ~ o also Qrtnrt. J. Mecli. II~IIII. e hInt,l~.12, 0 3 7 :Kt!) (1959). ~~ [lo] I)e\rey, C. F., n r ~ d(:~oRR, I?. : 1t:xnct sitnilar aolnt.ion of 1.11~:lnnlin:ir borrnclnry-l~iyr-r J. eqrtn. tiorla. Advnnros in Heat l'rnr~afer4, 317--440 (19fi7). [I I] I)ienen~nnn,W.: Uerecl~nurigdcs W5rn1ciibergnr1grs :in In~ninnrrrrr~strij~ntcn I<iirpprn trlit. ko~~st,nnt.er ortsveriir~derlichcrWnr~tlternl>ernt.rlr. rind Ilias. 15ra11nncll\veigI!l5I ; ZAhlM 53, 89-109 (1953); see nlso .IAS 18, 04 - 0 5 (1!)5I). [I21 I)o~lor~gl~e, rind 1,ivingoocl. J. N. 13.: 1t:xnc.tsolrltions of Iiinlinnr bortnclnry liryrr rclrla. 1'. L., t.io~rs xvitli const,nnt pro1)rrt.y vnlt~es porous wall wit,h vnriiihlr Ic~t~~poretctre. for N,\(:A Ibrp. 122!) I I!)RR\. ..,(12aJ Driest, E. R. van: Coi~vectiveheat tranafrr in gnsos. 1'rincet.on University Serics, High Speed Aerodytinmic~and J e t Propulsion, Vol. 1', 339-427 (1959). 1131 Ifrkert., E. It. G., and Drnke, R.M.:Hent ntid mass t.mnsTcr. hl(:Grnw-Hill, Now York, 1!)5!1. 1141 Eckert, E.: 1':infiillrllrlg ill tlen Wiirn~cuntl StofftitiuLnunrl~.:lrtl c:tl., Ilcrlir~.I!)(;(;. I151 Eckcrt, E.,nnti Drewitz, 0.: Der Wiir~neiihcrgnngnri nitw tnit groBer (:c:scl~\r~il~rligkcit, lii.l~gsn~~gest.rB~~itc Forncllg. 111g.-Wcs.11, 116 - 124 (1!)10). Plnt.tc. I c r 1 . : ~ I I I I ~ I ~ ~ I ~ I ~I ~ I I I I II L~ ~~ I I I I I I I II I . I I I 317 (I !)40). [I71 Eckert, E..I L I I ~Weisc, W.: Die 'l'ernperntnr unbehciztcr Kiirper in rinrnl (:asst.ron~ Iloltcr Geschaindigknit. Forschg. 1ng.-Wes. 12, 40--60 (1941). [I81 Eckert, E., and Drewitz, 0 . : Die Bercchnung dca 'I'e~i~perntr~rfel(lt~s lalninclren Grenzin dor scllicl~t, ncl~ncllnngcstriinlt,er unl~el~ciztcr 1Ciirpcr. I,r~l't.f:r.l~rl hrsr:111111g Is!) l!lG (1042). 19, [ID] lCrlterl., 15. : I)ie Ilcrccl~nrn~g Wiirl~~c.iil)orgn~~gt*s 1i1111i11rlrc:n r r t ~ z ~ ~ ~nnlnt ~ ~ l ~ t . elcu i n tlrr (: I ~ i l.ii~nt.er Kiirper. VI)l-J~orsch~~npnl~eft 416 (1942). 1201 ICckcrl, [C., nrttl Wcisn, W.: M C R R I Ider ' ~ c . ( : r t ~ ~ ~ o r n I , r ~ r ~ ~ t ~ r tObcrflliclrc~ II~ nitf rlrr c i I ~ ~ ~ ~ gnc:llnrll angeet,riirnlsr urlbcIi(?i7.trr I<iirper. Porechg. 111g.-Wen.13, 24% -254 (1942). [21] 13ckrrt. E..R. f:., and Sorllngen, I%.:l>ist,ribut.ion of I1c:~t. t.rntrsfrr ~ : n ~ f f i e i e ~ ~ t~ ~ n d n r o s rir(:r~Inr cylinders in cross-llolv at. Ibeynold~~ n ~ n ~ h fro111 20 t.o 500. 'rriins. ASME 74, 343- -347 ers (1!)52).
\

322

XII. T l ~ o r ~ n n l I)onndnry lnyers in ln~ninnrflow

Hmferenccs

[22] I5ckrrt.. 15.11. (:., nntl Jnckson. T.\Y.: ~\nnlysis tnrbalent frec convection bor~ndnry of lnycr on n flnt. plate. XI\(:;\ 1<cp. 1015 (1!)5l). 12:tJ ICc.krrt., 15.11. G . . ant1 I,i\rir~good. .I. N. R.: Mrthotl for rnlct~lnt~ion In~ninnrhcnt trnnsfor of i l l nir 11ii\\. l i r e ~ ~ ~ l ~ t l ~ylitidcrs nrbil rnry crone-sool.ion (il~clr~ding of Inrge temperntr~reelifl'crencm itnd Lrn~~~j)irnt.ion rooling). N,\Ct\ Rep. 1118 (1953). [241 I<c:kort, I':.I<.(:., nntl l)i;lgi~iln,/\.,I.: I5xpcrirnrntnl investignt,ion of free-convection hrat transfer in vrrt.ivnl t,rrl~e lnrgr (:rashof nntnhers. NACA Itrp. 1211 (1!)55). n.t, 1251 ICckort,. IC. It. (:., nntl 1,ivingoorl. ,I. N. 13.: Calc~rlntiotisof Inn~innrIient Lrnnsfcr nronntl oyli~~tlrrs nrbitrary cross-section nnd t,rnnspirntion cooled walls with applicntio~lto of ; tiirl~inc? bliulr cooling. NACA Itep. 1220 (1956). \ - ' [26] 15ckert. E.It. 6.. Hnrtnctt, J. p., and Birkobnck, R.: Sinlplirtcd equations for cnlrnlntin!: local irrltl t.ot~lhcrrt flt~xto n o ~ ~ - i s o t . l ~ c r ~ i ~ n l J A S 24, 54!)-551 (1957). ar~rfnce. 1271 I':tl\vartls, A,, nnd JFurbor, 1S.N.: T l ~ c it~lluence free stream t ~ ~ r b u l c n c c Ileet trnr~sror of on by convcct.ion from nn isolntrcl region of n plane sr~rfacc parnllel air flow. I'roc. I r l r i t . in ~ccli. ICng. 170, 941 (1956). 1281.1':de. A..1.: Advnnces in free convcetion. Advances in Iteat 'rrnnsfer, 8cnd. Press, 4, 1--64 (1967). 1291 Richhorn. R..: The cffret,of mnns trnnsfer on free convect.ion. J . Ifcnt Transfer 32,260-263. ( I WO). [3O] Eicl~horn,R.., Eckert, E.R,. C... nnd Antlcruon, A. D.: An expcrimcntnl st,nrly of thc cffcf.1~ of ttonuniform wall tetnperature on hent trnnafcr in lnrninar nnd tl~rbulcntn x i ~ y ~ n ~ n e t r i c flow &long n cylinder. .J. Heat Transfer 82, 349-359 (1960):. [31] IClins, I?.: I)rr Wiir~neiibcrgengcincr gelieizten Platte an stromende Luft. Abhandl. Acrodyn. InsL. 'rH Aachcn, Heft 9 (1930); ZAMM 9, 434-453 (1929) and 10, 1-14 (1930). [32] Evans, H. I,.: Mhss trnnsfer through Intninar boundary layers. 3a. Similar solution to the b-cquat.ion when R = 0 ntid IJ >, 0.5. Int. J. Hent Mam Transfer 8. 26-41 (1961). [33] Evnns, I1.L.: Mms trnnsfer through laminar boundary layers. 7. Further similar solutions to the b-equntion for the cnae R = 0. Int. J. H m t Msss Transfer 5, 35-37 (1962). 1341 E V R I ~ U , H.L.: Lnminnr boundarjr lnyer thcory. Addison-Wmlcy Peblisliing Conlpnny, Ileading, Maaa., 1968. 1351 Fnec. A., and Falkt~cr,V.M.: Rclation bctween heat transfer and surface friction for l a n h n r liow. ARC ItM 1408 (1931). [36] Fischer, P.: Ahnlichkeitsbedingungcn fur Striimungavorgange mit gleichzeitigem Wiirnieiibergang. ZAMM 48, T 122-T 125 (1083). [37] Frick, C. W.. nnd McCullough, G. R.: A 111cthod for determining thc rate of heat transfer fronl a wing or sLrcamli~iedbody. NACA h p . 830 (1945). 1301 Frit,7nche. Alp., Bodnnreacu, M., J<irschcr, O . , and Esdorn, H.: Problemc der Warmciibertragung. V111-Forachungsheft 450 (lH55). [39] FrijsRling, N.: Verdutlstung, Wiirmeiibergnng und Geschwindigkeiteverteilr~ng bci z\veidimcnsionnler und rotntiori~symnietrisohprGrcnzschichtetro~nung. Lunds Univ. Arssk., N. P. Avd. 2, 36, No. 4 (1940); see also NACA TM 1432; see also Lunds Univ. Arssk., N. F. Avd. 2, 1.54, No. 3 (1!)58). [40] I'riiwling, N.: Cnl(:~rlnting11y serics oxpnn~iot1 tho hent trnnsfor in Inminnr. const.nnt of prol~rt~y bonndnry layers nt non-isotl~crtr~el aurfncou. Archiv fiir I'ysik 14, 143- 161 (1958). 1411 Frowling, N.: I'roblerna of hcnt transfer across laminar boundary laycrs. Theory and fundamental rescnrch in heat transfer. Proc. Ann. Meeting of the American Soc. of Mcch. Engrs. (J.A. Clnrk, ed.), I'ergamon Press, 181--202, 1963. [42] Giodt, W.11.: 1nvcstignt.ion of vnrintion of point unit hcat t,ransfor coefficielit around n cylinclor nor~nnlto nn nirst.rcnn~.'rrans. ASMIE 71, 375-381 (1!)49). [431 (:ietlt, W. 11.: Ellcot, of tnrl~nlnncclevt:l of inoidcnt air utrea~n locnl hcnt transfer nnd on skin frict.ion on n cylinder. .)AS 18, 725--730, 766 (1951). [44] (:erstn~~, nncl IZiirncr, 11.: Wiir~nciil~crgnng n t e r I<., i~ ISoriicltsit:ht,ig~rng r r Reihungswiirmc d bei In~ninnrrn Keilnt,rii~tn~ngor~ veriindcrlit:l~crl;en~pcrat,nrrind Nortnalge~chwi~~digkeit nlit cnt,lnng flcr Wnncl. Intnrn. *J. Hent MRRU Tratisfer*ll,655-673 (1968). [45l (:iirt,lcr. 11.: Ul~t?r c!irio Annlogie zwiricl~rnInstnbiliLiibn Inrninnrer (:ren7,sol1ichtnt,riirn11ngon an konk:rvnti Wiin(le!t~i ~ n d ~ r ~ f i i r nWiindct~.1ng.-Arc11 28. 71 -78 (1969). nn ~t~n [4(iJ (:c~lantl,1,. : A t.l~eorcl.icrrl invc~t.igiit~io~~ trn11src~r the lnrnitii~r of I~t?nt in llow regions of nirfoils. .JAS 17, 4:ttiL 440 (l!I50). 1471 (:rig~~ll,I . : Wiirmciilirrt~rng~~~,g [ in ln~ninnrer Strii~nungmit Itrih~~ngswiirnlr. ChernieIr~genic~~r-'l'c.d~~~ik (1!)55). 480--483

[47a] Grig~rll,U.: 'rechnischc Tltermodyn?n~ik.3rd ed.. 194 p., Rrrlin, 1977. [48] De Groff, H.M.: On viscor~shenting. J A S 23, 3!)5- :3!)6 (I!l5(i). [4!lJ Onl~n, I < . , anei Yih, (:. S. : I,an~innrconvect.ior~ Iiont. fron~t . \ r . o - t l i t ~ ~ r ~ ~ nI~c~clirn C. of i o ~ ~ ~ t \vit,l~ I vnrin.blc \\,all tz11111rrnt11res. J're>c. 5t.11 blitltv. (:OII~. 111icl bl(~41. I' 2!l 40 (l!l57). [RO] Hnrn, T.: Heat trnnslcr by lnniinnr Irce convcct~icrnabout, a vcrticnl lliit ~ilnt,c: \vit.l~ lnrge te~npcrntnretliffrretice. I3ull. JSME 1, 251 - 254 (1958). [51] lInrt,nett, J . l ' . : Ilc:~l,t.rnrisfcr fro111 n ~~or~.isot,hrrn~nl rotating in st.ill nir. .l. Alipl. tlixk Mech. 26, 672 -- ti73 ( 1959). [52] Hnssan, I1.A.: 011 heat, t,ransfer to Intninnr bonndnry layers. ,JASS 26, 464 (I95!)). [53l 1ln11senbln.s.11.: 1)ic tiicl~t. iuotlicrn~c St.riin1111ig cinrr ziihc?n P'liiwigkrit, clnrrl~ rtigr S11nltc.n und I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i l l ~Ing.-Ar(:l~.IS', e151 --. IOfi (1!)50). trr~~l~r ~~ [54] Van I)cr Ilogge-Zijnen, U.U.: llcnt. t.rnnufcr froni I~orizont.:il(:ylindcru to n t.~~rl~nIc:~iL iiir Ilo\r. Appl. Sci. Res. A 7, 205-223 (1!)57). [RR] IIer~nnnn,It.: Wiir~nciibcrtrngl~~rg frcier Striirnr~ng \vnngrrrcl~len y l i ~ ~ ~i l lc ? r bci a111 % l z\vcriatornigcn (:iuren. V1)1-l'oracliur1gal1cft 379 (l!YJli). [56] Hilpert. It.: Wiirtirenbgabe von gehcizlen 1)riihtmn rrtid Itollrrri it11 Luftatror~~. IPors(:I~g. 1ng.-Wes. 4. 215-224 (1933). 1571 IIc)\vnrt,l~, VcIc>cit,yn.tic1 t o ~ n ~ w r n tiIist.ril~t~t,ic~~~ itlong a Ilnl 1)Iitl~:. I,.: ~~re~ for 11 IIIII\, l'roc:. l!,c~y. Soc. I , ~ I I I ~A ~ I I I :!t\4 . 377 (l!l:tfi). ~ 154, [58] llli~ig\v~irll~, So111euoI~~l.i~~nri c~q~rnI,ionu llo~vI I 11 V ~ M ~ ! ~ IcIxMi ~ t ~ ~ ~ v c ! ~l111i1l. : (:. It.: cif I,IIC of ~ xiI~l~ I'roc:. Cnmhr. I'hil. Soc. 46, 469 -478 (IORO). [59] ltnai, 1.: 011the heat transfer to c o n ~ t n n t propcrt,y l n ~ t ~ i rI)ol~ndnrylnycr wit.11 powor ~~ir function frec stream velocity and wnll tctnpernturc clistril~ot.ions. Qunrt. Aplil. Math. 16, 33-45 (1958). [GO] Jalcob, M.: Heat transfer, I nnd 11. McGrnw-Hill. Ncw York, 1!)4!) nnd 1!)57. [ e l ] Jocllbnuer, It.: Vas Temperat.r~ritnd Gescli\vindigkciIrrfcl~i IIIII ein gehcizt~s lto11r bci frcior Konvektion. Forschg. 1ng.-Wes. 4, 157- 172 (19:!3). [62] Jolitwon, I). V., and Hnrtnett, J. P.: Nent trnnsfor from n cylinclcr in crossllow u~itli t.r:inspirntion cooling. .I. I lent. 'rrnnsrcr Rli, 173- 17!) (I9(i:l). [63] Kaynlnr, L.: Expcrimcntcllc uncl thcorcbirrcl~cUttterrlircl~itngeniibrr den ISinflnO (Ies 'l'11rbulenzgradcs auf den Wartneiibcrgang in dcr Umgcbung dcs St.aupr~nktcucines Krciszylinders. 1)is~.Braunscli\veig 1968; Forschg. 1ng.-Wes. 35, 157-167 ( 1 9 0 ) . [84] Kest,in, J., Maeder, P.F., nntl Sogin, H.H.: The influence of Llrrbnlcnce on tho t.rnnsfcr of hent to cylinders n m r the stngnation point. ZAMI' 12, 115-132 (I9fil). [G5] Kentin, ,I.: Tlie efTcct of frec-st,renm turbrllcnce on hcnt trnnsfcr rnks. Atlvnnrcri in Ilcat Trnnsfer (T11. Irvine and J.1'. Harnett, HI.) A c ~ l l'ress, Vol. 3, 1-32 (I!lf;r)). . [66] Kestin, J., Maeder, EP., and Wnng, H.IC.: 011 bountlary layers wocintotl with oacillut.ing nt,ren.mn. Annl. Sci. Rm. A 10. 1 11961). -. . . n * , [67] Kestin, J., nnd Mneder. P.F.: lnflr~encc turbulence on t,rnnsfrr of Iient, from rylinclrm. of NACA TN 4018 (1954). [68] I<rstin, .I., Mnrdrr, P. 1 , nnd Wring, 11. 15.: Jnflncncr of t n r l ~ ~ t l r n on the :rnnsfor of liriit ' ro from plates will1 ancl witlioul a prrrinurr grntlirtit. Int. .J. llrnt Mnns 'l'ransfrr 3, I!! :: 154 (1961j. [68n] Kestin, J., and Persen, L.N.: The trnnsfer of hent across n turbulent bouriilnry lnycr n t very high Prandtl numbers. Int. J . Heat Maaa Trnrlsfcr 5, 355-371 (1962). [on] Klcin. J., and Tribus, M.: Forced ronvectior~from r~on-iaol.hcrmnl snrfiiorri. Ilciit Triinsfer Symposin~n,Engineering Itosenrch Institute, Univ. of Michignn, Ai~g.1952. [70J Knudsen, .l.G., ancl JCntz, V.L.: Fluid dynamics ant1 l~c:iL transfer. Mc(:rrt\v-llill, Now York, 1950. J [TI] KO, S. Y.: Cnlclllnt,ion of iocnl hcnt t,rnnsfer cocfficic~itnon slender snrfnnc.s of rrvolnt.ion by the M~inglcrt.rnnufortnntion. J A S 25, 62-63 (1958). [72J I<roujilin, (:.: Tho hent, transfer of a circlrlnr cylilitlor ill a t,rnnsvcrm nirllo~vi t 1 tt.&o rrrngc of R e = 6000 - 425000. Techn. l'liysics USSR 5, 289--2!)7 (19:!8). [73] J,o I'cvro, ll:. J.: 1.nminnr frcc eonvcct.ioti frcim n vorl.ic11.1 pl~rno~ n r f n r r .Mnrl~.Il:ng. Ikn. ].all., Jlriit, I 13, (:It. l!ril~tit1, J MO. 174) 1.c J'rrr, 13.: Noitvelle tti(..t~~odc ri.so~lr~~iorl it,i.rnl.ion clcu 6q111rl.i(>118~ ~ ~ : ~ , l l lct,~ j ~ l e : ~ cle par ~ I i thcr~niqr~cs In corrche limits lalnirrnire. l'ubl. Sc:i. ct. 7'oe:lin. (11, Mi~~isIAre I'Air, NO. tie el,: 383 (1962).

324

X l l . 'rl~crn~nl I)onntlnry Inyrrs in Iarninar flow

References

325

[75] 1.e 1711r, C o ~ i v r c t i ~ r ~ chnlcur en r6gin1e Inn~innire a r ~ s cas d'un grndient, de pres13.: do In d le sion e t d'nnc tcntpi.rnture de pnroi quclqllonques, Ic ll~~itle 6I.nnt A propriet6~physi(l11rs constanteo. In(,. .l. Iqeat Mass 'I'r:unsfer I , (i8-80 (10Ii0). [76J Lcvi.qtrc, M.I\.: lacs lois do In t.rnn~tnissiondc chnlcl~rpar convection. Ann. Mines 13. 201 -- 2311 ( 1928). (771 1,cvy. S.: Hrnt trnnsfer to const.nnt prol)ert,y lan~innrbonntinry Inyer flown \\it11 powerf~lnct.ion frro-strmn~ vclocit.y and ~vallt ~ ~ ~ n l ? c r avnriation. ,I,\S 19, 341 --3.58 (1952). t~~~ro 17x1 Lieptnnt~n.H . \ V . : A uin~plnderivation of l,igl~tl~ill'n~ c a t I trnnsfc*r ~ O ~ I I I .Il:M ~3, .357.II~ L 360 (1!)58). [7!)] Lictzkc. A.F.: l'l~corct.icnland ex]icrin~c~ntnl invc~stigntionof hmt. t,rnnsfrr lip Intninnr nntr~ralconvcr1.ion bct\r~cenparallel plates. NAG\ Jlep. 122:) (IO55). [SO] I,igl~t.l~ill. . J . : C ~ o ~ ~ l r i b ~ ~ I . the ~ s M t,o i o t tllrory of l ~ c o t trnnafrr t,ltro~tgl~Ia~ninar n boundary Iayrr. I'ror. Roy. Soc. London A 202, :l5!)-377 (1950). 1811 Lorenz. 11.11.: 1)ir \Viirineiibertrngung an einer ebetien sc~~lcrrchten Plntte nri 0 hei nnliir1 I~clirrJ<onvekOion. Z. Terhn. Plrysik 362 (1934). [82] I,o\vcry, (:.\$I., nncl \1ncl1on, It.. J . : The rlTect of trlrb~~lence hant trnnrrfcr frotn Ilnat,ed on cylindrrs. l t ~ t . Hcat Mass 'Crnnsfcr 18, 1229-1242 (1075). .I. 1831 Maiscl, I).S., nr~tlSher\vood, T.K.: Evaporation of liqr~itlsinto tnrbt~lent.gns streams. Chetn. IStlg. l'rogr. 46, 131- 138 (1050). [84] Mcksyn, U.: Plnte t~hertnotnetrr.%AM]' 11, 63-68 (I%()). I851 hlrrk, 1I..J.: Jtapid cnl(:r~lntionsfor I)or~nd:rrylayer 11r:tt.t.rn~~sft:r trsing \vf\tlgc sol~lt,ionn ancl n s ~ ~ n p t o t ,expansions. ,JFM 5, 400-480 (I!l5!)). ic [86] M~llsnps,K., a.ntl I'ol~ll~ausen, K.: Tl~c!rrnnl distribution in Jeffery-Ha~nrlflows hetween non-pnrallrl ~ilane a.nI1s. JAS 20, 187-1!)6 (1!)53). (80n] mill sap^, I<., and Pohlhnusen, K.: Ilent transfer by laminar flow from a rotating plate. [87] Morgan. A. J.A.: On t,he Couet.te flow of a co~npre.ssibleviuco~~s, heat conduct,ing, perfect gas. J A S 24. 315-310 (1957). [88] Morgan, V . T . : The overall convcct.ion hrnt transfer from slnooth circr~lar cylinders. AdvanCCR in Heat. Trnnsfer 11. I!l9-265 (1975). I891 Morgnn, (:. W.. I'ipliit~. A.C., nnd \V:~rtlrr. \Ir. H . : On hcat trnnnfer in lerninnr hol~ndary Inyrr llows of lic111iflsI~:~ving very s t ~ ~ n l l n I'rnnrlLI I I I I I I I ~ )JAS 21i. 173--180 (I!)58). ?~. 1901 Nnhn~c,It.: 13ritrri.g~ r ~ rI~ytlrodynnn~inrllcn z 'rheoric tler Lngorroihnng. 11ig.-Arch. 11, l!)l - 2b!l ( 1940). 1911 Nussolt,, W.: 1 ) : ~Grundgcsctn dns \Vfirtneiihergangeu. Gee. Ing. 38. 477 (1915). 1921 Oldroyd, ,l. G.: C:nlculaLio~r~ concerning tl~eoreticnlvnluea of boundary layer t,Irickness anti cocfficielltR of frict.ion ant1 l ~ c n ttrnnafer for stendy two-climensionnl flo\r. in an incotnprrsniblc botludnry layer arit.lr main st,realn velocity ( J z m or U ez. Phil. Mag. 36, 587-600 (1945). [93] oshrarh, S.: An nnnlysiu of In.minnr free-con\.ection flow' nnd heat. transfer about fl flat platc? pn.rallol to t.11~ tlireotion i f the g e ~ ~ r r n t i n g body force. NACA Rep. 11 11 (1953). (041 I'ol~llransr~~. 1)cr Wiirn~car~st.nrtscl~ IC.: zwiscl~enfesten I<iirpern und I~liiusigkeit,etr nit klciner Itcilinr~g t ~ dklcitier Wiir~neleit.t~ng. u ZAMM 1, 115-121 (1021). 1'rnndl.l. I,.: I3ine I~eniehrn~g z!vischen UrBrmeaunt,nr~scl~ nnd S t r o ~ n n n g s a ~ i d ~ r illt d s Jfliissigkc~ifr~n. I'l~ys. 71. 11, 11172 -- 1078 (1910); see nluo Coll. Works I I , 585-596 (I9(il). [!)GI I<.nitl\l)y.(1. I).. n.nd Holln.lid~, G.1'. : A goneral neth hod of t)bt.ainit~gapproxinintc sol~tI<. Lions 1.0 I:rmint~r nncl t ~ ~ r l i u l c ~ ~ lc:onvot:liot~pr~ihlr~ns. free , Arlvnnc:cs in Ileal. '1'ranuft:r 11, 2Ii& 315 (l!l75). [!I7 1 Jlcc.vrs, 1%. n110I<ipl~rnhnn, .I .: 0 1 1 n parI.icrlln.r class of s i ~ ~ ~ solnt~ions t.11~ I,., CII. ilar of eqrlnticins of n~(ll.ion nntl onergy of a viscons IInid. JASS 29, 38-47 (1962). [!)HI Ilrynctltls. 0.: O n t,he extent. hnd nction of t.11~ heating surface for s b n m boilers. Pror. Mnnc:l~c~slrr I,it.. l'hil. Soc. 14, 7 - 12 (1874). , I!)9l IZ i r l ~ n r ( l ~IS.~:.~ : 'I'lie nerotlynaniic chnrarterist,ics of a cylinder Iiaving n heatetl h o ~ ~ n d n r y o ( . I Inyrr. I'l~il. Mag. 23, 681 ~002 (19337). 11001 S:~t.o, n.ntl Sngc. B. 11.: 'l'hcrmal t,rnnnf'er in t,urhu~ent streams: Effect of turbulence I<.. gna on rnncroscol)ic: trnn8l)ort. from npherw. 'l'rans. ASMJE 80, 1380-1388 (1958). /lOll Scl~lic.l~t.ing. 15inipr csnlrle 1,iisungcn fiir tlic Tcniperaturverteilung it1 einer Inminarcn 14.: Striitnung. Zi\l'vlhI 31. 78.- 83 (1951). [I021 S(.l~liclllittfi. 11.: l)rr Wiirn~ciiliergal~g pinor l5.ngsarrgcst~rii1~1tal1 rtt~ P1al.t~mit, veriitiderlir41rr \\';rt~cllc.t~~prrnl~r. IforscI~g.111g.-Wes. 17, 1-8 (1951).

n/

[I031 Schlicht,ing, )I.: s n r v ~ sorne recerit rcsonrrh it~ve~t.igat,ions bountlsrg I:ryrrs arltl on on lieat tmnsfer. J . Appl. ech. 38, 289-300 (1971). [I041 Schmidt,, E., and 13cckn1ann, W.: Dns Tetnpcmtur- und (:c:scIrwincligkritnfc~Irl van r i r ~ r r Wlrlne nbgebenden, senkrechtet~Plat,te bci r~ntiirlicher J<onvelctiot~. Vorscllg. I11g.-\Vrs. I. 301 -404 (1030). [I051 Schmidt,. E.: S~:lrlierenaufnnl~men Tetnpcratnrfclder in d t r NRhe wiir~t~cnligel~c~~tler dcr ItOrpcr. I~orsclrg.Ing. -Wee. 3, I 8 I 18:) ( 1!)32). [IO(iJ Sclinlitlt, E.: 1Cinfiilrrnng in die techniscl~eThermotlynatnik untl ill (lie (:rnn(Il:lg(~t~ clrr clietnisrhcn 'l'herrnotlynnmik, I0tl1 ed. nerlirt, 1003. [I071 Schlnitll., 15.. nnd Wcnner. I<.: Wiirtnrnbpi~lioiihrr drn 11111fn11g oinm a l ~ g r l t l ~ r s vgc.l~t.iv,~~c~t~ tcn Zylit~tlers.I'or~cl~g. 1ng.-M'es. 12, 65-73 (1941). [I081 Schn~idt, IC.: '1'her1nisrl1e r \ ~ ~ f t r i e h s s L r i 5 r n ~ ~ ~ n t l ~ r \\riir~t~ciil)rrgntlg. ~ \'iert,o 1,1lcln.i6l'rat~tlt.l-Cediicl~t,r~isvorlesun~ 8, 273--284 (IV(i0). ZFW I1091 Schuh, N.: Einige Problemo bei freier Striitnung ziil~erI'liis~i~lceikn.(:iittinprr Mono. grnjihirll I{tl. J%, (:rrnnschicl~tm. 19.16. [I 101 S c h u l ~ H.: Uhor die I,iiout~gder latninnrcn Urenzncl~ic~l~l.glcicliu~~g , an eincr rl)cnrn I'l:~t.te fiir (:rsci~\vindigkeitR- tlnd Tenrperatt~rfeld bei verrintlrrlicl~et~ Stoff'\vertcn ~ ~ n fiir tlnn tl Diffnsionsfcld bei hiiheren I<onzentrnt~iotien. ZAMM 28/27. 54---GO (1947). , [I 11] Srhuh, 11. : Ein neues Verfahren znr Berechn~lngdes \1'Rrtneiil1ergnnges in c b r n r t ~nntl rotntiorissyn~mct.riscl~en In~ninnrt:n Grc?nzucl~icl~t~!t~ konnln~~tc!r 1)ci uncl vt*rii~~clc.rli(.l~rr Wnr~tlt<:~~~licrnl,nr. I'orachg. 1ng.-Wca. 20, 37--47(1!)54); stw n l ~ o :S ~ I I I I I I , : ,\ ~ r c * \ \ ~ II. rnethod for cn.lcnlat.ing laminar heat, trnnsfer on cglintlrrs of arbit.mry cross-st~ctionant1 on bodies of revolution a t constant. and vnriahlc \\.rill tetnliernture. I<TII Acre. 'rN :l:i (1!)53). 11121 Schuh, H.: On wymptotir solutions for the l ~ e a t,ransfer a t vnrying \\.all ktnpcratnrrs in t n larninar boundary lnyer with Hartree's ve1ocit.y profiles. J A S 20, 146-147 (1953). [I 131 Seban, R . A. : The influence of free-stream t ~ ~ r b u l e n c e tlie local transfer fro111rglititlers. on Trans. ASMI3 Ser. C. J . Heat Trnl~sfer82, 101 - 107 (1960). [I 141 Shao Wen I'ean: Meat, transfer in Itirninnr cotnpres~ible bonndn.ry Inyrr 011 n I I O ~ O I I S flat. ~)latc wit11 Ilnid injrc1,ion. .Jr\S 16, 741-748 (1949). [ l l 5 ] Shcll. J.1.: I)ic \Viirtnciiltrrgn~lgnznl~l I<~tgcillrinl~c~n. ,\mcl. Sci. Nnl.. Iir.lgrntlr . I , von I%r~ll. 189 (l!):38). [I101 ~ i c k n ~ n n5.: Tlic mlrulalion of t,l~e n, thcrtnnl lamit~ar bonndnry lnyer on n rot:rI.ing slihrrr. LAblI' 13, 468-482 (1962); see also r\(:Altl) llep. 283 (I!l6O). [I171 Sit~gh, S.N.: Heat. t.rnnsfer Iiy lalninnr flow from a rotat,ing spl~ere.Appl Sci. Ilca. ;\ 9. 197 -- 205 ( 1960). [I181 S k o p ~ t ~M. 13.: Approxinlate method for integrating t.hc eqnaliona of n Ialninnr bonr~(lnry v, layer in an inc.on~pres~iblcw in the presence of heat transfer. Soviet l'liys. Techn. I'l~ys. g 4, 411---410 (1959). 'rrnnnlation of Zh. Tckh. lpiz 29, 461 -471 (1959). [I191 Sniith. A. G., nncl Spalding. 1I.B.: Hcat transfer in n lnrninar boondary Inyer \vitll const.nnt fluid ])roperties ant1 const.nnt. \vall ternpcrnl.ure. J . R,oy. t\ero. Soc. 62, 60--64 (l!l58). [I201 Spaltling, 1). U.: Heat transfer from s~lrfacrs non-uniforn~t,cn~pcrnt.urc. of JI'hl .I, 22--32 (1958). [121] Spnltlit~g, I%., D. nntl lCvnns, FI. L.: Mass transfer t h r o ~ ~ ~ h boundary layrrs. 3. SitniIan~innr Inr sollttions t,o the 1)-cql~ntion. Int. .J. Ilrnl. Blans 'rrnnsfcr 2, 314.- 341 (1!)(;1). 11221 Spnltlit~g.I). I$., nncl Pun. \V. M.: , revie\\, of 111(:t11otl~ ~irc*clirting~ ( . ; r l Irill~urrrr.firf\ for I licirnt.s [or Ituninnr ~~~~ifr~r~t~-liro~i(:rty 1:1~(.r I~ont~tIt~ry Ilo\v~.IIII.. . I . l l w t . ~ I I I S S'I'r:t~~sh'r. 5 2 3 - . 250 (19li2). [I231 Spnrro\v, 1':. M.:l'ltc tlicr~nnl Iioloitlary laver on n non-isotlirrn1:11s ~ ~ r f n\vit.l~ I ~ I I - ~ I ~ I ~ ~ O rc I frcc streant vrloritv. J F M 4., 321 -329 ( ~ ! I F-~ .R \ -. -. 1 11241 Sporron., E.M., nntl Cess, 1t.U.: Free convcctiot~\%it11 blowing or s ~ ~ r t i o t,J. 1Ie:lt l'rnnsfer i. 83. 387 -389 ( I- -, .. , ntil r [I251 Spnrro\r., E.M., Eichhorn, R., nntl Gregg, J . L . : Con~hincdforcctl nncl free convectior~it1 a boundary layer flow. l'hysics of Ipl11ir1n2, 31!)-328 (1!)5!)). [I261 S11arro\v. E.M., ancl Gregg, J.1,.: 1)etnils of exact low l'rat~dtl nu~nl)rrbont~tlnrylaycr solutions for forced and for free convection. NASz\ Mento. 2-27-59 E (1959). [I271 Sparro\\., 1C. M., rind Grrgg, J. L.: Siniilnr solutions for frre ronvert.io~~ :I non i s o t l ~ c r t ~ ~ a l fronr vertical &?late. ~ r a n s .AShfE 60, 370-380 (1958). ' 11281 Spnrro\v, 1':. M., nnd Gregg, J. L. : l'hc eflcct of a non inoll~crrnr~l atrmti~011 i i o ~ r ~ ~ c l ; ~ r ~ freo layer l ~ r n t trnndrr. .I. Appl. Mech. 2/i, I61 I65 (1!15!l).
\ - -

326

X l I . 'l'l~cr~i~nl ho~inrlnrylnycrs in Inminnr flow

(12131 Spnrro\rr,1C.M.. and (:re g, J L Ijent, trnnsfer from n rot,nting disk to fluids of any PrancllI nutnbcr. .J. H~:lt, l'ronsfcr 8i, i49-251 (l!ls!,). (1301 Sparrow, K.M., ant1 Gregg, J.L.: Mnsa t,rnnrrfer, flow, and hent trunsfer nhout. n rotnting disk. .I. Hoat. 'l'rnnsier d2, 21)4-302 (IOOO). [131] Sqr~irc.11. 11.: Scc:t.iori of: Modern 1)cvtrloptnmt~in Fluids D y ~ ~ n n ~(S. sCiold~tein,ctl.), ic Oxford, 1 1 , li23!- (727 (l!)RR). 11921 S q ~ ~ i r 11. I{.: Ilrnt Lrnnsfrr cnlr~ilat~ior~ ncrofoils. AIEC ItM 1986 (1942). c. for (1:13] Squire, 11.11.: Notc. on the effect of variable wall ten~pcratr~re I~ent on trn~iefer.ARC lthl 2753 (1!)53). [I341 Stewnrt., W. 15., niicl Proher, It.: Ilcnt. t r n n ~ f c and dirnsion in wedge flows with repitl liinnn r trn11ufe:r. 1111~. llcnt, 'rrniisfer <5, 1149 - I l(V3 (l!)(j2). ,J. 11351 Stn,jtr~~ovic:, Si~riilnr 11.: bii11~rnt.11rc I)o~~ndnry Inycr~.,JASS 2/i. 571 -574 (1!)5!)). [ l:16l S~~g:i\r.nrr~.,Snk), 'l'.,Koniatau. H.. nricl Osnkn, H.: Tho effect of free atrcnni t,r~rb~~lc:~~cn S.. ~ I hcnt, t.rnnsfcr fro111n flnt ~ l n t s N ACA T M 1441 ( I 135R). I . ( 1171 S ~ ~ k rS. l'.: VorLirity n~~~l)lific.nticlri n. in stng~~ntion point llow and i h effect on hent trn~~nfcr. .II'M 21. 513 - 534 (1065I. . . . . .. - , 1 lRHl 'I'icn, CIA.:llcnt trnlinfcr by Inniinnr flow fron~ rot.nt.ing cone. .I. lfent. Trnn~fer 2Y2--n 82, 253 ( l!MO). [l3!)l l'iffortl. A.N.: 'L'lir f.l~ermotlynn.niirs 1 . 1 1 ~ of lnnlirinr bonndnry lnyer of n. Iim.tnc1 hocly in n Iiigli spoctl gna [low fieltl. J A S 12, 241 --251 (1!)45). [I401 Tifford, A.N., nntl Cliu, S.T.: Ilcnt t.rnnsfcr in lnriiirinr boundary layers suhject L sr~rfnro o prmsclrc nnd tetnpcrnt~rredint,rib~~l.iotis. I'roc. Second Mitlweqtern Conf. Fluid Mech. 1!)49. 363--3177 (1949). t (141 1 Tifforel, A.N., nnrl Clin, S.T.: 0 1 1 Llir flow nnrl temperature fieltl in forced flow a g n i n ~ n rotating tlisc. I'roc. Sccnnd U. S. Nnt. O ~ n g r . Appl. h~ccli.1955, 703-800 (1955). 11421 'I'or~loukinri.Y.S.. Ilnwkins, (:.A,, ant1 Jnkob, M.: Heat trnnsfer by frce convection from 11c:nlecl vertical sr~rfncefl liquids. Il'rans. 1\ShIli: 70, 13-23 (1948). t.o [I431 \'ogc:lpol~l. G . : J)or Ubergmg tler Itcibr~ngswirmc von Lngcrn ans dcr Schtnierschirht ill die l r i t f l i t : I ~ c . - 'To~iipc:r:rt.t~rvertnil~~~~g nrirl tl~crminche Anln~~fst.rrcke pnrnllele~r in Sc:l~~~~icrsc~liic:l~t~~:t~ bci lCrwiir111i111g d11rf.11 i1111erclLc~iI)~itig. Vl)I-l~or~cli~~~~gsl~efL 425 (l!14!1). [I441 V~wn~itn. J1e1ii: Ahlilichc I,iisnt~gcti fiir die (:escl~rviridigkeita- urid Te~nprnturverteilri~ig in elor i~~konipro~qiblcti lntninnren (:rcnzsrliicht cntlang einer rcclitwitikligen Ecke. lEin Ll~corotiuc:l~cr Hcitrng Z I I I ~ I I'rohle~n tler Interferetiz von Gronzucliicliten. Disa. Brnrlnsclin.rig l!)(;li; .It). kV(21, l!1(X;, I 5 6 b I78 (1!)67). [I451 Yn~ringn,I . : An nl~j~roxinintc. . uolnl.it~n t1I1eInn~itinr of flow 1imt.-trnnofcrin n rot,nling nxinlly eyn~~~ic:t,ricnl n~~rfrrt:r n 11nifor111 ~ c o t i i ~ ) r e ~flow.l J. Mcch. 1,nb. .Jnpnt~2, No. I, 1)ocly in i~ sil~ c I I4 (l!)5(;). [ l4(i] Ynng, K.'I'. : Po~nil~lc si11iilnrit.y~ O I I I L ~ ~ Ifor R I ~ ln~ninnr free convection on verticnl plaks n1ic1 cylintlers. .I. Appl. Mcch. 27, 230- 2:1(i (1!)60).
\
\

C I I A P T E R XI11

Laminar boundary layers in compreesible flow t

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of tlie t . l ~ c o r y bonntlary-layer flow i n comprcssi1,Ic s t r e a m s of n w a s st.irnulakt1 b y t h e progress i n acroriauLical cngir~ccririg ~ l t l ,in mt:t:lit, t,inlc:s, I,y t,l~c clcvolol~rnenl,of roc:knts ant1 art,ific:i:tl satollitn:~. Wl1n11 fligl~t,vr.loc:iI.ic:s of t . 1 1 ~ o r d e r of ~ ~ i u l t i p l of t h e velocity of s o u n d a r e attainctl, t l ~ c es work of cornl,rc:ssior~ aricl e n e r g y dissipation p r o d u c e s considcrablo increases i n t e m l ~ e r a t u r e a n d Forcos u s t a l w a y s to i n c l u d e t h e t h e r m a l b o u n t l a r y l a y e r i n t11e analysis, because t l ~ o w o I)oundary l a y e r s s t r o n g l y i n t e r a c t e a c h w i t h t h e o t h e r . At a vclocity u ~t h ~ temperature e , rise d u e t o a d i a b a t i c compression a t t a i n s a v a l u e of

:I*

is kiio\vn f o r m ecjn. (12.14b). I I c r c c, tlcnotcx 1 . 1 1 ~ sl,rc*ilicu Iic:tI, or 1 . 1 1 ~ g:rs I)rr 1111it m a w . Sinc:e y p,/p, = (y - l)c, 7 ,' w e m:ry : r l w I\-ril,c:

-~

w l ~ r r c h e Mach n r ~ m b c is tlcf ncd as M = va,/c,. T l ~ risc i r k t c n i p r r n t l ~ r cL l ~ r o u g l ~ t r , c frirtfion in t h e b o ~ ~ n t l a r a y e r is of tila s a m e o r d r r of rnnpni1.11elc as t , l ~ crise dl10 t o ly ntliabalic rompression, as alrearly m e r ~ t i o n r t l r ~ l ~ s p X I I, anti as will b c sliowri i n i C . grcittcr tletail l a t e r i n t h i s cliapt.rr. ,, e n r ~ m c r i c a levaluat,ion of e q n s . (13.1) ant1 (13.2) For a i r conccivc:tl of as a lh ~ ) c r f c c gas i s r e p r e s e n t e d graphically i n Pig. 13.1 (in wl~ioll = I.oOG k.J/kg d c g a n d t c, y -- 1.4 h a v e been assumed). It i s s e e n frorn i t tfllatst a flight velocity of 7 1 1 , ~--- 2 I~tri/sco, w l ~ i c lcorresponds t o a Mach n u m b e r of M - 6, t,hc t r ~ n ~ , o r a t r ~ r c of t l ~ c a s ~ , risc: g s1.rcnm atjtfninsa vallle of d 7' 2000 d c g C. 'I'liis t,cml~cl~at,nrc inarcasrs m.l,iclly risc as 1 . 1 1 ~l l i g l ~ tvc:locil.y is inarcasctl. I l o w c v c ~ r ,rr g a s al. Iiigh l.c:~r~~,c:r:rL~~ro (:11:~1igr:s ifhq pllysical propcrt.ics i n comparison wit11 tlic corresponcliiig pcrfcct, gns. 111 rcnl gases t l l r r c o c c u r l.hc processes of tlissociatiori ant1 ioriizat.ion (forina1,ion of :L ~ , l a s ~ n : l ) . Conseqnent.ly, tlie a b s o r p l i o n of e n e r g y associated wit11 s u c l ~processes carlses t,lle t.cmpersture rise i n a real g a s to be smaller t h a n i t wo~llclb e i n a perfcct gas. A t a n

--

. .. .~

1 R I ~ Iindebted to Dr. F. W. Riegela who cor~t.ril)~~ted n rrviscrl vrrsin~iof tl~is r.l~:il~tc.r t,llc (,o previous edition; in pnrtiollar, Dr. Itiegels forniulnted the p r c s e ~ i t n t i o ~ ~ extc~rtlcdIllir~gof tile worth-Stewartson transformation contained in Sec. XI11 (1 1.

328

X I1 1. J,nn~i~~nr I)o~~ncl:~ry i n comprc.usihle flow Inyrrs

orl)il.nl velocity of a satellitt: of 7r1, = 8 lzm/sec, t h e temperature rise even in a real order of 10,000 tlcg C. Tho mngc of Mac11 nrimbcrs M 1 6, in which , gas is st.ill of t , l ~ c t,hrrc cxisl, Inrgo cIiKcrrnncs bctwccr~the bchnvionr of a real a s opposctl t o a perfect ,gas, is givrn t.Itc: t1:tme of hypersoltic flo7o. 'l'llc occ:llrrence of chemical reactions (ioniznl.io~l, tlissocint.ion) wl~ichsc:t in hcllintl a shoclr wave or in t.he 1)oundary layer O I I ;I. solitl I)o~ly l :I Ityj)c?rsonicsl.rt::~mI)y virt,no of tho cxistcrlcc: ol:t I~igh il t,c:tnj)c:r:~.t,trrc, c.ot~sitlcr;tl)ly c.otnl)lic:xt,cs t,llc l.;~slrof annlyzing t,ho flow. F o r Cllis reason, wc s l ~ i ~ l l rt,s(.ric:t, our consitlcrat.ions t o t h a t range of Mach numbers in whicll tllc flllid can still I)c :~ssl~mctl obry 1.11~perfect-gas law; i r ~ t.o air, this corrcspontls t o a range s of M.,, -r: (i.In trlotlcrn t,imcs t1111(:11 nt,tfcnt.ionl ~ a I)ccn giver: t,o tllcstntly of l)onntJaryInyrr flows a t hyprrsotuc vclocit.irs ant1 in 1,hc presence of c1iemic;tl reactions. F o r drtails, t.llc rrntlrr is rcfcrrctl t o t.lle I)oolc by 1%'. J)orml~ce[20]. 11.

Tllc c ~ ~ r vcorrcsponcling t o (1) cs 0.5, 0.76 atltl 1.0 a r r also sltown plol.tctl in I'ig. 13.2. I t in seen from t.110 graph tllat Subllcrlantl'n formnl:~(I:{.:{) nL be nl~l)roxini:~(c~tI :n at. high t,ctnpcmt,ures by n.tlopl,ing vitlncs of o) I)cl.wccn 0.5 nncl 0.75, \ v l ~ c ~ r c:I(;; ~ s ~ lower tcmpcraljr~rcs v a l l ~ e = 1.0 appears t o It(? ndcql~ntc.'l'llc sl)c:c:ilic 11(~:1l. t.lrc (1) c,,, n.nd l , l ~ c I'r:~ndt.l rlllml)cr,P, can both I)c nssr~rnctlt,o 1)o c:o~ist.n.nl~ wil,l~ s:l.t,isl'nc.I.orj~ :r c l c ~ r i or! : I ~ I I ) ~ O X ~ I I I ; I ~ ~(wen , a t largc! l,c:~np(:r:~l,nrc ~ ~OII tlilrc:r~-~~c:c*s, :I.S SI:(*II f r o ~ 'l';11111: t~ 12.1. Somct.itrlcs, t.11~ viscosity law / 1 ( 7 ' ) is :tssrlmrtl t o I)(: of' t,It(- forln

--

where 1,llc consl.ant h scarves t o nchicve a better apl)rosim:tl,ion 1.0 tthc more cx:~c~t. Sr~t,hrrln.ndfortnt~la (13.3) in t.ho ~lciglll)onrl~ootl a tl(?sirctl l,rt~ll)c.r:l.I.lr~.(: I I K ( ' of ~:\ (cf. Scc. XIlTtl).

Fig. 13.I . Tc~npornt,urc in air in ternis rise ol tho flight velocit.~, w,, and t,lle Mac11 n ~ ~ n i l ~Mr , 'Vlic cllrvc Iabcllcd "l)crI'ect c. , gas" mas calc~llst~d the nici of eqns. wit.11 (13.1) n11c1(13.2). Thc velocity 111s= 7.0 kn~/sec that of nn nrtificinl satellite in in orbit,, ant1 lo,< = 11.2 km/scc rcprcsenL9

Even in I.llc mngc of snpcrsonic Mac11 numbers ( M < 6 in air), t h e t,cmperaturc , rise irt tllr gasc.or1.q stream is higll cnougll t o force us t o talrc ilit,o a.ccount the effect of t,clnl)cre~t.urc: the propertics of tJllc gas, in particular, on ils viscosit,y. Tllc lrineon ~ n a t i rviscosit,y of most gases, and, of air n.mong Lhem, incrcascs cor~sitlcrablya s t h e : t.etnl)craturc is irlcronsctl. 111t,llc caso of air, a s sltown I)y E. R. van Driest [30], i t is possible t o use a n interpoI:~t.ior~ fbrmr~ln l):~.sctl I). M . Sntdlcrland's theory of viscosi1,y. This can be written or1 Fig. 13.2. Tllc dynaoiic viscoaity, 11, of air in tcr~ns of the telnperaturc T
Curvc(1) B l r a s ~ ~ r c ~ n cand inlernls pnlalion f o r l a ~ ~ (13.3) hased on la Sntherlnncl's r q ~ l a t l n n Ourvcn (2). . (3). nlld ( 4 ) p o w ~ r lacs. crln. ( 1 3 . 0 , !\.it11 d i f i r n n t values of thc exponent ro

wllrrc /I,, clcnotas the viscosity a t tJle reference Lrnlperat,llre T o ,and Sl a constant is whic:l~for air assumes the value S1=llOK. ' l'ltc pt-(?c.(:(li~~g rcl:~t.ion I)ct-weon I,lle viscosiby /I of air and 1.11~ temperature, T,is scerl plot,t,rd a.s curve ( I ) in Fig. 13.2. Sinco t,hc rcl;~tion (13.3) is still too complicated, i(( calcrllat.ions by tllo sitnplcr power law i t is c:tlst.omnry l,o npproxirn;~.l,c in t,hcorc?t.icnl

330

X[[1. l~%minar borindnry lnyers in compressible flow

b. IEclation between t0ie velocity and the ternprrati~refirlcls

33 I

The pllonomcna 1111tlcr con~itlcrat~ion hccome, naturally, very complicat,ctl b e c n ~ ~ s o t.lln interaction hetwccn thc velocity and t8he thermal hountlary Inycm. of Con~parcclwiLh iricorn~~rcssil~lc there are a t least four aildit,ional quantit,irs flow which must I)o t,riltcn into account, in t,he calcrilation of comprcssiblc boundary layers: 1. the Mach nilrnbcr t,l~t! i'r:tr~tIl~lri~tmbcr 3. tho viscosity FtincLion 11 (7') 4. hoi~ntlarycontliLion for t,cmpcratj~lrc clist,rib~it.ion (hcal, tmnsfcr or aclial)at,ic wall).
2.

Tho pressure gradient, a s was t h e case with i~rcornpressibleflow, is now also tlt-l.crn ~ i r ~ c by t h e frictionless external flow: tl

a,it,ll pl(.r) ant1 T l ( x ) ilcnol,ing the densitfly ant1 tcrnperntl~~rc, mspect.ivcly, at, t.hc oi~lcr ctlgo of Llio t)ouritlary Iaycr. Sincc ap/R?/ = 0 a t ally poi11L x along i,llc: flow, the tcinperature anrl dciisity satisfy tllc relnt,ion (In.lo) @ (5, ' ~ I ( zy) = @l(x) 7'1(x) . ?/I , . Making t.11~ nssiiinpt,io~~ eqns. (13.5) t,o (13.7) Lli:ltf tlit: t.cni~)rr:~t.rirc: in tlt.~)t~~itIs on the single variable IL, i. e. t h a t T = l ' ( 1 ~, ) wc can dcduce from cqn. (13.7) t h a t

It is clrar t h a t tho large number of adtlitfional pnmmctsers, compsretl with incomprcssiblc flow, causes the number of cases likely t o occur in practice to becomc almost
int.mctablo a s a consoq~ience. Comprchcnsivc roviows of tllc niimcrous papers concernerl with comprcssil)lc boundary laycrs were givcn by G. 1Zucrt.i 1571 and 8.11. Young [106]. Details of spccial m:~t.hcmat.iral mcthods cmployctl by varioi~snuthors have hccn discussed by N. Cilrle [26) ant1 I<. Stewarhon [9G]. Problems of compressible turbulent layers are discussed in Chap. X X I I I .

SO where tlilTcrenliation with respect t o is tlcnol,cd by tho s11bs~rip1, Lh:~i,5", = dT1d.t~. Eliminating thc left-hand siclc with tho aitl of cqn. (13.B), wo 11avo

I). Rclntion hetwccn the velocity nnd the tcrnpcrnture fields

I n tho caso of two-dimensional flow, a n d irrespect,ive of the shapo of ttlc body, tllcrc exist* a romarkal)ly simple rclation betwcen thc feltis of vclocitsg a n d tcmpcrature. I n tho p:rrticirlar $so when P = I , t h e integration of the differential equaiions becomes much casicr. Thc corresponding proposition was first used by A. Rusemann [lo] and I,. Crocco [20] when they calculated the compressible boundary layer on 8 plate. I t can be stfatcd simply by m c r t i n g t h a t irrespective of the form of the viscosit,y filnot.ion ,u(7'), tlic tempcratiirc I' clcpcnds solcly o n t h c velocity component u takon parallol to the wall, i. e. T = T ( u ) . Thiis curves of constar~tvelocit,y ( u = const) are identical with the isotherms ( I ' = const). This remarkable theorem can be easily deduced from the boundary-layer equations. Neglecting the buoyancy forces h u t taking into account t h e temperature depcndenco of the properties p and k , we can rewritc tShcboundary-layer equations (12.50a, b, c) as: Introtlucirig the Pmndl,l numbcr P = ,IL c,/k, which may bc nssumccl indcpondent of temperature a s far a s gases are concerned ( c f . Tablo 12.1), we obtain

It is clear from this form t h a t T

dp=O:p=l dz or, if
dx

T(IL)is a sollltion of tho system of ecluations

( 13.5) t o (13.7) if, s i ~ n n l t a ~ ~ c o r ~ s l y ,

and

T,,=
T,

- -P=

I
Cv

k
=0

(13.1 1)

d? + 0

: and if, in atidition,

at y

-- 0 .

(1B.lla)

This proves our proposition. The act,nal function which describes t h e relation 1)ctween l.rniperat,urc ; ~ r l c l velocity is ohtainril by intrgration Th11s from crln. ( I 3 I I ) wc Iravc. t.Iic- gc.r~c.r;d solution us T (u) = + C u -1. C:2 .
c~

Tho rorlst,arlk of intcgrnt.ior~C1 ant1 ( 7 , can now 1)r tld,c~rltri~~t-tl t.11c. I)o~~r~rl:lry froni condibions. For dpldz $ 0 we have GI == 0 . :

332

XI I I . I , : ~ I I I ~ I I : L ~ l)o111111r1ry liiyvrx

ill

co~nprrssiblr flow

c. The flnt plntc?nt zero it~cidcnrc

:$:%:I

1. Aclinl~nticwnll
'1'11~Ilollntlnr~.c.o~ltlif.iot~s arc

of tho heat flow is rlrt,erminctl b y t h e grnilient (dT/tlu,), nt tho wall. In fact, wo ran tlednce from eqn. (13.13) t.hnt

: 1

c . 0

?L

-7-

U ; '' I

Ilc~rr7', (a)(ICIIOI,I,S 1.11(: t ~ c m l ~ r m l .:I.(*~1,llc: o~tl(.rrtlgr of tho I)ortn(l:~.ry ~ rr Inycr, :III(I t,l~c, sol~~l.iol~ I)csc.oi~~rs
r I I

so t l ~ a for (tIZ'/tl~,),< 0 t.l~rrc a flow of llcnt from t.11~ t is wall t o tho l l ~ ~ i t:tnd (,onl, versely, for (dT/tlt~), > 0 Lent flows from tho fluid t o the wall. 111 this tnnnnor T," - T,

==

T -1'

1 (U2 --- U 2 ) 2rp

.. .. .

3 urnz2 C,

or

l l \ v - l', ,Y-1

7'-

Mm2 :

(l:%.t2)

I I e a t flux wall ;'_ fluitl, vnlitl for P = 1

I r l t . r o t l ~ ~ c *1.11~ i~~g Rlncl~ n~lrul)cr M = Cl/c, whcrc cI2 = ( y -- I ) cp writ.r rt111. (13.12%) i r ~t.110 form

Ttl we

c i u ~rc(13.12 b)

,
'I1I1(>

(P= 1 ) .

qu:\ut.it.y 7" '

T1 r r p r c s r t ~ t ~t s. 1 ~ l,rrnperat,nre inc:ronsc

of nn ntlinbntic wall

Fig. 13.3. Relationship bet,wcen velocity and temperature clistribt~tiot~ the con~pressible for laminar boundary layer on a Rat plate including frictional heat,, from eqn. (13.13) Pmnd1.l n t ~ m h r r P = I . TI,, = wall tcmpernlllrr;
!Ir,
=

~ v l l i c : l ~ tlltc: t.o I'rirtio~la.lItrnt.. I t is ir~tlrpc:tidrnt,of t,hc exponcn(, of t.l~e is viscosit,g

lr~c.sLr~a111 r n ~ p ~ ~ n l t l r r , l, lpnr $ (Y-1) Ms > (7',,>- 7'm)1T,

f~ttlc~I.iort.
2. Heat trnosfcr (flnt p l n t , ~rlpldn ,

wc IBIIVC (i?7'/i?!,),,,0,1 > 0, n ~ t c l I#v:LL Is Irntt4errcd 1 0 1 1 1 ~ r n l l owing Lo lllc inrpo qu:tntity or l w r t eenrrshvl h y criction. R I ~ I ~ O I I P IT,,, l m I > l

\-L
I

-- 0)

us.,

c. The flat plntc nt zero incitlcl~ce The boundary Inyer on a flat p1at.e a t zero incitlcncc has been studiccl rxl,er~sively i n numerous pttblications, a n d we propose t o begin wit11 n more tlctailctl cliscr~ssiotl of this cnsc. S'irst we shn.ll dctlr~ce the ralatioll bctwccl~ tllc vclocil,y nrltl t c l r l p c r a l ~ ~ ~ r o tlist,ribution o n a flat plate from t,lle prccctling grnrrnl proposit.ion. : TII t , l ~ case or nn rcrlirLhrrlic c ~crtll(flnt,-plat,c tl~ernlornclcr)wo s~tI)st,it,~lt,o - '/I,., nt~cl[ J == (I*, i~tt,o ~ I (l3.12), SO t,It:tt t,lto t , c . r ~ ~ l ~ ( t r (lisl,ril)~~t,iot~ I I O I I I I I ~ : I ~ . V C I. ;~t,~~rc i t 1 t,Ilo Inycr on a llat pla,l,c bcconlcs

In 1 . 1 1 ~ i n ~ i t i t ~ p wl1c.n M,,, -> 0, c'clrt. (13.1:la) nssltlrlcs t,ho form of eqn. (12.64) l rnsc: arllic:lt \rf:ls ol)l:linc~tl r:~rlicr for inconil)rcssil)lc flow.

and t l ~ c ntlial~ntiomall trmpcrat,nrc, rqrls. (13.128, I)), is

'I'I~I: rc,l:~.tionI)c.l,wrc:ti t , l ~ c vnloc.it,y a.t~tl I,rnll)cr:~t~tro tlisl.ril)~tt~ioi~ in ccl~l. given (I:{.I:%) is sr(w ~~lot.t.rtl I'ig. I:{.:<. 'l'ltr t l i r ~ c t i o lof 11c:~tflow can tie tled~trrtlat. in ~ ottcat, front 1.11~: lr~iipcrn.t.l~re grndirnt :sf t.l~o \v;iII. Sir~cc(r??~/i)?/),, 0, t>hcclircc.t.iot~ >

w l ~ i r hfollows with M = U,/c,, , ant1 c = (y - 1) c,, l', . [t is worth noting 2 , t h a t t h e t ~ m p r r n t ~ u of n wall ill comprcssiblc flow give11 hy eqn. (13.17) is itlcrlticnl rc

334

XIIT. Lnrr~innr 1)oundarylaycra in nompressihlc flow

c. Tllc flnt plntc at. zrro incitlrnct!

:n!i

with t h a t for at1 irlromprcssiblc fluitl from eqn. (12.80) provicled t h a t i n the former rase P = I . IT. W. I~~rnrnons J. G. Brainerd [34) have sho\vn t,hat, it1 t h e rasc and of T'mntltl r~irrnl~ers wllic11 differ fronl unity the deviations irl wall tempcraturr causecl by comprrssii~ilit~y effects, a s comparect \vit,h the incon~pressihlccqt~ation (12 SO), arc- only very sligl~t~. TIIIIS l ~ c t atlinl)at,ic-\vnll trmpcmtnre cqnatiorl

The recovery /actor, r , then represctlts t l ~ c ratio of the frictional 1nml)craturr inc.rcnsr of tllc plntc, (T, - T,), t o t h a t due to adiabat,ic con~prrssion,

AT, = - -2 c,,- >

urnz

from cqn. (12.14). 0 1 1 cornp;rrirlg rqrls. (13.lH) ant1 (IR.I!)) il. is S~Y:II l . I ~ : , t , t,l~o mcovc:r,y factor has tllc vallrc remains vnlitl for roln~)ressil~lo flows wit11 a vrry gootl tlcgrrc of npproxirn:lfio~l F o r air, wit*l~ -- 1.4 : m i P -- 0.7 1 , wt. ol)t,nill y

r =
Ilcncc: for air
r

dF= 0.84

(Inminnr) , (Intliit~nr) .

(I:L~!):I) (l:!.l!)l))

-- d0.71

Tht. rrs~llling l r ~ ~ r n t l r n of t h r nt1inbat)ic-wallt,rmpcraturc on thc Mar11 nrln~ber t ce has 1)crn rrl~rc.srr~I~cti gm~)l~ic*:llly Illo plot in Pig. 13.4. For rxamplc, at, a Mnrll by n11111l)rrM,, -= I t h r wall i)ccon~rsIlcxat.rtl by 4.5O C (or 80 F) in roirllrl figlrrrs. A[. M,, - 3, t llc t . r ~ n p r r a t ~ t inorc:rso I)rt.orncs ns l~iglla s 400' C (or 720 P), ;111tl ~rr n l M,, = 5, i t is a s rnlrrll a s 1200 C (or 2200 1').

Z t;7cl11deddngleof cone
o

M,,, Mm 75 lo 96 tZ 10 I Z ' br? TO 33 09 to 25 1 %I lo 18

Fig. 13.5. Mrnunrrrl rrcovrry

k0
Boo

no

factors, r, for Ianiinar bountlary layen on conra nt srq7ersonic veloriticq lor difkrcnt Mnrll n11111brrs nn(/ Ilrynoltln n~r~nbcra, C. 11. I4:bcr rJ2]; al1r.r ronipnrison \\ it11 tl~eorel icnl va111cslrotn rqn. ( I 3.19%)

v 40 A 60'
0

'.rhc diagrams irl Fig. 13.5 rcprcscnt the rcsults of ~l~nn.suronlrnls t,llc rccovcry on factor in t h e cast of laminar \,our~dary layers on corlos in strpcrso~iiestrca.rns, performed by G . R . Ebcr !32J. Tlle nrlrncriral valnc r = is seen 1-0 I)e ~ o n ( i ~ ~ t r l t : ~ I lly t,llcse men.surements. Similar restrlts follow frorn ~nc:~sr~renlcr~l,s {)(~rli)rtl~t:~l 011 various cones and a paraboloid pcrformcd by B. dcs Clcrs ant1 J. St,err~l~crg :1,11d 1271 It. Scl~crrcr [89]. Velneity nncl tctnpernturc clistributinns in thc nbnctlce n l l ~ c n ttrm~slt:r: 'I'IVO p1)t:rs by \V. Ilal~t.zscht? ant1 11. Wcntlt. [44, 461 anti : 11:l.prr by 1,. (Iror:r:o 121 1 L coll(,nill cxplici(, formll]ac for the c:rlclrln.l.ion or Ll~cvt\loc:iljy :1,11tl I,c:ln~)c~l~:li.llt~t* tlisl,ri~)llt,iorl Illlmbcr of spceific cnscs. J'ignrc 13.0 cont.:lil~s ill 11lot,s l,llc: vcdor.il,y rlisl.l.ii)llof t.ion in t,lle l)ol~rltlary 1;~ycr sovcral M;~ellnl~lnl)t?rs. re~)rrst:~lt,s for It, Cl-ot:t:o's c:~lc:11Intions for a boulldary 1n.ycro n a n arlirrhcttic &rtt plnlc o n I.he: :~.ss~lnll)l of ;I. vise-11sil.y ion law = 1 and for P = 1. T11c distance, 11, frorn tllc wall has 11cc11 rnntle (litl~cnsiolllcss \vit,ll rcfcrcnco 1.0 where 11, tlrnot.as l,lle Itinrrn:rl,ic visc8osit3y in t,llo oxt,crrln,l flow. I t is seen l,Il:~t for incrcasirlg I\l:rcl~tl~tlnl)r~rs is :I. c : r ~ l ~ s i t l ~ : ~ . : ~ . l ) l ( : l,llc:ro t~lickcrlillg tllo IIolllltln.ry laycr ant1 tll;~I, vc:ry I:LI.~I: hl:11.11I I I ~ ~ I ~ I I . I(.)I(: v~.lor,i(.y of for I .S clist,rihllt,ion is approximately lincar over i b W ~ I O ~thicloless. C

H=LL
" c,

.'

Fig. 13.4. I n ~ ~ r c i~ st,l~r c n ~ p r ~ i t ,of ~ r fI:it, wall mvit~gt.17 friclion:~!l~rat. n r I ~a r IVIICI~ t,Ikc \"all i8 ndiid~irlir,i n lrrrns of l,lic hl:~rliI I I I I I I ~ ~ I - r . air, fro111rrlti. (l:l.18:1) lor
r l t l
I I I I I I ~ ~ , f'
-

~GTu,

7
R
-

;
.-- T,

Atli:tl,nl.ir-wnll lvrr~r,rr:tlura

7',,:

ICx(r,rta:~l

~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ , r r a ~ , i n~ ~ ~ I~~~~~~~

wall Ir8ttp~ralt8rt.. ({I'i')

-- 7'-;

Tw

273" I< ( t ~ 1 2I{) "

a. 'I'l~c:

flat pinto nt nrro inrielci~cc:

337

,, t.c!rnprmtt~rctlist,rib~~tion also sho\vn in Fig. 13.6, and i t is seen t h a t Ilie is tlic fric:l.io~~nl ir~t:rcasc in thc tcmpcrature in tho bound:cry layer assi~meslarge valurs for Iargc Mac11n111n1)crs. 'Clic pnpcr by W. I~ant~zsc:l~e JI. M'cnclt [44], quotccl and cnrlicr, contnins c a l r ~ i l a t , i ofor s = 0.7 (air) for t h e case of a licat-conducting plat,e. ~~ P I t is S!IO\VII t.l~:~t, v ~ l o c i t ytlist,ril)~~l,ion tJ1c u/rJ, ploCtcd ill tcrms of y U , / Z i," drvial,cs c:onsitlc:r:~l~ly Srom Lllnt for P -= 1 when 1.11~Mnclr nr~rnI)cr:i.ss~~nics largcr v:rlrlrs. T l ~ cvc%loc.it.y coincitlc . llrofilrs s11ow11in Fig. 13.G can bc mntlc ncarlv t.o .. .. .. . . when t h c d i s t , a ~ ~fc c n ~ wall, y, is nlntlc tlinic~~sionlcss rrfcrcncc t o l/a,,, z/cI,, r o the with Fig. 13.7, w l ~ r r c v,, t1~not~c.s e Irin~mat~ic th viscosity of the air a t the wall. 'l'l~is circn~nst.ancc dcnot,cs pl~psicnllyt h a t t,llc i ~ ~ c r c a ill I~oundary-laycrtlliclrncss wit11 sc Rlach number ( a t constant Rcynoltls number) is mainly due t o the increase in volnmc whinli is nssociated with the incrcasc in tlrc temperature of t h c air near the xvall. 'l'his fact was first noticcd by A. N. Tifford [98].

1/

Ma

Crn

Jiig. 13.8. (>ocllicient olnltii~ frictio~i mdiaon Oolic flr~tplate with rornprcnniblc, Ian~ii~ar i)o,~ncl;~ry Ir~ycr. P =. I, ), = 1.4 (air), nfl,cr I ~ : I I I ~ J . S V:111ql \f1c!n(lta [44] ~I~

Fig. l:t.!). Corflicic~~t,s l i i ~ ~ ol lric,t,io~i ediafor brrlie 11:1(. 11laLc a t zero inoiclrnrt: n . i l l ~ coin~)rrssil~lr, Ian~inar borlr~dnry 1r1ye.r. :~Tt.rr It1111(*si11 .1111111son Y ] 1ine1 IH

I n l l ~ i sm c t l ~ o d of plollinp. lhc curvrs fcsr clillcrcnt Dlarll nunlbcrn l ~ n v c lwcn rnrcle nearly lo coincide. I t i s possible to conclude from l l ~ i ntllnt t l ~ c Iargc incrcnsc i n llw bovndary-layer tl~lcknclis will1 n l n c l ~ n ~ ~ l l ~ b e r is mainly drlc to t l ~ c incrcnac in volomc shli-1) i s associnted ail11 t h o increase in t c m p c r a t ~ ~ of rc tllc air ncnr tllc wall

Adinbntic coefficient of skin friction: 'I'llr rorlfic.ic,i~l of ski11 f~ic't 1 0 1 1 lor : I I ~ adiabatic wall, a s cnlculntctl by W. Ilnntzsrhc nrltl 11. \Vr~ttlL,11as I ) r r ~ iplottrtl i l l terms of tho Dfncll nnmbcr in Pig. 13.8. F o r cr, -. 1 t , l ~ protluct c, R is intlcprntlcnt . c of t.11~ Mac11 numllcr, b111 for tlifirct~L v a l ~ ~ c s (1) t - l ~ c of c:ocrficic%~~t s l i i ~ ~ of S1.ic.l.io11 decrcascs with increasing Mac11 nurnbcr, t h e ratc of C I C C ~ C ~ SIC c i r ~ g ~ largcr for srn:lllcr va111esof o.Figurc 13.9 contains a comperiso~l bctwccn Lhc valucs of tllc cocl'ficicr~t of skin friction for a n adiabatic flat plat,^ o b t a i ~ ~ c by scvcm.l aut,l~ors. e. for tl i. different valucs of t,hc Pmntltl numbcr, P, ant1 of the cxponcnl in t . 1 ~ viscosily

Jiig. I3.f;. V(.l~>c~it,,v t,cn11)cr:~t,1irc lin(l (list,ri1)11tioriin (;o11111rc~%qil1lc:, 1a111iri:irI)o~~ncl:~ry layrr on aclinlrnlic flat plate, afkr Crocco
P1.1
l'rx~i~lil 11111nt~rr - I , <o = i , P rrom u~nll rrfcrrml 10 I I-, ~ 1 1 1 '
y = 1.4.

1)istanr~

Jqig. 13.7. Vc-looit,y lint^ i1~11l~ionn l ~ o ill t lrbi~~innr I~ounclnrylayor on an acliabatic Rat plate a t zero incidence; data identical with those in Fig. 13.6. The dist~ncefrom tho wall is referred to I/rl,,, Z / U ; . For w = 1 , we have 1/ rll,,/vm = T,/Tm

Fig. 13.10. Bfeasl~ren~mtrr t,he of velocity diatrih~~t~ion in nnadiabulic, In,,tinnr I~oi~i~~lriry i r ~ Inyrr sll1bc.rsonic Llow, nl'lcr 11. M. O'l)oilt~olI [28]. Mach nurnber Mm = 2.4. Theory from ref. [I:$]

338

X I I I . I,nr~lir~nr I>orirtclt~ry Inytm i n cort~y~rcnnil)lr flow

fr~tirtiot~ 'I'hr plot sltows trll:ll the I'rat~tlfl numbrr exert*^ a mrlcll smaller influrncr on the rorffic.ienlf of sltir~friction thari t l ~ c cxponcnt (0. I'igr~rc 13.10 sllows the rt>s~ilt*$ r n c n s ~ ~ r c n ~on~c~ t~ ~si ~ ) r c s s i b oc ~ l ~ ~ l : ~ . r y of c o~ I) l i layers pcrfortnc*tl Ity 11. AI. 0'l)onnnll 1281. 'l'llry wcrc performed in t,l~chonntlnry Iayrr of vrry long c-iroulnr cylintlcrs of sn1:ill tli:ctnct.cr plnccti in an axial strcar~l.'l'l~cr Mac:l~11111nl)c.r kept, c:onstant a t M,, =: 2.4 I)ut t h e Itcyrtolds t~ntnl)c:rwas vn,rictl. w:ts , lic velocit,y tlist,ril)ut,ior~ bccti plot.tn-tl against y/O,, whcrc O2 tlcnotcs t . l ~ tnomrrl1 II:IS r t,utn tll~i(-kticss from eqn. (133.75). I t is srcn t,ll:~.t~ ~ c t l vcloc:itl,y profiles n.1, tlilTort.tl1 tlist.nnrt:s I'rotn tht: Icntling ctlgc arc silililnr t o oacli otjlirr a.ntl there is gontl :~grct:mrnt, wit.11 t . 1 1 ~ t.l~rory tlnc 1.0 I). It. C111:11)rnn11 ~ n t l l . \jr. 1tul)csin 1131. ; A

I lic casc wlicn 1.11~ t.rtnperaturc varies n.long t . l ~ c \\,all, i. c. w11c11'I7,,,- 7',,,(.r). 11ns bc:cn st,r~tlictlbjr I). R. C l ~ n p m a ~ i I\f. \V. [t~ibrsirl and (131 011 t.hc a s s u ~ n p t ~ ol' ~ ~ io a vis(:osit,y f'~~lirf,ion ,1//1,, = b 'I1/1',). 'rhc ann.lysis shows t . I ~ a t 1.11~lornl hm.t, l111s
1

Velocity nicd trnipernlr~rct l i s l r i l ~ ~ ~ l i it1 ~ q prcscllcr of l ~ e n t1rnltnft.r: In 1I1t. a t the grnrml ca:lqr, 1111thhrrrl trtr?is/er p ~ r s r l i l ,t l ~ r rrl:ltiort I)ctwcen tho vclocity aticl t,oml)cra t t ~ r rtlist,ril)~rt.ioncBnn I)r tlctl~~crtl from rqrl. (13 13a). Wl~eri P = 1, it can b r wril t ~ I I

(q~~n,n(,it,y)~c,nt, of t,r;lllsli.rrotl p(:r 11nit. n.rc:L anti t.irnr) mnnotf bc: dct.cr~ninrtlflotll the t,cn~pcmt.t~rc clifl'crc~icc 7',u(2) - l',, alone 1)ut t.l1:1t it, tloj)erids 1.0 a Inrgc* tlrgrcc on t l ~ c previous "I~isLory" of tSllc bo~rr~tlary Inycr, i . c. o n t,hc r o n t l i t i o ~ ~wl~ich s prevail ~~pst,rc:lrn t,ltc scetaioti under considrr:~l~ioti. of 'I'l~c local NussrIL nl~ntl)rr loses i1.s signific::~nc:c rnsrs lien t11c wall t ~ c ~ ~ i p c r : ~ t . ~ ~ r n.long t.hc flow, I)cin varies c rarlsr its IISC inll,lics t.li:~t, local I ~ c a flr~x prol)orl,ioti:ll 1.0 'l',,, - 'IT,,,, tlir t is P ~ I I (\2.31), . or, t,nlrillg ill(,o :lc:cou~it,t.l~c: IlcmL gcncr:~lntl I I I'rict.ion, t . I t : ~ t , it, is ~~roy,ort.io~l:~.I ~ 1.6 'J' 7' '
I,

wlrt~rt: 'Ir,, is givc.11 I)y rcln. (13.17). '1'11n prcccding rcl~tal,ioncan bc cxt.c~rltlccl1,o I'r:~ntlt,l 1111111l)t!rs tlifYrring fro111 1111it~y 1 . 1 ) ~i t ~ t ~ r ~ t l ~ ~ ofl ~ i o r rccovrry factor, I)y c trhc i whctl wc: ol)l.n.in

In 1.llisccl~rnt.ion, acli:~.l)n.t,ic tctlipcmt,~~re, shoultl be ~ % l c ~ l l a tfrom eqn. t.hr wn.ll l',,, ed (1:3.18). 1)11t, il, n i ~ ~ sIIC rr;elizrtl 1.l1n.t~ is orlly a n approximation. Thn direction t, this i l l w l ~ i c l11(-:1.1, is t,r:lnsft:rrc:tl c:i.n I)c tlctlucotl from eqn. (13.21) n.nd written ~
Fig. 13.11. Vcloci1.y and tc?mpcroturc

i r ~c*o~nplt:t,t: ngrrc-tncnl. wil.11 cqn. (12.82) for inc:ornl)rrssil)lc? flow 'I'hc st~ror~tl p:l.pc:r I)y W. 11:1.11t.zst:h(: :111(1 11. Mft~ndt[4G] contains rtrrmcrous cx:~lnl)lcs t , l ~ c for c:nsc of the? I~mt-c:or~cl~lc:t.i~~g wn.ll. Solno resi~lts arc seen ~)lottctl n i Fig. 13.1 1. 'J'llry roli:r to t,hc casc wltcn t . I ~ t : t~r~n~)c:r:i.l.r~rc? w:ells is rc:rlr~ced by of 1.l1c cooli~igt o t . l ~ a in t11c lice st.rcam (7',, = 'I:,). compnrisoli of t.he ~rclocityclist,ril~ A l~iit,ioris Jis 13.1 1 a n ~ 13.6 SI~OWS tliat t l ~ c in 'g. l 1)ountlary layer on a heat-corithict.ing wall is corlsitlt:r:tl~ly s~rlnllcrt.lin.11 on a n n.tlial):tl.ic one. 'l'llc t~cmpcrn.tfnrc profilrs slintv t.l~:tl,in t.Iit? c:~soitntlnr consitlcrat.iot~tJic I~igllcsl, n n ~ ~ ) r m t ,irlcrcase in t l ~ c l ~~rc 1)orlntl:ery Invrr :t.l.t.;~ins v : ~ . l ofl ~ a ~ :ll)o~lt pcr cent of t h a t d r ~ c ntlial~atic 20 tx, com~)rrssior~ irrc~spc:c:l.ivcof t . 1 1 ~Mn.cll 11111nbc:r. I Since for (I) : 1 1,111: corffiricnt, of s l z i r ~ fricfiori is intlcpcntlcrlt o f the Mach tlr~rnl)cr (IG% 1:3.8), the r:el.c :el, which 11ta:tt is tr:~nsktrrc:tl brcornrs equal t,o t l ~ a irr t nil inc:ornprcssil~lt: strmrn. c~qri.(12.81). A survry of Iirnt.-l.r:lt~sfc-rcocffirirtlt,s ant1 rct.ovc:ry Ij~t.tt~rs ~ r: I I I I ~ I I : I , ~ li I :1.11(1 ~ , I I I ~ I ~ ~ I I VIIo\v :I.I. I ~ i g l ~ IIL Milt41 I I I I I ~ I ~ )t:i(tt: ~ l~ ~ e ~ (o1111(1 i l l : 1~:11)t'r I I)y . I . IC:tyo 1551. In t,l~is rpr~ric:xion rrf. (1051 may also I)(% mcrit,ionetl.

clistrihrtt.ion in oorn~)maqihlo Iiirninnr bountlnry lnyer on flat plate n zcro L incidence with hrnt tranrler, aftor IIantzaclre anti Wendt [44]
Wall tempernlllrf! free r t r r r m letllpernt~ltre. T. , T: , P 0.7. = 1 ; y = 1-4

Calcl~lations coriccrnjng compressible boundary layers on flat p1nf.c~ which are (Chap. X) have been pcrfornictl by based on the momentturn-inhgml eqr~at~ion Th.. vorl ICBrmrin and 11. S. T s i e ~ l[ S ] ; see also Pig. 13.9. Approxiriiat,e solutions and (71, for t h e flat plate were also published by F. R o ~ ~ r i i o l 15. A. Ric:l~cll)rrtiricr 1). (:olrs [I 71, 1,. Crocco 1221 ant1 11. .I. Monngltrcn 1751. S ~ l ~ ~ I ~ for n1,110 t - t j ~ ~ ~ l t - i o ~ ~ io s of lnmir~nr I)ol~ntlarylrrycr~l with vnrialdc! 1)ro1)crt.i0~ 1~c1.c i v t : ~ ~ I,. I,. Moort: ( 7 7 1 g l)y and G. B. W. Young and E. Janssen [1081.

340

XI 11. I,n~l~innr I)ol~ndnry Inycr3 in co~nprcwil>lo flow

(1. no~~ndxry layrr wit11 non-zero prcRunrts grndirnt

:I4 1

d. Ilor~ritlnrylayer with ~ l o ~ l - z e rpressure grnclier~t o 1. Exnrt solutions. Tllr ralculaiions conccrning bountlary 1:tyers wil.11 noti-zrro 1)rrssure gratlic*nts are more clifficult I Ilnn i hose concerning flat plates, owing t o t h r Iargr nr1ml)rr of irltlrprntlcnt variables 1,. Crorco [21] tlisrovered quite early whioh siml,lifics t h e ta.slc of int,egra.ting t h e equations for t l ~ e a t~mnsformat.io~t cases wllc:n rit,hrr (1) P = 1, ant1 t.hc viscosil,y furicl.ion / A ( ? "is arbit,rary, or (2) whcri ) tho 1'mntll.l nutnl)er has a n arltii.rary valrlo b~rt,,t~/!l'= const (i.e. when w 1). 1 1 1 1.11~: s11cri:rl cases of ntlinl~:tt,ic wnll wil.11 P -- 1 antl to = 1, I,. Ilowarth [481, C. It. I l l i l ~ g ~ ~ ~ o r t , ha . ~ ~I<. St.o\\.art,sotl (941 tliscoverecl n, transformat~io~l 1701 tl wliich r c ~ t l ~ ~ tcllrc co1111)rc.ssil~lc ~ ~s bonntlary-laycr cquat.ions t,o almost t h e same fort11 a s t1hat. valitl for inc~onlprrssiblcflow.
. . I

The srlrceeding derivation aims a t expressing the hountlary-layer equations (1:1.5) antl (13.6) in terms of' t h e new coordinatcs 5 and i.'rhc contdnrrit~yrqilat,ion (13.5) is satisfied iclrntically by the introduction of t h r st,rc:~nlf~tnctioriy)(x,y) tlcIil~c*rl thror~gliits derivatives

Regnrtling 11, as a function of 5 and

8, we find tellat

antl

1.1. The Jlli~igwortli-S~ewnrtson n n s f o r n ~ n t i o ~We now proccctl t,o tlcrivc t,llc tr ~. Illi~~gworl~h-Stcwart.son trar~sforrnation by t,he use of a sliglltly ~notlificd mcthocl cornl)n.rctl wi1,ll rcf. [94], a n d without, a.t first!, restricting the argument t o ~ d i x b a . t i c \valls. l ~ l l r t h c r n ~ o r c , s l ~ a l lsuppose t h a t t,ho PmntlLI number, P, nlay have a n wc arl)it.rnr.y, i,lror~gl~ constant,, valr~c.Tho viscosity law, p ( T ) , will be assumed linear a s in cclrl. ( l 3 . 4 a ) , nntl trho srll~script0 for viscosity ns well a s for the other ptmnlot,t?rs will refer t.o st.ngnnt1ion condit.ions in t h e external stream. T h e constant O sorvcs i,o ~)rovitlc n itnprovctl approximation t.o ifhe more exact Sutherlantl equation a (13.3) in t h e neigltbourhood of t,he desiretl temperature. If t h e latter is chosen a t t.hc wnll t,crnpcrntum, TI,, assurnctl const,arltr, then, according t,o eqns. (13.3) ant1 (13.43). it is ~ ~ e c e s s t o ~ u t ar p

since a5/ay

0 . IIencc, for example

, = .pk-9- .el_ at!, , , it!/ c,, ;a !

Fnrt,her, after a c a l c ~ ~ l a t i oduring which tcrms in a@/az arc! fount1 t,o cnncc?l, we n can show t h a t

Along the ext.ernal flow, a.ssurnccl isentropic, t,Ilo sta.grlntior~ otithnlpy ronlaills constatit, t,hnt is, Thc II1i11gworLl1-Stewartsorl transformat.ion ilitrotluces two new coordinates by t h e tlcfinitiorls
f

or, in view of (13.26),

''1

dr

I'rr re

(13.24)

cI2

((Y

-I )

11l2

= co2

I t follows t h a t
1 - dc, =
-

c,

tlr

1 , ( 2

1)

(ill --'. ' .-.'.

71

c , ~ (11

so i(11:~t.. finally, Ilcrt., c tlrnoln-s i l ~ r rt-locily of sountl, a ~ i t lt h e subscript I rcfrrs t o contlitions in t lir cxicrn:ll flow ( a t 1,I1coutcbr c ~ l g o 1,hc bonntlary Iaycr) a t station z . Now, of c , 2 = = ( ~ ~ - l ) c , I ' l ant1 c o 2 = ( y - l ) c , T , .
f

(13.20) because

Sincc, llowevc!r, 7 ,tlrpc:l~tlsonly on z, also I~a'vc1,hat c, = cl(z); f u r l l ~ r r , ' wo sirrcc 11, = p I ( x ) , we Iin(l 1.11:rt.; -- f (a) is a fnt~ct,ion z alone. B y cont,mst, g clcpcntls i: of on 1)oi,I1 ant1 x , I)re;~risotllc tlctlsil,y, Q, in t,llc 1)ountlary lnycr dopcnds on y. We ?/ m:ty cllso in\?rrl. i,llrse rcla.i.ions aritl I I O ~ , Ct,l~at,

111 t l ~ cprrscnt sortion wr fir111 it 8i1111)lcr t l r ~ ~ o k cbulrt~~:~l to t11r \rlc)cily I>y tllc syt~~bol, a 1nstcnt1of U a$ in the pwt.

342

XI11. 1,nlninnr I>ollndarylayeru in rotilprenaiblc flow

c cliffc~cwfrom the corrcspondi~~g I~oundnry-loyrrcquntio~l This trnnsfort~~cdq t ~ n t i o r ~ of irmcornpressiblc flow merely by thc factor ( I -1-8) w l ~ i c lrnult,iplics tlmc prcssuro ~ trrnm. 111 order 1.0 transform t h e energy equation, we m11ltil)ly rqn. (1:) 0) 11y ?L arltl atl(1 cclr~.(13.7) Rc~ncmbrringt h a t tllc Prandtl nun1l)cr is

The v i s c o ~ ~ s trr111 in tho c q ~ ~ n t i o n tnotion call bc trarlsforrncd wit11 t,hc aitl of of cqn. (13.4%) nntl 1,I1c perfect-gns law p == p, = p R T t o yield

t.11~ f~lrlol.ion(rrlat,ivc: stfingnal.iollor. Ity il~lrotlr~nir~g tli~normsionlcss l8c?rn~~rrx1,~~rc ctltl~nlpydiffcrctlcc), tlcfincd by

Jlt-rc IL tl(:not.rs t . 1 1 ~local, ns tlist,il~otfro111 t l ~ c stn.g~~nl.io~l t ~ l l n l p y . c~~ Int,rod~rcing llmc exj)rc.ssiot~ i l l rqns. (14.33), (13.34). i111tl (13.36) into cqn. (13.0) imngincrl diviclctl by Q, we tlc!rivc :

As WXR clonc! for oqn. (13.28), wo cxpross tllc pnrt,i:~ltlorivnt,ivc:s wit11 rrspcnt 1.0 z nnd 21 by tllosc with resj)cot 1.0 j: nrmtl $, l ~ o t c t.llat . h 11, p, p,/ptl p :&tl tnakc use of the definitions (13.40) t o obtain

I l r r r , M,

-- I I ~ / C , is

the Mar11 nurnl)cr of t,llc cst,rr~l;ml Ilo\v. Sitit:(:

thc fnct.or of ( l i ) ~ in ) ~ (13.46) car1 11c p u t in fror~l, Llle operator a2/r??y2 ~ cqn. of in cqn. (13.44), so t,I~nt tltc trnrlsformcd cncrgy c c j ~ ~ n t . :~c:qt~irns form : io~~ I,Ilc

344

X111. 1,ntninnr 1~01tt1rI:~ry ill comprcsrriblc flow Inyrrs Eqr~nt.ions (13.41) ant1 (13.47) t.ogcthcr with t,hc continuity equation

(1. llo~~ntlnry lnyrr with nnn-zrro I ) ~ C * S S I Igrntlitvrl. I~

3.45

rcln.t,rs t,o t , l ~ e xt,ngnnt.ion c t ~ t ~ l t n l lh y c,, 7 -1- !, 1 1 . ~ ~ .-= ' \vltic:l~ \VC c.n('o~~t~I~c*r(*~l t-:~rlit,r in rclw (13.35) in t,hc form of n "I~c~nl)ernt.r~rc I I I ( : ~ , ~ ~ I I " Y S ~ . ( ~ I I I(11' ~)ilrt,i:~l ~I 'l'l~r R . difTcrent.inl equnt,ions for I/,, I?, ant1 T' rrtlr~cc-s srtch c:tsrs t.o l,\\~o in cor~l~lrtl ortlitrnry tlini?rrnt,inl crlrrat.ior~s containing tOto st,rcntn funrI.iot~ nntl 1.ltc st:~gnnt.ior~ r t , l ~ : t l l ~ y . r~ Sirniln.r solr1l.iot1sfor comprnssil~loI)onr~tl;r.ry l:~..yc:rsc~onsI,it.~tlo rx:cct. sol~rl.iot~s of t31tosysI,t.trr 01' (v~~t:r~I.ions :trc, l,lrt?t~~I'ot.c~, JI,II(I ittl~ri~tsit~:rIl~y itrtl)or~I,:~~~rl.. vt*r.y l'(~rI~:ri)s cvcn ~ r ~ o itnport;lntly, solrrtions of this Itintl art: cntployctl a s t.or~c~l~st.ont~s rc :~g:r.inst, wl1ic.11t . 1 1 ~n.ronmay of n.pproximal.c prorrtl~trcsanrl 11a jritlgotl. I'or I.l~rsc:rrnsons. we 11ow propose rorrgl~ly sltel,cl~ line of rcnsoning wlriol~ to tJtc It::ttls l,o sin1il:rr sol~lt.iot~s starl.ing wit,l~the l l l i n g w o r t I ~ - S t c ~ v n r t ~t,mnsforn~nt,im. so~~ We s11:tll ror~c:lutlo 1,lli.s topic witah n number of r~rtrncricnlresults. Wc sl~nll11ostulnto the vnlitlilsy of t.l~e viscosit,y Inw from eqn. (13.4n) so tllnt ro = I ant1 P I n.rc i1nplic:tl. In t,l~o c::~scof bountlary Inycrs lnilh herrt lrn?is/er, nn n r l ~ i l r : ~ r y , c:otrst,:lnt, w:~ll I ~ : I I I ~ ) ( ~ ~ : ~ . ~ . I I I . ~ : , I)III, II',,, will be nssnrncd, so tlint A', will 11ccornc a const:t~~f,. prol)l~:tr~s In i~tvolving ;LII nrlirrbnlic wall, t,ltc stagnation ent,l~nlpy given by cqn. (13.12): is

wlticl~is n tlirc-c.1,cotlscclncnac o f o t j r ~(I:!:lO), now (:ot~sI.il~~ll,oIICW ~ o l ; o F I ~ o r ~ n t l n r ~ . L11c I:lyc:r t:clr~:~l,iorts. The syst.cn~of equnt.ions (13.5), (13.G), (13.7) was subject t o the bortrltlary contli t,ions

tl~c lntt,cr dopentling or1 whctShcrthe wall is adinbatfie or isot,hcrmal, t.ogetller with

I t is cnsy t o sco t.l~nt t.l~csc 11011ntl:try cor~tlit.ions t.mnsforn~as follows:

I/irnilirtq crrsrs: If P = 1 Iltrn S : 0 is n spccin.1 sol~lt,ionof the cr1crg.y cqunI.ion (13.47). 'I'ogcl~lrc~r \vil,l~ rqn. (13.:%0), Ict~tls o t.lta rcl:~,t,io~l it. t between t , c ~ n p e r n t , ~and ~ro volorit,y for ntl atli:tli:~.l.ic \rrnll tlisrovcratl r:rrlirr ns cqn. (13.12). I n this case, cqn. ( I 3.11 ) nssrrmrs !,IIs "incotnprrssil)lc" form of r q n . (9.I ) rnnctly. Along a Il:~tpl:tt,c wo It:tvc tll)/tl.t: :, \vl~irlri111l)lirst.l~nt 0 tliil/t10 0 ns well. Tlrcn for P - - I wr clisc:ovor. t,lr:tt. N -- ,\',,,(I l i / , i l ) \vif.lt R,,, c c l ~ ~ 1.0 ln c:onst.nnt con:~ sLiLr~l,rs sl)cc-i:llsolrtl i o t ~ ( 13.47). :IS is c::lsil.v vt:rilic,cI I)y srrItst~it~uf.ion. a. or (:onfrottI ing cqns. ( 1 :1:l5) n.ntl ( I R.:jO), wr rccovcr I,l~c rc,lnl,iot~ I)ct,\vrrt~ t,c~tnprr:tt,r~rc vrlorit,y first. ant1 ir~tlir:rt.c~tl "11". ( IR.l:!), rcn~c~nlrcring 71, I I I I I S ~ ,\)a wriI,t.rn for U,, ant1 7'( for 7',, . ns t,lt:tt
7

ant1 rentnins cot~st,nnt over t.11~ 1)ountlnry-lnycr t.I~ic~ltt~c:ss, itnl~lyingS : 0 (c/. also end of precetling scct,ion). I n this cnsc, tlrc sirniln.ril,y of t.11~~t~ag~~:r~,io~t-c~rtl~:~ prof les assumes a trivial form.
7

Employing the stream funct.ion Sorrn :

111,

we rrwrit,c cclns. (13.41) i l t t t l (Id.-l'i) in f,ltr

T h r similarity vnriablr is int,rotluccd wit11 fllc aid of

Ill(:

following nssttrnl)t,io~ts.

1.2. Srlf-si111i1nrS O I ~ I ~ ~ O 'I'ltt- . Illi~~g~vtt~~tl~-Sl~t~~v:~rl~so~~ 113,sIIP(.II IIU I.r:~trsf(>r~~~nt,ior~ rlsrtl t.o rlt*rivc: cs:rc.t, solrtf.ior~snlltl l,o fortnulntc n I:~.rgcnut11l)cr of nl~l)roxin~nl,c proac~tlnrt~s. Srlf-si1niln.r solrttions piny a n i m p ~ r t ~ n n t , wit,l~in part, t>heclass of exact, solnt~ions.111 I,lrc c:orrLrxL of incolnprrssil)lc Ilows, we consitlerctl tlmt n solrttiot~1)nlongc.tl to tllis grorll) if l.l~c vc1locit.y 1)rolilrs 11 ( R : , y) : ~ ttwo clill'crcr~t , st,nt,ions n: cor~ltl IN: nl:r.tlc t~ot~grncnl. I.llr nl~plicnt,ion :t singlc seal(: l;~.c:t,or by of ritc:I~for IL ant1 ?j (Scc. VI 1 I 1)). It was t.lrc*nsl~t)wn t.lrnt srlrl~sin~ilnr solut,ions existrs(l in t , l presrt~coof a dcfir~it.e ~~ gronp of t-slnrt~nlIlows II,(:I:). In cases of t,l~ist i r ~ t l .I,ltr l)nrli:~l I tliffrrcnt.inl orlr~ntior~ for ~ . I I ( ? st rc.ntn frlttc~l~ior~ rrtlrtrctl t.o nn ortlinary ililrrrrnt.i:ll aclrlnt.ion wlricl~is coltI sitlrr:~l~ly r:~sirrl o sol\,(: I,II:III I ' o ~ I I I ~ ~ . 111s Rl:~liillg11s~: :L 111ln11)(:r st.t~tlit~s, (:x:~tnl)lt: of of li)r 148, 40, 50J, 'I.'. Y . I,i nnct 11. ' l ' . N ~ ~ : I I I I : I ([(iO.I I . S 611 ( I ~ ~ I I I O I I S ~ . ~ : L I ~in ( In nrllnl~crof ~~r:liscwort,l~y ~: invrst,igat3ionst.l~nt. S I I ~ I I sin~il:rrsol~tl.iot~s rxist i t 1 1.11~: (.as(: of co~nprossiitlcbortntl:rry lnyrrs ns wcll. As k1.r a s 1 1 1 vr1ocait.y Itortr~tl;rryI:~.yrris cor~ccrr~rcl, ~ lrcrc t.oo, ~irnilnrit~y rsl.cntls t,o 1.11(? Iot~gil.rttlirt:~l vrloc.ily rotnl~onrnt,, wil.l~ 71.: rcsl~oct o t l ~ c t t,l~armnl la.ycr, similarity

w l ~ c r e , 11, r, s , t p1:t.y t,hc pnrt,s of rtntlcl.rrrninotl COIIS~.:III~.S,is a n I I ~ I ~ < I I ~ I V I I A /(?I) strcn~n frlnct,ion, ant1 S ( q ) is t l ~ c tcrnl~cr:tt,rtrc Srlt~ct,iontlclinctl in ocln. (1:1.:!5), n o w cor~ccivcd l)c n f1111cti6n 77 nlonc. t,o of 1Squnt.ions (13.50) ant1 (13.51) arc now bmnsfornlctl t o tltc coortlir~:~tcs an.ntl 17, 2 and i n t h e result.ing cxprcssiorls i t is clcmnntlctl tllst t,Itc terms in 3 mlist tlisnpprar. 111 this rnnnrlcr we ot)t,n.ir~ ordinary tliffcrcnt.inl cqrin1,ion.s for 1.110 fnncl.ions / ( q ) :r.rrti S(17). S n c l ~ c:~lc~~l:~t,ions 11ecn ~~crforrr~ncl'' Y. I,i :~ncl11. 'I'. N:~girrnir.t.srl 11:~vc by I. JOOJ wllo found t11:~tthere exist,ctl four clnsscs of solr~t,ions 7i., ( Z ) . I~ollowing for this work, thn C. U. Colten [I61 d c m o n ~ t ~ r h t ~ c d t t,hree of t.11csc clnssr,~can be rcdrlcctl tjo t3hc common form lit . I( Z"' -

346 (Ic' nntl

VL

XI 11. T,ntr~i~~ar I~or~t~rjary in cotn~)ressil~le layers now arc c:onst,:~rlls). '111, foc~rt~li '1 r:ase
?it
7--

I<' cxp (IZ" x)

is

of ni:crgitt:~l ir~tc.rrst, only, : ~ n d sllall igttore it I~enorfortlt. \trc

Wc? now \\.is11 t.o cl(~t.rr111itto Torn1 of tllc cxtcrnnl flow, IL, = I L ~ ( X ) ,which tslic c : o r r n s ~ ) o ~ 1.0 l st,l~cInw (1:l.5:!) cx1)resscd Lliere in the trarisforrncd variable I. It ~ follows fro111oclns. (1:l.38) :~ntl (13.31) t h a t

polynton~ic ~ o n l i i ~ i r ,i g

.-.. --- I .:Kt I -

:t

TIie cxtcrnal flow wllic:li srcurcs sirnil:~rity t , ~ ~ r out l o Itc tlccelcriltc:tl for ;LII tlircc ns classcs of gascs.
- 7

Ilir rxt,crn:~lflow is iscritropin, :mtl hence

if, follows t,Ii:ct,

When a n arbitrary value of m is nsslrrnctl, it is possil~l(: iiitcgralo ccln. (1:1.61i), to generally speaking, only I)y a uories expansion. 'J'llis, howover. no loriger lcacls t o n simple power f ~ ~ r ~ c t fornt,l~c io rcl:~I~inn = TL! : ( x ) . 'I'lie c l i n g r : ~ ~ ~ ~ 13.12 ( ! ~ I I I ~ : ~ ~ I I S in ll'ig. grlt1111s01' I,IIo vc*lot~it,.y tlisI.ri1111t~io11 laogt:l,l~cr T L [ (:K) \viI,lt ?TI (:?) . . lc' ?'" liw I . I I ~ - V J L I I I I Y ~ wit11 Ic' - - I, 1) =-= I :u~tl - - 715. y : oT tn = -- I , 0, I A, 1- I I.ogoll~or We now apply the transformation (13.52) iri a partinlilar form, nssrr~ning

'I'll~rs, takiiig a r c o ~ of ~ ~ t (13.24), (13.53), ant1 (13.54), we derive t h a t ~ c.qns.

Il~c ron~~ll.i~ig tlini:rcnt.i:~l ccl11at.inr1(:an I)(: solvrtl in closed form only for pnrtic~llar valtics of tn. If we c:l~oom ? ,, -.- n& - ; y I . ' ! . (13.57) 0 ,) . 5
3

,,

It, jq seen t,11at in this pm.l,iri~lnrr:bsc, tllr external flow 7~,(x)in also a power i n x, f hr c.xiv)~ir~~f. morrovcr, 1)cting t,hr snnio a s for 6 , (2).Tnscrtirig thc valllcs for y which apply l o monat,ornir. clintornic ant1 poly:tk)mic gasps into the exponent of x from (-qn (1:) 59), wc. can rstahlish the following table.

Pig. 13.12. Velocity distribntions for similar solcrt,ions srrording to tho Illingwort,l~-Stc\r-artSo~~ ? n t~rnnuforinntion the cnsc when y .- 715. 17, K .I nrrording to cqn. (18.53); in 71, = K' x)n nccortling (a) crlll. (13.5!)) Itelation hetwcen z anti ? is given in rqn. (13.66) Relation bet,wcrr~I I ~and y is givan in eqn. (13.57)
7

X I 11. I,nrninnr bo1111t1:~ry Inycrs in rornprrsnil~lc flow

ti. l(ot~ntlnry lnyrr ~

I ~ ~ o n - ~ r r o grntlirlll I ~~rrnnl~rc

:!49

arbitrary manner, it will be fol~ntl h a t t h c solutions depcntl o n the pnratnrter t

nntl writ,e tlo\vn (IIP t.ransforrnctl I)o~~ntlnry-layer rrlclations (13.50) ant1 (13.51) in t,lrt- form of tile following two ordinary tliiTercntial eqr~at~ions:

in atltlition t o their dcpcndcncc o n P. Solutions for a large nrln~bcr v a l l ~ r s t,l~esc: of of two par;~tnrt,rrs ~ a v e I brcn workcd o u t by '' Y. I,i tintl 11. '1'. Nnf;nn~atsrl[(ill ris well l. as by C. J3. C!ohen a n d E. Reslrotko [16n].

in \rrl~ichI)rimc.s tlrrrot,~ tliKcrcr~liat,ion wit.11respect t o 11. 'rhc pnratnetcr way r . onrlicr in cqn. (9.7), is tlcfinctl by 7 s

8,in the salile

it, rlr:ir:~t~It~rixt.s~ r t l prrssltrc gmtlicnt of t,lrc cxtcrnal stream.

we corrclr~cle wit,t~ aitl ofeqti. (13.60) t l ~ : J' tconst.itntcs a tlimcrisionloss form of tlrr t,lrc ~ longit.~rtlinalvclorit,y component in t.lle bol~ntl:~ry layer, because

Sinrr ?/ -- 0, or ?/ --r oo implies 71 = 0 nritl 71 = ro, respect,ivcly, t l ~ e boundary contlitions for t11t- systrm (13.til) rrlr~st wril,t,rn he

111

: r ~ i t l it.

t.llc case of an crditrhrrtic loall, t,hc second cqnatior~(10.01) is sn.t,isfictl iticntit:nll~~, is ncrcssnry t,o solve t,ho siliglc c.tln;~t,ioti

/"' -1- //"

r .

P(/'"

1)

l liis ccl~~ntion, Ilowcvcr, is itlciit,ical w.it,h t.llnt for inco~npressibic wctlgc flows givori cnrlirr qs oqn. (!).8); it is rcrnembcrctl t,llat 1). It. Ilnrt,re,? stutlictl it-s .solutions for tlifli~rrnt,v:rll~t~s 1In f.ltrn tliscovcrctl t.l~nt, ail valltcsof p < -0.199 (m<-O.090.f) of/?. for t.lrc,rr is sc-li:~.rn.t.ion. (lonscr(nrnt.ljr, :\mong t.li<? spt?(!ific V ~ . I I I ~ t>r na. d i ~ ~ i I : ~ yin( lt . 1 1 ~ R c l.:~l,lc: nl,ovc, tlrc: first two, n:init.ly In 118 ;t,r~tl == ln, 1/10 also lcntl t o .scparaLior~ \v]ierr I,II(: 1vr7Il is :1~tli:1~l)r7~t,ic.

--

- -

\ \ ~ I I c ~III I \vall pcrrnits t l ~ r I C /rrrirn/pr o/ hccrl, i t brcomcs necessary t o solvr tile systcrn of rrj~rntior~s 01). Sincr tllr w:~lltemperature, T,, can he prescribed in a n (13

Pig. 13.13. Vclocit:y arid ct~t,l~nll>y (lislril~~~lio~rs in co~nprrssiblr,1:trninar hotrntlnry lngrrn wit.l~ prr8suro S gradient, and heat tr:lnsl'rr, nftcr C. 13. Colrcrr and E. hshotko [lGn]. and in conforrr~it~y cqtls. (13.62) with ant1 (13.35) I'rn.n<lt l N I I I I I ~ IPC-- :1 ; OI - 1 . rJ(x) = (z) ~ (lcnol,ru " 1.111. vt.lor.il.y of I.llo t:sl.cr~tr~l flow. n), I,), c) vc:locily distsil)ut,ions;tl), e ) entJinlpy dint,rihrttions; n) IS,,, = 0; T,,, = To; n(linl)nt,ic~rnll; d ) 8 ,= -0.8; T,, 0.2 h), 70 cooletl w l l ; c), e) S,, 1.0; T,, = 2 To; hcnt.ctl \\.all ' =

350

XIII. 1.n.1ninnrhonnclxry lnycrn in comprrrwihlo flow

d. l%onnclsry lnycr ~vit.11 non-zero prcbnsllrogradient.

35 1

I t is wort,hy of note t h a t t h e system (13.61) s l ~ b j c c t o thc boundary conrlitions (13.63) yirlcls t,wo pllysically sonsil)lc sol~ll,ions l ~ c nJl < 0 (this is also t.r~le t h e w in cnsc of a n atli:lbnt,io wnll. c / . Sca. IXn). Aceorcling t o the vicws expressccl by C. B. Collen and 15. Itrshotlzo [lea], Lhc one oftthe two solutions which scls i n in a n expcrimerit is cletnrnlinrtl I)y t.llc irlit,ial ~ o n d i t ~ i o n s which ~ s t ~ n b l i s h prcssrlrc field acting t,he

,I , eli;t,gr;~n~s lpigs. I:!. I :!:b, I), c rc1)rcscnt, t,hc f~clocit!j IIC it1 tIistribr~t,ior~ ?I,/TI,~= /' t , r r n ~ elf I,hc: elit~l~~~siollloss s I,r:~.t~svnrsc elis1,:~nc:e11 fnr variot~s v:~l~lcs t.hc tornpe:r:~of t,rlrc pnmmcl.rr St,, :I.II~I of Jl. 'I'l~c? pnrl.ic:~llnrvnlrrcs of S,,,choscn in t-ho clingrnrn corrcsl)on(l 1.0 (.II(: li,llowing c:tscs (takcn in ordnr): a n s d i s l ~ a t ~ wall wi0h 'I1,,, 'I1,; ic = R coo1c;cI wall wit,ll 'I1,,, 0.2 l', (tmnsfcr of heat; froln wall t o fluid). In t-he case of = mrllteil)lo solnt,iorls, t,llc: IOCIIS 01' Iowcr vnlrlcs of /' for n given vnllrc of /I 11:~s bnen ~list.i~lg~~isl~ncl nst,crisk. I t is n o t c ~ o r t ~ h l ~ a in t,hc nnsc of a hentctl wall ant1 l,y a.n ty t n firvoral)lc?1)rrssllrc gr;uliont (1> 0, [gig. 13.13 c) l,Ilc velocity in the I)~lltld~I'y layer can cxc:cctl I,hc c?xl,c:rrl:l.l voloci0y , i s , i l l a cort,nitl rilngc away from t,Ilo w:~11. J.11~ rra.sor1 for it t::1.11 11c fourlel in tfho 1;~rgc: incrcnso in vollrrnc irnpnrt,c:tl 1.0 t,llc gas in 1,111: I ) o n r ~ e l a r ~ lnycr owing t,o st>rorlgI~cnl,ing. 'l'hc gns of lower clcnsiLy is nccclcmt,ctl I)y t.l~c nx1,rrn:~lI)re;sslirc forces Inorc st,rorlaly Lhsn t.hnt in the external flow in spitc of it,s I)ni~lg tl~?c:rlc~r:rl.rel visc:ol~sS~.~PSSCS. Ily
ill

.,

lG6. I:).l4. l ) i x l v i l ) ~ ~ l , i ,of~ ~ > ~Ilc*~tri~~g i11 P O I I I nI~rrwx~:n prmsil,lo, I:tn~innr l , o ~ ~ ~ ~ c l lnyorn \viI,ll prrnwlrc nry gradient and heat tmnsfer, after C. 1%. (hhcn nncl E. Rwhotko [IBa], and i n confornlity with cqns. (13.64) I'rn~~cll.l I I I I I ~ I ~ P~ -- I : rr, - - 1 II ! ( I : A, ', , 0; ' * , , ; ~ t ~ l i ~ i l ~ ~\vILII.c : I , , T, tl,i b: S,<,= - 0.8; !I1,,, 7 " coolrtl wnll. = 0.2 ' ; c:R,,, = 1.0; T,,, = 2 T,,; hmtrcl wnll
Y7

16

S,,6

Iiig1lrc.s I:{. 14 :I, I), (: illllst.r:l,l,c!t,Ilc irtrrirtliols in. shcori,~gslrss.9. I'his C ~ I I cn.lcllIat,c:tl wit,ll t.11~ of nqrls. (1:1.10), (13.26). (1:1.2!)) t,ogc:t,hor wit,h thc iserllropic law aiel pl/pn = (ol/po):'. 1t is given lty
2 I I

v,, d

Tllr figltre:s c:orll,:li~lI)lols of /"(71) for clifli:rrnt val~rc:sof t.llo pnramcltrrs fl anel Whrrl t , l ~ c cxl,c:rr~n.lflow is nc:ccle:rat.ecl (/I> O ) , I.hc Inrgest. shearing slrcss occurs at, t.ho wall iLsc.lf ( 1 , 0 ) ; wllrn tile flow is tlccclern.t,ctl (P ( O ) , t,his r n n x i m ~ ~ niovcf m away from t h e w:~llant1 1)lnccs itself f~lrlllcr from i t ,as t,lic pressure rise is increased, t.ltn1, is for 1:lrgc:r nl)sol~lto v:~ltlcsof tllc: ncgntivc v a l ~ ~ o Jl. lr~trotlrlcingtile ~ o c a l of skin-fric.t.ion c:orffic:icnt,

--

C ,

=-

b e,,,16,

n,llc.rc:

1.Ile.

srll~sc*rilrl. rc.fc:rs 1.0 I,llo wall, we finel l.llnt. 10

. - -

Fig. 13.15. Locnl skin-frictioncoefficient in comprcrrsiblc, lnn~innr I)or~ntlxry 1ayrr.s wit11 prrnanro grntlirnt nnd Ilent. trnnnfcr, nflsr C.R. Cohcn ant1 R. Rcsl~i~l.kc>i i ~ I ,and i l l v i > n f o r ~ ~ ~\ivli y. l ~ Il( l eqn. (13.66) Prandtl number P = 1; w = 1. 8 = 0 ; adiabatic wall. St, c: 0; coolecl wnll. R,, 5 0; I~ontcd , wall

352

X'I I I. I , : ~ I I IIjot~t~clary y r r s corr~y~~r~riil~lr ~ I I ~ ~ I~ ill flow

l'llc vn111c.sof/,,," lor tlifTornnt vn.lrlcs of S,,, seen plo1,tcd in t,crms of P in Fig. 13.15. are I t is rcv.ognizrtl t,llot n chnngo i l l pmssrrrn grntlicnt cxcrt,s n n ~ u o sl.ronger illflucncc l~ on I,,,", nntl 11c:llc:c: on t,l~c sho:~ring st,ross n.t 1.llc wr1.11, when t , l ~ wall is I~cntocl e (Xu,> 0 ) 1,11:111\ \ ' I I ~ I I t IIC I:~l,l,c,r aoolrtl (A',, (0). 111 t311emngo of nogatjive vnluos of P t.l~ere is 1-xis(,l,\vo v:~l~it.s r,,, fnr (YI(:II v:t.ltlo of / . of I 'l'l~is is n co1tsoqllonr.o of t.ho rxistcnco of l,\vo s o l ~ ~ l , i oltl ~ s r;tng(!, ns n~v~ll,ior~(xl r l i tWII(YI ~v:tlI n,(li:~l)n,l,io ==O), i l,l~is (~:~ ~ r . I,IIc is (AS,,, I,II(: low(-r I)I.;III(:~It,l~(: ( : I I ~ vyi(,ltls ~~(:g:~l,i\ro I ( ~ Sofsl~cnring of' (: V:I~I s1,rcss \vl~i(:l~ j)oinIfs t,o rt:vcrsc Ilotv. M'llon t,llc wall is hnnt,cd (AS,, 0) il, is possible t o find stlfficient,ly small > valttc,s of p -- P,,,,,, for whic:I~I)ot,l~ vxlucs of I," arc ncgnt,ivc, tliat is for wl1io11 the flow 11:1srcvorsc~tlit,s dirccLion. 1 n t l ~ c c:~soof :I coolctl wall (8, < O ) , 11oI,l1valrles of I,," ran Ijc posit.ivr, 1.11al. is 1)ol,l1can r ~ p r c s c n tnon-separated flow patrl,erns. It is ~ sc.c:n, fin;~.lly,Ifhat, snp;~rn.t.ior~ = O ) rnovcs i n tllc tlirect,ion of smnllcr pressrlro (I,,," rist,s :IS 111~:l.c~uprr:~.l,~~rn wall is incrrn.sctl. of 1,Ilo
1.0
111 ili.xt> (,qns.

I I I ortlvr t,o ~ . ~ : I I I s ~ ( Ifro1111,11ovn.ri:~l)l(: f,o the pllydoal t1isLnnc:c 11, it is ncccssnry ~II~ 11 (I :1.H), ( 1 3. IO), (1:1.24), (I 3.25) ant1 (13.62). I t is then found tllnt

Y'ho f:rct,or nlloatl of t,ho irltogml is co~n~rrlt,cd from cqn. (13.53), and t,hc f~lncl,ionnl rcl:tI.ion b(:t,worn z nntl 2 I I I I I S ~ ,bc t,nlic11from cqn. (13.M). According t o eqns. (13.46) : L I I ( ~ (l3,(;2), I,II(: i~~t,(,gr:bncl is

'I1. Y. I,i ;~tttl '1'. N;t,g:~rnat,stt[GI] Ilavc stlcc:eotletl in deriving expressions for 11. sitnil:rr sol1tl.iol13 wil,l~o~ll, I~avingt o otnploy t,l~r,llling\t~orL,h-Stocwartjsor~ t,m.,t~sfort~~:l.l.iot~. Mang1r.r 1711 in(Iic:~t.(:(ls ~ ~ l ~ s ( . i t ~ l tw11i(:l1 r a n 11c ~lsctlfor a n exnrt W. .ior~s vaI(~~~l:lt,ion :I,II nrl~il,rn,ry \viI,l~ prcssttrt: ( I i ~ l ~ r i I ~ ~ ~ t ~ i o n . I<. Ilaslto1,lto anti 1. IC. I3cc:ltn~itlr 1861 pnblishcd a n cxnot cxlcnlation for t,hc
l.I~rcc-tlirnc:~~sic~tl:~I IIOIIII(~:L~Y laynr on :L y:cwc?d c i r c ~ ~ l a r c:ylincler with heat transfer n.1~1 :III :~.rl~il,r:~.ry of 1,Ilc I'rat~(ll,l111t111l)cr. :11, v:~lt~(:

Wllcn t1isoris:;ing a[~proximat~c mc:t.l~otl~,is Itoc5cssnryt,o rnnlzn :L olcnr tlisl.incl.ion it I)ct\vccn those as :%rei~~)plical)lo to ndinbrrlic ~c!ttll~ only :~tltltllc onvs t , l ~ : nro valitl ~t in l.l~c prcsrnco of h ~ n Irtr)rs/er as well. l Mc:l.l~otlswllich arc ~.c:sl,rict,ctl nrlicthnlic iorr1l.r i r ~ r l ~ l tnn early o t ~ c to lc :Icvelopetl 11.v I,. lIo\v:~rt,l~ n11(Il:~t.cr 1.481 ~no(Iifictls o r ~ ~ ( : \ v ll)y~1t1~ S(!l~lic:l~~,ing t)ot,lt for ~: . l!lO~. t.llc- c.:~st: \vl~c,t~ = I ; f~~rl,llc.r, sllo~tltl rnc~rll P ot~t. ion l , I ~ t : ~)roc:c:tl~lrc~s tlt!vc~lol~ctl 1)y IS. (:l.rlsrlln.itz [ U ] , .J.:\. %ant 11 101 n t l t l I. l~luc~ggc.-l,otz A . I?. .J(IIIIISOII (:!(i]. 113' :LII(I :t.Il v:~litlfor arl)it.rnryV:II[ICS of t.11~ l'rnn(1t.l r111111bcr. the spcc;i:~l In (,:LSP I ~ I I C ~ ~ I ~ I -~0/ ,( I . I ~ ~ tile last-tncnl.iorlct1 nlcl,l~od (:an I)c motlilictl t o illcl~ltlo tSllc tr:~nsfc.r of I1a;~l;.All 1)rocc~lrlrc~s bnsctl on tllc assrlnlpt.ions t.11at o) :: 1. arc : In 1 . 1 1 ~ coltrsc of the last yams, \vorlr proccctlcti m:~inlyon 1.11~ soltlt,iol~ liroof I)lr~ns \vit.ll hccct trrr~rsfcr.I'ron~ : L ~ I I ~ 1.11(: l ~ r o r ( ~ I ~ t\ r ~ - lsi ( ~nro rcst.l.i(-I.t:,Il o P I I ~ \(l l~ 1, i t is nccc~ss:lrgt,o ~ n c n t ~ i t.llosc clr~c M. h l o r c l ~ ~ r l ~ o w or~ t.o 17!)1.(:. I ~ . ( : O ~ I ~ : I I I(..II~I~(~/s I I o I , I c o :I [lGn]. I t . ,J. Monngl1n.n ['i(i]nncl G::.I'oots [851. 1111 of' 111vtnf ~ ~ r O ~ ( ~ ~ . l i t(.II(* :iI S S IrI I~Il~ ) 1.0 ~ ~ l . I tion tllat m -- 1. Tlle secontl : ~ n dtllirtl tncllloti on t,his list serve to tlctc?rminc the motnrnt~urn t,llicIzncss,sl<ill-rri~tion co(:rficit:tll, :LII(I ro(:lli(~i(!nt llcnt 1.1.:111sli.r,l ~ r ~ t . c : : ~ s of u. tllo first, ant1 forlrtll also portnit, t l ~ c tl(:l,c~rtrtitl:~t,iot~v ( : I o ~ i lant1 t.ctnl)o~.:rl.~trc of .~ [jrofiles. Lf'llcr~t,ho ntlmhrrs P nntl o e a c l ~ tlilTcr lil.t,lofrom utliOy, i t is ~ ~ o s s i b I,o r ~ s o r t lo t,o t h e metl~otltlevolopc.tl I)y 12. 15. T,i~xl.onant1 A. I). Young lfi81. 'I'l~cmctllod tlrie t o N. Curle [24, 251 ant1 G. M. 1,illcy 1651 arc vnlitl for nrbitrnry vnlrlcs of t.hc Pra11rIt.1 n~rlnbcr,b u t arc bnsctl on tllc vincosily laiu given 11y eclns. (13.4a) nnrl (13.23) with :I, const,ant b wl~ichmay, nt most,, tlcprrltl on z;l l l i s nlrnns t,It:~t, t,I~c ~ ~ n e I , i/L(!/') is Ii11t:ar. 'J'llt; \vorir ou N. (h~rlt: 1 (*:~lct~l:~t,(:x~!lt:~r:~(:t,t!risl,i(: f t~n 124 1,11(: parameters of t h e velocity borlntlary lnycr wit11 a n atlvcrsc p r c s s ~ ~ r e gmtliont, nncl assnmes a forelz1~ow~1~dg~ tempcrat~lrc of t,I~c ficld, 1)ttL ntfmi1.s t h a t the w:~lltcnlpcratnrc rnny vary. Anotller paper by t l ~ c snmc author 1251 innltcs i t possil)lc t.o ra~lculate t,llc rate of heat transfer on condition t l t ~ t l ~ c tlistril)r~t.ion t l ~ c of shcarir~g stress a t tho wall is known. G. M. J,illcy dctcrmitlcs 1.11~ sllrnring st,rcss : ~ tllc w:dl nntl t h e t coofficicnt of heat- trrxnslcr in tlic presence of a l.cmperatttro whic:h v:~ricsalong tlrc w:~lI.rl'l~cmebllotls worlred out by I. Ginzcl 1411 nntl I). N. Morris and ,I. W. Smith [80] nrc valid for a r b i t m y viscosily laiu.q, tllo l:~tt.aralso inclutling a vari:rl,lc wall tem~xrntrtro. 'rllc rc~s1ll1.s ol~l~nir~ctl the :bit1 of a convcltl.iorlal npl~rnximatc : : ~ l c ~ ~ l a l i o ~ ~ witlll c cnn IIC itrlprovrtl corlsitlcrnbly 11y t,ho npplic:tt,ion of :L procctl~tro tlcvclopotl by I<. 'L'. Y : L I I ~ [IOJ;].
7

t l ( ~ \ ~ i s c ~ til~ r1,11(: l

2. Approxirt~:rrc: r~~ctltncls. 'I't~onnmcrolls : ~ p l ) r o x i t ~ ~kct.l~otls nl,c which l ~ n v c bocll (':~.l(-~~l:~l,io~l nr (:o~npr(:ssiI)l(: I:rtninn.r I)o~lntl:~ry lnycrs arc l)xsctl, in IIIOSI, (::LSVS, 1,111: ~ n o t ~ ~ ( : t ~ t , ~ ~ t ~ ~n.11cIo~crgy-int,rgr:11 on -it~t,cgr:~I cqnn.t,ionsor t J ~ bortndary c 1:1y($r. '1'11(: l.o:t(lc-rwill r(:(:aII I.~I:I.C f,Iliswas :~.lso tjho case wil01 incompressible boundary l;l,yt-rs. 1\11 t,l~c.scal)l)rosiln:~,t,c: ~nrf.llotlsIlnvo 1 . h ~ cotnrnon fcaturc t h a t they lent1 I I I i n v o v t r r s ~ , I I : ~ III : o c s ' n ~ ~ l i c a tlo incompressible flows c \vhic:l~wt,rt: tlisc:~lssc-tl (:llxp. X . TI)(: n~rrnbcrof alLernnt,ivc procctlr~resis rnucli in I;~rgc,r i l l 1.111: t::~.so of c~o~r~~)rc~ssil)le t,l~nnincornprcssit~lcbotrndary lnycrs as wonltl 1)r i.sl)c:alatl f'ronl ~.II(: incrc:nsc:tl nltn~l)cr vnrinblcs. J n this connexion t,llc surveys of \vril.trn 11y A. 1). I'onng [ 1061 atltl M. Morducllow [79] may be consulted. A more roconl, stlnlm:L1.p w:~s~)rc:j)nrc(l N. C~lrlc I)y [ZG].

Rfo~tie~~tt~tn-itltegral e ~ ~ c r g y - i ~ ~ t c g r n l and ecluatiorls: Wc I~cginour :~ccorlnl, t.11~ Ijy clcrivat.ion of t,llc niotno~lt~trm-i~~tcgrnlenergy-ir~tcgrnl ant1 cclnxt,ions for con~prcssil)lc I~onntlary lnycrs, I)c:anr~sc tllcy forrn t,ho sLnrI.ing point of most npproxirnxtc Itrocetlrlrcs. 111ortlcr L :~rhicvc o t.llis we rcfcr t.o tllc fnntlamrnt~nl cqnntions for cotn~)rcssil)lc, 1:~minarI)ottntlary layers a s recortled ill cqns. (13.6) t o (13.8). 1ntprodncirlgt h e local cntl~nlpy

ant1 tilt: stagnation c n t l ~ a l p y

354

XI 11. 1,nminnr i~oi~nrlnry 1:ryrm it1 rornprranil~lc flow

(1. Tlou~ttlnry lnycr wit,h non-acro prrssrtro grnclirr~t

355

we can rewrite t,hc nncrgy c-q~ratior~ (13.7) in tho form:

cla
U

(~elocit~y t,I~iclzt~css) .

(13.78)

It is easy t.o vcrify from cclns. (13.73), (I3.74), (13.77) a.ritl (13.78) t , l ~ n 1.11~ t paran>cl,t:rs nl, b,, ant1 d,, satisfy tlic rclntior~

h)

for an aclinl)nt.ic w:dl

Irit,rgr:1l~ii1g , l ~ c n o r i ~ c n t , ~c:q~~nI,io~i t t ~ri~ (13.0) ant1 t p l ~c~ncrgyt~qirn.I.ie)n c (13.71) ovcr ?/,iri the snrrlc way ILR was tlono for i n ~ o ~ n p r c s ~ i l ~ l cwo (::~ri o I ~ l . : ~(,Irenioflow, i~i 1nrnt.111~1-ititcgr~~l :mcl energy-integral eqr~:ltiori for c:oui~)rcssil~lc flow. 'J'aiti~~g ii~t,o ncco~int. t,liat

Rq~iations(13.6), (IR.fi), (13.8) and (13.71) togcllicr with t h c boundary conrlitions (13.72) c o n s t i t ~ ~ ac systcrn of four equations for t h e variables u, v , e ant1 A. The t pressure p ( z ) is known from Bernoulli's equation a n d is given b y eqn. (13.9); i t remains constant over t h e thickricss of thc bounilnry Iaycr, i. c. ap/atJ = 0 . Since t h e prcsstrre remains constant across t h e layer, wc liavc a t every point

I~~--~e.~(~+_~~~~)=~:~~
(Ix

dz

8 ,

thl w

(lxRO)

Tlic crlrlat.ion for n~cckmnicn.1 encrqy is olI.airicc1 by first multil)lyiiig cqn. (1B.G) by Cl~c vrlocity component TL ant1 then intcgrnt-ing with respect to !/. Making use of tlic continuity cqi~nt~ion performing a t i i ~ ~ i i b of sirnplificnt,ions, we obtain and cr
A

s where h,], T I ,el tlcnotc tho v n l ~ l r of cnthalpy, ternpcrature, and dcnsity, respectively, a t tho orttcr ctlge of tlic boundary laycr. W e now introdnee a displaccmcnt thickness, a momentum t?hickness and a n energy-dissipxtion thickness in t h e samc way . in incompressible flow and sevcral M adtlit.ional quantit,ics clcfi riccl with t h c aitl of cnthalpy. I n this connexion the formcr parameters arc so dcfincd a s to reducc to the respective quantities for incomprcssiblc flow, cqns. (8.30). (8.31), arid (8.34), whcn p = const is sobstitirted in t h e definitjioris. I)eiiot,ing Lhc bo~~nclnry-Iaycr t1iickna.s of the velocity laycr b y d , we int,rodiicc the dc:finitioris :
A

Or1 t.lic left-hand sidc of this ccli~ntioriwo tliscovcr t,lic mcc.l~anicnlwork of t.lic flow, tho trrm on tho right-hnntl sitlc rcpresci~t,ir~g (lissi~):~t~ioti. t,hc 111i~icornprcssil~lc o ~ , fl t h e sccoricl term on t h c Icft-liarid side vanishes bccaiisc tSlicn,with e r= const*,wc linrl t h a t a,, = 0. As n resirlt, eqn. (13.81) tmnsforms irito cqn. (8.35). Thc c q ~ a t ~ i o n thc increase in cr~l~lialpy Iia1)itnnlly lrilo~vria s tho energy for equation for short - is obtninctl a s a result, of tlic intcgr:~tionof eqn. (13 71) over y. Thus
6

dl

J
0

P' -!

el (1

) til

(displnccment thiclrness) ,

Thc loft-li.zntl sidc of this o q r ~ n l ~ i o i ~ reprrscnt.~ the O I I R I I ~ C in f,llc rnt.linll)y of t<lio strcnrii, whcrcas 1.11~1,crrns on t . 1 1 ~right,-hnntl sitlc clcscril,~it,s cli:~ngc-st l t ~ t ?In ~ I I O tr;~nsl't:rol' lit!at, :kt, I,hc: w 1 1 (sul~scrjl~t,~ :)~ n t l o ilhv.gt-~~(:r:~l,io~~ cIissi~j:~l,io~t. 1, 1 1 L 1,ltrc111gh Noting t h a t cqn. (13.81) describes the loss in meclixn~cnlenergy, whereas cqn. (13.82) we wliicli describe-a the iticrcnsc describes the gain i n entl~a.lpy, cnn obtain a n cq~rnt~ion i n tola1 etzlhnllnl i n the x-direction by forming t.l~eir difference. This yields

11. Iloot~tlnry layer with non-zrro prcrtnllrc grstlirt~t

357

'I.'l~cleft,-ltnntl sitlo of I.ltis c:clrtnt,ion r c p r e s r t ~ ttho it~crcnsr I llo st.ngnat,io~~ t ~ l ~ n l p y ,~ it1 rt~ of t he st.rctnnl i t 1 1.l1oz-tlirrct,inn, \vhcrcns t l ~ r rigllt-11:1r1tlsitle tlrsnribcs t,ltc qn:~t~t.it~y of I I ~ ~ : I ( .:~tltlrtlor st~l)t,rnrlt.tlI I t,l~c ~ wall. I1111yrnl,i11g[ t t , (1:1.8:%)\ r i l , l ~ r c s l ) ( ~ t , z, \ b r c oI)(.:tin cv \

both described earlier in clctail in Chap. X, when a pa.ssn.gc t o t.110 limit of incompressible flow is performed. Wc shall refrain from discussing this procedure in tlct,nil here, but, t,hc it~t,crcst.c!d reader will be able t o find it in Chap. XI11 of t,hc Sixt,lt Edit,ion of t,his hoolr. \Ve confinc our at,t,ention to the results of such caleulat,ion pcrformctl for an nprofoil in a sul~sonic st,rcnm a,t a relatively high Mach nunibcrt. rIllc pot,cnt~ial 1 pressure distjribrtt3io~ls t.he sr~c~I.iorl of the a.crofoil i l l ( ~ l ~ r s t i o ~ ~ for sidc arc sccn plott.cd in Fig. 13.16 for f,hrcc M:~clt 1l11t111)o.s: M,,, - - z 0 ; 0.6; : I . I I ~ ~0 . 8 nt~tlfor ntl nrlgln of inc!itlonrr cr - = 0 . 'I'lto tlingr:~t~ls i~lc:lr~rlt: l o l , ~ 1,11(: l n * n ~ :~lso p of pcml~rrc:?I1 o111.sitlcl,l~c I)ortr~tl:~ry 1:lycr. ' r l ~ orcsrtlt.~ 1,llc: cnlcr~lnfion:~rc:sltow~k of it1 Figs. 13.17 ant1 13.18. Tltc gmph in Fig. 13.17 sl~o\vs v:~ri:~f,iotl Ll~c I I O I I I ~ ~ I I ~ I I ~ I t,hc of I tbichncss O,, tho tlisplnc:cn~rt~t. l.ltic~ltr~c~ss, :I.S wc:ll :IS (.II(: . L I I I I ~ : L ~st.rtsss T,,, : I I O I I ~ dl ~II~ t,hc snclriort sitlc:. As 1 . 1 1 ~R1:~cslt r~ut~tl~c:r is i~~carc~:lsc~tl, 11oit11. l:~~nitt:~r ~ : ~ r : ~ l i o t ~ (.II(ol' sc. movrs slight.ly forw:~rcl.I'hc variation of t.hc mo~nent~rltn l~Ili(:kt~~ss shmritlg st,rcws nt~tl depcnds only littlc on t010 Mach number, whcrcns tllc tlis~)lnccmcnt,t.l~ic:ltrtrss0 , incrcascs cotisitlcrably as t l ~ c Rlach nltlnl)cr is incrcnsctl. Pinnlly, Fig. 13.18 c1ispln.y~ tho vrlocit.y nncl t,t:tnperat,r~redjstril~ut.iotls sev(:rnl p o ~ i t ~ i o :tIol~g~ ( I I c ro111.o1tr att t~s of t,llo norofoil. 'Chc vclocity profiles (lo not, c:llnt~~r n~nc:l~ wi(,l~ , l ~ c t Mnc.lt r~rltnbrr, but ~ J I C tcmpernt~arcprofiles show largc incrcnsrs in t,ltc wall t,cmpc!r;~t~rro wit.11 incrcwing Mach nrtml)cr. ']'his is to l)e cxpcclctl, I)rc:a~~sc wall was :lsst~~nctl (.ltc t s be adiabat,ie. 'I'hc ntlinl)nt,ic-wall t,cn~pcmttlrcs.7, are :~.lsos l ~ o w r~)lol,t,c.tl ', ~ it1 Fig. 13.16. AII it~t~egrat~iot~ proce(li~rcfor :Ln :~(li:~l):~,t,i(! :I,II(I \ v i l t l ~ ~ , I I c 1~111~~Itt~r w:t.Il rcsl.rict,ior~st.llnt tho PrantltJ uumt)r.r is erlrlnl t,o 11nit.y : ~ t ~t,11:1t, I,II(: v isc,osil.~~ tl is proportiot~nl t,o tcrr~pcratrtrcwas intlicnt,cd by N. 1tot.t :t.t~tlL. .I?. Cral,t.rcc 1.871. The case of a circular cone it1 a n nxin.1 s ~ ~ p c r s o t ~ i c s1,rcam ri~l(:~~lnt.etl 11y W. 1T:l.ntzsche :~ncIIT. Wrntlt [45] const,itrut.es cxnnlplt: of an axially syn~tnc!t.ric:;~l nn bouridary layer. The boundary layer on a yawed circular cone in a supersorlic stream was considered by F. K. Moore [78]. whereas the case of a sljghtly yawrd cone rot,at,ing in a supersonic stream was treated by R. Sedney I9:)J. Adtlitional calcnlntions for rot,ating bodies were performed by S. T. C l ~ uanti A. N. 'l'iffortl I IT,] nr~tl by J. Yarnaga 1 1031. Thc proposition drrc to Mangler, described in Scc. X l c , permits 11s to redl~ce the calculntion of axially symmetrical boundary layers on arbitxary bodics of rcvolution t o t h a t i t 1 two-dimensional flow. I t remains valicl in td~cficltl of comprcssit~le fluid flow. R. M. Inman 1511 analyzed the case of compressible Couette flow and cnlc~rlatecl the skin-friction c:ocfficient for a n atliabatic as well as for a Iteat-transmit,t,irrg wall, but on the simplified assumption that the viscosity is proportional to temperature. I. E. Beclrwith [5] demonstrated t h a t i t is possible t o perform approximate calctllations of compressible boundary layers on arbitrary, three-ciinlensional hotlies o t ~ condition that the components of the secondary stream shonltl be small corn1)nrntl with those of tho main flow.

'I'llo rigllf,-lt:l~t~~l of C C ~ I (13.85) vnt~ishes for a n nrlinhatic, loall sinre tho11 sic10 I. (ilh/i)!l),,, --:0. 11. is 11ow convrtdent t,o int,ro(lr~cc 1,hc vc1ocit.y of sonnd : = y 1 7'1 n 2 \vltich corrc.sl)o~~tls t.ho s1.at.ca t t,l~c t,o ctlgt- of thc I~onntlary layer. Sirlcc thcrl
ibI Z C , ,

T I -=

r-I2
_ .

,
(13.86)

il, f o l l o ~ s I,ll.~t (j,,

I -- - 2- - ( y -

1 ) M2dR ,

it, vicw of cqtl. (13.85). wllcrc M = TJlc, tlcnotcs thc local Mach n~tnlbcr t the outer a (:(lge s f t,llr hott~alnrylayer. Taking inta accnant the relations (13.79). (13.81) m d (13.86) we ol)t,nin t,l~c final form of t,he clt,erqy-i?ztegrn,l eqlc.ntiolz:

I<rluntiot~s(I 3.gO) :mcl ( I 3.87) represent, respectively, t<ltc i~lt~egral forms of tlllc nlotnctrl.r~mn,ntl c~lcrgyeclnnt.ion of n cornprcssiblc, In.minnr boundary layer 011 at1 ntlixl~at,ic* wnll. 'l'hry c.ot~st~it,ntc hnsis for further calc,~lat,ionin ~pproxirnatc the procr(lnn, clr~visr(l,atnong ot,hers, I)y Grtlsclrwit,~.Por incompressible flow, t h a t is i t 1 t,hc litnil. whrn M +- 0, cqns. (13.80) a.nd (13.87) transform into thc monlent~nmint,rgrn.l a.11(1till(: c~t~rgy-it~t.egraI equat,ions (8.32) and (8.35), respectively. 'nae nl~proximnterroccdore due to G P I I R C ~ W ~ ~ Z : fo\lovvs,We sha\l pllrs11e n xvhat ! nt~lynnr of the very namerota npprn~inmat~e proenlurcs, namely t h a t which was I I . Cnlsclnuitr I j l J It, is applicable t o acliabat,ic walls with (1) = I , bnt ftir nrl,it,ml.y 1)rantltl numbers. As far as the amount of nlrmerical work is conccrnnl, this procc(l~lrc st,ill relatively sirnpln It has the added a(1vantage t>tlati t is goes over into the schcme rlcvisnl by I<. Pohll~ausenand II. IIolstcin and T. Bolllen.

'I'l~e rn~t~horinrlehted to Mr. F. nfo~er \vo~.lting this exn~~~plc. (:t.~~svl~\vitx'~ is for out Sinco 111f:t l10(1 doen not lcntl t,o re;l.sot~nblrtclnpernturrs, the prment trl~lprrntl~l.c: prolilr~ I I I Y ~ I 1)rr11 raI(~~tI:~trd 011 tho bnsiu of ref. [36].

358

XI1 I. l,:in~in:~.r O I I I I ( ~ : I:~yvrsi n c-o~i~~)rvssiljl~! IP I~~ flow

e. I r ~ l ~ r n o l l>ctwccnsl~ock io~~ wave and l)o1111r111ry layer

:j59

niclr? c,T t.llc NACA H4 10 nrrol'oil r ~ r tI,l~c nsnl~~npt.ion :in ncli;r\iat,icwall. Angle of incirlcnre a 0". of P b:wcd h1:1~11 11111nl)(:r -- I l . r r / ~ , . , ; I'r:\nclI.l l~l~niljvr -- 0.725. C::~l~:~~lilt~ion on t,11c approxiM,.,
I I I ~ I A ! IIICI,II(MI
S

ho~~nclary layrr in co~nprrwihlc s~~bsonic for the s~~ction flow Fig.. 13.16. In 1:).18. lain~il~nr

Ijy I+;.(:r~~scli\vilz 1431

l w i n l of sf.lbnr<l.iolt

Fig. 13.18. n) Velocity distributions and

b) temperature distrib~~tiorls tlio boundary in

lnycr nt dilTcront Mar11 n~rmlmm

6,

Fig. 13.16. 1'otcnti:~I vclocit,~ rlisl.ri1~11I.io11 (IllJ,, nt tl~c? o111cr adgo or 1 . 1 1 ~bonncl;rr.y

layrr, t.lic cornspontling trn~~)(:r:it.t~rr dislriI)~~l,ion nnrl t,l~<:v:~riat~io~i ill f,l~o (li:il~:tt~c n \v:III l(-~nprr:~I,nrf-. ' ' , 7,//,, ',

I'ig 13.17. Momrnbnrri t.l~inknc?s~ clin1)lxcrI),, tt~c~il. l.hinknr,s.s cT,, ant1 nl~oarir~g sI.rc%~ T,,, T r cliK(:rc!~~Lhl:~rllrn~ri~l~crs o

e. Ilitcractioa between shock wave and bountlary layer

Wlicn a solicl I>otlyis placcrl in a stream whose velocity is high, or when i t flies through ; ~ i rwith a high velocity, local rcgions of supersonic velocity can be forri~ctlin il,s nc~iglil~o~irl~ootl. transition from snpcrsonic velocity t o subsonic The vclocit.y against, the n.djoinir~gadverse prcqsnre gradient will u ~ n a l l ytake place I Irrol~glr:L sI~o(:kWRVC. OII crossing the very ttliin shock wave, the pressnre, dens it,^, :rntl t.rm~)or:~t.irrc t . 1 1 ~Il~ridchntigc a t cxt,rcmely high mt.os. l'lio rates of change of arc so Iriglr t,liat, thc t.ransit,ion can hc r c g ~ r d c d s heir~gdiscontinuous, except for a t,11e irnmctliat,c nciglrbo~lrhoodof the wall. The existence of shock waves is of functarn.cnt,al itnport,arrcc for the drag of t h e body , s they often cause t h e boundary a I:~ycr 1.0 scp:lrnt,e. 'l'lro t,licomticnl calcalatio~rof shock waves and associated flow lit-lais is vrry tlil'lin~~lt,, wc (lo not propose to d i s c ~ ~this topic here. Experiments n.tid ss slio\\r tl~nt,t,l~c ~)roccsscsof shook and borindary-layer formatiori intteract strongly

with each otlicr. T l ~ i s leads to plienotncna of great complcxity I)ccn~isc l)cl~avio~rr tlhc of t h e 1)orrndary layer clcpentls mainly on tlrc Reynoltls nnmhcr, \\~tlercast,hc conditiorrs in a wavo arc primarily tlcpetidorit on t,I~c I\Iar:Il I I I ~ I ~ I ' ) ~ rc.arIic.st. systtxI l ~.. matic invest,igetions in which tlicsc two inflrrences urcrc clcarly scparat.rtl Iin.vr I)ccn p1tt 1.0 hand a long t,irnc ago. .I. Acltc~rct..IF. Fcltlnin~itrn11t1N. 1tot.t [I], 11.\,V.I,ir11lnann 16x1, G.R. Qndtl, W. lloltlcr ant1 . J . I). Rcg:l.n 1381 vnrictl i l l t.l~cir csl)r~.itr~cnt* t.he Reynolds and Mach numbers intlcpendcntly of cach other arrtl so s~tct:ccdcdin providing some cl.zrificat,ion of this complex interaction. The most import,ant rcs111&q obtninotl in 1.11~ ahovc t.tircc invcst~igat.ior~n tlr:xc:ril)c.tl in t.l~is nrc sr:c:t.io~r.\V(: I I I I I S ~ , , however, atld t,hat a cornplct,~ ~rntlcrst~antling tthcsc complex l)hc:nolrirn:~ c~l~~tl(:tl of 11:~s us t o t.liis clay. Tlre pressure iricm:~scalong the I)o~rriclery 1:tycr tnrrst ~llt~inr:~tcly t,hc snrnc l)c a s t h a t in tfhc cxLcrnal flow bccarrse t h e streamline which sepamt?estho two rrgiorls tn~rst, 1)c:oomc pnr:cllol 1.0 t.hc c:oritn)~~r tfho I~otly:~f't,c.rl,l~o of sl~oc:k.111 1,111: l)otrrttl:~.ry fn.ycr, by its ri:bturc, l J ~ e parliclcs rrcnr the wall rnovc with subsol~icvcloc:il,ics I)r~t. shock waves can only occur in s~rpersonic st,rcams. I t is, t.hcrcforc, clear t,lrat a shock wavc which origirratcs in tlic extcrrlal st,rcam cannot reach right 111) to Iflie wall, ant1 i t follows t h a t tho pmssurc gmtlicnt. p r n l l c l t o t.lrc: xvnll musk O mrir:l~ niorc: n grarl~rn,l t.lic ~ ~ c i g l i l ) o ~ r r l of l,hc wall t,l~nlr tho cxt,crr~:~l it1 ~oo(l it1 sl,ro:~nl.N(:~ir 1.110 1)oirtt whcrc the shoclr wavc reaches trowards tohe wall, the r a h q of changc of al~laz ancl

360

XIII. Larnitlar bo~tndoryInyers in compressible flow

a u p t)econie of ~

the same order of magnitude, ant1 tmnsvrrsc prrssurc grntlirrlts ciLn also occur tllcrc. not11 conditions rcntler tlto well-lrttown n s s ~ ~ m p t i o n s hnrttltl:uyof layer theory invalid.

The a,ppenrancc of tho shock wave is furltlamcrlt,nIly tliFfcrctlt tlrl)c.t~tlillg 0 1 1 whrt.hor tJtc borttttlary lnycr is latninar or t,url)rtlcnt,, Fig. 133.19. A sllor(, tlist:~lic-callcntl of tltc poirtt wltcrc the csscnt,ially pcrpctltlicrtl:~rsltovlc wave itnpit~gcs011 :I laminar bounrlsry layer, there nppea.rs a short Icg forming a so-cnllctt J - s l t ~ r k . Fig. 13.19n.. Tn gcncml, wllcn the boundary lnyer is turbulent,, tltc rtor~nnl sltoc:li tlot.~ n o t split and n o 2-sllocks a.rc formed, Fig. 13.19b. An obliv~ceshock wlticlt ilnpitlgek on a laminar boundary laycr from t h e outsicle becomcs rcllectcd from i t ill t,llc for111 of n fan of expansion waves, Fig. 13.30a. Ilowever, wllcn t.lle bourltlary lnyrr is trurbnlcntj,the rcflcxion nppmrs in teltc form of n 1not.c concc?ntJrnt,c~t1 csl)ntlaiotl wn.vcx (Fig. 13.30b).
of l'tg. 1:1.1!). Srl~licrenpl~otogral~l~sl~ockwave; direction of flow front left to right, aftcr Avltrrrt, Ifrldtnnnn nntl Ilott [I]: rr) 1:lrninnr boltnt1:~ry layer; tnult.iplo I-sl~ock,M = 1.92. R,r, - :!!)(I; I)) t11rl)rllrnt 1)011nd3ry lnyrr; rlorrnal ullork, M - 1 2 8 , Rn, - 1159

I'ig. 13.20. lsohars in a shock region i n I:~tninar flow (I-sllock), i ~ f l r r Arkc-rrt. 1prldr11n1111 nttd I(ot,t I I ]

The plot of isobaric crlrves in Fig. 13.20 ant1 the 1)rrssrtrc crlrvcs ill lcig. 1:j.21 ~ l l o wt,hat t . 1 ~ rat,c of prcssrlrc itlcrcnsc along a Iaminnr or :I tnrl)~tlcnL I,or~tltl:~r~. lnycr is more gratlnal tllan in tltc cxtcrrlal stream. 'l'his llrtttcllirlg ol' Lltc 1)rcssltrc gradient in t h e boundary layer is describetl by stating t,llat the prcssurc dist.ribrrtior~ "tliffnses" near the wall. It is observed tllat diflusion is much lnorc pronorttlcctl for a laminar tPhanfor a turbulent bountlary Iaycr. T l ~ c tlifkrcncc bcLwccn 1nniinn.r a n d turbulent shock diffusions can also be recognized from Fig. 13.22 whioll roprcscr~t~s tho pressure variation along n flat platc placed parallcl t o n supersonic st.rmtn. 'L'llc mcasnrctncnts were pcrforrnctl by 11. MT.llicplnntlrt, A. l t o ~ l t l ~attd S. I)h:r\vi~t~ o [64]. T h e pressure p l o b llavc been tnlren rlcar thc p o i r ~ ton tllc plat,c wllcrc t,llc oblique shock produced by a wedge interacts with t>llcb o ~ ~ n t l n r y laycr. Tltc prcssurc gratlicnt is cor;sitlcrnbly steeper for tthc t u r b t ~ l c n tt,hnrl for tlic 1:rrnitlnr 1)oltntlary Iaycr. The witltl~ diffusion is cc111nl t o about 100 d itt t,ltc case of int.nr:~c.fiotlwit11 of

Fig. 13.22. Prrsqnro tlistrihution along n flat plate a t s~rpcrsonicvelocity in the ncigl~bonrl~ood the region of reflcxion of of n shock wave from lanlirlar and turhrtlcrtt borrntlnry layers, aftrr I,irprnann, Itosltko and Dlln\van [fi4]
houodnry-lsyrr t l ~ i r k n r s s : Innti~bnr 6 z 0 7 (0.028 in), t u r b l ~ l c ~ ~ s 1.4 111rt1 (0.056 In) d zt
IBI~II

016

81 7 08 0

-8

-6

-1

-2

firl~ince ~ i //in/c dloq m

r.

I~itcrnctionbrtwceir nlroclr wnvo nncl bo~~rtclat:). I:ryer

363

a Intnirin.r l)out~rlnryI:r.ycr, but; rlocrcasrs t o about 10 0 for n t u r h ~ l l e n t1)ountlnry Iayor; t,ltr! syn~l)ol tlnr1o1r.shrrc t,l~t:I)o~tntlnry-layor t,lliolrness in i,hc si~oolrregion. T'ho liigliar tlcgrco of tliffrlsior~wllicli is cli:tmotorislic of laminar boi111tI:~ry lnycrs can I)c ~tritltrsf,ootlif it, is not,ctl t h a t tllc srlbsonin rclgion of flow ext,cnds furf,licr away fronl t h e wall in x Iamirtnr than in a t,rirk)rtlcnt bountlnry layer. Irrrspcct,ivc of wl~ct,llorsepxmt,ior~ tlocs or tlocs not occur, t h e bountlnry-layer t.l~ic:kncss iricrtnscs nlicatl of tlrc poinl, of :~rrivalof {.he shock wave. T h e pressure increme a t Lllo o~tt,cr ctlgt: ol t11c Iiortntl:iry I:~yer, ant1 hcr~cc also insitlc t,ho I~ountlnry layer, corrcspondn t o t,hc c~lrvrtlst~rcan~lilic wl1ic:lt is corlvox in the tlirection of t.11~ wall ant1 wllicli scp:r,mt,c~s tlrt: oxI,t:r~r:ilfrom the 1)oirntlary-l:~yor flow. l+Jvcn in tllc tlolnain of irlflucncn or i , l ~ c cxpnnsio~lw:~vcs which nppcnr in t,he rcllcxion of c tlccrc:asc it1 pressure in t h e t)onntlnry layer, l'ig 13.22, a n ol)liquc shock wave, t l ~ sligl~t, corresponds t o tdw fact t h a t t h e curvature of t h e dividing streanlline is concave lowards tho wall. A laminar boundary layer which has not sepsratetl can support tllc external flow ilnprcsscs on i t the prcssrtrc only very small pressure rises becal~sc gratiicnt oxclasively t h r o u g l ~v i s c o ~ ~ s forces. A non-sepnmt,etl tnrl)rllcr~tho~tndnry layer can t,:t.kc up mr~clilarger pressure p a d i c n t s because now t h e t l ~ r b u l e n t mixing motion aids the process. Both laminar and tirrbulcnt boundary layers nre in a position t o snpport the large pressure increasaq of strong shock8 if they separate. Tn particular.

, netr shock

Fig. 13.24. Schliercn photograph of Lhc flow past an nerofoil. Shock-wave ant1 bountlary-layer internction. Cam (2): Lnrninnr boundary lnyer with aepnrntion nlicad of tho sllock, b i ~ trenttacliing behind shock. M = 0.84, R = 8.45 x I W , nftnr 1,ieprnnnn [OBI

8-7O

in t.ho t r ~ r t ) ~ t l c case t.11~ nt tlcatl-water vortox I)ctwocn tho srpaml.cd 1)o111ttlnry laSrr ant1 t ' l ~ c wall cnn crrat<oconsitlcrable vclocitics wlricll carry l.lto inner ctlgo or i.110 bount1ar.y layer against, t.hc pressure rise Ijy t.11~action of v i s r ~ s i t ~ y . sltct.cli iri 'l'ht: Fig. 13.23 s11ou.s how t h e bor~ndarylayer arrtl the dead-water rngion ttllicken ahratl of t h e front and become t f ~ i n n e r behind it. Finally, a s sllown in Fig. 13.23, tlto boundary layer re-attachcs itself completely. The same pllcnomcnot~is also visible in Fig. 13.24. 'I'hc? skclfnho~ Fig. 13.23 rcproclnee 1 . 1 1 ~r c s u l l ~of sorno ~nrasl~rcnit:t~l.s in 1,r:rformed by S. M . I4ogclolloff and C. R. Koplor 161 in t:onnrxion wii.l~ their invcst~ip:ctions into tho rnflexion of obliclue sliock wavrs from a flat. wall mrryirlg a t , ~ ~ r l i r ~ l r t l t bonndary layer at, a Mach tiulnbor M = 3 in tile cxt,ornnl st;ro:~rn.'.L'lio sltnt,c:llcs , in Figs. 1 3 . 2 3 ~ b show t h e reflexiorts of a weak ant1 a strong sllock, rcsprctivcly, ant1 their st,rength being regulated by the mng~utl~clc tllr clcflcxion ariglo 0. Wlic.11 of tho shock is weak (0 = 7 t h e rcRected shock presents a pattern whicl~~vorlltlbe ' ) , lnycr tlocs not srl)n~.at,o. expected on the ba.sis of ideal-flow theory, arltl t,hc b o u l l t l a r ~ When t,he strangt,h of the shock is incrcn.scd ( 0 = 13O), t.110rcflcc.l,etl pat,t.crn corit:iins a uystorn of cnrnprossion nncl oxpansion waves. 'l'ho I)or~ntl:try 11iyt:r rxliil)il.~ :I 11~rgo lot!al l,I~it:lc(:ning wliiol~ 1t:arIs t<o st:p:rrt~I,ion. 'l'l~t! I)o~~rtrl:~r~y ix l,Irit!lcr:r I r ~ ~ l ~ i r ~ r l Irr,.vr!r the rcflcctctl than ahcatl of the incitlcnt, shoolc. Tltc corrcspontlirlg prcssurn t l i ~ t ~ r i -

Fig. 13.23. Ilrllrsion o i n sl~ockurnvc from a f.nrl)rrlorilborrndnry lnyor or1 a flat wall, after tl~icknrsq nlrcncl o f uliock wsvc S. M. Ih)grlor~oll'r i r i t l (!. IF. I<cplor [ti]. Ilo~~nrlnry-lo.ycr Y FT 3 r l i n i (0.12 in). n) 1Vm.k nl\oc.k, tloflcxion atiglc 0 == 7". Ilcflexion sirnilnr to Lllnt in fricr t.ir,t~lt:ssilo~v; i1t1 I,onrirl:rry-l:ryrr ncl,nrnt.ion; b) St,rong sl~orlz;dcflcxion angle 0 2 13". 120lIr:xir,r~ i n I ' t r v n ~ o f a tiysld~rno f corrr~,rcsnir~ri rxpnriniotl wnvcs; honnrlirry-lnyrr 8cl)arnI.ion; nnrl c) I'rcsal~rcclisl.vil~~~t,it~ris nL clilTcrcnt rlrllrxion onglcs 0. Scpnrat.ion occnm nt p,,,,/pW = 2 npprox.

364

XIII. Laminar boundary layers in comprcssihle flow

S~:lllicrot~ pl~ol,ngr:ll>l~t,l~c of flow ~~:lsl, arrofoil. Sl1oc.k-wnvr.and t~ortntlnr~r-laycr nrl I . 2 inkmct.ion. Cnsc (3): 1,ntnirlnr 1)orlntlary I:iyor with scparat,ion hcliintl sllock. M = 0.90,
R

8.74 x 10" aft,rr 1,icpmantl [(i3]

Fig. 13.26. Schlieren phot,ograph of the flow past an acrofoil. Sllock-wave and boundary-layer interaction. C a ~ e(4): Boundary layer trlrbule~~t ahead of shock, no ucpnration. M = 0.85, R = 1.60 X 10" after 1,i~prnann 1631

butions along t,hc wall arc shown plottecl in Fig. 1 3 . 2 3 for different deflexion angles ~ (and l ~ c r ~ c e ctiffcrcnt shock strengths). Separation occurs for O > go. The pressure rise which lratls to scpzmtion is independent of the deflexion angle and has a value of ahont p / p , = 2. The incidence of transition and srparation in the r~cigllbo~irhood an impinging of shock wave are governed principally by the Reynolds number of t h e boundary layrr anti by the Mach number of the extcrnal stream. When t h e shock is weak and the lteynoltls nnmbcr is very small, thc boundary layer remains laminar thronghout,. Tncrrasing the Reynolds n i ~ m b c r t a fixed,.'small Mach number, causes transia tion tosoccur at tbc point of impingement,. When thc shock is strong (largo Mach number) ant1 t,hc Itc~ynoldsnumber is small, tho laminar bountlary layer will scparatc ahratl of t,hr shock front owing to prcssnrc diffusion; i t may also undergo transition ahcad of t.11~ shoc4< front.. When the lteynolds nr~mbcris large enough, transition in thc t)onr~tlary lnyrr occurs ahcad of the shoclr, w!~cther tho boundary layer has

separated or not. According t o observations made by A. Fage and R. Sargcnt [RBI, turbulent boundary layers d o not separate when the pressure ratio p,/pl is smaller than 1-8, which corresponds to a Mach number M < 1.3 for a normal shock wave. , 1~1lrI.11c:r cxperimcnt.al rc:s~~lt.s t.11~ on it~l.c:racI~io~l I~c!l.wcr?ti sl~oc:lcwirves itr~tlI~oilnclrl.r.y lagcrs car1 bc fonnd in the p111,licntions by W. A. Mair [G9], N. I l . .Johar~noscn1521, 0. Itartisley and W.A . Mair [R], ant1 .J. Lulcasicwicz and ,T. I<. Itoyle 1671. During more recent times attempts have been tnadr to rlescribe the interaction bctwcen a laminar bor~ndarylayer and a shoclr wavc by theoretical mcnns. S11cl1 attempts were mostly unsuccessful bccause, generally s~~ealring, assurnpt.ions of the I)oirntlary-lnycr theory 11rcn.k tlown tlrnr a sltorlc wnvr. In somc s1.11clivst~~ltnct.it:~t.l int,cgml.iot~s wcrc bnscd on 1.11~Nnvicr-Stoltrs rcl~rnl;ions.1 rcvicw of' L11t. (-111.t.(:nt 1 sta1,r of this ~ o l n ~ ) I of problcms can I)c found in the pnprrs 11.y ,J. I). Murphy 181n.1, cx R . W . MacCorrnnck [14aJ, J . M . Klincber [%a], ,J.C. Cartcr [14.b], and J.1). Murphy e t al. 181bI.

I IIC variolts c,lTc*~-l.s ol'sl~oclts impinging on a 1)ortrldnr.y In.yrr will now be illustml,c-tl wit,l~ roSct.rnce to Schlicrcn pl~ol,ogrnplis. point.ctl o u t by A. T I . Young l.lO(i1, As
1

i t is ~)ossil~lt: tlisI.ittgnisll tllc following cnscs: lo

(2) 'I'lic npl)ronc:l~irlgI)o~trttl:rrylager is Intninar, but scpnmt~cs n.hend of t l ~ e shock I)c:t.n.ltsc of I.hc: :~tlvcrsc prcssrtre grntliont ant1 l.licn retnrns to the surface in c:il.hnr a Innlinnr or t,t~rl)ltlcrltst,nt,c, Fig. 13.24t. (3) 'I'lic nl)pro:~c:l~ing I)olttitl:lry layer is Intninnr, srpnmt~cscornl)lot.rly from tllc s~irf:~nc: RIIC:L(I of I,llc sI~o(~lz, (1ot:s tlot r(:-attncli i t ~ c l t o tlte st~rfncc,Fig. 13.25; and f t,lln sllorlc is normal arttl sprorrt.~R A-li~nl). ( 4 ) 'i'llo :tppronc.hit~gItottntlnry layer is I ~ t r l ) ~ ~ lrind l clocs not sepnmt,o frotri t,lic rr~ . s~~rf:lrc, I'ig. 13.26.

Fig. 13.27. ICKcct of Reynolds nnmbcr oli prranllre rtint,rihut.iol~ the rapper ott nitlc of ntl norofoil ill the 1rn11so11ie veloc:it.y rnllgc, n f t ~ r C;. L. 1,oving 1661: r*o~~lparisoli I)et,n.re~~ flight t a t (filll srnlc) n.t R ---- 3 x 107 nnd willtit,rlnlicl tent nt R 4 x 101. Nntrtrnl I.rn~lsil,ion frrc flip11t.: t.ril?l)otl~ , ~ I L I I in n i l . i o r ~i l l w i l ~ c l - t . t ~ ~Icwl..on) St~l~rriLi. l~~ l

r:tl vnlr~vit,.yd i n l , r i l ~ ~ ~ tfvroM,,, = 0.76; .i ~~ lift cocfficic~~t c,, 0.3; snt,isl:wl.ory

A lot~gtime ngo. A . I511se111ann [IO] pr~l,lisllccl observnt,ions on I~ocindary-la.yer sc-~~:wat.iot~ I I ~ ) ~ - ~ S O I ISt~l)rrsoni(:, I I I I I ~ ( : ~ S IIRIIII.IIY cqltipl)rtl ~ i 1 . h (IiITnscr ill S (low. ~ C : I arc n wl~irllsrrvtw 1.0 rrc20vc:r I)rctssrlrc f r o ~ n1 . 1 1 ~ltigll wintl vclot:ity. 'l'hcsa tlilT~tscrs;Lro tnn~lc l l 1 . 1 1 ~ i sll:sl)c of c o t ~ v c r g e t ~ l . - d i v w rll:~t~ncIs tlt t01rougI1whicll t,hc strcatn flows wil,ll 3.11 :~.cIv(-rsc ~)r(*sst~rc gr:l~lie~~I, in I)olrl~ convcrgcnt ntltl tfhr clivcrgcrlt portion. 1.I1c A. I%ttsc-nl:~r~t~ oltsc,rvctl I,II;IL ;it. all M:~cll~ ~ ~ ~ r n l ~ c r s t l i t l not tlcpcntl on eillicr scp:~rntion tltc nnglr ol' oonvcrgrtim or on t,l~c ariglc of tiivcrgcncc, I)ut t h a t it coultl always be nssoriat,rtl wit.11 l,hc :~.tlvcrsc prcss~~rt; grntliont. Tri this connoxion i t sllot~ltlbe rexlixctl t.ltnb lltc r11:ltt~r t.llo cllnmc:t,rr of tthc flow wl~iclloccurs a t I~ighcr in Mar11 nnm1)crs is linkr~clwit,l~ c:lln~lgctlr o ~ ~ t l i l ~for ~t.lrt.~ atlvcrsc pressure grnclic~nt.~. it ~ s ,Lltr c.o~~siclt~t.:~l,iot~s . vot~ct'rning1 . 1 1 ~ I)(~hnvioltr I,ol~ntl:lry 1xyrt.s or) ac:rofoils in of' 111t I I . ; I ~ I s ~ , I ~~. ~ ~ g it.11:~l. I ~ n i e foIIo\v t.rScr (-ssrnt.inllyt,c) t,11t.1)ttIrnt, I)ot~n(lary layers wl~ic-l~ \ \ i l l I)(. sttttlit.tl In.1c.r in (!II:I~s. X S l l nnd XX11I. S i t ~ r c Iiowcvrv. t,t~n.nsit,ion , pln,ys :I 11avt ill lIt,~s(> ])t~ot:c~ssc~s, shall itlst.1.1 I.lt(~111 11(*1.t!. P\.PII t . l ~ o ~ t g l ~ Lrn~tlsil~iot~ wc: t,llc ~M.u~.~'ssl f ' will also I)(, tlisc:ltsst~tl l:~.I.t:r.t ~ a ~ n o lin (:llnps. XVl ant1 XVI I . itstt y
'I'll(, i ~ ~ I t ~ t . : ~ t ~ t , i o t ~ I l l ( : I ) o I I ~ I ( I ; I ~ I ~l:ry(:r nncl t11c t;xl,t!rn:~lflow is p a , ~ ~ l ~ i c ~ ~ l a ~ t ~ l y l)t:l\vt~~t~ stt.cr~~g I I I C I.I.:I~IXOII~C in rrgirnr. I'ignrc 1:1.27 n.fl,crG . 1,. Loving Ifif;] cont.ai~ls rxperian III(.II~.:I~ c.onl.t.il)ut.ionc:onsist.it~g tnr:l.s~~t.t~rnc~t~t.s of of 1)rcssorc tlislril)r~lions nn nrt.oon foil i t 1 Iligltl. (1:lr.g~I<c:y~loltls 1111tnl)ct.) cotnpat.c~lt,o t,ltat, in n \vintl t , ~ t n ~ l(retlucctl cl I?.c*yt~c)ltlsI I I I I I I ~ ~ I . ) I)o~tnrl:~t~yI . S n.t.t: t ~ ~ t ~ l ) ~ tovt,~. . 1 1 ~ II 'l'llr . IR~C l c t l t1 grcnt.c\r pi1t.1. of tall(: \ v c ~ l l t ~ t[ l~ c ~ ~ . i t i t t . l c .itt.1 csitltc-r (:as(,. '1'110 t\vo I)rrssllt.cb tlisl~t~iI)~tt~io~~s. r t.I1(. wi~l(l Illr o t ~ it1 ~ I ~ I I I I V I I I I I I I t11v ~ I I I V i t 1 fligltl. : I ~ I Y Y , s:~lisl':~.t~l,orily,Mw - 0.75 (Pig. 1:!.27a,) for :LI, I I I . ~ ~ S S I I It. ~ ~ s l ~ . i l ~ ~ ~ l i ~ i~ l t ~ ~ ~ l ~ ( ~ r . i(:v(.II~ I . I~I O Il I ,~ I I (.It(: I ~ . ( . ~ I I o I I I s 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ l t ~ 1 ~ ~ li is SI l i lit ~ . \vllit.ll i l l I i I l 'I . I V I , I M 0.85 (Il'ig. 13.27 11) wl~ic:ltgc~tic~~.:~l.c*s loc.nl
--

agrcetncnt betwe~nfree-flight h t nt R - 3 x 10' nilel wind-t~~lilicl nt tent R = 4 x 10" I)) Sllpcrcrit,icnl prcwlrro tlistrihntion for M, = 0.85; lift coeffirie~ltr,, % 0.34; lnrge devintion bel,\vcrn frcc-llight test nt R = 3 x lo7 nlld mind-tut~ncl a t R = 4 x loR test
wi11d I I I I I I I ? ~ (transiilnn flxctl)

f l i g l ~ 111ll srale i

Ipig. 13.28. Corners in pnrnllel, Ilypcrsotlic flo~v ::... ...:-.. Ct~rnrn .. : wit11 cnnrldrn~l,lroverl~ratlng

---M ,
Nacelle f w engine/
Roo1 of w;ng

supersot~icrvgions oti t.11~ acrofoil, the two prc:ssnrr. tlist.ril~r~f.ions tlill'c:~. co11siclt~t~:~l)l.y. ' I ' I t t ~ sItot:l< \ v : ~ v ( : ( I I I I ~ I Ill(! 1)oitillI I ~ ' H ~ ~ ~ I I I ~ . l Ii 1I1 .l i~ .~ l ~ \ v i l . l ~il) is 1t~t.11.I.v~l c t I I 111t1c.11 1.1111l1t.1. tlo~vnstrmtna t t,lle Iargor Iteynolds nurabcr R = 3 x 107 of free fligl~t , l l : r t ~ XI) L l ~ c : t wind-t~lnnel Rcynoltls n l ~ n ~ b c r R = 4 x 106. 'r'llc pltgsicnl rxplnrln.triot~ (.l~is of of circ~ln~sl~nncc is connrc*l.rtl,I ) ~ C S I I I I I I L I ) I ~1.110 f i ~ t ~t.11111 l11t' l1o11ttc1111.y 111 ( I t ( ' \vif.lt , l. 1i1yt.r lowcr Iteynoltls nurn1)c.r of t,hc w ~ ~ I ( ~ - ~ . I Ir IxI ~ ~ (( ~ ~t ~ i ~ n(-o~~sitl~~t.:lI)Iy ( ( ~ O I I I . I ~ ~ is ( ~ t l I , 1.Ilit.ltc~r pnrcxel to t,l~c nrrofoil t,l~ic:ltness) ant1 t,ltc~rcf'orcs tlisl~l:~aos sl~oc~lz I,II(* \v;~vc:: t t l t l ( I I ~ : ~ ) o i ~ l l , of srpnra(,ion triggered by it frlrtJier ~tpslrrntn.11 is tlllts possible to ronrlrttlc tl1:1t

308

XIII. Laminnr boundary layer8 in compressible flow

c. Inkroction bctwccn sllock wnvo and I)o~rnclnry lnycr

369

Sclllicren plrotogmph of the flow past nn aerofoil. Sllock-wave and boundary-layer 1 . 2 interaction. Case (5): Turbrllcl~t boundary layer wit.11 atrong separation 1)chind shock. M = 0.90, R - 1.75 x 10'. after Liep~nann[T,:!]

t h e inll~lonccof Itcynoltls nnnlhcr o n tdlc I ~ o n r ~ t l n rlayer - a n d hence also o n t h e y shoolr wave a s well a s o n t,hc associatcci point of se,paration - is q u i t e considerable i l l 1,ransonic flow. As n result,, t h o value of t,hc Reynoltls n u m b e r has a much great,er cll;,c:t, O I I all ac,rotlynnrnir. cllar:tct,crist,ics of :tn aerofoil in t,he t r a ~ ~ s o ~ t i c o/ Mach range n711n.hrrst,11nr1cit,llcr in snbsonio o r in tho p ~ i r c l ysupersonic rrgime. For this reason i t is nccc,ssary t.o exercise nt,rnost c:tlltion when test results fronl wind tunnels in t,r:~rl~onic t.:&ngc7 r c rlectl t o pretlict, I)cl~nvionrin flight. F u r t h e r experimental a rc~sl~lln l.l~ist.ol)ic: <:a11Oc f o l ~ n ( l 127n, 84, 91 1. on in
t . I ~ ( b

\[cry c s t , c ~ ~ s i recent e ~ p e r i m e n t ~ a l vr rcsult,s in this field wcre cornmlrr~icntcd I)y .I. I<ac~)rz~ynslzi .J. 15:iJ. Ifcat-transf'cr problems in t h e I ~ y p e r s o ~ t irange occur d u r i n g re-entry of space c vcllicles m ~ t lballistic roclrcts ir~t,ot.he terrestriaf atmosphere. I n cases when a i r resistance is nt,ilize(l t,o provitlc tlccclcrat,ion a s $he moving body approaclles tfhc surfnet oft.hc cnrt.11,it large proportion of t,he energy s o dissipated is impartetl t,o t.he bocly in f.hr Porn1 of I~(>at,. Srrcll processes t,:rkc placc in t h e bountlary layer in t h e hypersonic regime whc~t.hcrit, is Inrninar o r t.rrr\~nlcnt. ,T.C. Rott,a [ 8 7 a l published a s u m I I I : I ~ :~rl.i(!l~ ~ (Ivs(:ril)ing t,hr pro1,lcrns t,llnt arise in this oonncxion in two-dimonsional :dncl rot,nt.iorln.lly sj~nlrllet~ric: I)otlics.

b) Fig. I R . R O I L , ~ . Reflexion of oblique sllock front flat plate wit,], boundnry laynr, a l k r Liopmann, Rosllko and Ilhawan [R4]. a) Laminar boundary Inyer; b) Turbulent boundary layer

370

XIIJ. I~tminar boundary layers in compre.ssible flow

o. Inkroc-Lion bct~\rrti nh0c.k wnvr n~tilI>o~~t~rl:~ry Inyrr

:g7 I

Yet nnot.licr import,ant problem of interaction between boundary layer and shock wave occrlrs in h?ypemonic corner /lou~a t zero incitlence. 'rhe flow is accompanied by int,cnse 11mt.ingin the coriirr cntlxctl by l.hc very m~icli lnrgcr mt.c ol'clis..ipat,iorr in the corner compnrctl t.o t,lic clissipation in the nciglibouring two-tlirnensionnl flow. A hint in t h a t direction is visible in Fig. 12.16. I t was sl~own there t.liat even in incompressible flow along a rectangular corner with the wall being a t a temperature exceeding t h a t of the free st,rcam there exists a heat flux transferring l ~ c a from the fluid t,o the wall. t B y cont.mst, a t a large distance from the corner, t,he flow of heat takes place in t,he reverse tlirectiori. Snient,ist.s 1)ccamc:awnre of t.hc nl)ovc prohlcm only rcccnt.ly, nn.mcly in conriexion wit,li t.hc flight t.csts in the range o f hlnclr numhers M 3 to 6 on the American experimental aeroplane X-15. Reports on this phenomenon were pclk)lislicd by R. I). Nei~mann[82, !In]. Figure 13.28 reminds t,he reader t h a t such corner confignrations exist a t t.he root of t.he wing, a t tJie side fins, a t the engine pods or a t t,hc air inlet in air-brcnt,liing engines. More rccc~it. expcrimcritnl invest,igat.ions on Iryj)crsoiiic corner flows wcrc pcrforn~rtl I<. IZil~lzrand 1). 111rmmcl [SB] a t the very large Mach numbers of M = 12 11y ant1 t o 16; they measured the pressure d i ~ t ~ r i b u t i o n the local rate of heat transfer in re the corner and discovered tthc ext,raordinarily complex ~ t r u c t ~ uof the zone of interaction of the shock wave and boundary layer. The flow clevelops strong separation xoilrs nntl the local heat-l,rarisfer rates were a s much a s tenfold larger t h a n 1,liose in an ot.lirrwise idetlt.icnl two-tlimct~sionnl st.ream. Throrelictrl invrsligrttinns into the problem of interaction between a shock wnvo :~rltla 1nminn.r borlntlnry In.yer arc very numerous. We shall be sitisfiecl with the nrcnt.ion of t.hc following fcw n.ntSliorsonly: R. A. Mr~cller[81J, 1). hfeksgr~[74], M. llontln 1471 nritl ,I. Appiet,o~inrrtl 11. ,J. 1)avies 121. P~rt.icnln.r at.t,ent,ion sl~or~ltl I,c given t o t l ~ cpaper I)y N. Crlrlc 1241. This sI,rrcly contains an in~cst~ignt~iori of the clfcct of lieat, transfer on thc prcssilrc rise on a flat platme s wrll a s t.hc tlescript,ion a of an n.l)proxirnat.c mcl,hod of calcl~lat~ing boundary layer for a r l ~ i t m r ywall the triiipornt.~~rcs Pm.nc1t.lnumbers. The mct,hod takes ndvantjage or the expcriment.al a.ntl rrsult.9 t111c to (. 15. Gncld [39j whicl~tlemonstratod t.liat a t the point of sepiiration : t,lic vrloc:it,y grntlicnt dlJ/clz clilfcrs from zero b u t t,he velocity U itself remains nearly const,nritt. With ttliis simplificnt,ion, i t becomes possible tro i~it~egrate t.ho rcli~nt.ions s~~l)jcc.t, the assc~rnpt~ion a relation hctwec~rthe llnk~lownprcssllrc t.o of gmtlit:rit ant1 t,lic incmnsc in t,hc bol~ndn.ry-layer t,liiclznoss. It turns o u t t h a t tthc j)rrssllrc cocfficirnt2 nt t.lic point of separation is intlnpentlent of t h e t,cmpcratr~rc :I(, I.ho wall but t,lint the sprcatl i n the cxtcnt, of tho zone of interaction is proy)ortionnl t o 7',,,. (:onscq~~enl~ly,~ c t l prcssllro rise nt scparat,iorl I)ccorncs invrrscly proport.ioiinl Ass~~iiiing &11:1t dilfc:rs little from p,, and tont wc lravc, npproximatcly p
U=(x)

Tnl~lo10.1. The function F ( X ) lor t l ~ c prrssurr clistribr~tion along a flnt plate in t l ~ c ~ r i ~ l ~ b o ~ ~ hootl 01a ullock wnvr, in nccordnncc wit11 P ~ I I A . (I:1.Rn) nncl (IR.!)O), nflor N. ('rlrlt. 1241

Fig. 13.31a.

lo5 -t heated wall 7,,= 1.25 To ', X zero Iteat trnnufer T, = 7 " ' 0 rooled wall T, = 0.88 7, '
M, = 3; R = 4.2 x

N. C ~ ~ r mlr11l:ltt.d a f~~nt*tiori( S ) nliicli is reprotlnrril here ill 'I'n1)lr 13.1 Tho le F

foIIo\ving n / ~ I ~ r e v i a l .Iiave~ 1.licrc I)ceri iiitroclurctl: i~~ s

XTII. I.nrttit~nrl)o~~rldnry 1:iyrrs in romprmsihlr flow [8] Bradfield, W.S., Deoourain, D.G., and Blumer, C. M.: The cffcct of Irading-edge hl~lntr~rss on a lan~inar sr~penronicboundary layer. JAB 21, 37% 382 and 31)s (1004). [0] Burggraf, 0. R.: Aeymptotic theory of neparntion rind r c n t t s c h n ~ r t oft a Inrr~innr ~ horlrr~l:~ry layer on a ron~preasionramp. AGAlill Conf. Pro(*. Flow Srpnrntiorr, No. 168, 10/1 - I()/!) 11976). [lo] ~ l r s e k n n n , A,: (:neut,riimung rnit lnmir~nrcr(~n?nzncl~iclrt cr~tlnrtg rincr 1'lirt.tc. ZAMM I $ , 2.t-- 25 ( 1035). [loat Uusctt~nnt~, I)io ncl~ncnsyrnn~clri~chc A.: kogeligo ~~l~crscltnllsl.rii~n~~tr~. 1,1t1.t.1.:1.11rl.(i)r~r~l1rrr1g 19, 137-144 (1942). [ l l ] Busemann, A.: L),w Abreisaen der Grenzschicht bci AntrAhcrr~r~g (lie Scl~n.llgosc:l~\vir~(li~nn keit. J b . Luftfahrtforscl~ungI, 839-541 (1940). 1121 Byran, I..F.: Expcrin~cr~ta twrodynnlnic coolit~g.Itcport, of t,hc Inst.. of Arrocly~ra~~~ii*ri on E3.H Ziirich, No. 18, 1951. [131 Chapman, D.R., and Rubesin, M. W.: Temperature nncl vclocity profilcs in t,l~e ro~~lpressible l a t n i ~ ~ boundary layer with arbitrary distrihrttion of R I I ~ ~ : I C O nr tcrnpcrntrtre. .JilS 16. 547.R(I5 (I 949). 1141 Cl~nrwnt,A.P., and JLcdckopp, I,.(:.: Sul~creo~lic it~In:rr(!ror~cc Ilow rrlot~gt.11t: 1:0r11r.r 01. intersecting wedges. AIAA J. 5, 480---488 (1967). [14a] MncCormack, R.W.: Numerical solr~tion tho irrteraction of nl~ockwnvc wit.It n larl~i~lnr of bonndnry laycr. I'rocccdings 2nd Irlfcrn. Conf. on Ntrtncriiil Metlrorln in I ' l l ~ i c l I)YIIII.III~VR. I~nttlro Notn:~in ~'Ilynics 8 , Sprit~g(:rV~rIng,1!)71. [14b] Carter, J.E.: Solutions for laminar boirndnry laycrs with s c p a r n t i o ~irt~drc.nt.t.ncl~tl~rt~t. ~ AIAA Paper 74-583 (1974). [15] Chu, S.T., and Tiffnrd, A.N.: The cornpremiblc laminar 1)ortlltlnry lnyer on n rot.nt,ing Imdy of revolution. .JAR 21, 345-346 (1954). [16] Callen, C. D.: Sintilnr solutions of cornpressiblc latnirrnr boundary laycr cqrrnt.inns. ,J'\S 2 1 , 281 -282 (1954). [I681 Cohen, C. B., atid Roclhotko, E.: The cornprossiblo lntninar hottndnry lnyer with hrnt Irnrrafer nntl arl)itrary prcssuro gradient,. NACA Jicp. 12!)4 (I!)5li). 1171 Coles, I).: McaRurementa of t~irbulcntfriction on tr s11100t.hllnt plnt,~ X ~ I I I ( * ~ S O I I ~ C in Ilo\v. JAS 21, 433-448 (1954). 1181 Cope, W.F., and IIsrtree, D.R.: The laminar boondnry laycr in a colllprrssible Ro\v. L'hil. Trans. Roy. Sac. A 241, 1-69 (1948). [I91 Crnbtrec, L.P.: The cornpresnible larrrit~arboundary layer on a ynned infinite wing. ;\pro. Quart. 5 , 85-100 (1954). [20] Crocco, I,.: Sulla trasmiasione del cnlore da una lnniinx pi:rnx n rln Il~ticloncorrrr~t,r(I :~lt:r :! velocith. 1,'Acrotecnica 12, 181-107 (1932). [21] Crocco, L.: Sullo strato limite laminarc nei gas I~tngo ~ n n n r ~ ~ i r ~ n r I piann. Ilcrrcl. illat. Univ. Rorna V 2, 338-1132 (1941). [22] Crocco, I,.: Lo strato laminarc nei gm. Mon. Sci. Acr. Itotnn (1946). [23] Crocco, L., and Cohen, C.U.: Con~pressihle Inmitlnr boundary lnyer with l ~ c o t Irar~sfc-~. n.r~d pressure gradient. Fifty years of boundary layer remarch (Mr. 'I~ollrniclrand Ii. Giirt Ier, ed.), Braunschweig, 1055, 280-293; see also NACA Rep. 12!)4 (1956). [24] Curle, N.: The etrecta of hcnt transfer on lenrinnr boundary lnyer scpnrntion in srtpersonic flow. Aero. Quart. 12, 309-336 (1961). [25] Curle, N.: I-Icat tranofer through a comprmqihle Inlr~innrhor~ndnryInyrr. Aero. 011:~rt. 255-270 (1902). [26] Crrrle, N.: The Iarninar bourtdnry lnycr cq~lnLions.(:l;rml~tlorr I'rcss, Oxford, I!)li2. [27J D ~ Clers, J3.. and Stcrnbcrg, J.: On bonntlary Inycr tcrnpornt~lrcrrcovcry f:rctors. .l,\S B 19, 645-646 (1952). [27a] nelery, J., Chattot, J . . J . , and Lc J3allc11r,J.C.: Internc.tion visqueusc avcc d6csollr~nrllt (.I1 Bcoulcrnent transsonique. AGARD Corrf. Proc. Plow Scj~arntio~r, 168, 27 -1 1.0 27 - - 13 No. (19751. [28] O'l)onncll, R.M.: Expcrir~~cntnl invcsligntion nt Mac11 I I I I I I I ~ Cor 2.41 of I L V ( % ~ I Iskill ~ ~ ~ friction cocfficicnta and vclocity profilcs for Inrr~irlnrnntl t ~ l r l ~ ~ t lIro~~tldriry or~t 1:1yr-r~ II)IR(*RH~ n c n t probe cffcck. NACA TN 3122 (105.1). of [29] Dorrance, W.H. : Viscous hypersonic Row. Theory of reacting hypersonic b o i ~ n t l n r ~ Inycrn. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962. [30] Van Ihiest, E.R.: Investigation of lanliriar boundary lager in cornprcssiblo fluid8 using the Crocco-Method. NACA T N 2597 (1952).
It?,

'J'hc s111)script s ~ r c f r r s t o t h e p o i n t o f s r p : ~ m t i o n , ttlw s111)scril)l 0 tlcsc.ribrs the p sl,nte u p s t r e a m of t h e s11oc.l~ w a v c , a n d s u b s c r i p t 1 clenotes t h e s t a t e at tile edge of t h r I ) o r ~ ~ i t l a rInycr. y 'I'lrc prcssrrre coeffirirrlt a t separat,ion t a r n s o u t to I ~ a v et h e f o r m

l T a./v, a r ~ t lTI,,, Mtr ~ l o ~ ~ ot t .eo prcssrlre a n d Mac11 n ~ ~ m l ) crespect-ivcly, h r, whcrc R 111)st,rr:rrn of 1.11~ s11oc:lc w t ~ v c .
r 1 Ilr tlin.gmms i l l Igig. 13.31 a n t l b colrt.ain a cornl,arison irotwcen t,hc thcorct.ica1 clrrvc*sn l ~ t l !,It(: ~.c.s~~lt,s ~ ( ~ : L S I I C C I ~ C I I ~ * ~ of' I 1)rrli)rrnc:cl I>y CI. 1: G:ltl(l ar~tl 1,. Al.tritlgc 4 . .J. 1401. I < o t l ~ t.11cory :~.n(l c.u~)rrirnt:t~t, Ict~tl1.0 t.hc conc:lusion t l m t t,ho prcssrlrc n l ~ c n t l ol' t . 1 1 Z ~ I I O sc:l):~rnt,ioni s l ~ i g l ~ wrl ~ o n ~ of c t,11o wall is heat,cd t h a n w h e n i t is adin.l)nt,ic. A r o ~ ~ ~ p : ~ r I~c:t.wnc~l ison t.hc? t,wo cliagranrs, cac:ll of wl~inllcorres[)ot~tlst,o a tliffcrent t , c : r ~ ~ p ( : r a t ~atr ct . 1 1 ~ wall, cot~vir~cc:s t.11:~t t,his cffccl bcconlcs Inore p t . o t ~ o n t ~ c c t l ~ 11s a s t,hc t 8 c m 1 ~ c r : ~ t , ~ l r c is ilrcrcnsctl.
3

N ~ ~ m e r i c solut.ions w h i c h c o n t a i n t l ~ e o n e of i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n n s e p a r a t e d al z laminar b o ~ ~ n t l a r y lnycr a n d n frictionless s u p r r s o n i c & r e a m were perforrned by V. N. V a k a arlcl S . I). Rrrt,lte [I 011, as well xs b y 0.R. B u r g g r a f [9J, G . S. Set!t>les,S . M. 12ogtlot1olT antl 1.E. Vns 193a.J.

111 Ackcrct,, J., I ~ c l d r ~ r n n ~ ~and Rott, N.: IJr~tcrs~~chrtngcn Verdichk~ngsstiisse~~~ d F., , a11 ut ~rc117.sclriol1l.nr1 nc:l~ncll hcwcgtcn Cnserl. Itcport No. 10 of Llrc Inst. of Aerotlyr~a~nics in I:'IxII Ziiric:l~ 1!)4(i: nee also NACA '1'M 11 1:) (1!)47). 121 Al)lrlrt,on. .I. I'., I L I I ~ II)nvics, f l . ,l.: A note on tho i~~tcrnot.ior~ nortnal slroclc wavc wit,h n of n tlrcrrnnl hotr~~tl;~.ry JAS 25, 722---723 (1958). layer. [:$I J<i~r(lslc?y, nntl Mnir, W. A,: Separation of thc 0o1111dary O., layer n t n slightly blunt, lcatling crlgo i r l ~rll~crsonic flow. Phil. Mag. 4 3 , 338,344- 352 (1052). 141 J3nrry. I'.\Y.. Sllnpiro, II.A., end N C I I I I I ~ ~ I I , VOIIIC experinlent8 on t.hc interact,ion R.P.: of slroclz w:~vcsmiLh holt~rtlnrylayers on a Ilnt plate. J. Appl. Mcch. 17, 126--131 (1950). (51 Jlrekwillr, I . E.: Sitnilnrit,y solrttions for srn:~ll crosn flown iri Inn~innr ror~rprrssible 1)onntlnry I:ryr!rs. N /IS/\'11. 1 107, 1 --07 (l!)lil). '1 L I61 73oatlo11off.S. RI.. znd I<el)lrr, C. IC.: Separation of a srlpersoriic: turbt~lentboundary laycr. s J A S 22, 414- 424 (l!)55): [7] Ilr,r~llir~l, :rlrrl 1~ichcli)rot1ner. I?., 1c.A.: (:nlc~ll dc la C O I I C ~ C iirllite Inl~lit~nire compressible. illl:t.l~otlrrnl~itlvapplir:il)lc 8.11 r m de In ~)lnqito plane. 1,n IG!chcrchc Ai.ro11. 28 (1952).

(:lt] \'a11 I)rit.st., 15.11..: 'l'l~r ~ ~ r o l ~ l of r e n nnrocly~rnn~ir Irmting. t\ero. ~CIIR. R.cvicw 15, 2Ii.- 41 (1!15(i). 132I Il:l~rr. (:. I < . : I<.r!c,c.nt,ir~\~r.stip.t.ionx Irtnpf:r:&t.nrcrenovcry nncl hn:%tt.rnns~nissio~~ of on c:ollc:s nrlrl t.ylin(l~'rs l l :txi:~lIIOIV in tI11c NOI. /\1:rol1:1.llist,i('.~ i Wind ' ~ I I I I I I ,li\S ID, I I; (l!)52). ~I. [:$:31 J $ i ~ . j r ~ ~ l l I+:. A,: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r , < : ~ I ( :(I?I ~ rn11(:11(! ~ r r ~ AI6t~l1o~Jcs clc I In 1i111iIc Inn~innircl ) i ( l i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ sCII ~ ~ e l l c io rtgi111r~~~1111~1rrssi1)lr.Nn,t.ion:~l 0fIi1.r fl'l<t 11~1rs clc: 1<~6(:11cr(~he rt, A6ro11:111t,ir~tt(:s I<JLA), (ON 1 ttris, 1'11l1li~~:tl,io11 ,Ye? (l!)5(i). No. [:i41 I#;IIIIIIOII~. Ll.\Lf., : I I I ~ I%r:~inrr(l, (:.: 'I'~:III~IC:~:L~,II~Cn In111i11:tr : ~ I I I I ~ I c ~ : H s ~ ~ I ~ ~ ,I. c!ll'r(:ls i l l ( Ilnid I I ~ I I I I I \.: Il:tj,t*r II\I>IIR :I Ilitl. l~l:tl,t:..I. i\pl~l.hlreh. S. I\ I05 (1!)4l) I L I ~ ,\IIII\.hIc(:11.!), I ~. ~ ,I. . . ( l!l42). 1351 I":~g,r,I\.. :rncI S:~rprnt..I<.: Shocsli \v:~vc.:III(I11o1111<1:iry ~ I ~ I C I I O I ~ I II(::I~: ~:L Ilnh 11lnt.r 1:tyrr ~II RII~.~:I,(.~*. ILoy. Sot:. A /!)/I, 1 20 (1!1*17). I'ro('. [:!(;I J'liiggr 1/)l7.. I., :~nrl ~ ~ I I I I R I I I I .A. I('.: l,:t~l~in:~r ~ ~ ~ ~ l ) t . r s s i l ~ l c I:~ycr long :L I : I I ~ v ~ < I . r~ I~onncl:~ry it~n~~lntc(l s~~rf:~.cc. 22. 445 4 5 4 (1!)55). .l/\S 1371 (::~rlcl,(:. 15. : S o n ~ c~ q ) r c :of I:c~~lin:~r : I~ I)o~ltr(l:Lry I:tycr srllnrat,ion in con~prrssil)IcIIOIV \vit,l~ r a t ) II~.:IL t,rnnsfcr L t,llc \wall. Acro. (),unrt.. 4 . 123- 150 ( 1953). o (RRI (:nclcl. (:. 15.. I lolclcr. I). W., rirrtl I<,P~ILII, 1\11cxlxri~ncnt.nl .I. I).: invcst,ignt.ion I I t.hr inter~ n.c~l.iot~ I)cI.wcc:n RIIOCI( \vnvrs :III~I I~onniI:ir,yIILYC~R. 1 2 0 ~So(:. A 226, 227 253 (l!)51). 1'r11(:. . [:!!I] (::~tlfl, (:.It:.: AI, cx11cri111ent,nl invcsI,ignttio~r h(;rrI, I,rt~nsfcr(:ll'r:rts on I I ~ I I I I ~ I II~t,yvr of ~.~ 122 (1!)57). S I : I ~ I I ~ I II I s ~ r r s ~ w i. c ~ I 2 I 1401 (::~.~ltl. (:.I<.. nntl r\l.l.riclgc?,.I.J,.: A 11o1.r n I.l~o o cl1i:c:I.s of Ilc:tt, brnnslvr on t.ho uoparnt.ion nf I : I I I I ~ I I : L ~ I I ~ I I I I ( ~ : I ~AIL(: (;I' 5li!) (l!llil). 1:1yrr. ~ 1411 (:inzc.l, I.: 1Sin I'~I~I~~I:~IIsc:II-V~~~I~II~CII~ ~ i n nk~~n~y~rcnsihler zllr Hc~rec:ln~ttng n ~ I rrr Grcnzznr Iiorc~:l~t~ur~g sc41ic:l1lc.11. Zr\MM 2!1, ci 4 (1!l4!)); (:in~.vl. I.: 15in I'ol~ll~nrlnc~~-Vorfi~I~rn~~ I;~~~\i~tarrr ko~r~\~rrssil~lc.r I:rc.~r~~.s~~l~icl~t~*~~e;c:lttrizt~~tl :LIIckincr Wntr(l. ZAMM 29, :YLI 337 ( l!)4!)). [421 (:rrcw, , I . 15.: InLcrnc:tio~~x hrt,\\,rcn s11n(~I( IVIIVOX i ~ n d t,~lrhnlenl, ~ o ~ ~ n t l layers. Progrew l ary i l l i\nroslr:rcr Sc:icnrm ( I ) . I < i i o l ~ r n ~ : ~ . n ~ ~ , rcl.). 11, 235 -340 (1!)70). 1431 ~:rns~~l~\viI:z,(!:LIvIII I<.: :1[111ro~:l16 In ~ O I I ~ : I I ~ 1nt11i11:tirc 6(:nnIr111cnt. (lc IirniIfi (:II ron~prnssil~ln S I I ~ I I I ~ I l~:irt~i ~ I I I . ~ ~ , I I I ~ ~ (11. ~ l:t ~(:11:11(!1tr. I I ~ I ~ , I - ~ ~ ~ ~ Ofli(:(: N~tI,innnl I ' I < I ~ I I ~ I (4,cia: lt6c11c~r1:11(: : I ~~s A6rn. I I ~ I I ~ , ~ ~ I(ONIClLi!), I'nris. l'n11Iit;:tl,i1111 o . ,I7 (l!)50). I I X N [441 JI:~r~txsvl~c~,r~ncl\I'c:ntll., 11.: ZUIIIIio111l)rrssil1ili1,5ln9ci11lllln4t l ~ r \\I.. hcsi Intnin:rrcn (:rr117.schir*l~l. ol~rnc~tr clrr I1l;il,Ir. .lh. (It,. l,rr~t.f:~I~rI.f~~rs~:Ir~~ng 2 1 (1!)40). I , 517 - 5 1451 I I : I I I I , ~ , s ~\\I,, I I ~ , ~ :CII(I\Vrndt. 11.: l)ir 1:11ni11nre(;r(:nzs~:I~icht n cinrn~ ntit, ~~her8ch:%Il. a g<;sc~l~\vi~~tligk~-it,I , ~ ~ I I I ~11ie11t~ I I ~ I ~ S ~ O I I ~l<rc!i~lzcgcl. (It,. l , ~ ~ f t ~ f : ~ l ~ r I , f ( ~ , s c l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g :III~(*~ .~*II PII ,111, Ir 76 77 (I!H I). [4(il Il:~.nlxs~.l~c~.:rll,l \\'c.llcll.. 11.: I)ic I:I.III~II:I~: \V., (:~C:II~.SC:II~~:II~.I ~ : I I ~ 1'1:1l.lc~ nit. I I I I < I ~ L I I110r ~ I II I \ i r ~ ~ i i I : r I ~: ~~~~ .~ r g t r I%(:rii(.ksi(.l~I.iU~l~~g 111'). 1<0111~1r(~ssil~ilit,~iI.. .Ill. (11,. Ir~~fl,f:~l~rl.~ ~ ) ~ H V III, I4I0 I # (I!lJ2). I 50 1471 Ilonctn, ill.: , tl~ty)~otic::tl \ i~~vest.i#nt.io~~ i ~ r k r n c t i o ~ ~ of (,he hrI.ween nl~oclc\mvt:s and 11on111ltrry I:~yc.rs..l:\S 2.5. li(i7 (i7X (I!)5X). [48l I~loa.;lrLlr, (!ntroerning t.11~ I,.: rl1i.r.t. of co1111)r0ssihiliLy I:~.tilinnr 011 honniinr,~ Inynrs nrrcl tllc*ir u c ~ ~ : ~ r ~ t tI'rn<;. I<,ny. Soc, Ifint1011 A I!),/, I(;.- 42 (l!)4N). ion. 1491 Illi~~g\vorII~. 'j.110 l:~.n~inar (:.I<..: ho~~n(l:try Inyer :msorintntl \rtit.l~ rctnrtlrrl flow of :r eonIr)rcsnil~lclI1ti11. ~\l<.(: l<hl 25!)ll (I!Mli). 1501 llli~~g\vnrll~, Stc::~dy llo\v ~ I It l ~ c I:. I<,.: 1n111in:tr ho1111(1:1ry ln.y@r n gas. l'ror. h y . Srjv. of A /!I!). 5:KI 558 (I!M!l). 151 1 II~I\I:III. I{,.ill.: I\ 110((. 0 1 1 (111%sl<it~-fri(.lion cn(~fIiri(:nl, n ( : O I I I I I ~ ( : S S ~ ~ I ~(101~. ASS ~f (!o~~(bl.tr .I I~ 2G. IWL (l!)S!)). 1521 . I ~ ~ I : I I I I I ~ S V INI ., I I.: I ~ ; X ~ I ~ ~ ~ onI I ~~ \ II ~ .~~ ~ ~~ I I I ( ~ I I SS ~ I~~II (I *: ~ S I~I I I ~llo\v in rornrrn a11i1t)b3(:r I I I I. (: CYIIII.:I.VI* SII~~':IIY*S. h111g..l.'j, :I.lO, 5li8 580 (l!l52). l'l~il. 5 : l l , s .I : \ I S l ' t in ~ : I I I S ~ I I, ~ :I S~ i r I i S 1 1 1 r I . 74 I!). I : Nil1111 ( ' ~ ~ ~ g r c - sIsl ~ c . Int.ort~:~.l (!o~~ncil 1110 i\c:ronanl~ic:nI S~:irnc:cs Ilnifn, Israel, of . ion:l.l of ,\ngnst. 1!)74. I5,ll VOII I ( . ~ ~ I I I &1.. I .:III<I' s i t * ~ ~11. S . : I{OIIIIC~:I.V~l r o ~ ~ r ~ ~ r r s I lin il~ l ,114s 5 , 227 - -232 '1'1 I 'I . l:~yrri l s h r ~. , (l!l:jS): SVI. :rIst~: O I I Ii:irt11611. V '1'11.: 1{1*1111rl. \'oll:~ (!ongrrss, I ~ O I I I P l!):j5; s ~ a180 (;oil. 1111 e \Y~>rl<s I. :\I:\ :V25. 1I w~ r~~t t ~ t~ry : ~ ~ trn~~sft-r (~i~f:fIi(~it:nlf~ for 1551 I ~ I I ~ c .I.: St:~\,c-y rri~,Ii,)~t v f l i ~ ~ i t ~ ~ ~v s .vS:~cl,ors I I IIIP:II. .. s1111vrso11i1. .l,\S :!I, 117 l2!l (l!)54). llor\.
~

[56] I<ipke, K., nnd Hamtnel, D.: Unt~?rs~lchungrn 15ngsnngrstrol11tr11Il:c.ltr~~~kol~lig~trR(io~~t\ an in1 IIvperurhallbercicl~.ZFW 23, 417--42!) (1975). -. [RC,n] Klinchcr, J.M., anti Stegnr, J . L.: Nu~ncrirnl cnlcnlnt.ion of lnn~iunrI~o~c~~tl;~ry-l:~.ycr st:l,ar. at,ion. NASA TN 7732 (1974). [57] K~rert.i,G . : Tllc Inminnr boundary lnycr in c o ~ r ~ ~ ~ r r s sIlo~v.Advar~(~rs 1\pl11. Mc:clr. ilrlr in 11. - - -92 (l!)5l). 21 -,[5XJ I,ceu, I,.: On Lltc bonr~dary lnyer cqu:it.io~~s Ilypornonic IIo\\l :~ncl t.l~rir I ~ ~ , ~ I I X ~ I I I : Isol- * ill : ~,~ ution. J A S 20, 143-146 (l!lfi3). [59] Iaes, L. : Tnflucncr of t.11~ Icnding-etlgo ul~orkwave on Ll~o 1:rtninnr 11o1111clnr~ :~t, 1:ly~r 11yl1rr8o11icsl~rcclu..1AS 23, 5!)4- -600 nnd ti12 (1!)5li). [GI)] I,i, '' Y., ant1 Nag:tlnntsn. H.T.: S i n ~ i l s o l r t , i o t ofs C O I I I L ) ~ C ~ R ~ I I I C 1:lyt.r CCIIIRl. ~~ ~ ~ 1101111clary t,innu. ,lAS 20, 05:!- 655 ( l!)5:!). [(ill Li, '1'. Y . , and Nn.gatnnt.s~~, Il.'l'.: Sin~ilnr snlnt~ions v0111~1rrssi11l(: O I I I I ~ ~ : I ~.I{IILL. : I ~ ~ ~ nf II ~J-~ tions. ,)AS 22, 607- (;I6 (1955). I621 1,ibby. ll.A., ant1 Mordut:how, M.: Mct.llod for calcnlntion of ( ~ o n ~ ~ ) r ~ sIs iO ~ I I I ~ :l:ty(:r, . I l I lr ~~, with nxinl prrssnrc grndicnt and heat Lran~fer.NACA 'rN :I157 (l!)(i4). [li:l] I,irpn~nr~r~,W.: 'I 11c i~~t.crnc:t.ion H. I~nl,u~ccn honndnry Ittyrr an(( sl~ocL\~:L\,I.R i l l l , r : ~ t ~ s o ~ ~ i c IIII\V.J A S 13, I?!:$ (;:I7 ( Il)Al\). [li4] I,~(:IJIIIIIIIII, I<OHIII(O, I I I I ~ I I)~IIL\C.:I.II. S.: 0 1 1 r ~ ~ l l ~ ~ ~ l i o t\VII.V~.H l'r0111 ~ , I U I I I C ~ I I ~ ~ 11. W.. A., O('HIIIII~I( ~ I ln.yc!rn, NA(:I\ J<I!~I. 1011 (l!)W2). I (IifiI 1,illc:y. (:. hl.: A nin~l)liIir(l t,I~rnry r n k i fri~:l.io~~ ~ I O ~ L l.r11.11~(i.r Ir ~ . I I I I I J I I . ( ~ H S ~ I I:LIII~II:L~ ~ l~ I I I I I ~. (i~ L II~. 11011ncI:tryInycr. (:oil. Acro. (!rnnIi(!ltl, Nolc No. $13 (l!l5!)). [(ili] I.oving. C:. I,.: Wil~d-t~tt~nel-fligl~t corrclntion of sl~oclt inclrt~.c~ti sn11:~rnl.rtl Ilr)\v. N/\SI\ 'I'N I? :45RO ( I !)ti$). (671 I , I I ~ ~ : L S ~ J., ~ V I ~ ~ ~ ~ , %].I<.:l t o t ~ ~ ~ f l : ~ . r y $I,II~I\V:IIZI: ~ ~ v ( - s l i g i:l ~ s i ~ ~ ~ ~ r s o ~ ~ i ~ : I I I I ~l<oylr, lt~yrr i l \ nl ~ Ilow. AJtC ItM 2lil:l (l!)521. > , [(;8] J,nxton, 1a.E.. nnd Young, A,]).: Ucnernlisrd ~nrtl~otls f l ~ c a l c n l : r t i ~of ~ ~~ nI : ~ n ~ i t ~ n r for ~ tl cornl~rwsible boundary layer chnracterisI.ia8 wit11 hcnt. t,ransfer nntl n o l r - r ~ n i f ~ ~ r n ~ s s n r e ~rc dist.rihut.ion. ARC R,M 3238 (l!)(i2). [ I l t i r V . A : I X ~ I I I on sc~trrrr~l.ion 11on11(111ry I of 111yrw1111 11ro11(.~ :I S I I I I ( . I . S O I I ~ ~:Lit.ill 8Lrcn.111. 1'11iI. Mng. 43, 342. 6!)5--7lI; (l!)52). [70J klnngler, W.: Z I I ~ ~ . I I ~ I I Iz\vi8r11c11I I ~ C I I ~ I ~cbenrt~U I I ~ O ~ : I ~ ~ ~ I I I S S J - I I I I I l : r ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~ I ( : I ~ I ~ ~ II~( ~ S ~ ~ . s ~ I ten in koulpressihlen l'liissigkeito~~. ZAMM 28, 07 - 10:s (1!)4H). [71] Mangler, W.: ICin Verfnhren zur I%crecl~nnt~g Intl~innrrtr (:renzsrl~icl~t. der wit brlichiger J)ruckverteilut~gt ~ n dWiirlnciiberg:lng fiir nllc Illa~~h-Znl~lc:~~. 4, Ii:! - (ili (I!)A(i). ZVW [72J Mt~ydc\\~. I<,.(:.,:LII(I I':I.~~IWI, l C x ~ ~ ( ~ r i ~ i i ~ t ~ n I ~in lt ~ t it,l~c ~ :LIIII (7.C.: ~ v c * s I g nf ~ ~ ~ 1m~:rI :ivrv~ig(: slci~r fric:Lio~~ t l ~ v in 111111innr 11o1111dnry 111j(\r n llnl. 11l:llr 111. :L AI:I~.II-III~IIIIII.~Ni\('iZ '1.N (III of 2.4. 2740 I~.I!)52). [73] IMCLRYII, 111trgrnIi011 the h01111~1:11.y I).: (11 1:1yrrr q ~ l ~ ~ t i o n s IIIIIII(I in :I r o t n l ~ r v ~ ~ iflnicl. l'i~r:I l~lv I'roc. ]toy. Soc. 1.ontlon 1\ 105, 180---IN8(1!)48). 1741 MCksyn. If.: 'l'I1c I1011111l11ry lnycr rc1nnI.io11~ c o t n ~ ~ r r s n i lIc~\vs1.11irrntio11. ~ \ h l M 38, of l~l~~ % 372-379 (1958). [75] ~onagllntl; J'.: An npproxin~ate IL. ~011lt.io11 t,l~e of rn~nl>rcssil~lr In~ninnr1101111cl:iry l:~yrr OII a flat p l n k ARC Ithl 2760 (1949). 1761 hlonngl~nn,R. J.: EfFec:ts of 11t?att,r:~~~sfcrInnrinnr I~or~nclnry OII lnyor clovolol1111rnt nncler prcflnuro grndict~t,~ con~pr~vsil~lc AJ<C JLM 3218 (I!)(;[). in llo\r. [77 1 Moore, 1,. I,.: A solnt.ion of t.11~: 1n111in:irI~onnil:ir~v l~lyrt. ( I I Iions for 11 ~ O I I I ~ I I . ( . lI11i4l I I ~ ~ :I( *S~I \srit,h vnri111)iol ~ r o [ ~ ( ~ r l~i r s ,( : ~ I I ~(Iissocit~tio~~. /!I, 505 518 ( l!l52). I I ~ I I ~ Ji\S 17x1 Moorr, 1'.J<.: ' I ' l ~ r c c - t l i ~ ~ ~ c : ~ ~ s i o ~ ~ : i11o1111tl:~ry 1101~..I,\S 20, 525 5:i.l (l!l5:l). I:rl~~i~l:ir l 1:1y13r IT!)] Mortl~tvl~o~v. A~~nlysis ( ~ n l ~ . ~ l l :Ily( iinl~*grnl R.1.: nntl ~ o~~ 111rt110ils I : I I I I ~ I I ::Io ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r v s s i l ~ l of ( ~ 1)ountlnry layer 1vif11 l ~ c n tLrn~lsfc?r nnrl wit11 nncl \vil.l~c~~~t prc:ssnrr! gr:tcliv~~l. Ki\(!l\ I<,r:p. 1215 (1!155). (801 Morris, J).N.. rind Stnitli, J.\f'.: 'I'IIc vo1111)rrssil1lc: I;IIII~II:II, 11o1111cl:try l:~yt,rwit11 :~rl~itr;try Iwessure nntl snrfncc te~nperntnre grcrdienfs. Jt2S 20, 805 818 (l!)53).Sc:cnlso: Alllrris. I). h'., and Smith, ,J. \V.: Kin Niil~er~tngsverlit~lrcn tlic I n t r g r n t i n ~ ~ I n n ~ i n a r c ~ ~ fiir (lor lzo~~~l)rrssiI~lc~r ( : ~ c I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~ 3 4 ~ ~ I I I194 (1!)54). . Zi\M M c . 1931.- I I ~ c I I 181 ] Miillcr, E.A,: 'I'l~oorc~t.iuc~lrc Untcrsnrl~nngcniil~rr \ V ~ ~ I ~ ~ I S I~ ~ ~~I \ . VI .~(I .~ I ~ ~ZI (-inI I ~ (li~, \ Y : ~ \ I I ~ I ( I II I fnllc.nc11.11s c l ~ \ a n ~ : l ~ i ~ n V~~rtlir~l1lrr11g~xI,ol1 rlvr I ~ I I I I ~ I I I I I ~I!~~.II.~H(.I:~(.JI( (j1,t.l. 1111t1 II i l l t.ilt4.r ~el~nllst~riirnnng. year8 of honntl:rry-layc:r rmenrcl~(CV. 'l'r,lln~icr~ Yift.y :~ntl1 1 . l:iirl.la~,vil.), Jirnr~narh~vrig, I!)55. 3 4 R -:I(i3.
- - 7
~

376

XI 11. Jfiminnr 1)01111dnry 1:rycra

it1

compresaiblo flow

[Bla] Murphy, .I.]).: A critical evnh~ntion annlyLicnl mothods for predicting latninnr boundary of Inyer, ahock-wave it~tcrnction.NASA TN 1)-7044 (1871). I81111 Murphy, ,I. I).. l'rcsley, I,.L., and Roue, W.C.: On the calculation of supcraonic scparnting and r r n t t , a o l ~ i ~ ~ g ACAltl) Corlf. I'roc. Flow Sepnrntiotl, No. 168, 22-1 to 22-12 flows. (1975). I821 N e ~ ~ m n n R.I).: Special topics in hypersonic flow. AGARD I ~ c t n r e n, Series No. 42, 1,7-1 to 7- 64 (1972). [831 I'ni, S. I., a11t1Sllcn, S. IF.: Hypersonic viucoun flow over an inclined wedge with heat trnnsfcr. Fift.y ycnrs of boutldnry-layer rcsenrch (W. Tollmien and H. Gortler, ed.), Brant~scl~weig, 1955, 112- 121. 1841 Prr~rccy,11. ll., O R I ~ ~ I.I., n ~ l d l n i n r ~A.I%.:The int~racl~ion IC, l , betwcct~ local rtTcch a t the shoc:k nrtd rc:ir sc!~~:inrbio~~ uottrcc of u i g t ~ i f i c a aoalo c l k c b in w i n t l t ~ t ~ ~tent8l on air- rr ~~t t~e foils n11c1wit~gs.A(:AItI) Cot~f.lJroc. No. 35, I I -- I to I 1-23 (1968). 1851 l'ooln, (:.: A nol~tl.ionof Lhe con~prcsail~lc lrb~ni~~nr~ ~ ~ ~ dlayer cq~intionrr wit,li Iloat ho rrry Lrn.nsfcr 1111tl:i~Iverscprcmwrc gradient. Quart. J . Mech. Appl. Mn1.h. 13, 67-84 (1860). [HC,] Itcqhot.ko, I<., nrtcl l%eckwith, [.IF.: Cotnprcs~ibleItrr~tinarbo~r~ltlnry laycr ovcr a yawctl i ~ ~ f i t ~c:ylitltlcr wibh heat trnttsfcr and nrhitrnry l'rnndtl number. NACA Ibop. 1370, 1-48 itr! (l!)58). I871 Itot,t. N., ntid Cral~trre, 17.: S i ~ i ~ p l i f c d L. laminar bo1111dnrylnyer cnlcr~lations bodies of for r c v o l ~ t t ~ i o ~ ~for ynwcd wings. J A S 19, 55:3-565 (llj52). and 1871~1 11ci I~yperso~~ischen Grenzachichten. .Jb. W(1LIE - - Rot.t.a, .J.C.: Wiir1t1cii11crgnngs~~ro1)1et1~e 1902, 190 - - I!)(\ (1!)63). 1881 Itr~hcsit~, W., atld ,Johnson, 1f.A.: A crilical rovic\r- of skin frictior~and 11ca.t. t,rnnsfer M. aol~tt~ior~x(.l~r of Intt~innrlro~t~ldary- of a flat plntc. 'Crnns. ASME 71, 383---388 (1849). " levor (P8al I<,yzhov,0. S.: Visrortn tratlaonic flows. AIIII.l b v . Fluid Mcch. (M. van Dyke. ed.) 10, 65!)2 (l!)78). 1891 Sc11c.rrc.r. It.: (!o~~~p:irinot~ of t,lteorct,ical nnd c x p c r i t ~ ~ c t ~Itia~ ~ tratlsfcr chnrncteristics of l ct I)oclien of rrvol11t.io11 uupersor~icspecds. NACA Itcp. 10.55 (1951). of [!)01 S(:l~lic.l~t.it~g, Z ~ t r13crrcl1111111g I:rtnirlnret~ Reil)rrt~gwclticl~t, ~~hcrscl~nll~racl~~\~in11.: dcr bci tligltril.. AIIII. rlcr Ilrn~tt~sol~wcigiuc:I~ct~ (:csellscl~aft 3, 2 3 9 - 2 0 4 (1051). Wim. 1911 St,:rr~e\\.slzy,15., ntltl Litblc, 13. H . : Sepnratior~ant1 rcattiichtnent in transonic airfoil flow. J . Airrrnft R, !)52--958 (1071). [92] St,ainl)ac:k, ll.C!.: At1 ex~~erirncntal invcst.ignt,ion a t n Mach tlumbcr 4.95 of flow in the vicinit,y of a !)O0 interior corner aligned wit.11 the free stream velocity. NASA 'CN 184 (1960). 1931 Sctltlcy, It.: I,nttiitiar bonndary layer on a spinrli~lgcone a t small angles of attack in n s ~ t p e r s o ~l~ i~ .IAS 24, 430---436, 455 (l!)57). f o ~. (!)RtrJ Settles, (:. S.. IlogdonotT, S. M., a11t1V m , 1. E.: Jncipicnt scpnration of n s l ~ ~ e r s o nboundic ary lnyrr at. high l~oynolds nu~nbcw. AIAA .I. 14, 50-56 (1976). (!)4] Str\vartsot~, I<.: Corrcl:ltcd eornprcssil)le :inti incon~presnihleboundary layers. Proc. Itoy. Sor. A 200, 84 100 (1!)4!)). [!I51 Stcwarlno~t, : 0 1 1 t,ho intrrnction hctwcer~ I<. shock waves and houtldary layers. Proc. Catlthr. I'hil. Soc. 47. 545--553 (1951). [!)(\I S k w n r t n o ~ I<.: 'l'hc theory of lat~tinar ~, I)ou~~d:rry layers in cotnprcssiblc flrritln. Oxford, l0(i4. 1!)71 'I'nni, 1.: 011the :r~~l,roxirt~at,c solntiol~of t.l~e laminar bortndtiry layer e q . ~ a t i o nJ A S 21, ~ s. .. 487 - 4!)5 (1!l54). [!I81 'J'iltorcl, A. N.: Sitnpliliccl co~n~~rcssiblc lnmirlar bor~tldarylayer thcory. J A S 18, 358-350 f l!)5 I ). (!)!)I 'l'oll, 'l'.A,. attcl I'incl~cl, C..: The X-15 projt:c:t,-mnlrlts atid new research. Astronautics nnd Arror~ntlt~icn, 25 -:?2 (I!.)04). 2. (1001 \\l:it.so~~. I).. ntid Wril~ntein.I,.M.: A nLudy of hypernonic corner flow i~~toractions. I<. AfAA ,I. 9 , 1280-.1280 (l!)71). ( I01 1 \Verlc!, M . . I . , l'olnlz. A., V:it.qa, V. N., a t ~ t l I%crt,ke, KT).: Finilo difference sol~ttions artperfor sot~ic sey,:tr:~f.c.d Ilown. A(:Altl) Conf. I'roc. 17low'Scp~rat,ior1.No. IC,R, 8.- 1 t,o 8-12 , 1!)75). , [I021 LVrst.. .I. 15.. ntlcl I<orgcgi, It. 11. : St~pcrsonic ittleraction in the corner of it~tersectingwedges nt. high I<r,vt~olcls 1t111111)crri. AIAA .1. 10. 652 656 (1!)72). (10:11 Y:I.~II;I~:I, ,411~pproxittt:~Ilr l ~ t t ~of t,hc lamiliar bottt~dnrylnyer on n rot.nting hody of .I.: so io~~ r c v o l r ~ l i oi ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i faontprr~sil)lc t, ~ orrn Ilow. I'roc. fit11 ,Inpan Nnt. Congr. Appl. Mech. Univ. l<yol,o, ,J:~II:III. 205 208 ( l!)5li).
-

[I041 I'nng, 1t.T.: At1 irnprovetl iritcgrnl proccdnrc for ootnl~rcxsil~lr 1nntitl:tr I~c,rtr~tl:~r~ . ~ I:I~, a ~ ~ a l y s i .I. 11ppl. Mech. 28. 1)--20 (1001). s. [I051 Y ~ I I I A.~ , Section on "Hot~ndary1,nycrs" in: Modcrr~tlcvclopnicnt.s in Il~tidI I I ( Y . ~ I ; I I I ~ ~ I I).: High spcctl flow (I,. IIo\vnrt,h, cd.). 1, 375- 475, (:lrircndot~ I'rrss, 0sfc)rtl. l!)~!. [IO(i] Y O U I I I\., I).: Skit1 fric:Lic)u in 1,110 l : ~ ~ t ~ i t1101111clary ~ ~:ir lr~ycrof a c,o~t~prc!ssil)lc* ,\t!t.c~. Ilou, Quart. I, 137-164 (1040). [I071 Young, A,]).: 13011tldarylayers atld ski11 friction in high spcc(i flo~v. I<oy. Arro. Soc. 5Q, .I. 285--302 (1051). [I081 I'ottng, G. I%. \V., and J a l l s s c ~ ~ . 'Che co~nprcnsiblcbo~t~trlnry E.: Iayrr. ,!AS 19. 22!) - 2:lii, 288 (1952). . . [I()!)] Y ~ I I I I ~ I)., and Harris, 1I.D.: A net. of sitnilar so111t,io11~ t.11~ O I I I I ) ~ ( ~ S S ~ I I I ( * l i ~ ~ ~ ~ i t l i A. , of C I)ottt~(l:rr?: I:~ycrc:qtt:it.ions for tl!c Ilow ovcr a fl:rt. 11l:itc: 1vit.h ~tr~st~.:lrly ~ ~ I I I ~ I ~ - I . : I ~ \v:III z l F i V 13. 2!)5 :SO1 (l!)li7). 1 1 1 0 ) %:I:I~., , \ . : A c ~ ~ ~ c - l ~ r i r : ~~ttt ~tr~t:.rlforr 1 . 1~ ~c.rilc:t~li~Liot~ I:ir~~it~nr ,I. t r ~ ~ 1l or (.r~~~~l~rc.ssil,l(* I>ot~llcl:~ry 11ryc!r f l t ) ~\vit,It a prcnsc~rcgradict~t,.Niit. 1,11cht,v.1,nh. 1\111sl,c!rc1n111, I<(.II.I? I l l (l!j5:l).

n. Mrl.lirjd~ 1,01111tlnry-lnyrr of control

3! 7)

i r ~ nct,rlal ny~y)lio:~tioris is oftcri norcssary ($0prevent sci):~ml.io~i ortlor tau rc-cl~rc:t: it in tlr:ig ant1 t.o at,t.nir~liigli lift. Several niethods of cor~t,rollirigthe botrntlnry lnyor I ~ n v c\)con clcvclol)cci expcriniontnlly, nnrl nlso on the b n ~ i xof I,lioorotic::~lnorrsidc:rntioiis 16, 76, 701. Tlicsc car1 t ~ c t:lnssifictl a s follows:

CIIAPTER XIV

Boundary-layer control in laminar flow t

hlol.ion of tlie solitl wall Accclcrat,iori of tlic bol~ndnry 1:tycr (blowing) S~~ct.ion 1njac:l.iori of n, cliffcrerit gas (I)iriitry I)ot~ndary 1nyc:rs) 5 . I'rovc:nt.iot~or t,rnrisit,iorit o L ~ ~ r l ~ l ~ l o n I)y 1.11t: ~~rovi.siorl utliL:~I~It! flow l of NII:L~;(:H (I:i.~ninnr :tt~roIOiIs) 6. ('ooli~ig or t,lio wr~ll. Mrtrhotls 1 to 4 will be discussetl in taliis chnptrr. Methods 5 ant1 fi will be tlcscri1)rtl in (:II:LII. S V I I in conricxiori witJi t,ho rorisitlrrat-ion of t . 1 1 ~ t.lit.ory of t rntisil ion fro111 l : ~ ~ i ~ ito i ti~rl)tilriit~ ~ ;~r flow. r I lio t.rcat.isc: e~it.it,lt:cI "Bo11ncl:try-1,i~ycrant1 I'low (?or~l.rol" 1441 Ily (:. V. I , ; t t : l ~ rnann ~orit.:~ins slrmmary of the sill~jcctof boi1nd;~ry-layercontrol at:corctirip to a tlic state of rcscnrcli a t t.lic time; cornpare also I.'. I<. Chang [12n]. Until t,lie rnd of the Sccontl Mrorltl War, t,lie problems untlcr coiisiclrrat,ion wcrc workctl on almost c,xclusivcly in C:c>rnlnny: (.lie corrcspontling n.cl~icvrrnc:rits linve Orrri rcport.ctl 011 1)). 11.1lt.t~ [9]. Tlie tlcvelop~rirnl, t.liis s i ~ b j e cwliicli toolc plncc in otlicr coirntrics since t.lir (-lid of t of t l ~ Sccontl \\Tor.ltl \\'at- has brcn srinimnrizctl in rcf. 1441:ts wcll as i l l 127, Rfi, G5, 104 1. c I,Iic j)reserit c:linptcr will princip:tlly tfcnl with t l ~ c : prot~lcms colit,rol iri I:~niin:tr of

1. 2. 3. 4.

,l .iicrc ;i.rt. in existence several ineLliods which have been developed for the purpose of nrt.iGcinlly conbrolling trhc I)oliavio~~r tfhc bonntlary layer. The: piirposc of of flicsc mctliods is t o affect the wliolc flow in a clcsircd direction by infl~rcricing

the strtrct,urc of tlie boundary layer. As early a s in his first paper put)lishcd in 1904, 1,. I'rantltl rlrscril~cd sevrrnl cxperirnents in which tlie borl~ldary layer was cont,rolled. Ire: inl,ciidctl t o prove tJie ~ a l i t l i t ~of his funtfamonta.l ideas by suit,ahly designed y cx~)crilncllt,s n.rld arliicvctl quite: rcmarltn.l)lc rcsl~lts this WRY. i g ~ l r c in F 14.1 shows t,lrc flow 1);txt n c:irrr~l:\rc:ylititlor with s~ict,ion :tpplit:d on 0110 sitlc of i t t,hrotrgl~n sriiall slit.. 0 1 1 t.hc s ~ ~ c t , i o n tlio llow ndlinrrs t.o I.lic cylintlcr over a consitlcrably larger sitlo ~,ort.io~i i t s srirf;loe: nntl scpnr:tt.io~~ nvoitlctl; 1 . 1 1 ~tlrng is rcdt~octlnl~prcci:lljly, of is nilti si~n~ilt~niicoiisly n Inrgc cross-force: is intlt~cctlowing t o tlie lack of symnictry in ~ J I C flow pnt,t,orii.

tjonritlnry Inycrs. 1'rot)lcms relatctl t.o b n r l ~ ~ ~ l c n t I)o~~ricl:~ry 1nyc:rs will I)(. st.~~clic:tl in S r r . X S I I 11 6.

A s tlrriio~~st,~.;~t,c-rI i l l (!II:L~. S, n l : ~ n ~ i ~t ~ : i~ r n d ; Inycr can sirl)l)ort. orily very or ~ry 111 sni:~ll :ttlvnrst: 1)rt\ss11rt:g ~ . : ~ l i t v ~ t ~ wiI.lio~~t, Llit: ot:t:~irt:iit:o of so1):~r:bl~io1i. 1 . 1 1 ~ ~:RHC 0(. t,~~r\n~I,:~it. t , l ~ c flow tIn.iig& of scl)nr:tt.ion is int,riiisicaIly rodr~cetl,compsrcd w r i l l l I : ~ ~ n i n :fIo\v. I ) ~ C R I I S Oowitlg t.o l,I~r ~r l.t~rI)i~lcnt mixing mot,iori Iflicre is s cont . i ~ ~ n o(low of' 1iio1iiciit.11iii i~s fro111 the cxt.crn;i.l flo\y t.ow:~rtlsl.lie: wall. Nnvcrl~lit:losq, 1~vc.11l t t~rl)rrlt-nt, it is often tlrsiral)le t,o prevcrit, scparnt.ioli by adopt.ing suitable il flow hn?ct~rl*rr?y-/tr!yrr rnntrol mcns1irrs. 'l'tio prol)lcn~ I)onntlnry-layer cont,rol Iias 0ct:omc of vrry. iril~~ort,nrit. n. t.i~nc,in partfic~ilnri i t,lic firltl of ncronn~itirnlengineering; lijr i

l'voft~ssor I),.. \IT.\frt,csl,:~sxixl~~l l)rt~1):ir:tl,it~t) i t ~ l,Iw of b'illll I C ~ l i I i o to f I l l i ~l>tioIc. ~

t,Ilt: II~:\%~ vorsioti of

LIti8

rIlnplt*rfor

I,lit?

1. klotior~of tlac solid wall. 'l'lic! rtiost, oljvioils r~it*t,I~otl ;tvoitli~igsv~j:i.~it,iott of is 1.0 nt,t.c:riil)l,t.o prevent Llio forniaLiori ol'n I~o~lritlitry 1:tyc.r. Sint:c: n I)oi~r~tl:~ry I:b,ycr owes it.s cxist.cncc t o the cliffercrlce bctewceri tlic v ~ l o o i t ~ y tlie Iliritl ant1 tlint of Ghc of solitl wall, it is possi1)le t o eliminate the formalion of a I,o~rndnry lnycr l ~ y :tt.t,t*mljffirig to sllpl)rcss Clint tlill'crcrlca, i . c. by c:r~~sirig ~ o l i t lwall t o Inovc: wit,l~1,110 the st.rc:;~m. 'I'lic: si::~l~lt:sI~ wny of achiovirig s11t:l1I& r c : ~ ~ ~ l t , i~ivoIvc:s(,IIO rot.:it.i(>~i :L t:irt-trI:ir or c:yliritlc:r. lf'ig~rrc: 14.2 NIIOWH tlie flow I ) : L ~ ~ C T Iwlti(:li cxi.qt~ ~ t j o u t rot,:tt.ir~gc:yli~~tlc:r I ~ : L

:180

X IV. llorlntlnry-layrr control

~)laccdin a strcam nt right anglcs t o its axis. On t h c upper sitlc, where the flow and t,he cylinder move in tlic snmc direction, separation is completely eliminated. I~ttrt,llcr~norc, tllo lowcr sitlc wl~cret , l ~ c on tlircot,ion of Hr~itlrnot,ioti is opposite t o t,llnL of t.lrc solitl wall, scpnral,ion is c1cvclol)cd only incotnpletcly. 011tthc whole, t,lro flow pnt.t.rrt1 wllich cxist.s in t,ltis case nj)proxinint,cs vcry closely tlrc pnt,t,ern of frit:l.ionlt:ss Ilow j)asl, x circttlar c!ylititlor wit,l~oircnla.t,ion. 'rhc: sl,rram exerts n consitlcmbl(: force on t,lic cylintlcr a t right :111glcst,o td~c mean flow tlircct0ioli, ;lncl t,liis is somcttimcs referred t o ns t,he Magnr~s cIFcct,. This effect can be seen, o. g., wllcn a. t,cnnis l);~ll 'sliced' in 1)I;~y. t t ~ c t n p twcrc also mntlc t o ~lt~ilixc ~ c is A ,~ t l occilrrcncc of lift, on rotating cyliritlcrs for t h e prol)l~lsionof s l ~ i p s(I'lettner's rotor 111). With t h e exception of rotgatsing cylinders, tlto itlc?:h of moving t l ~ solid wall wit,l~ stronm c the can I)(? rcalizetl only a t tVhc cost, of vcry grcat complic:~tions a s far ns s l ~ a p c s ot,hrr t.llnn ryli~~tlrionl conoornccl, ant1 conscqt~ent,ly, are this nictllotl has not fonntl ~nnalrpractical npplicatio~l. Nevort,hc:loss, A. I h v r e (261 mntle a thorougl~expcrimcst~t.nl invest.ignt.ion of t,ltc inll~lcncc a moving bo~tntlary n a n nerofoil. A port,ion of o of l.I~t,ripper sttrf;~.cc f.l~o of nerofoil was li)rrnetl into a n c:ntllcss I ~ c l tw l ~ i c lnlovatl ~ ovcxr two rollcrs so t,li:~tI,ltc: rcLttrn tnol,iot~ occnrrctl in t l ~ c irlt,crior of t.11~motlcl. 'J'lio arrangcrncnt, proved vcry cff'cctivc for the avoidance of separnt,ion, nntl yicltlcd vcry high nraxitilrlm lift, cocfficicnt,~(C,,,,,, 3.5) a t I~iglr angles of incitlcnce = (a. z 55'). T l ~ e Inrninar boltridary laycr for a flat plat,c moving in its rear part with t.hc sf,rcmn 11n.s I)ccn c:rl(:t~latctl by ]I:. 'I'rncltcnhrotlt. [IOO].
2. Accclcrn1inn o l t l ~ b n u ~ ~ t l layer (blnwi~lg). An nllnrnn.t,ive t~rc~t.ltotl l)rcvc:l1c nr~ of t.il~g scp:r.rat.ion ronsist.~ supplying atltlit.ional energy t o t h e part,iclcs of fluid wl~irlr in arc Itring rct.nrtlrd in t h e bor~ndary laycr. This resrllt can be at-hicvotl by tlisclrarging fluill frorn t,Ilc itlt,c?riorof t,llc I)ocly wit11 t h e aicl of n special blower (I'ig. 14.:ln), or Oy tlrriving t.hc fctlr~irctlenergy dircct,ly from tllc main s h a m . This Iat,t,cr effect. pa11 I)P l)rotlrirctl by conncct.ing t h e rct,nrtlcct rcgion t.o a rcgion of l~iglierpressure t.l~rot~gIr slot in tlrc wing (slottcd wing, Pig. 14.3b). I n c i t l ~ c rca.sc atltlit.ionnl n crirrgy is i ~ n ~ : r r ~ 1.0dtlrc pnrt,icles of lltlitl in tho boilntlary layer .near the wall. .c M'lrrn fluitl is tliscl~nrgcd,say in t h e manner shown in IGg. 14.3a. it is mnntlntory t,o pay mrcfrtl at,t~crrt.iont o tlie sllnpc of t,hc slit in order t o prevent t h e jet frorn dimc,lving into a t 8 short* dist.nncc bcl~irid the exit section. Tjatcr expcri~ncnt,s pc~rli)r~nc~tlFrance [04] Iinvc rnatlc it, vcry ntll.racl.ivt: t,o n.pply blo\\ling :I.{, in t,hc t,r:iiling ctlge of n.rl acrofoil in ortlcr t o incrcnsc its mnximrlm lift. Att,cnipt.s consid(.rn.l)ly t,o incrmsc t h e rnasiln~lmlift of a Rnp wing t,lrrongh blowing in the slot. 11:l.ve a.lso m r t u.it.11 sr~cccss(c/. Sec. X l l b 6). 111 1 . 1 1 ~ c.;rsr of t.11~ slol.tretl wing [7], l ~ o w n Ipig. 14.311, t.hc c f i c t is protl11c:ctl s in :IS follows: 'l'lrc I)o~tntl:~ry laycr forrncti or1 t h e forwnrtl slnL A - 1 is c:arrictl in1.o t,l~c 3 tn:tit~sl.rc-n.tn brfore scl)nml,ion occurs, :&rltlfrorn point ( O I I W R ~ ( ~a tlc\v bot~ll(ln.~.y : S I:~yt-ris li)rnrc.tl. IJrlJcr favoural)lc contlitions this new borttid:~rylayer will rcnc:lt 1.111:t.rniling rtlgc 1) wil.l~out. sc?pamt,ion. 111tliis way i t is possiblc to relegate ~ r p a r n t ~ i o t i t,o consitlrm.bly larger n.nglcs nf incidnncc, nrtd t,o achieve rnucll larger lifts. Fig. 14.4 s11ows n polar tlia.grntn (lift, cocfficicnt~ plottetl against drag coeffi'licir~lt~) a wir~g for s(~t-i.ion \vit,l~: ~ n d ~ i l ~ l ~ o t ~ t , u forwnr<Islat 2nd Ilnp. 'l'lic plrcnomenn in t*hcslot fornietl I)y t.11r fl:r.p ltcwr t,hr t.rnilittg e(lgc are, in pritlciplc, t.lic same as tliosc at, the forwnrtl sl:rI. 'l'llr g:lirr in lift is seen t o I)o vory collsideral~le.

Fig. 14.0. 1)ifFercnt arrnngen~ents boundfor ary-fnycr conl.rol. n) discl~nrgoof fluid, b) slotted wing, c) suction

Fig. 14.4. Polar dingrnrn of n wing will1 for\r.nrti ~ l n alltl II:L~ t

A review of recent work on control t.liroug11 blowing is contninctl in ref. [13].

3. Suction. 'I'llc effect- of suction consists in the rcrrioval of dccc1cr;~trtl fluitl 1)artic:les from tJie bouritlary layer before they arc givcn a cliancc to carrsc scp;~mt.iori, Fig. 1 4 . 3 ~ A new boundar.y layer wllicll is again cnpnl)lc of ovcrco~~ring c:crt,;l.in . :I ntlvcrsct 1)rcssrtr.o gl.atlicnt is allowctl t o (i~rliiin 1110 rcgiol~ I ) t : l ~ i l l t l I,II(: slit,. \\'iI.lr a srtitrnl)lc nrmngcmcnt of t l ~ e slits ant1 rrntlcr f;~vorrr;~blo c:ontlit.ions scl):~r;ll,iot~ r:Ln be prcvcntcd completely. Siniultancously, tlrc atnoutrt, of prcssnrc tlrng is grcat,ly rctlrtaetl owing t o tllc almcncc of scpa.rntion. The npl)licaI.iotr of s~lct~ion,l ~ i c - l nr:rs \v ~ first t,rictf by L. I'mrltIt,f (Pig. 14.1), w ; ~ slater \vitlciy itsc:tl in t , l ~ c tlcsigtr ol' iiirt~r:ift, wings. 1 %applying suct.ion, consit1crnl)ly grcntcr ~)rcssrlrcincrc:tscs ott I l ~ cr11,lwr ~ side of t.llc acrolhil (i. o. lowcr nk)solt~t,c j)rcssr~rc:) :tro ol,l.:~i~~(:(I 1:l.rgt: :111gIt-s01' :kt1 in~:itIt:n(:t:, rind, c o t ~ s t ~ q ~ t c t ~ T l~~ Iy~.I I:rrg(!r r11axit1111r11 v;rlt~(~s. S(.I~I.~.III< It I I lift, 0. 1851 invcsl,igat.ctl x 1:~rgt: ru~mi)orof tlil1i:ront nrmngcmcnLs of sttct,ion xlit,s i r l r t l t,lrcir cff'cct on mnximt~ni lift; see ;ilso ref. [104]. 111 rnorc rocrnt, l,in~cs srtc:l,io~lwits :~Isonpl)liotl to rc~tlltc:ctlr:lg. lg~r1,Itt: ttst. of. suilnblt: nrrnngrtncwt.s of sttct,iori slits it is 1)ossiblc t o sllifi, t11c l)oi~rl, f tt.:tllsitio~~ o in t , l ~ c I)ountlary lngcr in tllc ctownstrcnrn dircctiori; this causes tlic tlr:tg cocfficic~rt t o t~ecrense, because laminar drag is sr~bstant~ially smaller thn11 tr~rb~rlcrit drag, Fig. 14.9. The effect of the dela?/ i n Lmn.siLion cnuscd I)y suctior~ t o rctlrlce tIllr? is

bonntlr~ry-laycrl,l~icl<nt:sq wllir11 0 ~ 1 ~ 1 1 t)t:eomes less pr011c t,o ttlrning t~c~rl)~tlr-nl 131. I'~~rl~llc~rrnorc, velocity p r ~ f i l c sin R 11011ncl:~ry tllc lnycr wit.11 s~~ct.ion, L)eing frlllcr (lc'ig. 14.61, 1t:tvc f o r ~ r ~ s wIlit:l~arc lt:ss lilct,ly to int1t1t:o t , ~ ~ r I ~ ~ ~ l t : n o t : (:orr~p:trctl wit,l~ (,hose it1 1n.rninn.rI)onn~ln.ry layors w i t h o ~ stlebion nr~ll c r j ~ ~thic:kncss. L'rol~lcms ~t ol al c~onnc~t:l,rtl wit.11 t,llo ~)ltt?non~onorlt.ransit.ion. n~ltl particr~lxr of in t.llosc nssoriat,ctl wit,l~ st1c1,ion. will I)c tlisc:nssotl rnoro fitlly in (:l~ny). XVII.

4. Iltjcetion o a dilrrrcl~tga*. 'l'ho i~rjt%c:t,ion a light gns. wlrirl~is tlill'c-r.c~~l, C 01' fro111I.Il:aI, i l l the cxl.crn:il sl,roarn, t.llrotrgl~n. porous w:ill irll,o tilt: I)ountln.ry layer rc~111ct:s r t ~ t c t which host i~ cxcllangetl 1)t:twecn tho well atid trhestream [Wj. 'l'lris trllc a is t,11t: most irnport>:~nt of t.lrc cll't;c:i.s protluwd this way, a.ntl for (.his reason, ml one :r.rr:~.ngc-rncnL tllis kirltl is ofl.c:n 11set1t o ~)rovitlo of t.l~crnma.l protcctior~a t 11igll sraprrsonic: velooit,ies. Ir~jc-r-t,ion c:ra:ates a gnscons rnixl~irci n t,lro borir~claryInycr, ant1 t.t> tlie procnsscs o l m o m c n t ~ ~aritl 11c:~t m t.r:~nsferthcrc is :ultlcd t*l~c. process of rnnss I.r:r.t~sf'r:rI)y tlin'trsion. Ct:ncm.lly spcn.Iting, t . 1 1 ~ t,llt:rm:1.1clill'nsion r n t ~ s not, Ijc r~t~glt:t:t.c:tl t wil.l~ rcsprct t o t,l~o tlilPnsio~~ :tlo~lgc:ot~c:c.nl.r:~t,iorr gr:ulinnLs. Sirnil:tr proc:css?rc:?r ::rise w l ~ r nn, licluitl filrn cv:1rjnr:1,1,c?s t . 1 1 ~ w:rll or who^ tllc in:~.t.crinl Lllc w:rll it,sc:lf n.1. of 1 1 1 t ~ l tnr stll~li~nat~t:~. I:~t,t,cr ~ 'I'll(> ~~rot:css tloscri1)ctl 1)y tllc: term n.hh~lio?a; shi~ll is we rrvcrt, t.o it in Soc. XIVc. 5. l'rcvcntio~~ t r a ~ a a i t i n ~ ~tlle proviriolt oC a ~ ~ i t n lalanpcs. Lnlr~inar of by ~lr nerofoiln. 'l'riinsit.ion l'ronr I : ~ ~ n i nt,o r t ~ t,rlrl)lllc~rt, Row c:arl also 1)o tlt>lnyctl l ) ~ r 1.11~: nsa of s~litnl)ly sl1:11~~l 11otlic.s.'l'llo ol)jct:t,. :LS in t . 1 1 ~cnso of srlc:t.ion, is 1.0 rctlrlcc frict.ionn.l tlrng Ity c.:~~lsing. 1 1 ~point of t.r:l.nsil,ior~ movo tlowr~st~rcnni. hns bccn es1,nI)lislrc:tl 1,11aL t 1.0 It, tl~c loc.:rt.ioti of t,lro point o r t,rn.nsit.ion in t.11~ 1)onntln.ry In.ycr is st*ronglyinlltrrnrct1 l)y 1 . 1 1 ~ I)rosstIrc: gr:~tliorrtin Lllc cxt.crnal st.rcn.n~. Wit.11a decrease in pressure, t.mrisition oc:c:tirs at, rnuc)~I ~ i g I ~ c r ItcyrloltIs rllrrnl~crstllnn wit11 prossure increase. A decrease in 11rc.ssrlrc 11n.sR Itiglrly st,al)ilii.,ing cfic:t. orr t>lroborrrlclary layer, ancl tho oppositt: is t.1.11t: of' a11 incrc:~.scin prcsslrro nlollg tire stream. 'l'llis circumstn,ncc is nt~ilizt~tl in niotlcrrl low-tlr:rg ncrofoils. 'l'11c dcsirctl rt:st~lt.is acliicvrtl by tlisplacing t l ~ sectpion c of tn:~xirnnn~ t.l~ic.lcrlc~ss rc:~rwnrtls.In t.llis manner a largo porLion of tJie ncrofoil far r.cvn:~ir~s tlntlrr ~.II(: itiflncnor of' R Iprcssurc: wllit*lltlecreasos tlowrist,rcam nntl a Inniinar I)o~rntl:~ry Iaytlr is mninl.:~inctl. We sll:~ll rovcrt t.o t,tlis clr~cst,ionin (j11:~p. V I I . X
Mnc:l~ n ~ r ~ n l j c r s is it, 6. Cooling of tltr wnll. 111 :I, c:c?rt.:iin r:Lngt: o f s~~l)t-rsovic ~)t~ssil~lc: c:oln[)lot,c.ly 1.0 st,;al~ilizo l,llc I)otrrltl:l.ry laycr by Ll~capplic::rt.ion of t:ooling nl. t.11~wall (c/. Scc. XVI[ c). Cooling enn also bc applietl in orctcr t o retluce tlic thicknt*ssof t.11t: I j t ) ~ ~ ~ ~ tI:~ycr,arid t.llis possi1)ility m:Ly I ~ c c ~ o n ~ o l:lry itnporl,ar~t~, a. wlrcn o. g:~,sc-s vcry low tlt>t~sit..y rnn.tlc t,o flow tlrro~lgllt.llc nozzles of wind t.~lnncls, of arc I)t~c~:~.~~sc ol,l~or~vist: vcry l.l~ic:lzI)ounclnry layers ivoultl nnacccpta1)ly rcclnce tlre I.11t> t~srl't~ rt,:~. of 1,llc InsG sc:ctfion. l :I I ,I ,Ilc rnol.llotl of 1)orindary-layer nont,rol Ijy s~lct~ion, t,ogct.l~cr with t l ~ c prevcrition of t.r:lrisit,iori or1 I:l.minn.r acrofoils, Ilnvc t l ~ c grc::~tcsl pmc:t.io:~liniport.:~.rlac:Lrnong all t.lrt: rrlc:tl~otlstlis(:nsscd prc?viot~sly. lror this rcason vnrions ~~ia.t,l~crnnf.ic:nl rnc1.lrods for 1.I1t: c.:tl(:~~I:~l.ior~ inllnorcc of s ~ ~ r t . on ~ ~ of t,hc i o bonrltl:~ry-l:~ycr llow have been tlcvolo~~ctl, i~11t1 wc now propose t o mvicw Llrom Ijriclly.

1.1. Fundamental equations. I t is s i r n ~ ~ l c s o Ijr:gin t . 1 1 ~ rn:~l~l~r~nnt~it:nl tt stntly of t h e laminar bounc1ar.y laycr with s11cLio11 first. t:o~~sitlcri~lg case wif.11t:or~by t,ht: tin~tol~s st~nt.ionwhich mny be irna,girlctl rc.nlizcd wit11 iSllc:tit1 of a 1)or011s~:l.lJ. 'l7he iisual system of coordinates will bc atloptetl, the z-axis Ijoing along tlrc \\.all, ant1 tho y-axis Iicing nt riglit angles t o it., Fig. 14.5. S~~c:t.iot~ Ijc ac:c:or~r~l~t:tl b,vT will li)r pmsnribing n tion-zcro normal vclocit.y c o ~ n p o ~ ~ c(rz~ t:~t, v, ) t.I~e wnll; in tllrt: t:n.sc: ol'

Fig. 14.5. Flnt. plntn wit.11 hon~ogcrlro~~a n~~r!t~iot~ nl. zero ir~c:iclc?t~ca,
vo cons t

~11t:f~ioll ~ 1 1 ~ p u t v,, < 0, making v,, > 0 for discl~argo.It, will IIC assr~n~ctl 11 tlrnt, t11c rjrlanl.ily of fluicl rernovcd from tJlo st>rcam is so s n ~ n l l tllat, o r ~ l yfluitl p:trt.icl(:s in the imrnediatfe 1ieiglrl1ourl1ootlof tlie well arc? suolrctl away. This is ctlt~ivaI(:rlt t o saying tfha,t.I,trc rat,io of suction vcloci(,y v , ( z ) t o frce-slfro:~tn vcloc:ity IT,,, is v t ~ y small, say n,,/lJ,, -- 0.0001 t o 0.01 t. 'I'llr oontlitior~of t ~ slip n l,l~o o L w:rll is rc~l.:~i~rrcl wit.11 s~~ct,iorr prescnt, as wc:ll as the cxprrssioli to = 11 (au,/r3?~),~ thn shc:~r-il~g for stross at, t.11~ wall. 'l'llt: q ~ ~ n r ~ l .oft ,fluit1 rctnovotl, (J, will bc cxprcssccl l.llro1rg11 t l i ~ ~ ~ r t r s i o n i y a lcss volrlmc corfficicrit I)y pnt,t,ing

nntl for 1.11r t*asr of 11nili)r111 snt:Lion,

11,

-- t:o11st.,

---- -. JII orclrr t,t> C I I S I I ~t.l~itt flow xvit,l~s11ct,io11, bIo\vi~rg, l,l~c ~ z or nt ~v:tll smt.isfii*s t,llt\ s i 1 1 1 1 1 I i f ~ i t t ~ cot~tlit~io~rn for111i.Ile I);~sinof bo11ndary-1:~yor wliinl~ t.l~cory,L is Ilor.r.ss:try txj li111it \~c.Iot:itY i I,llr: no at, Ll~cwnll to n rnagtlitutlc of Lhc ortlcr of I/,, R-112, \r.llt*rr: R (I,,, 1 / 1 8 atltl 1 c1c.1t~1t.c.s :\ clmrantrrist.ic dinrc~lsion i.I~c: of nolitl 1)otly ~)l:~rt-tl I.IIo Ilo\tr. At. R in loRt,l~is r.1111cIil.io11 t:iyc.s v, 0.Ol)l 11,. Ll'l~ot~ s~lnl.ic~t~ 1.110 vcloc:il.y is of HII~:II n 411l:tlI orclt*r01' ~ ~ ~ : ~ . p t ~ i lill ~is ~11ossiltlc. . t lc~,

to t ~ ~ g l ~ ctlic Ioss of rnoss or c'~i~~k-cI~t!f:L" rxlrr~i~tl 0 l ~ . n l i ! ~ l 110\~. 1 1 ol.11c:r \101.114, :L 011 1110 11 1 t.11~potcnt,inl flow 111nyI)c :tasulncd to r c ~ ~ l aunnrfc:ctcd Ijy sctc:l~I~lotving srtolion al~plicvl ir~ or at Lhc nurfacc of Ll~esolid body.

-.

384

XIV. Boundary-layer control

Assunring incompressible two-dimensional flow we have the following differential ccinnt,ions

wit,h the boundary contiit,ions: = 0, v = v, = const < 0 for = 0, and ZL = U , for y =- co.It can be secn a t once t h a t t,llis system posscssrs a part.ici~lar solu(,ion for which the vclority is intlcpcntlcnt of t,hn ci~rrctrtIctlgL,I~x [52, 781. l'~~t,t,it~g a u l a ~s 0 we sec from the equation of collLiriuity t h a t v ( z , ? l )= vo = eotrst. Ilcnce z the cqr~ationof motion bccorncs v, aulay = v a27~/r??yz, . wit811 t-hc solntiot~ 7r(y) = U , [I - exp (v,v/v)] ; v(x,?y)

wit,h the 1)otindary conditions

vn < 0 .

(14.6)

It is wort.ll noting that this sirnplc solut,ion is cvcrr a n cxnct sol~rtion t l ~ o of coml~lctc , Navicr-St.oltcs cclrrat.iorrs. 'I'l~c tlisplaccmctrt thic:l<t~css ant1 t . 1 1 ~ ~nolncntl~ttl t11it:l~rlrss arc

lSvitlcnt,ly, the int,cgmtion of the above system of cqrlations for the gcncral case of a r l ~ i t ~ m rbody shape, implying a n arbitrary velocity function U ( z ) , present-s y no frwcr clifficult,ies tllnn does t h e case with no suction. Nrvcrtltrless, the qnalitative effert of sr~ctionon separation can bc rstimat,ed tcitlr the :lid of t,lrr preceding equations even without, intrgration. Along the streamlirtr a t t h r w:~Il (?/ -0). eqrlnt.iotis (14.3) ant1 ( 1 4 4 ) yield

anti the sl~earirigstrcss a t t l ~ c wall

T,

p (a~~/r?y), bccornrs simply

I t is seeti that, in a rcgion of adverse prossure gmdient (dpldx > O), t h e superpositiori of sunhion (vo< 0) rctluccs the curvature of the velocitfy profile a t the wall. According t,o the :irgumcnt,s adva~icctlin Chap. V11, this signifies t h a t the point of scpnratiot~ is tlisplaced rearwartls. Now, in accordance with t,he theory which will be giver1 in Chap. XVIT, t.l~ishas t,he additional effect of stabilizing the laminar houndary layer. 'rhcse t,wo elTcct.q produced by suct,ion, rxamely avoitlance of separation and t,he relrgat.ion of t,hc point of I a n ~ i ~ ~ a r - t ~ ~ r t,ra~lsit.iorr Iligl~er b ~ r l c n t to Reynolds ~rurnbcrs, hn.\,c bcen c:onfirl:rctl hy t,hc rcsrllts of experiments. A snlrlmary of mcthocls r~sctlfc~r c:~lct~lat.ion I)onntlary layers wit,ll sr~cLiorl t,hc: of \\':is pnl)lisl~c~I \V. W l ~ c s t I)y [108].
1.2. Exnct ~nltt~inlls.II(: n~ct,)totl l~sing ~~owc:r-soric.s 'I' of n cxpi~.trxionin t.rrrrrs of t,lrc! lotlgt,II of arc li)r t.ltc: I,ot.cr~tinlvclocit,y (Illasins series) dcscribctl in Scc. I X c
(::In, in 1)rincipla. llc al)plictl in this case as well. IIowevcr, just as in the case w i ~ h o u t

and is indcperirlenb of viscosit,y. The vclocit,y clistribution is seen plotted in Fig. I.t.(i, cllrvc 1 . Crlrve 11, dmwn for the pilrposc of comparison, rcprcsclitn the 15lnsins \relocity distribution wit.llout suction. I t slroultl be notetl t,l~att,hc sr~ct,ionprofile is fuller. The solution thus discovered can be realizcd on n flnt plat.e a t zcro ir~cidcncc with mi form suctjion only a t some distance from the loading ctlge, even if suct,ion is applictl fronl t h e lcatling ctlge onwartls. 'rho bor1ntl:~ry I:l.ycr, cviclont,ly, I ~ c - ~ i t ~ s t o grow from zero tl~icltnessnt the lcatlirlg cdgc ant1 conLinr~cs downslrcnm t.rntlit~g asymptotically to the valuc given in eqn. (14.7). The vclocit,y profile atjtpai~is thc simple form given by cqn. (14.6) only asymptotically, i. c. from tllc practical point, of view after a ccrt,airi initial length. For thcsc reasons the preceding particular solut~ionmay bc regarded as the asymptotic suction pl-ojile.

Fig. 14.6. Velocity distrihut.ion i l l the bountlary layrr on a flat plntc at, zcro incidence

snct,ion, the result.ing comput,ations become very laborious [75]. Reasonable sirnplc a t zero incidence. s o l ~ t t , i ~can t)c ot)t,aincci only in t,hc case of a flnt ns FInt
7,!,11c
tr(

A st~r~)~.isingIy I ~ I CsoInt,ion C:HI IN 0bt.~i110din the case of a JEnt S~II

zo.0 itlc:it/e,tcr.

wit,lr 7tu,i/o~.?n, u c l i o , ~Fig. 14.5. '1'11c systcm oT tlilf(?rcnt.ial ~ , c.cluat.iorls no\v rctl~rccstto I

A more tlctailetl investignt~iorrirkto the flow in the initin1 kngth, i.e., brfo1.c the a s ~ ~ m p t o t i c stmatehas I~eenreachcd, was carried out by R. Igliscll [40] who has shown t h a t iflie asymptotic state is reachetl after a Icngtfll of about

'The vclocity profiles in the inilial lcngtlr are not similar among tlienisrlvcs 'rllcy arc practically itlrr~t~ical will1 tliosc for Cho cnso with no sl~rl.ior~ sliorl dist:~nrc.a nt

30

Fig. 14.8. Flat plate wit,h llliifortn liltctio~i velocity ; profilcs ovcr init,ial length, aftcr lgliscli [40] Vig. 14 7. VI:L~ plat^ \vII,II unirort~~ ntlrtio~i; (rrti ~ rrmtil- t pnl ~ ltncs

Uro

(;,,y uibr ~ f l i l i i l l l l l l I t t ~ t i f I I l I 1 1
0 2 01 06

on to

12

tr

rcr I R 20 2 7

frorii ttli(; 1c::uIitig c<lgt! (l3l:tsi11s l)rofilc:, It'ig. 7.7). 'l'lic: ~ ~ a ~ l ~ o ~ c t ~ r c ~ n r i ~ l i rt~ ct~ls c > l r srri i 1 , ~ ir~il,i:~l Icngt,ll is U C ~ I Itlr:lwl~ in I'ig. 13.7, : L I I ~ the: vc:locilfy ~)rolil(:sa r c scorl 11lo1,l.c~l ~ iri I'ig. 14.8. 'l'lio way iri w l ~ i c h1.110 I,or~ricl:~ry-layer tliick~icssinrrcsscs from n.t, t h e 1cndi11glctlgc? t o it8 a s y m ~ ) t o t , i c valuc given i n oqri. (14.7) is clo~cribotl hy tdi~ vnllles in 'I'nblc 14.1 wliinh h a v e bcon t n k c n froni I t . Jgliscli's pepcr. 1'artic.rllar int,crrst, is st.t:~c*lirtl t o t h r nnvi*g i n drug ceusc.d by preserving 1:lmitlar flow wiCh f h r aid of si~c.tion,ati(l, thcrrforc, t o t h e Inw of frirtiorl for t h e

cnso wil.11sllr:t,ion. 'rhis is %(:en~~lof,l,c:cl Pig. 14.1). I n t , l ~ c -c:rtsc: of vc:ry I : I . I . ~ ~ ! I{t.yt~oltls in nuni1)crs I J , l l v , w l ~ c nt,hc ~ n n j o r port,ion of 1.11~ plate fttlln within t . 1 1 ~rc:giotl of' t,hr nsyrnj)t~ol,in sol11Lio11,t,he tlrng is givrn by t h o simplc r q n a t , i o ~ ~ (14.9), wl~c*t~c.cI\.(* can ot)t,ain thc: local d r a g cocffiricl~t

'r:t1,l1: 14.1. I)iti~c.ttsio~ilrsq, o l ~ l l t ~ : r r Ll~irlz~irss :rnd sh:rl,o faofor R,/d, for t,hc vr1orit.y pro~ ~-~:r~~~r filc-s t.lir* itlil,i:~l t ~ t ~ ~ t . lai I1:rt. plirll: :kt, n:ro i~r(:i{lcli(:t? 1tttiror111 ill l 011 ~it.11 ~~~cl.iott, It. Iglisr:l~ :dIcr [40J
--

~ l i s ~ ~ l t ~ ~ t.liirlzt~css; r t . ~rtti~~~

,?,- rnotiictil.it~~~ t.liinknr,ss

I'ig. Id.!). I)r:ia c*orflit~it.t~ls 1111. for flat. pl:&tcat, zero itiri(1rt1cr wit11 ~lnifortnsllrt.ion r~ T- (-- r~.)/ll, = v o l l l l ~ l cf:opfIlrirljlof srlcln~tl ( : I I ~ V I . R (1). ( 2 ) 8 1 ~ 1 (3) rcfcr ln n 0 a ~ ~ c : l i n n
( I ) Inlnienr (2) trnub-ilit!~! f r n t ~ tI X ~ t ~ i n nI # > r (3) fillly f~trl,~~l~.nl.

l~~rlt~~lr~~t,

This drag is romplrlcly iriclrl~r~~(lr~il of bisro-ily. IVitIi I ) from rqn. (14.9) that

r,, h l :111(l Q

,-

J.,,) 11 1

fi11el

,.l ~ i nis t l t t * (1~1.c to sit~l(it~g, ~ I,II~? (1r:~g I tlt~c i. . oxli(*rir~~c~c(l IIOIIJ lvIti(~11is I , I : I ~ ~ 1I ~ ~~I, i t , . l~y ,I. i t :L r tiol~lrsri st.ro:~t~~ of vrlociLy lJm ntid whic-ll 's~nlIo\vn':I. q~tn~tI.il.yoI' fltlitl. 'l'lrc. :rl)o\'t. ( * Y ~ I ~ ( . x . (2 aioti call b: tletl~toctlvcry sit11~Iy 1.11~np]~lit:atio~i I . 1 1 ~I ~ I O I I I ~ ~ I ~ . I I.l~(.e~rt.t~~ c by of IIII (TI. I'r:tt~~lt~l'I'ieljerln, Ilyclro- 11. Aerornccl~nnik, vol. I I, l!):lI, p. 140, ISligl. t.rnllul. 1,~' 1'. clrt~ ln.rl,og, 1934. .I. l

eor~,,,.

388
r ,

XIV. 13ountl:~r,y-laycr conlrol

l he tlritg c:ocilit.ictlt, is Inrgor for small Ileytloltls ~ , u ~ t r t l ~ c r s , becn.r~sethe sltearing st,ress is groa1,t.r t)vt:r t11c front portion of t h c plnla, i. c. Illat which falls within 1.h~ ittit,iill rc:gioi~ rtntl whore the 1)ollntlnry lilyor is thinner than firrLltcr tlownst.rcam. T h e tlr:~go n ;L p1at.c with a turbulent bountlary layer with n o sucbion is shown plottctl in l'ip. 14.9 for the purpose of comparison. I t will be tliscussetl more f ~ ~ liny l Chap. X X I. 'I'llc s:~.vi~lgtlrag can l)c dcd11c:ed from this diagmtn only if t,l~c in v:rlne of the stn:~ll~:st voll~tnc: coc:flicicnt, ofsl~c:t.ion wliit:h is capable o f c n s ~ ~ r i n g larnirli~r conditions in t,hc bor1ntlar.y Ilayer a t large Rcynoltls numbers is Itnown. This prohlcm will I)c invnst.ignl.c:tl in (:lln,p.'XVII, l,ogcrt,hc:r wil1h t11c ~)llcnorncnon t,ransil,iott. It, of will t,hcn I)(: sl~o\vn Llt:tt I,llr.rc exisl,s a c:nrvc of 'most favor~ml)lc sr~ct~ion'; can 1)c il sc:c:rt ~)lottctl Fig. 17.10. I t will 1 2 noticctl t h a t the rctlr~ct,ion drag throng11 srrct~ion in x in is vnry consit1eral)lc atltl t , l ~ a t,he rcquirctl intcnsit.y of suct,ion is very small, a s i t t c*orrosl)orltlst o vnll~cs the order cQ = 10-% A soll~tion tltc flat plate with t~niforni of for s~~c:t,ion a c:orn~)rc~ssit)lc in st,rcam was fonnd l)y 11. G. Lew antl .J. B. Fanltoci [47]; t11c s:lntc prol)lt:nl for nylin(lri~aI 1)odit:s of arl)it,rary cross-scction was solvetl by W. WIIOSL [107].

J . M . Kay [41a] undcrtoolt t o verify thcse theoretical results for the flat plate th a t zero incit1cnt:e with t,llc ; l i t 1 of cxpcrimcnts. The assnn~pt~ion a t uniform snction btbgirls a t the Icacli~lg ctlgc, which formed tlic basis of Iglisch's theoretical calculations, was not satisfctl in the kcst platc. The latter, moreover, had a portion near tllc lcatlirlg edge complct,cly devoid of suction. Fignre 14.10 shows a comparison betweell t h e measured a n d calculated displacement thickness and momentum t.llicltness rc~pnet~ively.h e asymptotic values from eqns. (14.7) arltl (14.8) are seen t-o have T been confirinctl by tho measnremc.nts. Fignro 14.1 1 shows a comparison l~ct~wcen tl~oory and n~casurerncr~t various valr~csof (; the mensl~retncnts have been for performed by M. 1%. Ilcad [36]. Again, t h e agreement is very sat.isfactory. Rlcasuremonfs ~)crforrncd by P. A. I,it)by, I,. 1Canf:nann ant1 It. P. 1I:~rrington [48] confirm, in adtlil~ior~, strong stal)ilizing elTcct cansed by suction (increase in t h e tho nrit.ion.l Ileynoltls n~rmbcr),a s will be reported more fully in Sec. XVITc. T h e large decrease in l,hc skin friction which results from t h e preservation of laminar flow when suction is applictl, ancl which is stiowr~in Fig. 14.9, was confirtned by niensr~n:mcnts performed by M. ,Jones antl M. R. Ileatl [41], and A . Raspct [70].

Pig. 14.11. Velocity clistribution in the laminar hound:lry layrr on an acrofoil wit.11 srtct.ir)n appliecl t.llrough its porous surface. Mea.qr~ccrt~c:nb pcrforrnccl by M. It. Ilcatl [XI: ccrtnl):iriso~~ with the tlleory drte Lo It.. Iglisch [40]

Boundary layer with pressure gradient8 Acltlitional czncl solfrlionaof 1 . 1 1 bot~rrtlary-l:lyc!rcq~~a~ tions (14.3) and (14.4) are known only for flow patterns wltich can bo msociaLt?cI'wit.l~ sintilar velocit,y profiles. The class of similar ~olrrtions discussed in Clr:lp. VIlI can be cxknclml 10 inclutlc boundary layers with suction and blowing. When the vclocity in the external strcan~ can bc tlcscribed by the function IT(%) = 76, zm and when the sr~ctionvclociI,y ~n,,(a) proportinnnl t,o is z ( ~ l ~ ) ( ~werecover from the boundary-layer equations the alrcatly fa~~tiliarortlinary ~~-l). clilti:rt~r~i.i:rl equation for t l ~ c ~Lrcamfunction /(11), h s t tlrrivecl hy Fnlkncr ancl SIz:ln, ttarnrly ~ l t or;l~nili:tr equation (!).8) :

in whic:h 71 has been clcfincd in eqn. (9.8).That this is so can \I(:it~forrctl ~ y t inspcctio~t frnnt rtlrl. (9.b.I n t.lte present case, t.he slrcanl frlnctio~l /('I) 11m a VLLIIIR w11icI1is dill't~rt:ntfro111 zcr11 :LL t l ~ c ; ~ l l\\.IIRII 11 : 0. This value is positive i n the tasc of srtol.iott :~ndttcg:tl.ivc T r I~lo\\.i~~g. w o Tl~r part,irular case for
111 = :

0 wlucl~corresponds to a fl:~L \\.it11a nucf.ion vrlot:it.y

Fig. 14.10. 1,aminnr bortntlary I:~ycron a flat plate a t zrro inciclrncc wit11 uniform suct,ion. Displaccmcr~t blrickness 0 , anil motncntnn~t.hicknass (7, have been meeured by J. M. Kay [41a]. Theoretical curves afkr R. Iglisch 1401, 'hhlo 14.1
a
=

was i~~vcst,ignkd II. Sol~licl~t~ing K. 1111ssrn;tnn O y and [7!), 801. The rcs~~ltitlp vc!locily prt,liilc.s for scvrrnl values of l,l~c o l ~ ~ ~ n c v cocrficicnt I~avc I)CCII ploLt,ctl in Fig. 14.12. 11, is worl,lt not.i~~g tltnl all relocil.y profilcrr for the c..zsc: of tlisclt:~r~c h:lvo poin1.n of inllt\xion ~r.il.lr i)2i~/i'!y:!- 0. 'I'l~isfart is i~l~portant t,hc sI.rtdy of tmnsit.io~r for (Cllap. XV1). Si~ttil:tr vrlorit.y 1)rolilt.s :~rc.also obtninrd in 1.11~case of l.\\-o-di~~~r~tsio~~al flow n.it.lr a vc:locit.y fi~t~c*t.ion x ) -71, r stagt~atiot~ O( : wiClt s11~1.iot1, ~)rovitletI that 11" - cot~st,. This casr urnsalso invt~s(,ig:il~.il1.l10 1):rllt:rIIY I I . Sc:ltli,.l~itt ting :ltttl I<. I~~ss~tr~arrn nlrc.ecly tlr~okd. ICxtct~sivt:tal)lc*sfor 1~our1rl:~rv Iavc!rs on n 11l:lte wit11 s~trl~ion t :-0) covvring :L will(: (v range of values of the parameter C were calculated by II. W. ICrnmons and 11.C. Leigh [22j na well n by J. Steinhet~cr(rf. Chap. VII). For cnsw who11 ,,I u 0 I,lterc exist ndtli1,ionn.lnrlt~tcric-al sollltions extending over a wide rango ol valucs of the pitrntrlckra [57J. '1'110 clingrlln~ n Icig. 14.13 i wall \vhiclr is proportional tn1 I"(()), t.ho presents the relation between the shearing stress at t,l~e sr~ctionvelocit,y - which is proportional to /(0) -- and the parameter p of the extcrn:ll How. The position of the point of scpnri~tionis determined by t,ltc para~nckr whicl~To - 0, l.llrlt for i~ by the contlition that. /"(0) = 0 I t is c l c ~ ~ r Fig. 14.1:l that. ~cpnrat.ion be clinti~~:~tcd . frotn can by vigorous suction evcn in st,rongly decelerated flows (e. g. when 0 = - 1, i. e. a.ltert 111 = - j).

necLion a t which suclion begins

390

XIV. Ilo111111nry-lnycr cor~t,rol n) K. D. P. Sinhnr [86] stutlietl the ewe of nn infinitely long, ynwccl cylinclcr wit11 s~trt.ion. Tho velocity rlintrib~~tion n.long the strcnn~ wns nsaun~od 1)o proporlionnl to zm. 'l'he it~v(~u(~ig:~tiot~ lo Imu ROII\O I*onring OII t010 cvnt,rol of tho O ~ t ~ t ~ d n r y 011 R \ V C ~ ~ ~ lnycr wingu. IJ) Whon t.llc Lc:rn[ic:ret~iro Lhc fluid being 1,lown out, is diKerenl fro~nt,l~nLin CIII: cxtcrnrrl of flow, tho bonndary layer will develop o tcmpcrnturc profile; Lhc rCqnlt.ing t,l~t?rn~nl I)o~ttitlnry layer \van cniclllntcd in refs. 1551 and [Ill]. 'r11c knowledge of the tcn~l)eraL~lrc distrihrltion in t,he bonnclnry layer is of particnlnr importance for the 1)roblotn of cooling. I t tnrnn ont t.hnt cooling 11y means of 1,lowing tho coolant, tlrrougl~a porons wall, so-cnlletl t.rannl~ir:rtiot~ cooling, is much snore eKcct,ivc than cooling t l ~ o wall on t l ~ c insiclo. J I I t l ~ i s ronnc?xion t l ~ c p:r~wrs1)y I). 13row11 [I 1, 121, p.1,. I)ono~lghe and .J. N. B. 1,ivingoocl [I!)] nncl W. W~tc:s(~ I 10!)( nrny I)o conn~iltntl. C) 'I'hc cooling prol)leni I~ccon~cs vory itnportntit nl, high vel~~cit.i~:nflow. (:. hl. ls)w 151 1 forr;~cl of uoIut.iot!s for (,I\(? rnsc of r . ~ r n ~ ) r c ~ (IOW~ e e nn isot.l~rr~n:~I 11Ini.c; RCO ~ I S O 145, 1101. ~i\~l v r lI:~t~

end Fig. 14.12. Vr1orit.y clistril~rtt~ion t.hr ho1111cl:rry1:ryl.r on n ll:~l. in ~,lnl,tr '.or0 inritlrnrc wit,li snent. tion ancl tllsrl~:rrgc nc:cordinp 1.0 t,l~c a,(z) I:rw 1/1/ i from cqn. (14.1 I), :rflcr Jl. Scl11icht.ingnncl I<. Ilnnsn~nr~n 1791

Compressible boundary lnycrs will1 s u c t i o ~ ~ t wns s l ~ o w r ~ A . 1). \ ' O I I I I ~ 11 121 I: by H. G. L e w [45] t h a t a n a s y m p t o t i c solution c x i s t s also for t h e case of co7iapra.~sihlc

fiv1 a l o n g a f l a t pl;bt,o a t zoro inc:itlcnac i n tllo ~)rcsoiic*c I ~ o ~ ~ ~ o g cs ~ ltcr- o. ~o~ ~ . of l i ~s

'l'l~is (:mi bc: clotto ns follows: Acx:or(Ii~tg10 cqttfi. (13.5) :t11(1 (I:!.(;),lrl~c: ~ o t ~ l ~ i ~ t ~ t i I ~ , c ancl n t o n t ( ~ t ~ I , ~ ~ r: n I I I ~ I ~ . ~ ~ I I I S I)(: wriI,t,ctt t C c:;t11

*. 3 cly
p

"

(14.12)

\,i1hrn thr III:LSS Ilo\v in hlo\ving in tn:itle Inrgr, i t iu ohscrvctl t,l~:itthe corresponding nn~ncricxl c:nlr~~l:tt.ion be(.on~rncliflic~~ll,. ( T : ~ I It.I~c II S ~ vclnrity p r ~ l i l e ncqnires n kink. 'I'lris (letnil ww lirst clisc:ovrretl I I J . I'r~ts1.11 ~ [fi!)] \vho derived it frorn n rotwiclrrnt.ion of tho wytnptotic solntion. 'rhc nny~nltto(.irI~c.h:~vio~lr t.llr prcccvling sinlilar uolntions for large suct~ionveloritien I I : ~ I)een of invt.sl,ignt.c:cl 11y 15..1. \Vnlstrn [IO2].
* I hc nolut.ionn for tJlr cxtcrnnl flow 1~orron1x)ntlinji ( I ( r )- 11, 1.0 for111 t.l~cIxmis for :r st*rirs of Tnrt.ltcr invrsl.igntionn iritncd a t din~ovrring:iddilion:~l r x n ~ tsol~tt,ionsfor latninnr I~~ntn(l:~ry 1:lyt.r~ wit.11 n~~(*t,ion I~lowing: nncl
1

" -cly '"

'-

dy

( -&j j.
I '

71 -

tlu -. ( r /L I n

Icig. 14.13. 1l.clntion bctwccn s h m r ing sl,rcs~ t Lhc? w:rlI, T,,, :tnd t.he a fi~t(:I.ion velocity, v,,, for 1n111in:~r I ~ o ~ ~ n t l lirycrs with snction ~ I I C I I nry tho extcrnal vclority is (J(z)= - = 11, zm, :rftcr JC. Niclccl 1571. 'I'hc posit.ion of the point. of srl~nr:~t.ion dc?tcrtninctI by t.ltc: is c-onclil.ion that T, 0, i.r. I,y /"(O) -= 0. N o l ~ I.l~nt
1

."I"
.",I

,!a

. j/ljl
~

,!

~-

~-v r n ; . !

vi;;

I-(", I(").

/(0) > 0 tJcnot,m s ~ ~ c t ~ iI(0) on, clc*noh~n I~lorving, nntl

: .

392

XJV. I%out~dnry-layer control

( P . 1 ; atliabatic wall). When thc flow is incompressible, we have cqn. (14.18) rrc111ccs t o cqn. (14.6).

T, = T , and ,

I~urt.Ilrr, eqn. (14.5) we havc a t y = 0 : by

1.3. Approximate noltikiona. I n t11c general case of an arbit,mry hotly shapc and ILII nrl~it,mrylaw of ~ u c t i o nwe must resort t o approximate methods based on tall(:morncnt~~lm cqt~at,iotlt,ltcy wcro clcsc:ribetl in Chap. X. The momcntom ocluat.ion ; for t.Ile case with s~~(:t,ionol)t,ninccl in cx:~c:Llytho snrnc wny a s bcfore, cxccpt t-hat is i t is riow ncccssary 1.0 take into account the fact t h a t the normal component of the velocity a t t.lte wall tlilTcrs from zero. I'crforming t.he same calc~~lation in Scc. as VI IT c, we f i r t t l l,llat, t,he equation for the normal component of velocit,y a t a distance y = h frorn t,hc wit11 now becomes
Vh

In t,llc caso ~tnrlcrcor~sitlerat~ion (i)~/&/)~/),, ant1 (i12r~/i)y2)n 12 1J/,j2. 11(:11(:(% w(? := 0 oljl,:tin from cqn. (14.21 ) t11nL
-

(-

d U/dz) '

(14.22)

and from eqns. (14.208) and (14.22) t h a t

lJO - -

-8%

( I .~
, ,his 1

ijz
0

vclocit,y of suction is seen t o be just sufficient t o prcvcnt separ:~t,ion:LII :rlotlg

'She raIc111ati011is ~:oril,in~icd exactly t11c same way as in Sec. VTTTe, and leads in firlnlly to t.11~ following tnornrrltt~mrcllt:~t3ionfor tllc bo1111dary I:tycr wit,h suct,ion

Lhc wnll. Taking as a n example ttlle c:I.sc of flow past, n c-irc:trl:~rc:ylit~tlor 01' t . : l t l i t l s 11' \ v i t , l ~ (lfJ/(lx - - 2 7Jcy,/1< : ~ 1-hc ~ l o ~ v t ~ s l sIt:~gtt:t~iot~ t ~rc:~~~~ point., : L I I ~ I :~.l~l)lyit~g ccln. (14.2:3), we ol)t,:rin t h a t thr? volrrrnc cocficict~t wltirlt tiinst Itc nscxl 1.0 l)rcSvc~r1t. scpnrat,ion is givcn by ~)/5"=21/2 23.08.

the- rnrrgy-itltcgral rqtt:~lion, arcording to I<. Wicgllarclt. [103], assuming t.he form :

The ndtlit,iot~:~l tnrms, as nompnretl with cqns. (8.32) and (8.35), represent thc change in moment.nni or energy, rrespectivcly, due t,o suct.ion a t the wall Equation (14.19) was uscd by L. Yrancltl 1671 t o make a simple estimate of velocity wliich is just suffic:icnt to preverlt separation. Assuming t h a t the s~tot~ion t h e vc!locit,y profiles along t,hc wholc Icngth are identical with t h a t a t the point of sep:~r:~t.iorl, o. t h a t for which T , = p(a~r.,/ay), 0, ancl that, as assumed by Poltii. = lial~scn,A 12, we can tleduce from cqn. (10.22) t h a t t h e velocity is given by
.; -.

'I'he tfisplacrrnent ant1 ~ n o m r n t u m tl~ickncss follow from eqn. (10.24), and are, rcspc~t~irely dl= , a ;
2

62 - 3 5 -

, ' j

Sltbstit.nt,ing this value into rqn. (14.19) and taking i1it.o account that dd2/dz = 0, t~ccanseof the assumption of constant boundary-layer thickness, we have

TI. Sclllicl~tirig177, 81) intIicat,cd :In n.pl)roxitnal.c~~ilc!t.l~otl t . I ~ i * i::~l(*t~l:ll.iolt for of t.110 1)ountlary laycr on a body or art)itmry shapc, wiL11 ~~rl~it,r:lry s11(:tiot1I~,)(z) aprdicd. The ~nct.l~od similar to t l ~ c is I<drtn:ir~-I'oI1il1nr1sr.11 nlc-t.ltotl antl is I):~.sctl otr t h e use of the momentum equation. T. P. Torda [98] made improvemcrits in this met,liod. Papers by L. Trilling [99], B. Thwaites [39, 961, ant1 F. Ringleb 1741 contain descriptions of procedures suitable for arbitrary pressure distributions as well as arbitrary distributions of the suction velocity. I<. Wiegliartlt [I031 extended then1 to the case of axially symmetrical bodies and J.T. Stuart [88a] solved the case of a rotating disk. E. Truckenbrodt [I011 dcveloped a n approximate metltotl which is st~ital)lc the two-dirncnsional as well as in tlle axially symrneLrica1 in case and which cxcels thc other metl~odsin its outstantling ~implicit~y. wholc l'llc problem has becn retlucctl hcrc to the solution of a n ordinary dilTcrcr~tialcqu:~t.iot~ of the first order. The equation becomes jdcntical with t h a t givcn by A . Walz (cf. Sec. X b) in the limit,ing case of zero s~lct~ion,e. when the wall is impermeable. i. The result,s of calculations for a Zhulrovskii aerofoil, ~ ~ e r f o r m c d wit,h the aitl of this mct,hod, are represented grapllically in Fig. 14.14. I L is secil t,llat t.hc l~oitlt. of separation moves towards the trailing ctlgc as thc intc~lsityof sr~clioni~~crc:~scs, and t h a t no separation occurs a t a11 from a certain suction it~tensit~y onwartls. R. ICpplcr [231 worlrcd out a n approxirnatc nictl~otl for the (::~I(:t~I~~t.iotl of Ibr laminar and tnrbtllent, bor~rltlarylayers with suction which is well-s~~itcd programming on a digital computer. Corrcspontiing approxitnate met,hods for cornprcssible boundary laycrs with suction arid blowing I ~ a v cI~ccntlcvclopctl in rc:Cs. 149, 55, 1111, witJl p:~rticular att,crltion givcn to t11c ;~ssoci:~l~ctl problctn in Iit::~(, transfer is so in~port~arlt cooling. Approximatre methods, a t least, for l1;~t for plates, are also nvnilalllc for tflc calctllat.iotl of tSr~rbrrlrl~t bourltlikry Iaycrs wil,Il blowing arld suctfiori [14, 20, 761; they a11 niakc usr of I'm.tltlt.1'~ trlixirig longt,Il

I). Ilotrntlnry-lnyrr s~rrl.iort

398

1 1 ~ q ) o t ~ h (rc /i. ~see. XTX 11). W . I'ccl~au [Boa] published a n appro xi mat,^ procctl~tm s for I,ltc mlc~ll:rt~iot~ corn~)rcssihlc,Iatninar I)or~ndnrylayers witrh at1 arbitrary of (.xl,c?rtt:tl st.rc:nn~:tntl ilrI)iI,rirry tIist.ril)t~t,ior~ su(:tfion, I)IJ~, trhc RI)CC~RI OILS(? W ~ C I I of for :.l~own.ll is ntli:~l,nt,icn.ntl wl~cttthc I'r:rntlt,l number 11:~s Lhc value P - 1.

Fig. 14.14. 1,antinar I)o~~~lcl:rry layer on n ~yt~~~ncLric:~l Zlt~~kovskii norofoil with uttifc)rttr s11~1,iott; II,,(x) -- cott~l~, r~rtgleor it~e:i(Ict~ct: a 0 , ns cnlct~lah:d I':.'l'rt~ckc~rI)y brodt [loll

course of a programme of rescarcl~ institutctl a t tltc Arrotlyttatniscl~c Vcrsucl~sartst,n.lt in Goett?ingcn untlcr the dircctior~of 0 . Sc11ro11k.'I'IIO cni!ct, I I sttctriot~ ~ is 1.0 prc,scrvc tJtc pobent~ial flow pnl.t,crn nt ltigllcr nttglcs of it~eitlct~c:cl t i t , t ~ \\,n111(1 t, ot,hcrwisc ho the case. 0. S c l ~ r e ~ lpublisl~cda coml~rcl~cnsivc lt rcvicw of l.11is work in ref. 1-84]. The scope of these cxpcrimcr~ts rcarhctl sl~clt tlrpree of ndvxncerncr~t. a [8r,l t8hnt,a t the end of tho t,ltirt,ics Oltc Insl,itnl,c in Goct,l.ingcrt was in a positiorl t,o I)tlilcl l.\vo cxporimcr~t~al aeroplanes in which sr~clionwas applictl for tltc irnprovctt~ct~t of ~x:rforrr~ancc. dct.ailctl clcscriptior~of these oxperirnerttp:rlacrol)lancs was givc:r~ 11y A .I. SLlrcpcr L93]. Phot~ogrn1)lts the flow ficltl on t l ~ c of wings of o t ~ c t.ltc:sc c:xl)cri-. of tnrrtt.nl acrop1:lncs :Ire sltowr~in Fig. 14.15. T l ~ c cfTc:c:t of s~lc:t,ior~, wltic:lt wits :t,l)l)lic:tl in t.llr slit I)etwren t,he wing ant1 Lhc flap, cat1 1)c infrrrctl nlmrly frottt t,he I~t:lt:rviorrr of t,l~c tllft,s ~ I t i c I tarc visil)l(: in tltc ~)I~otogr:~plts: Wit.Ito~tl~ ~ c l . i o ~ t l.t.lr):t), s~ (Icig. the flow is completely sepzmted from the flap; i t is t)rongl~t1)aclc c o t ~ ~ l ~ l c f . ~ l ~ (17ig. 14.151)) when sr~ct,ion turned on. A. Gerbcr [301 invcst,ignt.cd sy~t~cr~~:t.l.ic::tliy is (*rrl,t~it~ ~ X ! I , Sor u~t(:I,ion, II~ s11c11 1,110 l)(*sl# I I I L ~ O ~ l i t * q , 1.110 v ~ ~ l o ( : ic l i ~l ~ t ~ i l ~ ~ ~ l ~ i ~ ~ nu H or I-. s ttt-nr 1 . 1 1 ~slil., l,ltc prcsst~rc(listrril)tllliort t ~ r o t ~ t ill,( Irt.t:. ~ hlorc rcccrttly, in Great 13ritairt [58, 591 and in I ~ I r t : [J.S.A. [88], cxt.c.rtsivc cxporirncntal invcstigatiot~s have been carried out i t ~ t ~ o cfTcct of srtct.iot~ t,llitl t,hc on

4,

mornenlr~~~b i c k s r r ;I' ; Il~ ~

11:~ITlvrri-

. - v, (x) =cons/

clt~rrclvnltttrtr cot:rflrlt:nl of . i u ~ . t i ~ ~ will^ n. i~trrrwittp s1nct101~. e. Tor r8' i. 1.18

,,,,

wpnration

VCCII~

nhll

, . 2. Expc.rinlct~tnl ~ C R I I ~ L R oat ~ u c t i n t ~ AR early n.s 1904 1 1'rantlt.l ptll)lisl~ctl . I ) l ~ o t , o p r : ~ l ~ l ~ s pntft.c,rns whic:l~tlcrnonst.rntc:d t h a t ~ u c t i o ncauses the flow t o of llow :rcll~crc:t.o t,ltc w:tll cvc:n in t . 1 1 ~ case of not,-st,rcarnlir~ctil)lnnt bodies, such a s circ~tlnr eylitttlnrs, i l l wltirlt 1,ltcre wottld ol,l~crwisc strong etltly formal.ion. Figs. 2.14 and be 2.16 s l ~ o wt . 1 1 ~c.IP(,rt. of sllc:t.ion o n t,ltc! llow in a tlivergcnt, channel. Untlcr normal cy>tl,lili,>lls. Il'ig. 2.j:J, (.It(. lIo\v i l l :I. r;tpitlly tlivcrgcnt c h a t ~ r ~ c l scl)nrnt,cs violc~tt~ly frott~(,he \v:tII, \ V ~ I V I ~ C ; I S st~(:tion nl)plic:tl Ll~rotr~lt slits on either siclc causes t . 1 1 ~ two llow c*ott~~)lt~t,c:l.y 1.0 :rtlltc:rc: 1.0 it., J'ip. 2.18.
II'ltrr~srtc.t,iortis : ~ ~ ~ l ~t,o n twing, it is ncccssary to tliscern two distinct problcnls lir l \vItirlt t~tipltt~ :~t.is<: : 1 . 11. 11l:ty I)(%(l(:sirrrI t.o itlcrcnsc t11c tnaxinlurn lift hy dolaying scpamt,iot~.

2. 11, nlny I)o (lnsil;rblo t,o m;~inl.nin1:rminar flow and t o avoid tsransitiotl in order l o 1 . ( ~ t 1 ~ ~ ( ~ ( ~ friC(,iotl.\flc pro11osc t,o give a short account of the co~~sidcrat,ions sI<itl c.ottnt,c.t.c:tl witlt t.hrsc two pro1)lrtns.
it1 t cn,tt IiTr. An i~t(:r<*;t.s(~, I t ( - I I I : ~ S ~ I I I I I I I Ilift, of' :LII :t~\roft~il 2.1. [llc.rc.nsr : l c - I l i c ~ v c ~ t l \ \ ~ i l . l t ~ , l l c %t i t 1 of s~~c:t,ion : :t.tttl 11Iowit1g wltcn trhc 1)01111<1ary layer is eil.hcr I:tlllill:tr or t.~~rOttIt*~~t.. A I I :t(:(:ot1111. SOIIID rc(:cnt, it~vcst,igat.io~ts I)(: of will in Sf%(::X S I I I, (i wltic:ll t.r(::tt.s t.ttrl,~~l(:ttt~ I~ottn(fa.ry liry~rs.At this point., wc shall, at, lirsl,, c*olllillt: orlrsclvrs t,o t,ho 111t:tti ion nf S ~ I I I Colclcr ex~~t:rimct~taI TP^SII~~.S. I':xt~ct~sivc c ~ x l N ~ r i l l lIll:l(,c!ri:tl~ ~ ~ ~ l l t : (~o~~ccrtlittg ~ itl~:rc:rst: i t t t.11~ cocfli~iont~ l,o snc-f.iorl 1.11 lift, tluo w:~sc~olloc:l.c~tl 1,Itt- rntl of t.hc: t.wcn18ics:rut1 a t 1,11(: I)cgitl~~ir~g :I(. of t.hc Lltirtics in bha

Fig. 14.15. I'low al)out thr wing of t.11~ Got:t,l,itrgcn cxl~crir~lcnl.nl ;u!rol,lnr~r; II;III is in 1.11r l.11~: down ponit.ion; the two pl~otogrnplrs roprcucnt flow willtout ntld wit11~11c.I.iot1. witl~oltl. 11) st~c.I,iorl: t,hr flow is cletnctted from the flap, b) will1 artction: the flow adheres to t,lto flnp

396

XIV. Boundary-lnycr control

b. Boundary-lnyer suction

397

Fig. 14.16. Incrrascin thr ~ n n x i tnirrn lift, of n ~ w e p t - l ~ n t ~ l ~ \\ring 1)ys~~ctio~~.Cornpariso~~ brt\\.c~rn ror~tinuous section nntl suction applied tl~ronghslib, ns Incauured 11y 15. D. Popplct,on 1661
Ileynolds n ~ ~ r n b c r R 1-3 x 10'; r r l r l i v c widttt o l slits rll = 0-004

extent of t h e porous surface and, even more significantly, o n t h e Ileynolds nunlber. This, of course, is a very important consideration when results of model experiments are applied t o full-scale arrangements. Some d a t a on t h c depentlcncc of t,he mass flow on t h e Rcyrloltls number are shown i n Fig. 14.18. 'J'hcy arc based on mensurcmcnts pcrformetl b y N. Crcgory a n d W. S. Walker [32] o n a thin symmct,rical acrofoil. 'l'l~c graph shows thc minimum volumc flow of suction rcqnirotl to avoid Rcynoltis separation for a fxetl anglc of incidence or a = 14O plottctl in terms of t l ~ c number. Several curves of cQ = const, wlticll were obtained from t,hc theory of ~ ) u r c l ylaminar flow, have also been plotkcd for comparison.

=.

2.2. Decrease in dmg. An exprrimcntal proof of the fact t h a t i t is possible t o maintain lnrninar eontlitions in t h e bonntlary lnycr with t h e aid of si~(*t,ior~ wns [37], ancl short,ly afterwards by .J. Acltcrct, M. ltas first, givcn by 11. Ilolst,cir~

:~c:rolhils. Sin(-t: :11. high a.t~gltbs inc:itlonc:t: thin acrofoils tlcvciol, n s11:~rl) of nc.gn.I.ivc.prt:sst~rt:pt%:~.lc 1,I)c: ~ ~ o s t - tl~t!t11)l)t:rsitlt:, it, is nt:t:t:ss:~.ry1,o:~pplyst1(:1,io11 nc::lr on l,l~<:rt-. I I I (.his c:onr~cxiorl is i r ~ ~ l ~ o r l .tlo ~ l , wl~ctllcr o apply s ~ ~ c t . i o n it a r know t t,hrough a porous wall ( ~ ~ n i f n rsl~rt.ion) t.hrotrg11a systcrn of slits. T h e tliagram in Fig. 14.16 shows m or ;I, compnrison l~c:l,wccnt,he results of cont,inuo~rs suction and suction applied through slit-s on n swr,pf,-hack wing a s measured by E. 1). Poppleton [66]; see also ref. [38]. 11, is c.lc:~rt,hnt t h e snmc incmnsc in tho lift coefficient can be ol)taincd with n much rccl~~cod mass flow when c:onl.inuolts strc:l,ion is usctl. l'hc tliagrnrn i n Fig. 14.17 t~on1,:iirls informnl.ion on the most favoitral~lcposition of t,he suction zone a t the nos(:. 'l'hc mcnst~mmcnt.scarrictl o u t on a n 8% thick symmet,rical aerofoil seem t.o ir~tlio:~.t,c I : Icont,inuol~s ~J .~, stlettionis most cfTcctivc when i t is confinetl t.o ttltc npper sitlt: or t,hc wing ant1 when i t cxi.cnds over a region of 0.15 1 approximat,ely. 'I'he t n i ~ ~ i r n ~ ~ r n flow rt.clttirrtl t,o avoid scpnrntion dcpentls on t h e position ant1 t h c mass

Fig. 14.18. Minimum suction vol-

ume required for tile prevention of sc*pnrat,ionn~ n filncbion of l l ~ o I<rynoIds ~ ~ ~ i r n lfor ran angle of )e incitlenre of u = 14", after Gregory ant1 Walltrr [32]

I'ig. 14.17. B:lTcct, on inc:rmsc i l l lift, coefficient of cl~:uiging posil,ioti of tlie t.ho 1)orons si~ctionsnrfacc for nn S :, thick aerofoil at. an ( angle of incitlcnce ofa - 15"

ant1 \IT. Pfenninger [3]. W. I'fenninger [el] cardcct o u t o ~ t ~ e n s i v c cxperirncr~i~s n o tJtc problem of reducing d m g I)y t.11~ application of stlc:t,ion t,llrough which In111in:~r Ilow is maintained. Spignre 14.19 reproclnccs some of his results, ol)l.ninctl wit,h a thin :~crofoilwhich was provit1t:d with a largo n ~ r m b c r strct.ion slit,s. 'I'hc gr:~1)11 lpig. of in 14.l9a sllows t,hc o~)limrrrn vnlucs or Lhc sltin-fricljion c:ooflicit:nt plotl,c:tl i l l I.c:r~ns ol t,l~cIleynolds number. I t is sccn t h a t t.llcrc is a largo saving in tlr:rg, c:vct~ if tlle power consumption of t h e suction pump is dcbitetl against it. 'l'l~c gmpll shows, I'url.l~cr,t h a t , a t moderatc values of t h e lift cocfficicr~l,,cvcn a t largc I ~ ~ Y I I o I ~ I s ~ ~ r ~ ~ n l ) c : r s ,vnlrres of t h e skin-frictpion coefficient arc r ~ o t the nllrc:h l~igllcrt.lln11 1.llosc for a flat ~)lat.c t zero incitlcncc. Moreover, Fig. 14.1!11) ticmot~sl,rnl,cst11:~tt l ~ c s c a low v n l ~ ~ persist, over a ~011si(lcr:~1)1(: rs range of v n l ~ c sof t11c l i f l (:ot:flit:it:~li,, c,,. J ~ t ~ ~ i ~ lt,hcr ,expcri~nt:r~l.s tt: tlo~~~o~rsi,r:~l.c:tl 1.11:~t 1.I1t: tlct:rc::rsc i l l l , l ~ c tlt.:~gt ~ f T t : c ~ l , t ~ tI)y l ~ ~ ~ : l i r l t : ~ i n i na t n i ~ ~ n r a Ig I)ol~ntl:~ry I:~,yc:rwiLh l,hc :~.itlof s11c1,iontlcl)t:~~tls I:tt.grly o n n rnrrfttl shaping of slit,s. If t.his proc:~nt,ionis not t,al<c:n, I,l~c flow may I)(. so ~ n t l t - l ~ nlli:ct,ctl by the presence of t,l~o slits l,l~:cl, Lr:~nsil,iont,o l.t~rl)t~lt:nt oc:t:llrs rc%:~tlil,y; llow in t,l~is cor~ncxion also N. Grrgory [33]. I n a n Amcricnn pnper [lo], t,he possil)ilit,y scc of using conl.inuous srtct,ion through a porous wall t o ~n:iint:iin 1ami11:tr Ilow t o consitlcrably larger Iicynolds numbcrs (of the order of R = 20 x 10" was c a r c f ~ ~ l l y

cB.

1njc-cl.io11 a dilTrrc.111, of gns (Ili~lirry 1)01111d:iry lily(-rs)

:!!I!)

itlvc?st.igai.ctl. 111 t.llis c:~scI,oo, slll~st~:rnl,i:rl rccluc:t.iorts i n tlrn,g were achicvccl, allowing f o r l,lle mcclrnriic::~l work roclrlirctl t o m a i n t a i n it. WI1(?11 a n n.t.t,cmpt is m a t l c t,o prcscrve a l a m i n a r I~olinclary l a y c r cilJllcr by s u c t i o n , o r , as a l r e a d y rncnt,ionctl, m e r e l y by p r o p e r slln.ping, i t is v c r y i m p o r t a n t , t,o h a v e a gootl Irnowlctlgc of bllc potcrltfi:~l velocitcy clist.~.ibl~tion. ~ i t ~ h e a s e i t 111 cr is ncccssn.r.y tt.o a r r a n g c for t,Ilc I)rcssltrr 1.0 t1c:crcnsc o v c r as Iargr. a port,iorl of t h e section as possible. V e r y oxt.cllsivc c x p c r i n ~ c r r t so n t.llis slll)ject were carriccl out, b y S. C;loltlst,cin 1311 n.ntl Iiis coll:tl)or:tl,ors. 'I'll(: cnlc:l~lnt.ionslccl t.o bile tlct.ernlinat,ion o f t.l~c% sl~n.l)c t.llc? sec:l,iotr of t,llo :~.c:rofoilwllicli wot~lcl1)rotltlcc: n ~)rcsc:ril)c~l of pot.cnl.inl

i t i s possil)le t,o s e c n r c a l a m i n a r bonnda.ry Iaycr 011 tliiclt nerofi)ils as f a r as t h e lit ant1 separat,ioll i s prevcntctl 1)chirid it. B. Itcgcnscllcit 171, 721, a n d B. 'l'l~wait.os [94j proposcd Lo 'regulate' t h o lift o n v r r y t,lliclc norofoils b y v a r y i n g t h e int,cnsit,y o f s l ~ c t d o nant1 s o t o obt-air1 a lift which is intlcpcntlcnt of t h e angle of itlcitlrncc. I n m o r c r e c e n t t i m e s t h e r e n c r c m a n y proposals to u s e t h o air srlclretl aurn.y f r o m tJic 1)ollntlnry l a y c r f o r t h e p u r p o s e of irlcreasirlg t.hc t h n l s t of :t j a t a.ircraft [87].

'1'11~ pap(:rs 1j.y F . X . IVort,rnnnn [I051 a n d IV. l'frnningrr 102, 631 rrport, on rnorc rcc(-ritl r ~ s ~ t l(:orlc:c:rni~~g t,~ tlic design of latliinar ac:rofoils a n d of tltc tlcl:ty of t,r:ttl.sit.io11 0 1 1 xwc:~~t,-l):tcrlc wings.
A c:otnprc:llc.llsivc rnvicw of ~)roi)lcriis conccrnc:tl wit.11 :~irc:r:~ft, const,rttct.ioti :111(1 l ~ o ~ ~ ~ t ~ l : ~ r ~ ycoiit.rc)lr 11:~s -Inyr. bee11 g i v e n rc~cc:nt,Iy b y (:. IT. I,i~(!t~nrntin :I,II(I C. R. I'anltl~llrst [50]. A p a p e r by M. 11. Slnit,li 1881 cant-ains n comprelrcr~sivc list r(,f(:r~v~ccs. ,I ,llo ~ ~ O ( : C S S t.rn.risil,ior~frorn 1:trninnr t o trrrl)t~l(:i~l~ i n t,llo I ) o t ~ ~ r ( l : ~ r y 01' Ilow
[sf:!],

l a y e r \vit,l~s~i(:t.ionwill 1)r. stlldicxl i n (lrt.:til in Sc:n. X V l l c:.

U . un r

Fig. 14.20. Tl~rorrticnl : I I I ~x ~ ~ e r i ~ ~ ~ r n l . : ~ I r vrlovit,.y clislrit)r~t,io~~n symmol.ricnl nrroon foil \viI.h R I I C ~ , ~ O I:rfIcr (:01~1st~i11 I [RI] c,, 0; R 3.85 x 10' 0 - - rrwns~trctttrsa( will~r,,ll, st~rli#,r~: I I I I . R F I I ~ ~ I IwilllI ~ I ~ I sclrliol~

it1 of :LII I,rnr~sil.iot~~lc*l:~yr(l S I I I ! ~ ~ ~t,l~ror~gl~ is 11y II Vig. l4.1!). l)t~crc:~si! I,IIv ( l r ; ~ , ~ :t(*rnfi,il in \vl~i(!l~ n It~rgr! tn~n~l)c*rslils. r ~ f l Mr. of ~ ~ I'fc.~ll~ir~grr 1. 'l'llr rnnrgy connl~~r~pl.ion l ~ c r Iiil of t prlrnp I ~ a s ~ c e t ~ l i11(.111clt~dI,II(: 11r:tg cn(*fficit*~~l, it1

c. Injcctinn of a diflcrent gns (0i11nry boendnry layers)

O ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I I I I Iof ~.II(: V:LIII(.R I clr;~g c.oc.ffiei~.l~l,l tor~rls lhe lt(-y~~nIils il of n11rr11)er R (:I) Vlnl l ' t o r v m ( I ) , ( 2 ) :&nd ( : I ) willwt!al q ~ ~ v l i r b t n ;( I ) l p l : ~ l , lvl:tlr, 1:ttnin:tr; (2) Vl:tl, l ~ l n l v ,lr:~r~~ili~I~t:&l;
:I) ~lvrt~lonlwtl 111111111v11t.

lll:&Ic,

rlllly

I,) I'olnr tlingr:~n~x I I ~t.jvr, rlilli.rr~~l. F Ilc~ynr~l~ls I I I I ~ ) ~ 'l'l~n cxtrer~~c*ly i1r:l.g corffirirl~tn I I I ~ ~ . low rxisl, for :III~ I I ~ ~ I -r:l.tl;:f. ~ I V:I.~III*S lifl, (,i>c4(i(.ir11t~ : I S I of of I IIC rf,
f

vc.loc.it.y clisl~ril,ttl.ior1. I I I ort1t.r t o ol)t.:r.itl :tc~roli)ilswlliclt nlnint,nitl n. Inrninar 11o11ntl:l.ry l:~.yc:r :IS 1:t.r :IS lilt- t.r:lilillg c~ljy: it. W:I.S s~tgg(~st.ecI ltsn slinpcs sliowing a 1.0 dcerc;:lsc: i l l prc-sstrrc: (:ill itlc.rr:lsc: in vc-loc-il.,y) o v v r l . 1 1 ~ wholo I o ~ i g l ~ ~ ~ , otrly n.r~tl (lisl)l:~.yi~rg : I . I P ~ I I I I ~p r ( * s s ~ t r c :IWI , i~~(~r(x:t,sc, on(: posil,iotl, n.s SIIOWII in Vig. 14.20. :~t If ~.II(. slils arc? nrr:~.t~grtl ~.II(: j)ointt of prcssllro j u m p , n.s snggcst,ctl b y (:riflil,l~ 1731, nt.

1. Tl~eore~ical results. 1.1. The fusdamenml equations. W l ~ r n spnco-vcl~ic:lrr o b r ~ r ~ ~ s tlcnaor layers of t l ~ c R to the nt~nonpl~rre, ~l,zjinnt.ior~ t.11~ cfTccct wllirl~is ~)rotll~ortl l.l~c? nt t~one in 1,110 I)o1111~1:iry or Iny~>rs along 1,110\vn.lls givt:8 risc: t,o vcry I1ig11t.c:t~~l~cr:il~~~rt*.q. L ~ rc:tIl~rt?. 1 1 ~q~~:inlit,y I I C I L ~ 111 ortlc*r I 1 of lr:~nsf~*rrvd to the vehicle 1.0 s ~ ~ t e~)roportions,t is possil~let,o i ~ ~ j c c t , ll i n ligI11.g:ts or a llltitl tl~rorrglra pororls well. l ' l ~ clight gns or t.11~ v:rponrizing fluid thns rrcnls n thin fill11 nlnng tilo wttlla. A nirnil~r ctli-ct call :also IN: prm111nc.tl il 1.11~: mn1nri:rl of ~.III: wrill (r.g. grny~l~iln. gl:wn, or n ~ynt,ll~!t.i(: ~n:il~.rinl) i~nllowctl Co s ~ r b l i t ~ ~ : ~ t c tI111s rrc~l~cing tl~ickness it8 (n.blat.ion). 111 :dl snc>l~ onnrs, I~o~rnd:iry Ir~yc!rsarc For1nc.d in whiclr two or morc gases mix wit11 otlr anot.lrer 11y din'~~sinr~. I n R sl.rcami~ig gnscons rnixlnrc, every c o ~ ~ ~ p o ni movos with a nrc:rn vc1ocit.y w f wlricl~ cnt differs from sl~ccit:~ npecics. In order Lo dr!scril)r t.11~ to vrlocif.y firld, it, is ronvcnicr~t introdttc-c Lo n Pnrtrn or htrr!/ccnlric vrloc,it)y w = L'pr w , / Z pf, wl~crn p , -- p clo~~ot~:n 1 ~ Z 1 . 1 tnt,nl donnit,y. 'I'll* dc*l):i~ of:i vt:lt~(.ily, f , fro111 l)nry(.(v~l,ri~: 1,11re w 1,110 \rvlof,it,y, is I<IIO\VII 11s l.111i w, fIil1'11~io1) vt.l,)t.il,y. W,. of 1.111: ~ ) e e i c s , t,l~nt ~ SO
w,
5

W, I W.

400

XIV. Bonndary-layer control

Owing to the definilion of w, we must have Ze, Wc = 0, and for each component i we may write 6he law of maus conservntion in the form (14.24) div (er wi) = div (e{ (W -t W{)] = 0 . Upon sttrnming ovcr all components, we obtain the continuity equation tliv (e W) = 0 whirli has the faruilar form of eqn. (3.1). 111 the rrbsonco of nxtcrt~nlficlds, tho cliffuuivo flow is driven, csnenLially, by conccntration grndicnta a s well a s by t.l~crtnal diffttniot~whicl~prorluces a flow of mnssca in t h e presence of a te~~ipcrntrtregratliont. the case of a binary mixture, we may write tlie low of tliffusiot~ the form In in (14.26) c, W , - Dl, (grad c, -t kT grad In T) ,

wltcrr I),, clonotes the coefficient of bir~ary difflrsion, kT is the thermal diffusion ratio, and c, = el/e is tho masq conccntration of lhe first gas, assntncd t o be the one which emerges from the wall. 'J'ltc c:orflicintlt of binary tliff~~sion dcpends only litllc on concentration and is affected by temper n t r ~ r r tho samo way as the kincmntic viscosity. The thermal tliffuaion ratio, kT, depends essenin ant1 is froqr~onlly npproxirnab~l the ratallorcrude relation hy tially on concont.rntiot~ (14.27) kT = a c t (I -c,) duo to Ot~sagcr,Furry and Jones. Here, thc coefficient of thermal diffusion, a, is assumed to be for a ~ o n s t : ~ n t evcry specific cornbination of gases. Inserting cqn. (14.26) into thc law of mass conservalion, eqn. (14.24), written for the first cqn. component, and taking inlo x c c o ~ ~ n t (14.25), we obtain

Ilrrn R st:intls for l . I ~ t ?~ittivrrsrrlp i s cnt1~111t1t~. Ill~rr~tt~i1 If (lillrtni~~t ~l~filt!t:t.r(l, titt~l~~rlitt(.~l is ~.II(! trrntrr nrc tlclotod. 111 (.he tlcrivaLiot~of t,ltis c q t t a l i o ~IIsrI 1111sljr(:t~111:1dt!of Ot~~llg(!r's ~ pri~t(:iplo nrrorrling l o wl1ic11 tho corfficirrtt of Wle oonccntraLion grnrlicrlt in Ulo IrraL-fltrx vrctor in tlto sntnr :IS t.11nt of t.ht: t r ~ n p c r a t ~ r gratlict~tin t.he mans flux. ~re ,1l1e Irottndary condilions for velocity ant1 ~ ~ c I I I I ~ c ~ R ~ I ~ 1~ ( :R:LIIIC : ~ in I)otr~td:~ry . :IT(: 1. 11: s 1:1yem ronsist.ing of singlo gxscs. 'I'llcsc must be s~t~~pIctnetltctI I.WO 1 1 t b ~ ~ t t t d a r:ot~(Iit~it)~~s \vili1t ~ ry for tllo coi~crnt.ral.ion.At a lnrgr tlist.anco f r o n ~t.hc wall, there is 11rcst:r11 only tlrc c x k r ~ ~g:rs wl~ic:l~ al rnr:iris t , l ~ : l.hc cot~rc111ri~l~io11 LIIC S J I P C ~ C Rcm:ltr:rt.i~~g ~t C, of fro111t.lre ~vall vanisl~os t a m. 'L'lie srrontl bort~~clary rolltlitiot~111us1hf: prrnrril~(:dnt t.11~; w:lll. [n rno8tr rases i t is parmisail,lcr 1.0 nss111110 t.l~ntt,Ii(? rxt.crnnI $:IS r n n ~ t o tpas^ lIltro~tg1~ all, f.ll:~I. is, t.ItaL t,110 (lilr~tsir)~~ 111~ vr1ocit.y (11.l11(! rxl.~!rt~:il is rt1111iI gns :i11(1 opl)osih in sifirr I,II t,ltt! ittjt*(:t,io~~ vrlo<.il,y,TI,,,, trt, t,lit! IV:III. Si~tt!(>

anrl in view of oqn. (14.20).

\vc

o\)Lniti l,l~c conrlit.iot1 t,lt:rl (grad cl -I- kT grad

111

7')

W r may now introrlure tlie normal honndary-layer si~nplificatiolls into the right-hand side of this rqrtai.ion t l ~ n s ~ r g l r r t i l ~ i~ s in alax wit11 respect to those in a/&~.I n this manner we obtain t kr n 1 IIC ro71rr11lmlion rq7folzon

A corrcs~)ontling oqualiot~ valid for t l ~ c is sc:concl compotlcnt,; I~owcver, this second equation brconlcs t,rivi:il wlmn (.he ~notlificdform of cqn. (14.28) is used b c c a ~ ~ s c 4- c, = 1. For this c, rr:~son.t.11~ S(:COII~I (:qtl:it,io~~ rry)l:lc.crl by t,hc continuity eqr~:btiorl(14.25). is
'I'IIc tnon~rnt.rttnccltt:llions for rsril.tn~~
:I

gas rnixluro :Ire identicnl with those for a sir~gle ant1 are gss

a7' =0, a!/

(14.30)

\vl~rro now Q 111rr1t clc~pcntl roncc:ntr:lt,ion in addition t.o their fatniliar d c p c ~ ~ d c n c e tetnpc. / on on rat.~~rr. I, rncrgy cqnat,ion for a gaseons mixt,,lre must bk formulated with due regzrd being peid Itc tm I.hc r ~ o r n ~ a l tltorni:~l oo*~~lnction, t,ho transfor of h6at by tliffusion, and to t h a t by thermal to di11'1tsior1. Itc~t~ricli~lfi ~011si~~cr:lt,iolls pcrfi:rt plsos, w ~ I I L ~ O ~ I I ~ Ch mixb~tre our 11, C e ctitl~alpy (14.31) 1~ = c I 11.~ C, h , . -{-

Fig. 14.21 Binary boundary Iaycr on a rono in laminar flow witallsu~~ctrronic vclocity M = 12.9 in the presence of 1l1c , injection of helium into air,afterW. Wuest [I 101. Velocity distrib~~tion, temporat11, ure dist,rihution, T, and concentration rlistribotion, el, for diffcrrnt rat,ios of wall t r n ~ p c r : ~ t ~7r r , t o external t c ~ ~ ~ p c r a l u r e , ' t , TI. 111jcct.ionvelocity:
TI = 1/3 R,/2 (yls);

~ . ~ ( e ~ / e , , , )RLj3 ; /Ji R, = u, sir,; M,,,-- 12.D; 7',,==-60C; T I = 1023C. MI = 5;

V I U ~=

. .

Sincv: 1.11o tloriv:rl.ic~tl Irngl.l~y, rncr(:ly qnot.c t,hc rrtutlt, in wl~ichthe boundary-layer approxiin wc 111nt.ionshave :rlrc:ntly I~ecn introtl~~cod:

402

XIV. Do~~nclary-layer control

Rrfcrrncea

403

1.2. Exact solntions. In order to solve the coupled partial difFcrct~tinl cquntiot~s the paraof bolic typo we Iinvo, nt. prencnt, nt our diuposnl n variety of riu~nericalmethocts [97, 421 as well e s fast rleot,ronic con~ptitcro. With tho aid of thcoo, it. ~ R C O I ~ RPRO U R ~ ~to O ~ obtain ahnost nrhit,rarily close approxi~riat,ionn the cxnct solutiotia wit.11 n tolcrahlc expenditure of t.irnc. The properties to of the Il~iidcan be co~~ccivcd quant,ities that, vary wit,11 position, rind arbitmry boundary as rorlditiorm en11IIC 1)rencribnrl. I t is posnihle t,o obtain si~tiilnr solutions if the external velocity, the blowing vclocit,y, n well RR tho t e ~ ~ ~ p r a t011r t11c wall, arc prescribed in a dcfinitr: manner. I n . s u c R I I C ~ I oases, t.11~ y ~ l r ~ n~ > ~ r t i a I s of (li(rt:rclitiitl C ~ I I : L ~ ~ O I IeRd ~ ~ c t o n ~ynt.c~n or(linary clilTcrcntinl r cs of equations, ant1 tho InI,hr can IIO inhgratccl nrr~ncricnlly.T11e:ro exist R I I C ~ I ri~~nioriral rcnulb for incomprenniblo wedge-llows (inclusive of stagrintioii flow [102,29]), comprrmihle flow over a flat plntc nL zero incidctim, nntl o u p r ~ o n i c bo~lndnryInycrs on wcdgeo and cones [IlO]. 'l'ltc tliagram in Fig. 14.21 illu~t~ratr:~,wny of cxnmple,tpho1n111inarvclocit.y, te~npcrnt,r~rc, conc~iit~ration by nritl bounclnry layor or1 n cone with llclirrm injection. ar, ho~~ntlnry layers was A tnct.liocl tlcoigncd to cnlculnte I a ~ n i ~ ~hyporsonir, hinn.ry-n~ixt,ure givnn by ,I. S k i ~ ~ l ~101J ~ e r applied it to t.he exan~ple cooling by a b l a t i o ~ ~ tho aid of c ~ who of with pyr~)\izi~ig t<>l\oi~. All of t l ~ o nr~~ncric~rl ralorilnt,ions mont,ioncd RO far ~leglcct brnms which stern frorii thern~nl tlie d i f f ~ ~ s i o(.hat is t.hc terms wl~ichItavo been untlcrli~ictlill eqn. (14.32). Sucli a siml~lifioationis t~, aonletimcs pcrn~i~siblofar nu tho c o ~ n p ~ l h t i o nnkin fritrtiou and Jicnt-trnnnfcr rate in ronccrt~cd. RR of Expritnc~ltn show that I,IIc eqnilihrirrtn ter~~l~crnt,c~re nclinbatio w~rlldocs not cle~nroarro on an ill the prrscrlce of thcr~rral di(r11sio11,but c:rlcuIatio~iu bancd 011 t.hin nin~plificd~(:IIOIIIC a l w a y ~ predict olteh n tlcc.rrasc. I':xact, t::rIc:~~I:i.t.ioi~~ , ~ ~ - s u l ) n t ,h o ~ ir~ ~.t l n r , ~ wl~it:I~ on t ~ ~ ~ . r layers occ11r ill flows ~vitli evapornt~ion or ~ ~ ~ l ~ l i t i ~)resrt~t.wit,h v011~itlrr:thlr ~ a t i o r11s ~ diffi(:~~lt.ic~.'l'l~cclist.ril~~~tio~~ of vclority oFt,hccvsjtorat.illg nl~l)nLnn~:c o. of t.11~ (i. velorit,y of blowing) :tnt1 01 t e ~ ~ i p c r n t ~i~t,l ~ :c I I L R Cho~~li(lary L11c ~~rc ~ t in flow clirootioii c:nn no Iongar hc prrncrihctl :~rbit.rarily.I111l,htli~t~ril>ut~io~is s~)011~.a110011~~y :brine nl a rcqult of t l ~ c coupled I~cat, and Inwa t.mt~sfc:r nntl ncit,hcr is known n priori. I n tlris c l o ~ n a i ~ ~ , W.s l ~ l c t k t o n ~ n[00] calculntcd n large nnmber of solutions in which theevnporation rateas well rr : t,l~o m loc:rlly snlisfirtl energy hnlnnce Iiavc I ~ m n evnl~~ntctl tile basin of' eqn. (14.53). on F. I':infcl(l 1211 ~ml)linl~crl solrit~ic>c~s flon.n of binary inixt,~~reo n.risc in ttlle prene~~cc for t,l~:rt of t.hc aclial):tt.ic: c ~ n ~ ~ ~ r of ra t lilni ~ i c:trl~ontlioxitlc wit.11 a special n~at.hemnt,icnl ~ i o of form assrrt~~ccl for t.11~ of ovnpornt.ion. 111 t.hin work, he clincovcrrtl t.l~nt proccm of ntlinhntic cvn.pornt.ion law t.11~ of a 111nr1c film lc:uls to self-si~nilar o l n t i o i ~ s , ~(/ h p . VIII. 111 s11c11 s . canes, it t.~trns olltl t.l~nt t.11~ locnl rrrte of evaporation ~ t i u r tfollow a l / ~ z - t y p e law. Thin in Llto tlinLrihution of Ll~onormal vc~lc,c.it.yi l l o11vt,i011 hlo\\'i~~g a flnt. 11li1.k it( zt:ro i ~ ~ r i c l t.11atIrn(ln to s~lF-si~nilnr or 011 r~~~c soI11tionn, nn il111slrnt.ctl Vig. 14.12. :I'llc I , C I I I ~ H I ~ ~ ~1111t1I ~ .Co ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ t r : t t .1.11~u~~rfn.c(? 1.I1olil111tl1r118 in ~.I t at. i o ~ t of out, to he I I I I ~ F ~ ~ I I I .
1.3. Approrimate mlutions. J t in possible tn simplify t.lin prol~lrmhy nsq11111ingI.l~ntthe rrat~tlt,l I I I I I I P. ~ ~ , Ll~n I ~ rrntl Sc.htniclt, ni~~iihrr. -- r~ll),, o q ~ ~tolu11it.y :ri~tl(.lint the viscosity S, :rrr a i~ n lir~enr ft~not.ionof tr:~~~por:tt.~~rc:. t,l~cno Wit11 ans~itnl)t,io~~n, t . k'anldcm 1251 oalcr~lnhdthe (,?. I sl~rnring ~t,rcw t Lllc wnll wl~cli liglit RZR in injcctcd: lie c011~itlcrec1I W C R of v n r y i ~ ~ g a n ~ ri~otccr~lnr n1:rRq ratio will1 rrspr.ot, tn) t.lto II:L.C g.1~. More grncrnl rwcs 01 oxtcr~lal-velocity(111~1it~jecl,io~~vr1orit.y clist.rib~tt.ior~n IIC nn:tlyzrtl with 1.11~aitl of t,11c integral cq~rntions[log]. rnli
Moat, nxlwrit~,cr~tnl ir~vcnl.igntio~io t,l~o illto problct~iof irijcal.itig n foreign g i ~ s into n Isminnr s~~i~.rso~iir 1101111tlirry 1:tyt:r ce~~~t:cnt,rnlc :~11i1ost~(~xt:I11nivcIy ~ i ~ m . s ~ ~ r cofr ~ c . t : ~ t i l i b r i ~ ~ t ~ l 011 t.hc r Ll~e q ~ ~ tttnp~.r:&t,~~rc: :rtlinI~:tt.ic:\vnll. on at11 \\'I~(.II tl~t,I , ~ I I I I ( ~ : I I:~yc.r c.onl.niiin novrrnl eo~nl)ol~ct~t.s, rune-t nnlculnt,ion 1,ecomrs ~~ I,l~c te~clio~i~ II~:(.~~IISI$ t 111. 1111s t ~ 1 c . 1 1 C ~ > I I I ~ I O ~ I ( ~ It11?111.11els 011 1 . 1 1 ~I ~ I I . Y ( ~ ~ a l l t11t- ~t,l~(*ro. 01. II A (~onni(1(:r11I~lc s i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l i t,c.~.l~rx l i oI I~ ~norlc.l ! \ i l . l ~ ( Y ) I I R ~ : I I I ~ ,~)ro[krl,i(*n( I I I I I I ~ I I ( Y I ill^ I I I I I ~ ~ ~ ( ~ O I I I ] I ( I I I C I I ~ ~ l i ~ ~ :n.11t.11 ~ ~ ~. tlifl~~sior~c ~ ~ ~ ~ l rc.lc-rr~.(ll l at .n~~rcilit!clI : I , I ~is :~clc~~~t~!(l. n 111odr1 ~ ~ i ~ ~ i l ~ t,o l ~ H SIICII gives very goo(1 agreeIII~II~, wit11 ~:x:tctsolt~t,ionn rvon ill the c.:rsc t i f strongly vnrinble propertim 197). . (:onnitlrr:rl,ly Inoro nrltncrortn rxjwrilnr~rkhnve been p c r f o r ~ ~ ~ c d t , r ~ r l r ~ ~ lbountlnry wit11 rnt 1nyc.r.s ( r / . (:II:I~I. X 11). '1.11~ clctniln of 1 . 1 1 ~ X prorcnn elf nbl:~t.ionnro only pnrt.1~ r~r~dcrstootl for anti t.l~isrt.:rso11, :$ e~:~lv~rl:tl.io~~ of :1.111:11.io11 I~t~itt.-l.~~:t~~nfrr he? 111tsc(l r r ~ ~ cn(?t~li-r~~~[)irit'nl I I I I I S ~ ,sl,ill on lc ct~~~:tt~ie~ns [:!:rl.

[ I ] ~Ickerrt, I)ns Rotorsrhiff~~nd d.: sritic pl~yuiknlinc%l~r~~ (Ir~lncllngc~~. Vn~~elt.r~l~ot.ck 1{11y. 1111el r~recht.Got tinnrn, l!)25. [?I ~ r k c r e t , J.: ~ : ' ~ e n s s r ~ ~ i c h t ~ a h s a ~ ~V1)l t70,. 115:s - 1158 (1!)20). , 8. g ~ ~ i g 1.41 Ackeret,, ,J., Rns, M.,rind Pfcnt~ingcr,W.: V e r l ~ i i ~ d e r u ~ ~ g J ' I I ~ . ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ : IrinerI ~ C ~ ( ~ ~ I I S drn ' I ~ . Jtci. h ~ ~ ~ ~ g ~ s e l ~ i r l ~ItI,R R I I ~ I NIn t ~. ~ r w i s n e ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ : t f L c i ~ , net: itlno Ilol\z. I)llyn. d11r(:11A I I~ 622 (1!)41); Ac1.n 14. 323 (1!)41).

[GI l$:tro~;, . I . R . , and Scot.t, I!.E.: Sotne rnnns t,mr~sfcrrcs1111~ \vit,l~exter~ial~ I o \ v I I ~ ~ R R I I ~ C gradientan. J A S S 27, 025 --ti26 (1960). 171 l$etz, A.: 1)ic IVirkungs~vaiae von ~mt.crtoill~en I'liigclprofile~~. Ilcric:l~t.rI I I I C ~I\I)II. Winn. Gencllnrhnft f. L~~ft.fnhrt, O (1922); NACA ' ' 100 (1!)!!2). No. IM [a] Uet.z, 8 . : 13eeinfl1irwungdcr ltciburig~scl~icl~t ilire prnkt.iclcllc \'crwcrt,~~~~g. n ~ ~ d Svl~rift.ct~ tlt. Akad. f. Luftfnlirtforsohnng No. 49 (1939). [!I] BeLz, A.: J1intor.y of bor~ndnrylnyrr cont,rol roscnrch in (:c:rmn~~y. I%o~ctlcl;~ry rrlltl 111: I;tyt.r flow cont.rol ((:. V. Lnclirr~nr~r~, 1. 1--20. I m n d o ~ ~ cdj, 1001. [I01 Ilrnnle)w. A. I. .. 1111rro\vn. I,., 'l'ol.(:rvi~~, 1t11tI Vin(:o~~I.i. I d x l ~ t . r i ~ ~ ~IrI ~I ~~t.l~(:ot.t:(it:~~I I). N., I?.: I , t.i~.l stritlic~ nrm s11ct.io11 t,he cont.rol of the laminar bol~ntlnry of for laycrr. NACA JLcp. 102.5 ( I!)51). ( 1 11 I$ro\vn, 15.: Exnot solr~tionu the In~ninar of bou~~tlnry layer cqunt.iot~n a ~ ~ o r o n n l : wit.11 for ~~ r~c variahlr fluirl ]~rol)erties nnd a. prrssurc grarliont in 6110 I I I ~ ~ utren~n.Proc. I'irnt US Nut. II Congr. Appl. Mcch., 843-852 (1951). [I 21 Ilrown, Mr. 11.. nncl J)or~oughe,1'. L.: 'J'nblc of cxnct ltrminnr 11011ntlnrylnycr uol~~t.iona w11e11 tlie well in porollu and flttid properties are vnrinblc. NACA '.L'N 2479 (1!)5I). [12n] Cliang, P.I<.: Coiitrol of flow separation. IIernispliere 1'11blisl1ing Corporat,iot~,V : ~ n l ~ i ~ ~ g t o ~ l \ 1)C (1976). Carriiro, 1':. and Eirhcll~rct~ncr, : Theory of flow rm.l.trrvlirr~ent. a tangc11t.ii11 dinE.A. by jrt, clinrging ngninst a ~ t . r o ~adverse prcns~lrc ig grntlic~~t. J!o~ltltlrrry 1:rycr 1t11t1 111: Ilo\v (:o~itrt~l ( G . V . 1.ncl1111ann. ed.), 1, 200-231, London, 10(il. Clarke, J . I i . , Xlenlres, H . l t . , and Idbl)y, I'.A.: A provinio~~nl annlynis of t ~ i r h u l c ~ ~ t . ho1111dnry layers with injection. J A S 22. 245-200 (1955). Curle, N.: The catirnation of laminar skin friction including clTcctn of tlistrih~~tcd n~~ct,ion. Aero. Quart. 11, 1-21 (1900). [10] Culick, F.E.C.: Integral n~cthotl c:tlculnti~~g and 111wnI.rn~~nfrr Iii~ninnr o ~ ~ r ~ c l a r y for heat in h layers. AIAA J. I , 783-703 (ll)T,:1). [I71 Dn~~ner~horg, nr~d It. E., Wciberg, J . A. : ISlTcct of t,ypn of porolrs s~~rf:tc:o suct.ie)r~ nntl ve1onit.y d~stribution the characteristics of n 10.5 per cent thick airfoil \vit,h area n~~ct,ion. on NACA T N 3093 (1953). [la] VOII l)oer~hoff, E., ant1 Jmftin, L.I<.: PrescnL stntr~s 1rscarc.11 bormtlnry lnyrr rontrol. A. of on J A S 16, 729-740 (1049). [In] I)otlooglie, P.L., nnd l v i n g o o d , J.N.R.: Exact aol~itionnof lntrriinw I,oi~nelnry Inycr rquatiorls with c o n ~ t a t nropertv" ~ NACA llcn. . t - values for porous wall with varinblr krnnrrat.~~rr. I229 (1055). [20] I)orrancc, W. H., arid .Dore, F. J.: T l ~ clTcct of maw t.mnnfcr OII t.l~c e roi~~prcsnil)lc~ t,nrh~~lent, boundnry lnyer skin friction nntl hcnt trnnufcr. J A S 21. 404---410 ( 1054). [20n] Rckcrt,, JC.12. (:.: 'J'hart~~otly~~n~)iiscl~cp l r ~ ~ ~ g i I<op v o ~ St.oll' I I I I ~\Viir~~~riil)c.rg:~~~g, ~ I~'orn(.l~g. Ing.-Wes. 29, 147-151 (1963). [21] Eisfcld, F.: Die B c r c c l ~ n ~ c ~ ~Grcr~zncliirl~te~ig c k o p l ~ r l t c ~ ~ dcr g fiir \Viir~~~ciilie>rg:t~~go r I I I I ~ IS t nuata~isclihri Vrrtl~mol.~tng oincn l'liinniglceitrnfiltns iibcr eitirr ~):irrrllcln ~ ~ g r n l . r i i t ~ ~ l r ~ ~ I'1:rLt.o ~ ~ r ~I3oriic:I~~i~~l1l.i~11tig ter vt:rii~~tlt-rIi(:l~c~r Sl.olTl~t.i\vt:rt~~. . I . I I ~ I I I LMILHH lnl.. 'l'r:~~~~l't.rl!i:!7 . 11, 1550 110711. . ,. [22] Emmons, H. W., and h i g h , D.C.: Tnbrilnt,iori of Illnsinn fr~rtat,ion wit,l~ \)lo\vit~g ~ u c t . i o ~ ~ . ;rnd ARC CP 157 (1954). r231 Epplnr, R..: rrn.kt.1~~111) c c h t ~ ~ ~inn~irinrcrI I I I ~~ . I I ~ ~ ) I I I AII~I~II~(~-(:~(~II~,R~~II Bor ng ~ ~IIIPI. - ' I ; ~ . - A ~ ~$2,. 221 2 4 6 (I!wB). II 1241 lCjil)Irr, It.: (:cr~~citin~tt)~oc ~ ~ z s c l ~ i ~ ~ l ~ tfiir l ~ o a ~ ~ g ~ ~ ~ I~Ig~ ! S ~ ~ I I I I ~ ~.Ih ~ I I I ~ . (~r ~ a llo~~I~:t~~St.rit*l~ I I II WGl, 140---149 (1962).
-3

404

XIV. 13011ndnry-laycr control

References

405

Ihrtltlers, C.11.: A notc on 1;irninar Inyrr skin friction under the influence of foreign gnn injnction. .JASS 28, I(i6 - 107 (I!WI). Ihvrc, A,: (:ot~t,ril~~~t,io~t h I'6t1tcle cxpi:ritnent;rlo des ~nouvctnentnI~ydrodynarniques~dcux elitnct~sie~t~s. 'lXhesis Univcrsit,~ l'aris 1!1:38, I-- 192. of I?lnt.l, .I.: 'I'he I~ieLor~ boundary Iqycr cont,rol rcsearch in t,he United S t a h of America. of In: l301111tl:iry I:ivcr ant1 flow control ((>. V. I,achm:bnn, cd.), 1, 122-143, London, 1961. l?liiecl. (:.: I C I . P ( ? I ~BUR deln C l , r i ~ ~ n t ~ i ~ g ~ i tdcr i L ~ ~ t I~~R~ S i s t '~cchnischcn~~ochschnlc? Thnnig. .Jb. ~cl~~ffl;arttcc:l~;;. (:rsollsr:li:ift 31, 87 -- I l:f (l!)RO). Fox, Fl., ant1 I,il)l)y, P.A.: I l c l i ~ ~ ~ n injection into the boundary layer a t an a x i ~ ~ m t n e t r i c stagnation point.. JASS 29, 921 (1962). (:c~R~.cII, : L I I ~(:rOss, .I. IT. : IPlorv :inel l~r:it, I<., t,rattsfor alongaplanc wall with p n r i ~ d i c ~ ~ ~ o t i o ~ i . 4OS (l!)74). ZAM I' 25, :I!)!) (:c:rl)c?r. A,: IIIIICI.HIIC:IIIITI~OII ~ ~ : I I . I . R ~ : ~ I ~ ( : I I L I I ~ I H I LInnL.UofI ~AcrocJy~~nttlie:~, iihc:r C Itt:~). ~ I ~ I ! . (:oldstcin, S.: Imw-drag nnrl suc:l.ion airtoils. J A S 15, Is!) -220 (1!)48). (:rcgory, N., nnel Wrillrcr, W.S.: Wind-lunr~eltests on the NACA 63 A 00!) aerofoil with tlistributod 611ct~ion ovcr the nose. AltC 1tM 2900 (1955). (ircgory, N.: Jtenoarcl~ s~tct.iorisr~rfaccfor lan~inar on flow. In: Boundary Iaycr and flow t:o~~trol V. I,nc:l~rn:~nn, ((;. ctl.), 11, !)24-- 960, London, 1901. (:rosu, .J. I?., Iliirtnctt., J . , Mawon, I). J., and Gnzlcy, C., Jr.: A review ofbinary bonncl. ' L :Iry lrlyor chnractcrist.ics. J. Heat Mass 'l'mnsfcr 3, 198-221 (1901). Ilrntl, M.I<,.: The bortntlt~.ry1:iycr with dist.ribr~tcd sucLion. A1tC IZM 2783 (1955). JIeacI, M. It.: History of rcsor~rch bottnclary layer cont,rol for low drng in the U. K. I n : on llo~n~lary lilyer and flow control (G. V. L I L c I I ~ ~ I Ied.), I , 104- 121, 1901. II, I-lolntrin. 11.: Mcssonecn zur I,aminarl~alttrngder Grennscl~icl~t einern Fliigel. Lilienllinlan -. . Jlericlrt s 10, 17--27-(1940). Ilolzha~~scr, C.A., ant1 Jjray, R.S.: Winel-t,nnncl and flight ir~vcatigat~ions t.lw usc of of leiidir~gctlgc arca suction for 1.11~pttrposc of incrcil~ing the maximum lift cocfficiertt of a :)So swc~)t-.rving airplane. NACA Rcp. 1276 (1956). Hurlcy, I). (:.. a r ~ d Tliw:iitcs, R.: An expcrirrientnl investigation of the boundary Iayer on a porous c'iro~lar cylinder. ARC ItM 282:) (1955). lfilis(.l~, lb.: 1':xnktc ~ r r e c l ~ n r n ~ gIan~inaren dcr Reibnt~gsschichtan dcr liingsan ~ s t r o m t e n cl~c?~tcn I'lrbl.l~~ I~oti~ogrncr h s a ~ ~ g ~ Schriften dt. Aknd. d. l,uft.falirtfors~~~ng, !nit. A ~ng. 8 B, No. 1 (1944); NACA IZM 1205 (1949). .Jones, M., nntl Head, M.It.: Thc rcduction of drng by distributed suction. Proc. Third Anglo-Amrrican Aeronautical Confcrenco, Brigliton, 199-230 (1951). J h y , J.M.:I5011ndnrylayer along a fiat plate with ~tniformstjetion. ARC ItM 2628 (1948). I<nr<l~nlls . and Will. 1 : l'aneentialca Ausblnncn von I-lcliurn in larninaron HyperschallW.. . : grrnzschicl~tr.~~. 22, 295--:jb7 (1974). Z1'W Laal~tnent~, V.: I5ountlary layer control. J . Jtoy. Aero. Soc. 59, 163--198 (1955); see also (:. Aero. Kng. Ibov. 13, 37~--61 (1954) and J b . WGL 132--144 (1!154). I,:rch~na~~n, (cd.): I3onndary layer and llow control, I and 11. Pergarnon Press, London, (. V. : l!)lil. [45] IEW, 11.(:.: 0 1 1 tho corr~prcusiblcboundary laycr ovcr a flat plate with uniforn~suction. ltrissnor A n ~ ~ i v e rVol. (:ortl,r. Appl. Meclt. Ann Arbor/Mich. 43-60 (1949). s. 1461 Lcw, 1I.G.. anel hfathic~t,It. D.: 13onndary layer control by porous suction. Dep. Aero. Eng. 1'ennaylvania St,:ite Ui~iv. Rep. No. 3 (1954). [47] l a w , Il.(l., :~trd \':tnncci, J. B.: On the laniinar compremiblc bour~daryIaycr ovcr a flat plate will1 s ~ ~ c t i o n injoclion. J A S 22, 589--597 (1955). or [48] J,il)by, P. A,, I<auf~n:~nn, and Hnrrington, R.P.: An experimc~ital I,., invcatigation of the isoll~crn~nl ln~ninarbonndary laycr 011 a porous flat plate. JAS 19, 127 (1952). [4!)] I,ihl~y,1'.A., and I'nllonc. A.: A method for analyzing the heat insulating properties of t h e Irtrninar cornprc4sible boundary layer. J A S 21, 825'834 (1954). (501 l i b b y , 1'. A,. n ~ Crosci, It.,J.: Experimental invevt.igation of the down-stream influence ~ d of ut,agtlat.ion point Inass transfer. JASS 28, 51 (1961). 150n) I,il,hy, I?. A. : I-1nn.t.anrl tnnss transfer a t a general thr3e-dimensional stagnation point. AIAA J. 5, 507 -517 (l!)li7). I50l)l I,il>l)y. I'.A.: 1,:rtninar flow I L ~a tl~rcc-dimcnsio~i~rl sI.tgnabion point wit11 large r a h of injcc:l,ion. A l AA .I. 1.1. 12731- 1279 (1976). 151 1 I.o~v,( 2 . M.: 'l'l~c: e:on~prmsihlrIan~inar hor~ndarylager wit.11 fluid injection. NACA TN 3404 ( l!t55).
~

>

1821 Meredith, F.W., and Uriffith, A.A.: in: Modern developlncnta in fluid dynamics. Oxford University Preen, 2, 6.34, Oxford, 1938. [63] Mickley, H. S., Rose, R.C., Squirw, A. I*., and Stewart., W. E.:Heat ~nnss, and t n o t n e n t ~ t ~ ~ ~ transfer for flow ovcr a flat plate with blowing or snction. NACA TN :l208 (1!)54). [54] Miles, E.Q.: Sucking away boundary laycrs. Flight 35, I80 (I!):!!)). [55] Morcluchow, M.: On heat transfer over a swcat-coolcd sorfaw in Irin~inar comprcssiblo flow with pretwurc gradient. J A S 19, 705--712 (1052). [A61 New, N. : Foreign gna injectior~ into a co~nprcqsiblc r ~ r b ~ ~ l e t t t t botlt~dnrylnycr on :l flat p1a.h. J A S S 28. 645-654 11961\. .. (571 Nickel, I(.: Eine einfache AhschLtzr~n fiir Crcn7srchicl1trt1. 111g.-Arclr.31, 85 - 1(M) (l9ti2). (581 i~altlcl~nnt, LC., ftaymcr, w.G., a n t ~ ~ r c r o u A. N.: W ~ I I ~ I - ~ I ~ I Ib!sh; I of 1,11c! slihllit~g x. II~ propc:rl.i(*u of JLII 8 Ilcr c:ot~tl~11ie:lt y ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ c ~ l . r i e : ~ ~IlI ~ I U ~~ I I ( : ~ I, , ~I ~ ~ III I ~ I II I O V O I I H ~ ncc~l,iot~ wit,11 ! I ~I 811rfacc. AILC 1tM 2(i(ifr (198:I). [59] l'ankh~~rst, R.C.: Il.ecet~tnritislt work on rnct,hoda of bo~~nclrlry layer oo~~l.rol. I'roc:. Syrr11). at, Nrrt,. Phys. J a b . (1!)55). [GO] Pnppns, C.C.: Effcct of injection of forcign gases in thc skiti friclior~n11t111c;~t. 1.1.1~11sft:r 011 tho t~rrbulcntbo~rnclnrylayer. J A S I'al)or, 59-78 (,Ian. 1!)5!)). [6011] J'ecl~nll, W.: ICin Niil~cr~~t~gsvcrfriltrct~% C I . C C ~ I I I I Ie11:r kc)tn~)r~ssil~lol~ ~ I I : ~ ~ ~ : I I zur I I~ III~II (:rc:~~ir.arhicht, rnit kontinuierlicl~vertcilter Ahaangr~ng. Ing.-Arc:l~. 32, 157-- I8A (I!)(i:%). [GI] I'fct~ninger, W.: Untersuchong iibcr R c i b ~ ~ n g n v c r n ~ i n ~ lanr l'ragfliigclt~. it~sl)cno~iclorc o ~~~~g rnit ltilfo von Grcnzschichtnl~sn~~gut~g. I t ~ s l .Ae!rotly~~atnics,15'1'11 Ziiric:l~, No. I:! 1Zcp. (1946); see also J A S IG, 227--236 (1'349); NACA TM l 181 (1!)47). [62] Pfenninger, W., and Bacon, J. W.: Aboi~tthe dcvclop~iicr~t swept lati~ir~ar c t i o ~ ~ . of uu In: Boundary layer and flow control [G.V. Lachmann, cd.) 11, 1007-1032, L O I I ~ O I1901. I, 1631 Pfenninger, W., and Groth, E.: JJJWdrag botlndary layer snct,ion experi111et1t.q in IIigIlt a wing glove of a n F-94 A airplane with suction through a large numllcr of 1i11eslotsr. ill: Boundary layer arid flow control (G.V. Lachmann, cd.) 11, 987-999, I,ondo~~, I!)c,I. [6&] Pientka, K.: Theoretischc Untersuchung der larninnrcn Z~~istoff~rcn~,scl1ir,I1tn9t liings ciner benetztcn Plntte b ~ nicht-adinbnkr Verd~tnstttng.D~RR. i J~mllll~(.~l\vcig 1!)77. [64] Poisson- Quinton, l'h.: It6chcrcl1cs th6nriqnca ot cxphrirrlc:r~tnlcrc I I ~ c:rjt~~,roIc: ~ : i r ~ ~ l l l r l . R lo (1,: tion par soufflage appliquk aux ailcs d'avions. ON IClZA 1'11hlication, N o h rI'oc:I~l~icl~~c: N~,. 37 (1956); see dso J b . WGL 1956, 29-51 (1957). [65] Poisson- Quinton, Ph., and Lcpage, 12. : Survey of ITrench rcsearclt on the control of I ) o ~ l ~ ~ c l . ary layer and circulation. In: Boundary layer and flow corttrol (C.V. Lachtnann, erl.) I, 21-73, London, 1961. [GG] Poppleton, E.D.: Boundary layer control for high lift by suction of thc Icadi~ig-ctlgc a of 40 degree swept-back wing. ARC RM 2897 (1955). [67] Prandtl, L.: The mechanics of viscous fluids. In: Acrodynaniic thcory (W. F. D ~ ~ r a n ted.) l, 111, 34-208 (1935). [68] I'reston, J.H.: The boundary layer flow over a pertiicablc srrrf:bce tltrongl~nrl~ic:l~ sr~ct,ion is applied. ARC RM 2244 (1946). [69] Pretsch, J.: Grenzen der Grenzschiclltbeeinflussung. ZAMM 24, 204 -267 (1944). [70] Raspet, A , : Boundary layer studies on a sailplane. Aero. Jlng. Rev. 11, 6, B (1052). 2 [71] M e n a c h e i t , B.: Eine neue Anwendung der Absatlgttng erlr Steigernng tlca A ~ ~ f t r i r b eittcs cs Tragflugels. F. B. 1474 (1941). [72] Regenscheit, B.: Absaugung in der Plugtochnik. J b . WGI, 1952, 55- 6:) (]!IT,:)). (731 Richards, E. J., Walkcr, W., and Grectning, J.: Testa of n Qriflith ncrofoil in 1.l)~ . 9 f t 13 tunnel. ARC RM 2148 (1954). [74] Ringleb, F.: Conlputation of the lalr~ir~ar boundary Iaycr xvithst~ction. JAS ID, 48--54 (1952). [75] Itheinboldt, W.: Zur Berochnung stationiircr Grcnzscl~icltt~cn kontinuicrlic:l~cr Absauhci gung rnit unstetig veriinderlicher Absa~~gcgcscltwindi~keit.JEnt. Mcch. Analysis 6, 539J. 596 ll956l. [76] n u b k i n , M.w.: An analytical estimation of the efTect of trnnspiratiot~ coolit~g LIIC Itcator) transfer and skin-friction characteristics of a comprcssiblc, turbulent ~ O I I I I ~ : L ~ ~ NACA T N 3341 (1954),. [77] Scltlichtit~g,11.: Die (,rcnzschicl~tan tior c:l)ctlc:n I'l:it.l.o nil, A l ~ u n t r g ~ I~ t ~AIIHIII:LR(~~~ I I I ~ ~ L~~fI,f~rhrtforscI~~tt~g --:I01 (1941). I!?, 203 [78] Schlichting, H.: 1)ie Grenzschicl~tmit. Absnllglll~gnntl ~lnsl)In.~er~. I,t1ftf;~ltrt,fornc~1111t1fi 19, 179---I81 (l!)42).
1 - - - I -

[7!)] Sc.l~li(:l~t.i~~g,ntld I $ I I ~ S I ~ I I<.: ~ I I . 11.. ~ I I 15xnklc I,iisl~ngen fiir (lie Inn~innrcI l e i l ) ~ ~ ~ ~ g ~ s ~ l i i c l i t 111it. ~ R : \ I I ~t111dI \~I S ~ ) ~ ~ G R C .S~c. h r i l t ~ ~ n t\kntl. cl. I,~~ft.fnI~rt,forsrl~~~,g 2 (1!)43). A III I I I (It. 7 fJ, No. [801 SrI~licht,i~~g. I)ic I5eritilln~sung II .: tlcr (:rrnzncl~irht.t l ~ ~ rA l ~ R I L I I t ~ n I,\nsblnsen. .Jb. r ~I ~ I I dI ~ clb. r\knd. rl. 1,1111f:~lirtfor~rlitrnp -108 (104:%/44). IIO(81 1 S(.l~li('l~t.i~ig. 1';in N i i l ~ c ) . t ~ ~ i g ~ ~ r r Zllr l r% ~r c i ~ ~ i l l lrlr In~ninarcnIZrihl~~igssrliicllt 11.: fn~ ~ l'e l d ~ig 111it.Ahsa11g1111g. 111g.-Arrl~. 201 --220 (1948); Ni\( :r\ 'J'M 121(i (1!)4!)). 16.. [&2] Sc;l~li(;l~t~i~~g. 11.: 11ljstt11g111ig clcr 1\rro11)'11:1111il<. \\'(:I, 1056, 1!)--29 (1957): ser also: in tJb. J,':~sl,iratio~l I:% cot~(-lic i ~ ~ i i en tl~r\l~iiqllr 11c I te a6ronti11t~iqt1c. 'rrr111iiq11ret, Svicncc t\6ronnl~t.iqt~c L':trt, 4. 14!)- 161 (1!)5li). [8:51 S r l ~ I i ~ ~ l ~11.: ~ ICiriigc ncuerr lCrgrl)~~issr ti ~g. ii1x.r ( ~ ~ P I ~ Z S ~ ~ I ~ I ~ ~ I ~ -~\ ~ I v~~~ I in T~s ~ I I S S , I C I I~~ i\c.r~ti;urtic.nlSc>it:ncm. 1 1 , I'ror. liirsl I ~ ~ t r r n t ~ t , . ('ol~gr. in t11r t\crr)~~:i~~t.irnl Sc~ienrcu ill hl:t(lrid I ! W . I , ~ I I I ~ ~ 563 58G (l!t5!)). II, (841 S<.II~~.III<.\ ' c r s ~ ~ c l ~ t . i \ l ~ ~ i t ~ ~ g l l i i g t,* I ~f~ .f ; ~ ~ ~ r t f o 12, rI0~ ~27 ~(l!):55), 0.: nit ~ t~ I rn l ~ ~g [X5( S c l ~ r o ~ ~ k . 'I'txglliigcl ~ i ~(:re1i7,nrllicl1l:tI1sn11gr11,g. 0.: it I,ulCf:1lrrt1orscl1ung 2. 49 (I!)P8): sro also ZI'hl 22. 2%)( l!fiI): I,r~ft.f;tlirt.fors~'~~~~~ig 12, 10 ( I!l:lr)); 1,11ft.\vissen 7. 409 (1!)40): nlno Ni\('A 'rM !)74 (1!)41). 1861 Sinlinr. I<. I). I'.: 'I'lle 1n111in:trI,ot~ntlnryI:%?cr i ill^ clintrib~~trtl sl~ction an infinite yn\\rd on . . ryIin(l(~r. /\I<,(: (!I' 214 (l!)5li). [87] ~ n ~ i t I\.M., :ctltl Ilobrrts. 11. 15.: 'l'l~r jet :tirl)l:ltic 11t.ilizingbonnrl:~ry I~tyrr for ~ , r o l n ~ l h, nir won. J A S 1.1, 97- - IO!) (1047). (881 S~rtibl~. 11.: IlibIiogrn.l,liy "11 l ~ o t ~ n d ; ~ r y ront,r01. Iritcrntl~~re hl. Inycr Senr(.I~NO. (i. I.il)rnry I111llrtin.'I'IIV . I n ~ n mI:orrentnl I l c s m r r l ~ ('rntcr. I'rincet.on IJniv. (1!)55). [X8;11 S111:lrl...l.'l7.: 0 1 1 1.l1c~ITcvl. 1111iforn1 nf s~~cl,ioti t l ~ r 011 st(!ncly Ilo~v ~ 1.0 nr rotating disk. d ~ Q I I : I ~-1. , . ~ hl(-(,l~. i\ppI. hlnll~.7, 44ti-457 (1!)54). [8!)1 S ~ n i l l ~ . t\.Rl.O.. ~ t n d.InlTr. N.,\.: (:rnrrnl I I I I - ~ I I ~for sol\'ing llie I I I . I I I ~ I ~ R ~ (~ t1011~q11ilil)rit1111 l)n1111~1:1ry 111ywrt111:1.tionsof :I ~lissori:~li~tg ,\I;\,\ * I . .I. (il I - (i20 (IINX;). gats. [!lo\ S~~Icttsliissr:r, L l ~ ~ t ~ ~ r s (ICY r: I~I l~~I :tI ~t~ ~I ~ \gv ( * i s l o l ~ l r r ~ ~ ~ b ( ~ l ~ i ~ l liitigs rcinrs ~ t ~ ~ i g \\I.: ~~I I I I I Z ~tdt ij~~ v e r t l ~ ~ ~ ~ n t rI'liissigkritnlil~~~~. I l r n ~ ~ t ~ s c l ~ n - e i g \\'iirtno- und Stoffiibert,rngtcng nrlc~~ I)iss. 1974. 8 , 71 . 81; (l!l75). [ 0 l ] SIr~inlic.~~r*r, I % t . r r r l ~ ~ ~tlrrn g .I.: ~ r Intninnrr~~ Z~vristofl-(:rc~~zsrhirht d r r Iiyl,ersonisclien in S t : i ~ ~ l ) r ~ ~ ~ l c l s l r i it. ~t~ ~ ~ ~ t ~g . r ; ~ t ~ t r ; ~ l ~StolTl)c.ia-ertrn. Iliss. Ilrn~~nscli\veig tii i e ~ ~ ~ l i c l~iir~gigrt~ 1!)70: Z,\hl hl , T I , 20!l- 223 (1!)71). [!I21 SI11:irl. .1.'17.: 0 1 1 t l ~ c c.lkrts of rtniforni s c ~ r t i o ~ ~ strn(ly flo\v rlr~eto 1% rot7ating disk. on tlic Q11nr.1. Mccl~.A ~ I I Ih l s t l ~ .7, 441;- 457 (1!)54). ,J. . [)4 Sliil)rr. .I.: I'ligl~t rsl)c~ri~iicnts trsls on l\ro nirplnnrs \\-it11 811ctinn slotn. N;\CA 'l'bl !:( i~nil l2:12 (1!)50). 1511gl.tr:tnsl. of %\\'I1 I ' o r ~ c ~ l i ~ ~ ~ ~ g s l ~ c : r iIW21 . (1!)4:!). No. r I ~ l (!141 'I'l~\~:rilrs, ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ l)ro(111(.lio11 lift. ~ I I C ~ ( ~ ~ I V I I I I ( 01 I in(.i(lrn(.c. .I. lZ.oy. ,\rrn. SOC. 52, 11.: of ~I II~ 1 I7 l2,f (I!).lH). 1951 'I'lt\~:iit(-s. 11,: l t ~ r r s I i g : ~ l i o ~ ~ sllic rlrrrts of r n n t i n ~ ~ n s11ctio11 In111inarI>ot~n(lary inlo t~s ntl i:~yvrlion I I I I ~ I ( ' :~<l\.(.rs(' . ( * H S I I ~ C ~ gr:~cli(%~it~. IZRI 2514 (l!l52). ~ III ,\I<(' (!)I;\ 'I'lln:titc~s, I(.: 0 1 1 1111. I I I ~ I I I ( . I ~ ~ I Irt111ati011l l I : I I I I ~ I I : I ~1)o1111(1:1ry~ y r r II~ i lt Ilo!r. ,\ IIP\\- tnrl110~1 of I I I I ~ ~ I : I ~ : I ricI ~r~i~~ l t ~ ion.l ,\ ~ l l{hl 2587 (l!)52). II ~ ~ ; l<r (!)71 '1':1itrI. \'.. :111rl ' l ' i t ~ ~ t i t . ,;\.: h l ~ ~ l t i r o ~ ~ i jI)oi~n<li~ry ~ t cli;~l~:ivtc~risti(.~. of t l ~ c )c)~~~~~ lnyrr L~SC r(*f~r(-n(.r st:~lv.1111. , I . 11~~:1t. hlasn 'l-r:~t~s(i.r 123 129 ( l!)i5). IS, (!)Hi 'I'orcl;~. 'I'. I'.: I l t > ~ ~ ~ ~ t l : i~ y ( . r l i ~ r - ro11tro111y (listril)~~lcd s~~rf:tce st~rtionnr injr(.tion. I$il)ar~~ ~ ~ ( s tg~-rtvr:~l rit, so111tio11., hl~illi.1'11~s. 312 314 (l!)54). ,I .72. I!)!)\ 'I'rilling, I,.: '1'11,- i ~ ~ ~ ~ , > ~ ~ i ~ ~ r t ~ s s il;iyrv( ~ l ) r ~ ~ s s tgr:~rlieritnn(I S I I C ~ ~ ~.Ii\S 17, l)o1111(1:1ry) l wit11 l ~rv I I , :535 :54 I ( I!l50). 1 I I ) I ) I 'l'rit(~l<~~~iI)~otlt. I : ~ I I I ~ I I ~ ~ < < ~ ~ I ) I I I I ~ s ~ ~t111 I rinrrI I triI\\-eisr i t ~ i t l ~ c n r g t rIiingsI(,: 1)iv I C! ~I ~~I n ; ~ l ~ x ( . s t r i i n(*III,III.II~ ~I'li~It(~. ~lt~ ,\l)Il. I ~ ~ : I I I I I s ( : ~ \\'is$. ~(:rs. , I , llql l!)5 (l!l52). I~~~ . ( 101 I '1'1 ~ ~ ~ . l i t . ~ ~I+:. ~ rI o ~~ Il~inf111.11rs l : C I t, Niil~t-r~~~~gsvrrfnl~rr~~r ~ r I ~ n(Icr I I I I I I ~ I I ~ T P I I Ilri~11111l $ e rn I ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ s s niil~ .i\c l S R I I ~ I I I I ~ . cl I)~ l liors(.I~g. I~lg.-\Ves.22. 147 I57 (1!)5li). 1 llV2l \ V : I ~ S ~ ~ I . '1'11~ ;isy~nl)toli(~ lC,.l.: I11r11ry I)o1111(1:1ry . Ilo\v wit11 s i ~ r t i o ~r\l<C lthl 2610 of i. . IAyrr , , . . (l!)52). 1 lo:!I \Vi~.gl~:~rfll. % I I ~ ~ ( ( T ~ ~ ~ I I I I( 'I1I1 1 ~ 1 1 ( ~I I I ( ~ i I r c I i s y ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ ( ~ t(r~ srr~~ ~~ r l ~ i r lniit nkonI<.: I ~ I ir l i( s itc f i t ~ t ~ i ~ ~ r. l\ i ,~~ l:~ I I~ rI II II I~~\r1,11.22, :!IN 377 (l!)5$), I S I~ ~ .-. . ( I ( 1 I I '\\'illi:ltlas. .I. : . \ 1,rit.f I.{*\ ivn of Iirilisl~ r(.sl,:trc.I~ I I O O I I I I I ~ : Il ~ t~y ~ r O i (~011lroI IiigI~lift.. 111: for 1:111111,1:11~ 11,)l.r i l l l f l 1111\\ 1~1)1lI1.1)l ( t i . \ ' . I,il~~lll11:~111l. 1 . 74 1.11.). lo:!, l,0llfll111. l!ll;l. /I1151 \\'or1 I I I ~ I I I I I . 1". S . : 1'1.o~rrsst 1 I IIC 11csig11 1o\v (Irilg nrrnti~ils. i of 111: I{olln(li~ry Inyrr a1111 flow 1~1~11Ir01: . \.. I,:I(~~IIII:IIIII. 11. 748 770. I , O I I ~ ~ O I I , l!llil. (( (41.).

~ I I I ~ .

[I061 W u e ~ t ,W.: F,t~t\viclrlungeincr lan~innrcn(:rct~z~rl~icIlt. , Ili~~t(?r 0i11cr Ahsn~tgrst.cIlc.l I ~ g . Arch. 17'. 190-206 (1940). (1071 W~lcst.,W.:A ~ y l ~ l ~ ~ l o t~i ~ c ~ l~c I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I1111 z ~Ri i ~.~I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g(c~% ,y i ii t~ i~ ~ l r~i~ ~ ~ ~I R I ( gs~ ~ ~ I sI I l i I t ~ s t r I < ~ ~ I ) c l~ig.-Ar(,l~. 198- 208 (l!)55). ~II. Z*?, [I081 W u c ~ t ,M'.: Sl~rveyof cnlrl~l:~t.io~~ IIICI,IIO(IR of I n n ~ i ~ l n ~ o : ~ ~ l d n11tyr.r~ Ir ry \\.ill1 s11c1.io11l il inconiprcssible flow. I n : I~oulrtlnrylayer ant1 flow conlrol ((:.V. I , : ~ c l r ~ i m ~ i ~ ~ ,11, 771 rrl.). 800, I,ontlon, I'orgnmon Press, IO(il: [log] LVrlrsL. W.: 1,nniinnrc (:rcri78cl1ic.l1trn bri A11s1>1nncn rin(>s nntlrrct~ Mrcli11111s (Z\vc~isl.olFgrenzsrl~icl~lcn). log.-Arch. 31, 125 --I43 (Lg(i2). 11 101 \VIICR~, . : J < o ~ ~ ~ ~ ) r ( ~ s s i b l c ( : ~ C ~ I I Z S ~ ~ I I ~ ( ~ I I ~ hriI 1111sl)l:~nc11 : I I I ~ ~ ~ . ~ (h, l It - t l i ~ ~ ~ ~ l s . \V In~iiin:\r~ A:I ci111,s I ZFLV 11. 3 ) -409 (l!)l3). !8 111 I] \ ~ I I : I I ~ , S.W.: 11t.:1.1. (.r:~nsf(*rl li1111i11:tr I I I I I I ~ ( > S H ~ ~ )I~)( I? ) I I I I ~ I ~l I: ~ ~, ~ 1111r:I I ) O I . I 1 I I H I I : ~ I . 1 ~ 1 : ~ ~ ~ : il (.C ~ (? will, I l ~ ~ i injc.c<lion. .IAS lfi, 741 -- 748 (I!).&!)). tl [I 121 J ' O I I I I ~ , I). : Note ~ I t,Iw vcIocit,,y atnil t~(*~nl~(:rnI,t~rc 11. I (lisl ril,~~l.io~is :ttt:ti~i(*(l i t 11 st11.I io11 \v I nI tI : of i ~ i ~ ~ i t cx I r o ~ i ~ r s s iI l l : ~ rI . .I e . I .I I 71) 75 1 1 Q4RI [I 131 J'ol~ng, A.T).. and Znn~ir,nI.: Siniilar nnql nnyn~j~tol.io l r ~ t i c of~t.l~r~ ~ c * o ~ ~ ~ l , r r s s iI lI~ l l~. ~ so ~ ~s i I)~ II I I n eqt~~tion ~ t i oi~ . I I 1 I 120 (l!)(i7).
,-'---I'

n. Genernl remnrks on the ralculntio~t non-steady borlndnry Inycrs of

400

CIIAPTER XV

Non-steady boundary layers t

The boundary conditions are :
a. Gencrnl remarks nn the cnlc~tlntiottof non-wteady boundary layers

The oxamplos of solut,ions of the honnrlary-layer equations which havc been consitlareti until now referreti t o stcady mot~ion. 't'hcy arc by far the most important cases cncountcrctl in pmct,ic:al applicat,ions. Ncvertl~eless,in this chapter we propose t o consitlnr scvcrxl examples of motions which tlcpcnd o n time, i. e. of non-steady l ) o ~ ~ n t l aIaynrs. ry The most comnlon oxnntplcs of non-stcatly bountlary 1:~yersoccur whcn t h e motion is slnrted /rom rest or when i t is periodic. When motion is started from rest bot,l~t1he body antl the fluid havc zero velocities u p t o a certain instant of time. T h e motion begins a t t h a t instant a n d we can consider either t h a t tJhe body is tlraggc?d t.hrong11 t.hc fluid a t rest or t h a t t h e h o d s is a t rest a n d t h a t t h e external fluid motion varies with time. 111 this latter caqe a n initially very thin boundary layer is formed near t h e body, and the transition from t h e velocity of t h e body t o t h a t in t.he ext.crn:~lflow takes place across it. Immediatcly after t h e s t a r t of t h e motion t.ltc flow in the whole fluid space is irrotstional antl potential with t h e except.ion of a very thin Inyor ncar the body. Tho t,l~ickness t h e boundary layer increases of with time, and i t is important t o investigat.~ t which instant s ~ p a r a t ~ i o(reverse a n t ~ built1 up. One s r ~ c h example flow) first, occr~rsa s tho I)orintlary 1:~ycrc o r ~ t , i r ~ ~o c s was :rlrc:atly consitlorccl in Src:. V 4 ; i t was t,he exact solut,ior~of the Navier-Stokes c q ~ ~ a t i o n s t,he flow noar a wall which is aceelcmted impi~lsivelyfrom rest and for rnovcs in a clircct,ior~ p:~rallclt.o itself. Also, the s t a r t of t h e flow in a pipe (See. V 6) I)elongs t,o thc sanlc category. P"~rt,hrrcxnn~ltlrs non-stjcady I)or~rtctary of 1:~yersoccur when either t,hc body performs a poriotlic* motion in a fluid at, rrst, or whcn t,he body is a t rest a n d t h e fluid c-xoc:ut.t-s a ~)crioctic motion. T h e motion of a fluid ncar a wall which oscillates in its own plnnc: (Srr. V 7) :~ITords n example of this t,y~)e problem. a of

IIerc, 1/,(1) denotcs the velocity of t h c wall il'it is i r ~ motion, alltl iJ(z, 1 ) r c l r s t o t h e non-viscous exbrn:d motion ; the I:lt.t,er is rclat.rc1 t,o ~ , I I ( -prossrlrc by t h e tvll~:~t.iot~,

which follows immediately wllen tllc viscous terms a r c ornitt,ctJ from cvln ( I 5 2). Generally speaking, i t will be convenient t o choose a syst.rm of c.oortlir~:~t,t.s lir~ltcd with t h e stationary, external flow. As far a s incom~)rossil)lr Ilows arc? collccrnrtl, t,hrsc. different systems of coordinates arc eqr~ivalcnt(cf. 1271). 'Vhc tlcfinit,ion of t,hr point of separation i n non-steady flow is also closely relatcd t o tllc choice of t h e system of coordinate axes (cf. [33]). Tn what follows we shall consitlcr t h a t separation occurs a t t h e point where (aulay), vanishes i n a system of coordinates lil11zc.ti with t.11(. solitl surface. I n complete analogy with steady boundary layers, it is possil)lo 1.0 dcrivc. iiltc*grnI relations from t8hedifTercntial equations of non-stoatly t ) o ~ l ~ ~ t l ; ~ r y - flows. r l r ~ y c 'l'llcs~. are :
m

and
m

1. Iln~tndnry-lnycr cquntintis. 'l'hc f~rntlanlcnt~al equations for rion-steady boundary layers Ilavc already Occn tlcdi~cetlin See. V l l a . I n t11e general case when t h e flow is c:on~prc:ssil)leant1 iron-st.c:itly I)nt two-tlimcnsional, ,we must resort t o t h e following ccl~~a.f,ions t,ho vcloc*it.y n.rlcl t.rmpcmt~ureficltls (cf. eqns. (12.50a to e)): for
.~

--

1. I

nlll

illtlrl,l.rcll.o I'roScssor I<. (:t:r~tcr~ wlio rt:vi~otltliis ollnpbr for tho Piltlt Edit,ion of tliirr

book.

Here denotes t h e displacement thic:kncss, 6, the momor~t~irn (.hic:knc-ss ant1 O, t,11ts , cnthnlpy thickness tlcfinccl enrlicr in cclrls. (1:$.74), (1:!.75) r ~ ~ (1:!.77), rt-s~)c*c~l.ivc~ly. ~ t l Further, t h e quantities U(x, t), q,(x, 1) a n d 17,(x, 1 ) rcfrr t o t h c Sricttionlcss ext,rrt~al flow. I n t h e special case of a stationary flow, we recover t.he relat,ions known t,o 11s

110

XV. Non-~teldy bortndnry lrlyers

n.

General rcmarka on tho calcolntion of non-st.cady boutlclary layrrs

41 1

Srotn cqtts. (13.80) nntl (13.82). Whnn the: flow is itlcomprcssiblc, these relations simplify t.o: B ac~ a (15.0) at ( I l d , ) -1 IJ ax 0, -1- ax (IJ2d2) = -4' e anti i I a ad air 1 j J 2 ;,/ ('J2(12) I ( 1 I 3 (rR 53. ==
--

- --

1
0

(;;jZ (I!,

3. C. C. Lin's metl~ndfnr periodic exlert~nlflows. At1 all(-rn:ttivr tnrl.llotl 11:~s hcetl dcvised by C. C. Lit1 [28J wllo tnotlcllctl i t 011 t l ~ e a~)pro:l(:l~ cnll)loy(:~lFor f l ~ o st.rttly of t,urbulcrlt flows, t40 bc tlcscribt!tl itt CII:L~. V l l l . It. (:at1 I)(: 11sc:tl l i ~ r(.II(! X solut,ioti of problems itlvolvitlg pcrioclic tnof.iorls in t.ltc Srco st,rcnn~: ~ l l t l rc,lic$s on forming suitable averages of thc quarlt,itic.suntlcr invrsl.ignt,iot~ an(1 0 1 1 a lit~o:triz:~tiott of t,lrc equation wllicll tlcscribes thc osd\lat.ory c:otnponnnt, of t.11~ velocil,y in t,ltc: 1)01111(1ary I:~yer.011 t,lle ot,lt(:r JI:LII~, fnll (:~rl:tl.iot~ I.lt(? \vliicI~(I(>s(:ril)(:s ? I I ~ ( I ) I IIOW I,lt(: is rct.:linctl. If 1,Ilr free-s1,rca111 vc-loc.il,y[I (s, 11:~s oscill:lt,ing c.on~lw,~~c~nt., I)(. \\rril.t.rn 1) ntl it, c::w

\\'llcr~ 1.111: flow is sl.mtly, oqn. (15.9) I)c:cotnrs itlrttl.icnl wilfll oqn. (8.35), \vlt~rc:~s eqn. (15.10) t,rn.nsSortns int,o cqn. (8.32). M'c I~cgitt ortr sttltly wiL11 tdrc ~ n n l g s i sof non-rttcncly I)onntl:ary I:~.ycrs i t t a n it~cotrtprrssil)Io Illtid. SccOion S V f will cor1lf:~in sontc sol111.ions t,ltc I)o~ll~tl:rry-lnycr of cq~tat.iot~s co~n~~rossil)ln for non-st.cn.tly flows.
2. Tlln I I I C ~ ~ I #,I' ~n ~ ~ c c m s i v r O npproximntinnr. 'rile int,cgr:~t.ionof t.ltc nor~-st~c:atl~ l~o11t11In~r-y o(11t:tt~ions 1ny1.r (15.1) t 8 0 (15.3) (:at1 l)c (nrrie(1 ortt, itt I I I O S ~onscs 11y :I, ~ procrss oS s~t(:(!vssiv(:r r ~ ~ ~ ~ r o x i t ~ t : ~ ~ l ~t~t(~t,ltotl 1,111: i ~ ~ t t s . 1)cittg l):ts(:tl on t,lt(! roIlo\vit~g pItysic:~I rc:~sot~ittg: 1 1,Itc first. itrst,nnI,, :rll.c:r 1.llc tno1.iot1 11:~tl start,ctl frotn rest., t.lte It 1)outttln.r~~ layor is vcry tvllitlnllcl 1.11~ viscorts term 11(i?~it,/r3?/2)cqn. (15.2) is very in In.rgc, n.llerrn.s t . 1 1 ~ronvcct,ivc t,crms rct.aitl l,ltc,ir nortnnl valtlns. Tltc viscotts t.rrni is t,l\rn I)nlnncotl l ) j ~ (.lie notl-st,r:lily arcclcm1,ion r31s/i# 1,ogctltrr wit,l~ pressure t.crln tile in wlric:li, :[I, lirsl.. t,ltc. cotlt.l.il)~lt.ion alI/ill is of major i~nport~ancc. of Selnct.ing n syst,e~n of roortlinnl,rs \vl~ic.l~ al, rrst, witlt rcsy)c>c:b 1,Itc: I~otly is t.o arltl assrtming t.I~at t.lir ll~titl tliovrs \villt rc~sl)c%c.l,1 . 1 1 ~ t,o I)orly a t mst-, I\.(. C:I.II I I : I ~1.11~ I ~ ass~~ml,lion t.l~:~t. vrlocit,y I,he is r o n t l ~ 1 ~ 1 ~ 1.1~01.rrtrts of' ( 1

wlicrc tllc I)nr clcr~otts avrrrlgo v;~lrlc :LII wi1.h rc:si)c,c:t, 1.0 t.itl11: ov(:r ottv ptsriotl. 1 ICII(.I: the average of the pcriotlic cornpotlcttt., fJl (z, t), vanisllcs. 'l'lllls

TL(Z,y, t) = T?(x, !/) 1- Tl.,(%, l ) , ?/, I>(:?, ?/, 1) : 6(Z, !/) -1- f I t ( Z , ?/, t ) . =
p ( x , 1)
= ( z )

1- p1(", 1) ,

ITttcl(xr lsl~rsc c*otltlit.it>ns 1.hr first, n.y)~)rositrt:lt.iot~, snt.islics t.ltc 1incn.r tliITorct11.inl it,,, (v111:t t.iotl

But _+_ --

a1

a[', al

1- UI

ati

all, -1- UI a u , - {I, O.r

, ,

I if]?, p i'r .

(l5.1!))

nntl
\villi (.It(, I P O I I I I ( I : I ~ ~(.ot~tliI~iotls :-:I.(, y - = O a n t l f ~- ~ w t ?j =m. 'I'lris, boo, IL, 0 .. 0 I t t :~(l~lil~iotl ( ~ I (15.12) and '(15.13) wc: have tlto eotll.irt~~it,y 1.0 ~ Is. is :I lirtc-:tr c~lt~:~t.iott. rclr~:~t.ion ir,, I>,, rl.tttl TI.,,v , . 1li~tlc:r-ortlrrnpproxitnat.ions ~ t . us, . . . cn.n I)c obfor ~, t:li~tf>tlt :I, sitltil:~r i ~ tn:lttnrr. 'l'11c s:ltnc n~cl.Ilotl c:bn 1)c n.pplictl t,o t.ltc s1,ritlg of pc,riodic I~ottt~(I:t.ry I:C~(.I.S. IIo\vcvt:r. 1,Ito (~otnpl(*xil,y t.ltc: t~lrt~liotl R I I O ~ ~ ~ ~ :tpi~rositn:rol' oS S ~ V O t iorts itlc.rcv~st-s r:lpiflly :IS Itigltcr n . l ) l ) r o x i t i t n :rrc rol~si(lcrncl.

412

XV. Non strarly I~onndnry I:bycrs

a. General remarks on the calculation of non-steady boundary laye

413

'J'ltc c~sont~ial simplification of t h e theory consists in retaining only the threc underlinetl tnrrns in ctlrl. (16.22), which is t.hereby linearized and reduces t o 611, at

from t h e outaet. The difference is clearly brought into evidence by tlte appcarancp of t h e function F ( x , y) ;i t has its origin in the non-linearity of the differcnCial nquatiori.

av,
zt

-1- v azu -2

ay2

Ry rstimnting ordcls of n~agnit.ntlc can I)c shown t.liat t h e preceding approximation it is a valitl ant? if the r:~tioof the so-callcd "ac" boundary-layer thickricss,

formrtl wit,l~the frequency n of t h e oscillation, is small comparetl with t h e steadystat.c 1)oundary-layer thickness 0 which would exist if IJ(x, 1 ) were equal t o T J ( s ) . JIcncc, for tltc approximation t o bc valict we must have

It will be stated later in Chaps. X V I I I a n d X I X t h a t the essential charaoteristic of a steady turbulent stream consists in t h e faet t h a t on the mean velocity of flow there is superimposed a random, three-tlimcnsional, quasi-periodic oscillat,iol~. ckmscquently, problems involving turhulent frce slrcnms c x l ~ i b i ttlln same featrlrcs a s those being discussed now; they irlvolve changes in direct,ion a s well a s in t h e magnitude of t h e free-stream velocity I J . Tn most cases i t is crlst,ornsry t,o tlcglcct, t h e free-stream oscillation and to calculate a s if t h e flow wore st,c:ady :III(I :LR if tllc potential velocity were given b y 0 (x) instead of lJ (x, t). 'l'his is cclr~ivalcnt o omitting t t h e additional term F ( x , y) in eqn. (15.20) a n d necessarily leads t o a n average velocity profile which isdiffercnt from ti (x,y). Tho ~)recccling remarks show clearly t.11:~t~ order tltc is in which t h e two operations, averaging ant1 solving idle c:cjn:~l.ions,arc ~~t:rSortr~c:tl not imlnatcrial and aKccts t.hc final msult.

wltiol~, ~r;lc!l.icc, in rcstrict.~ t,hcory to vcry high frcqllcncics. I t will be recalled thatt the t h e quantity a, cqn. (15.24), occorcd in tlio sol~lt~ion t h e problem of a n oscillating , to plate which has been considered in Scc. V a 7. Rquatrion (15.23) which is linear a n d related t o the so-called heat-co~itluctio~i oqu:~t.ion(6.17) describes t h e oscillating component ul of t h e boundary-layer profile arltl can t)c solvctl in terms of the given oscillating component U 1 of t h e potential t,lic flow alone, b c n a ~ ~ s c process of lincarizat,ion has made i t independent of t h c nlcan mot.iorl. T h c normal componcnk of t h e flow can be calculated from the equation of cont.it111it.y (15.1) ivliich can be split into a n average part

4. Expan~ion into a series when a steady stream is per~~~rbed rliglntly. Vc:ry oftr:~~, ~)r.c)l~lnn~s in non-steacly bonndary l~iynrs involve an c:snonl.ially nfencly flow c r l l \vl~ic:h I,l,t.r~: is n~~l~.ri~t~l,c~srt a small non-stondy pcrlurbntion. If i l in I L R R I I I I ~lhnl 1110pcrL~~rI):aLio~~ t:o1111):ir<:(lwiL11 ~~ is RIII:LII the steady basic flow, it is porisiblc In split the cqr~alions a non-linG%r into bo~rnclnry-layir cquat,ion for the steady pcrturbetion. A well-known exatr~ple that for wl~icht . 1 ixternal st,rr:l~n tllo is ~ 11n.s form U(z,t) = d ( z ) -1 s U,(z,t) + . . . , (15.28)

whcrc E d e n o h a very stnall nntnbcr. T l ~ c rnosl itnporL311t~j)oc:i:ll cilst: \\,IICII t . 1 1 ~rstrt.~~:ll pt:rtarbation is purely harnlonic wa.s st~rdiid ixlta~~~iivcly .I. I,igl~t.l~ill 'I'll(: S : ~ I I I ( \ t , y ~of ~ by M. 127). ) linrarizalion can be c111ployecIwhen the i ~ n ~ p c r n le~ ~ r e wall is rr~~rosc:~~lntl c:xl)rcssio~~ t Lhe I)J. l.ht:
lTw (z,t)
=

pw (z) +

TTw, (z,t)

(15.29)

or ~vhenthe wall iknlf performu small, nor,-steady. pcrt.t~rl>ing rnot.ions (~scill:~ting 1)oclics). In such cases we start \vilh tlli r~ssnrnl~lion t l ~ sol~~t.ion.q t.llc (lyn:~n~it. \~~cll t.l~:rl i fi)r :LR as for the thermal boundary layer nrc of the following fornls:

1l:tving solvotl for t,hc oscillation ? I , ~ ( X , l ) , n,(x, y, 1) we can rctnrn t o eqn. (15.21) y, nricl c:~lcr~lat,e function F ( a , 11) which appears in eqn. (15.20). Tho lattcr now iflie dcscrihcs tho mean notion d ( z , ?I). l t should he rlotctl t h a t t,hc cq~lat~ion t h e mean flow, cqn. (15.20). has a for form wl~ich idcnt.ical with Lhc steatly-state version of t h e boundary-layer equation. is 1'11~ only tliirnroncn consist.^ in the a.ppearance of t h e acl(litiona1 term F ( x , y); t,l~is now plays tfhc same part, a s t,lit: term If . tlV/dz which originates in the pressure graclicrit,. Bot,l~ tt?rms mprcscnt, known f~ltict,ionsin tlie diffemntial equation. The only tIifirrric:c consists in tIlc fact t,Iint, t ~ i c mc;cn pfcssure grntlient 1 . dIf/(Ix is "irn7 pressc(1" 011 t.hn hor~nclarylayer and is intfcpentlcnt of tlie trsnsvcrse coordinate 1 , 1 wl~crcast.hc :rtldit.ional t,crm F ( z , y) dcpcnds on it,. Owing t,o 1.11~ existence of oscillatory compont:nt&, the average flow is tliffcrcrit, from l.hnt. whic.11 woi~lrlbe ol,t,aincd if Llie potential velocity I l ( z , 1 ) were avera.getl

'J'lie postulated forms from eqns. (15.30) arc introdneed into eqns. (16.1) to (15.3) anrl Lho losr~lting terms are ordcrcd with respect to t.he powers of E. From the rcquirctncnt that, the tlill'ircntial expreaaions which mult,iply enell power of s lnuut vanish singly, we obtain a msc:rtlo nf cliffcn.ntinl eq~~ations. list them for t.he cmc when Q = const, wlicn tthc cxtert~al We llow is of 1.11(. (i)rn~ of eqn. (15.28), and lvlren the wall temperature is given by eqn. (15.2:)): Equations for zeroth order (steady bmic How):

414

XV.

Non-st.cncly ho~~r~tlnry Inycru

h. llorlntlnry Inyrr for~nnt,io~i i~npr~lsivc nltrr utnrt of rllotiot~

415

n.it.11 t.110 I)o1111(1nry rontlit,io~~s , - 0 : 16, -. a, -- 0 ; 7'" = T'," ),( , J U" = (7 (z) ; T, = T ' ' . , 1 , m:

ISq~~ntionn firut ortlor (p~srcly of non-stcndy):

5. Sinlilnr mid ~emi-similnrsolutions. When we strrclictl t,he t,lrcory of' st.rntly, two-dimensionel boundary layers (see See. VIIIb), wc clcscri\)otl a s similar tJint, class of solrltions for which t h e depcntlenco on the two vnriablcs 3 :~ncly c-or~ltl : I,(: rcdl~cctlt o t h a t on n single variable 71 hy t h e npplicnt,iorr of a sr~iL:~l)lo silnil:~rity tran~forrnat~iorl. s.11analogous manner, we say t h a t a solr~t~ion a iton-steatly In of two-dimensional problem 1)elongs t o the class of similar solutions when tlrc t,llrcc independent variables x, y, 1 can be reduced t o n single variable TI. 11. Sclir~lt 1461ant1 Th. Geis 1101have intlicat,ed all such solutions for which a rctlrrct.ion t o n single v ~ r i n h l c is possil)lc, t.liat; is, s i ~ c as arc of tho form l~

1 " irx
a-.. ,; . 11,) '7u ~ .
2

-1

!z '

dy
-1.

_ "'
I/, - - . ; .

i'l

i\r:

-1.

-i'u

For example, cxtcrnal flows of the form IJ (z, = mx/L and tlrc cascs when IJ (x, 1) . (=tn 1) mentionetl in See. X V c belong to this class. T h e similar solutions for ctrr cxtfrrnnl st.rcam of tho for111 1J (2, I ) -- x/(n - 1 Ot), whcrc a ancl b a r e cotistn~lt.~, : i ~ i : ~ l y ~ c ~ l wcrc: by K. T. Yang 1711. I f a t,ratisformat,ion can he f o ~ ~ n d whiol~ reduces Lhe tlllrcc indopcndcr~t, vn.rial)lcs x, y, 1 t o t.uro, we say t h a t the resulting solution is semi-similar [21]. I n particnl:~r, when tthe vnriablcs are r c t l ~ ~ c etd y and x/t, t h e solutions arc also called pseutloo st,cacly ( r / . 171). A soll1t6on of t h i ~ t,ypc was tliscovorctl by 1. Tani I.561 for t,hc (::tsc wlterr tlrc cxt,crnal flow is given by U (2, 1 ) = ( l o- x/('Z' - - I ) , with 11" and rl' tlonoting constar1t.s. A wider class of semi-similar solutions W:LS consitlcretl by I f . A. Ilnssar~ [In]; scc also rcf. 1211.
.
"

au, -1.
OX

all -1. -2
.?1/

ilx

6. Approxirnnle soli~tior~s. At.t,cnil)t.q 1.0 solve t.11~ c:o~nl)lrt.o of cc[l~:i.t.ions srl, for t h e general case when t h e cxt,ernal flow, I 1 (x, t), is a n arbil,r:~ry fr~r~ction t . 1 1 ~vnriof ablcs wor~ltl1r:~tl 1.0 very great. tliCiicrllt.ins. For tsllis rcasoll, one nrrtst, of't.c:n rcsort t,o approxi~n:~t,c nict,lrocis, for cxalnple t o n.nnlogs of tllc I<:irr~i:i.~r-I'oIill~ar~sc~~ proc:ed~~l.c, tlisc~rnsctlin Cl~np. . Srlcl~ X l,roccclurcs 11n.vc1)ccrr tlcvctlopc:tl in tlct,:ril for incom1rrc.ss i l ~ l r ,rlon-sl.c::itly I ~ o r r ~ ~ t I In.ynrs I)y 11. Rrlrr~lr I:.lfi], I,. A . ILozin [J2]. :r.11(1 Ii. '1'. :~ry Yarrg [72]. Itcfcrcncc 1721 tloals also wil,li t.l~orriial I)ourlcl:~ry Iaycrs. 'rlic irlt,cgr:~l rclat,ions ~ i v c n cqris. (15.9) and (15.10) fc~rnr Irrrc t.l~o in starting point. Since t,l~e proc:css of irrt,cgmting over tile bo~iritlnry-1:i.yr.r t,lli~knoss c/in)iti:~t,cs only one vari:~l)lc, ?I, onc is strill Irn, wit.11 n pn.rtin.1 tlilPcmnt.i:il (:qr~:~t.ion.

I.:III

I Ilr c . q ~ ~ : i t i r ) ~ ~ r 11igllc.rtirtlrrs I~nvc:corrrupo~~~linp of r nl.r~lrt~l~rrrt. prccoding nyst.cl~~n 'rho ofrqr~nt~ionn I)(* rolvrd o ~ ~:Icl'lcr I . I I ~ ?ol,l~vr, I~c>i~lg LI~rrt oxccpt tl~onc zc.rcrt 11 ortlnr. nro 1itlr:rr. . it, 11ol.t.c1 trll, of I l ocl~~:llior~s t o (Ir;.:!) \rrrrc t,o j~osscss (15.1) rsnc-t solutionn of t.he postul.zktl lorn1 (l5.:!0) I I ~ ILo

orilrr
I'roln

t.11r11, g(!~~cr:tIIy sl)mlting, Hlc sollltiorrs nrrivctl nt hy t,l~c prccrtlir~g scl~c~ne ~vorlld tlill'er t.l~r.( * S I L I ' ~sol~lt,io~~ I I ler1118 or(1cr 1 4 1 I I . ~ of
cn,

\\'r ~ i o wproposc 1.0 n.nnly~(: tllo first ~)liasrs t,Ir(: 111otionn.ft.c.r it. h:ls I)(TII of st2nrl~c(l froin r(-st,.'l'l~rprol)lc~n cn.rl IN: sitnpIific(1 co~rsi~l(:r:~,l)ly,S I I ~ ~ ( ~ S I ( - IIty I I . :I.S I I3l:~sirrs181, if it, is n.ssr~rnctlt.lint t,he I~otlyis ;lcc:c.lcr:~tctlvc:r.y r:~pitlly,1 . 1 1 ~ l ~ ~ i I,c%ing I tl a t rrst,, or, in o t l ~ c ~ r wortls, t.1in.t if, is st.:lrt,c~tl inlprllsivt-ly. 'I'l~r~s 1)otl.v :rssrlrr1t.s t.ho i t s fcill \~eloril,y tliscntit.i~lrloc~sly anel t.Itc vrlorit,y r r n ~ n i ~ rc:oltsl.nrtI. :if't.c~r.\v;~rcls. s I n tlic sgstcln ofcoortlin:~t.rs wlric~llis, :LS nssnrnc-el hcforr. lilrltrtl wil,lr I.l~c I~oely. 1.I)(, pot,c,ntriaI flow is ~lrfinc.ti1)s t,hc cor~tlil.ioris

416

XV. Non-steady boundary layers

b. Boundary-layer formation after it~~p~tlsivc or tlrotiot~ ntnrt

417

where TJ(x) tfcrrotcs t h e potential flow about t h e body i n t h e steady state. I n this p a r t , i c ~ ~ lcasc we have aU/al = 0, and equation (15.12) of t h e first approximation ar hccornt.~sitn pl y
at

- va2L1,

av1

=(,

with t h e boundary conditions 5, = 5,' = 0 a t 17 = 0, alrrl to' = 1 a t ?I =- oo. Equation (15.42) is identical with eqn. (5.21) and tlre s o l ~ ~ t i o n C,' is intliratctl in for eqn. (15.39). The function 5,' is shown plotted in Fig. 15.1. Combining eqn. (15.13) with (15.40) we obtain t h e differential equation for tlre second approximat,ion C1 ( 9 1 ) in t h e form :

(15.37)

is wit,l~ wit,l~11,~ 0 li)r - ~ =0, ; ~ . t r t l ?I,,) = ( J ( x ) for ?J -= m. ' l ~ l ~ etlu;~tionis i(lc~rt~ic:~l t.Ilat, for one-din~ot~siorrd ltcat contll~ctior~.t was solved irr See. V 4 for the casc I of a ~~lnt,r, st.;irt,ctl i n ~ ~ ) ~ r l s i vinl y own plirnc, while t,ho lluitl was a t rest a t a large c its tlist.:~ncc: frotn it,. It, was t,l~crr possi1)lc to inl.rot11lco a new tlimcnsionlcss varin.l)lc (sl:iniltrril~y Imn,s/orn~,crlion.) :

C,"' -1- 2 q

el" - 4 el' = 4(5.,'2

- ~ O ~ O " 1) , -

wit,l~the bounclary contliLions C1 = 5,' = 0 a t 11 -= 0 ant1 solrrt,ion tlcrivctl 11y XI. 13l;~sius is:

[,' = 0

a t 11 --

m.

'I'lro

'l=21/;i.
I r r t.lris nl;rnnor w c ol)t,ain t,he solution in t,hc form IL,(Z, y, 1 ) = U (x)

!I

(15.38)

x Cljt(q)= U (z) erf q .

(15.39)

'I'his is l,hc first, ;~pproxirnnt,ionbotjh for t.hc two-dimensional and for t h e axi-sym~nct.rirnlc:nsc. I'nrt.lrcr, if t.he pot,crrt,ial vn1ocit.y is inclopenclcnt of z , i . c. if TJ = : (1, :- const (II;rt,plate ;~.t, zero incitloltc:c:), oqn. (15.39) constitr~tcs exact solution the of ( : ~ I I . (16.2). sinc:c t.hc: c:onvoc:t,ivc t r r m s in ecln. (15.13) vanish together with the prrssurc t,orm so t , l ~ aT I , E 0. I Iowcv(:r, t h e solut,ion arrived a t in this way does not t c:onst.it.t~t.c complcta s o l ~ ~ b i o n t h e prol)lc~n t,he t.o and applies only sufficiently far downst,rc!an~wl~crc thc inflt~atrce tito ctlge is negligible and where the flow behaves a s if of t.11~: ~)lat,cwcrc infinitely long. St,rict.ly spraking, t h e complete solution must also snt.isfy t,hc condibion th:rt ~ ( 0?J, 1) = 0 for all values of I/ and 1. T h e complct,e solution , is givc:ll in ref. 1541. 111 tfhc gonrrn,l casc, wl~c:n Llrc external flow Zl(x, 1) tlcpends on t h e space COortlin:ktn, i t is Ir(?(:(:ssaryt o make a d i s t i n ~ t between t h e two-dimensional and the i~~~

0.2 0 4 0.6 0.8 10 . .

12 LL .

16 7=
Y 2fi

18 2.0 .

Fig. 15.1. 'l'llc fttllctions t;l n l ~ t l = and t i b For t.llc velocity distribution in tlro 11011st,cndy hortrldnry Inycr, cq~ts. (15.41) ;&~ltl (15.50). for ilnp~tlsive trlo(.ion

I. Two-cli,t~enuionnl cnue. Wc shall begin by considrring the two-climrnsiot~al c.:tsc. 19,r this r m o wc assllnre a power series in t,imc for t h e stream function ~ t i p u l a t i n g t,It:rt, it, has t , l ~ t , form

The function (1' is shown plotted (as funct,ion (I,') in Fig. 15.1. 'I'lrc initial sl01)cs of the two functions, required for the c a l c ~ l a t ~ i oof sci)nrat,ior~ given 11.y n, arc

An exact expression for t h e next term of t h e expansion of tlrc stream ftlnolion itr t,nrms of time was obtxinctl by S. (:oltlst.cin ant1 1,. 1Loserll1r:rd 1141. I<. I<olt:xo 1'31 ~w(:viouslyderived a lcss :~ccuraLcsoll~tio~: when Iro consitlcrctl 1,lro : ~ x i ; ~ l symly metrical problem (see succecding section).

~rrs;*rl,irtg t.hrsr cxl)rc-ssions into ccln. (15.12) we obtain t h e ~IiKcrer~t~ial equatiol: of

, h c clucst.iotr of t , l ~ c I position of t.l~t:110i1rtof scj)ar:t.t.iot~ (-;I.II l)c RIISWO~(:~I wit.11 the aiti of the second xpproximat,ion. J 11 this corlncxion we shall consi(lcr the c;~scs of t h e circnlar nnd t , l ~ e elliptic cylinder. 'C'hc condit,iot~ for the p o i r ~ tof s r p : ~ r a t i o ~ r is given by ali./ay = 0 for ?/ --- 0, wl~ich loatls t o Iho followitlg cot~tlit~ior~ t.l~u for t,ime of sepn.mt,ion I , :

t III. first approxi~nnt.ion :

5;'

-1- 2 '][,,"= o ,

418

XV. Non-slmrly l~orrtr~lnry y r r ~ Ia

ICc~~t:~Iiort (15.45) : ~ l l o w s1 s t,o c-nlrrtl;tt,t: 111~: i t ~ s I . n t ~ t , \rlric.lt s r p n r a t . i o ~I)cgins n t n 1 nf. ~ g i v c . ~ 111:1rc. S c p a r n l , i o t ~ ~ occ:rlrs o n l y ilt. p o i ~ l t s\vIrrrc tllI/tl:r is rrc'gntivo. 'I'ltc p o i ~ l t o f r:~rlic*sl, sel)nmt,ion occurs n.t a \ll:lcc \vltcrc t,lre : ~ l l s o l t ~ vnlrlc of tlTJ/tlz in Inrgcst. te 11, tlors n o t Sollow I.hnt t.his c o i t ~ c i t l r s wit.lr 1 . 1 1 ~ tlowtist.rr:~tnst,ngnnt,iot~ poitlt ns will I)(. t l t ~ r ~ ~ o rat.(-tl o11 t.lrc cxntnplt: of t,l~t:r l 1 i p t . i ~ trsf c.ylirltlcr. I5 x a 111 1) 1 tI'or

Inserting tho vnlucn from cqnn. (15.47) intorr(n. (I5.45), wr fintl 1.l1at1.l1ct i ~ cln11sq.tl I I I I I ~ It,lie ~ ~ r onset of ucpnrntion is

(:i~c~tltrr r!/litctlar

t.lto rirc-t~larcylintlcr of rntlitts 11 i n n strcntn of vrlocity

I/,, we o l ~ t ~ i n :

\vllcrr n tlcnot,cs t.llc: arc: ~ ~ l c ~ : r s l ~frrc cm t,Itt. ~rpsbrca.m ol slmgtrnt~iot~ poirrt. 'l'lrc :rl)olrrtc valtlr of t,llc gmtlic:t~t cllJ/tl.r: I I ~ R m n x i n t ~ l r n t1ho tlownst,rcnrn stngnat.iorr ~ ~ o i t l t , it.s at :rrttl s t ~ ~ ) : ~ r n t .oi~t:rtl-sat, :I, t.irnc iot~

a s st,rtt fro111 rrltl. (15.45). 'l'llc tlist.nnco covrrctl ~ ~ t ~ scl)nrxtion begins is R,= 1, I/,, t,il st, t.Ir:~t,

I, I , o r ~ ~ ~ t l1nyc.r i t 1 t Irt. ~~c~igl~l,orrrl~ooll ~do!rnatrc:inr ~ t : ~ g ~ ~ :I ~Ot ~i Ioof~:I t.ircrll:lr Ilc. ;~ry of 1 . 1 1 I I~ t t.ylintlr:r II:IH 0t.t.11(.:~l~nli~tt.tl I. I ' r o n ~ l n ~I:IiI ~~~ l l r ~ l ~ r [:)5:i]~for t,lrc r,:i~cof fir~tldcn:~(.(.clt:rIIJ' I II(. ~no ~ R I , ~ O I I : t,lit:y n~Ivt.tlt,lre prohlcr~i t.11~ or) Onsi~ t.\rr N ~ ~ ~ ~ i e r -eqllntiolls. (:I. M. I<ntngiri 125x1. of ~tokc~

I'ig. 15.2. I)int,:rtice .q t.ravrrsccl I)y elliptic cylirrtlrr r1111.il Llrc: onset of sr:l'nration in t.hc vnuo of i~nl~nlsivc? :~.c(.c.l(.r:~t,ion fro111red,

I,st t.lrc! st~tni-nxm 1 . 1 1 ~ollilltio cylirrtlcr 11c a and h, :ind Irt k - 11/n 11n t,licir ratio. t ~ o of . : I W I I I I I ~ it111 :II)CIII~. rcl~tl,ivc I I : I ~ I I ~ ~ , I living tnnrlt:, so LIr:il. (1. 2 1). 'flrc oqnnI,ion o r I,lrc rllil~nc ~ t,l~t,ir I I~~U ran IIC w r i l , t r ~ ~ 22/1r2 -t !/2/h2 nn I . I I I L ~ O ~ I I I C ~ tltc atrgnlar coordit~ato6,dclir~crl by x/a = II~ c ~ 6 :111t1 !//h - R ~ I I4. and : \ S S I I I I I ~ I ~ ~ n t.hnt. LIIO t:ylin(lnr is ~LartetIirnpt~lnively \vit,lt n vrlocity l l ~ xin n clircotion parnllcl to t.11~ nxin a, wc aan write for tlic velncit,y ili~Lri1~11t~iotr the , along

-7

The dinhncc 8 t,ravcrscd Ily t,l~ccllipl.ie cylintlcr n ~ ~ t 1,110 onnc:t. of sc11nr:~t.i1)11, fii\w~ il iind Ily 1, Urn, is seen plotted in Fig. 15.2 in terrnn o r tlrc rnt.io of t.hr zxcn k - h/rc. 'l'lrc: ~II;L(.(! !rlrt.rr .sepirr:tLion occurs firnt i# givrn 11y 4 y, = 0 for P x < --3 '

For k = I cqn. (15.48) t,r~~nnfortrr~ cqn. (15.4f;) for 1110(:ironI:ir c:yIit~(lt*r. inlo l!t:git~r~i~~g, I r ~vit tlris vnlr~ot11c t i ~ n nL, for tho onset of sc[)nrirl.ion clccrcn~aswill1 ~ I I I : ~ I : : L R ~ I I ~ : k h/tr. I I I I ~ I1.11~. position of tho point of nepnrntior~move8 Crom t l ~ c cntl of &xisrx t,ow~lrtIn&\I(: nrrtl of nxia b. 111 t.lre litnit D/n -+ m, i.e. b r a plate a t right angles 10 t l ~ e tlirrc~tionof notion, wc II:IVC I , and !I, - 11. Iirnce the onset of scparat.ion is i~r~~~tctlinl*? c.:rst: of a fl:lt j>l:lfn ~wrl,c*ntlit.~~inT for !.Itt? 10 t.hr rlirrction of rnot,ioti, n.ntl i t tnkea ~llrmc: t,l~s nt ctlgc.
-7

'l'lrc format.ion of t.11~ bo~lnclnrylrl,yrr on n rol.n.(.iltg c*yIi~ltlrr st.:rrt.rtl i l ~ l l ~ t t I s i \ . t ' l ~ wns r a l c t ~ l n t ~ r t1)y W. T o l l n ~ i c r i[GO] by n n a n a l o g o u s n~c:t,l~otll l 11 Goc:131,i~~gc~r! l i is

420

X V . Non-~l.rntly I,orlt~clnry lnycrrr

b. Ttoundary-layer formation after impul~ivc L n r of mol,ion ~ t

42 1

t.11rsis I,rrsc~nl,rtli n 1924. 111 t,his cnsc sop:~ml,ionis s ~ ~ p p r e s s con t h a t side of t,ltc d t:ylintlc~r\\~ltcrc$ t.nnpc~t~t.i:al (.It(: vrlorit,y has t.11~ same direction as t.hc velocity of flow. 'I'11r 1)roc:ess of n(:ccI~r:at,ionfor an elli1)tic cylindcr a t a n angle of incidence has 11.J. 1,ugt 128al. In it,, the aut,hor succeetletl in calculating \)ern trcnt.c:tl in a j):apcr t.11~ rortnat,ior~ t,ht: st.art,ing vort.iccs at. Reynolds nnml)crs in the range R of Vd/v = IT, to 200. Wo w i s l ~ rc:fvr 1.11(? rcntlcr also t,o n ~,npc:r by I). 1)11mit,rcsc:11 to ant1 M.D. Cnzacu lOnl whic:h tliscusses t,llc same problem 1,ut for a flat plate a t an angle of incitlcncc. Scc also Via. 4.2 for (.he plat.(: a t right angles t o ttlle stream.

I n accordance with eqn. (15.50) the onset of separation is tlrfincd 1)y t h r contlit ion ( B U / ~ ~ Y ) 0 which gives =~-~

", or, wiLh tltt: prccctling nuinerical va~rresof C

1 - 1,

(0), TI," (0)

1J 5 tlr
-

- [,"

(0)

:tt~tl

(,,,"(()),

procrss of l)ountlnry-l;~yt-r fortn:at.ion a.l)o~~t, xial ally syn~n~cl,rica.l :an I)orly accclcr:~tcd imp~~lsively wa.s iiivcstigatetl by 15. l%oIt,7.(: it1 ltis (:oct3tingctl t.11osis. We corlsitlcr the 1)onntlary Ia.ycr on n l)otly I!)] of rc.volr~t,ior~ whose s11:~pe tlcfinccl by r ( x ) , Fig. 11.6, and which is set in motion is at, t - 0. '1'110 accclcrat,ion is impulsive, ant1 the cylintler moves in the tlirection ofi1.s :tsis. '1'11~ rc~lcvnr~t nilrt:~~l.iorts now ccins. (15.2) ant1 (1 1.27b), antl the sol111.ion an: (::I.II :rg:lin I,(: rc~)rrsc:~~t,ctl slltn of n first, :~pproximat,ion, RS :a u,,, antl :I. sccor~tl approxirn:t.t,iotl. 7, tic-lirlc:tl 1)y cyns. ( I f , . anti (IR.1:l) rcspc(:t.ivcIy. in view of the (:11ango(l 12) Torn1 c , l t.lto c.onl,itl~~it,y cvlr~:at,iotlwe it~t.rotlrtc~c tlifli~rcnt,sLrc:arn f ~ ~ n c t i i ~~n~ ,~ c l y x o n
2. Axinlly sy~t~tl~ctricnl prtrl,lcrti.
'I'll(:

(1

-1- 0

r tlx

=0

E. Boltxc calclilated two further terms of the expansion for the .st,rr:ltn fi~nct~ion in eqn. (15.49).

li)~.tlt:~f By way of rx:llnplc 15. Bollzc c.ornpt~totl1.110 prorc-ss of I~o~~ttcI:~ry-I:t,yc~r iotl on :L spl~crc wlriclt is st.artcd in~pulsivcly from rest. 1)crtot.inp t,ltc r:ttlilrw of t,ltc sl)I~c-rc. by Il ant1 tllc free-stream vclocit,y by I/,, wc Itavc i n t.llis c::~sc
r = R sin

-5 ; R

U (z) -2- U , sin R =

:~ntlwr nssnmr it. t o IIC or t.l~t:form

The beginning o r separation now follows from cqn. (l5.52), or

,I hc. variable 17 l ~ a t.hc sarne t n c a ~ ~ i n g in t,l~c s as two-di~nctisionnl problem, eqn. (15.38). Tllr rlilFrrrnt,i:al equatiot~for [ rcsolt.ing from cqn. (15.12) is identical with equatiolt , (15.42) for t,ltc two-dimcnsiot~alproblern, as alre:ady mentionccl. F o r t h e sccorld approxirnat,iort it1 t,Ile expsnsioll in t.crn~s time we now obtain from eqn. (15.13) tmllc: of following tIiiT~~rcnlrinl cqnations, clefining C,, nrtd i,,:

Separation sets in a t the stagnation point down st re an^, i. c. a t a placr whcrc cos (s/R) = - 1, so t h a t j t s U,/R = 111.873 = 0.635. ' h k i n g into acc-ount the two further terms of t h e expansion for the stream function calculated by li: Boltze, we obtain the more accurate value 0.589 for this constant. Tltr~s,the i n s t a ~ ~ t of separation for a sphere started impulsively bccomcs

of the two-dimensional problem, 'rhi: r c l ~ ~ a t ~ for CIS is itlenttical with t h a t for ion ant1 the equation for <la was solved r~urncricallyby E. Boltze [9].Thc character of CIS' and tlh' be ascertnined from Fig. 15.I . The initial slopc of (11,' is Clb" (0) = 0.169. ran

l11c cIistance covered in that, time is s = U,t, = 0.3!)2 R, or, in ror~rltlfig~rres, , 40 per cent of the radius of the sphere. The point of separation moves from -- n, a t first rapidly, and later slowly, towartls m 110' which is its posit.ion ill st,c:;atly flow, and reaches i t only a f k r a n in fin it,^: tirnc. Pig. 15.3 rcprescnt.~t.11~p:~l.t.c?rt~ of strr:atnlir~cs antl t h e ~ c l o c i t ~ y distribut,io~~ a n infn:rnictli:rtc inst:~rr(,,wl~ic.ltc:orrcsfor pontls t o a dist,ance of 0.6 R covcrccl by bhc sphere. 'I'his corresponds to :I t . i l ~ ~ ( 01' : 0.6 see, with a ratlius of R = 10 ern (:&bout4 in) ant1 :a vc1ocil.y [I,,, -:10 c:tn/sc.c: (about 0-33 ftlsec). The streamLines :Lrc scen plott,ctl in Fig. 15.3 in wl~icht l ~ c lincnr scale of the thickness of the boundary layer has been exaggeratctl for tllr sakc of n~:r.gniclarity. For water with v = 0.01 x 10-%n2/scc (about 0.1 x 10-Vt2/scc) t,l~c ficntion factor is about 30. The magt~it.~~tlcstltc volocit,icx in the? closc:tl vorl.c.x of are very small and the velocity gradient anil the circtllnt,ion a.rc greatest, or~t~sitlc t,lit stprc.ztt~linc =- 0 a t the point of s ~ p a r a t ~ i o n . p
7

422

XV. Notl-st,cndy hoixnd~ryInycrs

t:.

Bollr~clsry-lnycr forntnt.ion it1 arrrlcratccl n~ot~io~i

423

' I ' I i t ~ ic l t - : ~ 1izt.t l ~ ~ ~ . o r c * s ins1:LII t.n.nroi~s ol' s :l.~(:rlrri~t.i~n a.s~ltnle*tl t,ltt, 11rt'(.rtli1lg in t.ltc-ory is :c gootl :~l)l)rosilt~:tt.io~iitc~trrnlcases if t,ltc (.inlo of accrlcration is sniall to c~otnl~:trt~(i t.ltr time whiolt clnpscs I~cforcscpar:~t,iorisct,s in. wiLI1

'1'11~ proc(,ss 01' t 11c. forln:~t,ion it Ito~~ntlnr~y on n rol.nt,ing tlisli \vas st.r~tliccl 01' I:i,yt,r I)y I < . 11. 'l'liiriot [68] in Ibis tllrsis I,rc~sc.nt~ctl 1 . 1 1 ~ Ul~ivrrsit~y (:ocI,t.ingcn. lit* t,o 01' cor~sitlt*rt~cl c:nsc of :L clislz a c t : ~ l t ~ ~ ~ ; ~n.lt~ ~ll s i ~ini y flnitl a t rest, t,o n unilbrnl tllo i t t ~t c a. :tngttl:~r~ c ~ l o t ~:IS l . ~ , as t . 1 1 ~c-:lsr of :I. tlislc rot.n.t,ing \vit.Il 1.11c Ilnitl nntl sr~cltlnrlly i \\rrll iLrrostt~eI it.s n10t.iot1.'I1I1t? 111t.intnf.c in st,:l.t.c'of rliot.ion For tllc first. case is t,lle soltll,ion for :c tlislc r o t : ~ t i t ~ g n I l l l i t 1 nt rrsL g i v r l ~ \V. (:. (!ocl~lnrl in I)y ant1 tlisrttssr(I in Snt'. \' 1 1 .
'l'l~c final stat.c of rnot,ioti for tllc sccoritl problem is given by tilt? solt~tiondlle t o (1. 'r. Ijocclcwntlt. :~titltliscrtssctl in Scc. X a . I t cottcerns t l ~ c rotation of Lllc fluid 1,otlp over a fixcti plnnc. A gcncmlizatioti of all thesc cases has been discussed by J<. 11. 'J'hiriot I57J in a fitrt,l~cr paper, w l ~ c n considered the casc of a disk rotating 11c wit11 tlic fltritl I~o(ly a11d in~prllsivclyncnclcrat,ed, or decclomtctl, so tllat its angular compared with t h a t of tJlc fl~titl. is noteIt velocity is cllnngctl by a small cli~antit~y wort,Ily tllat x st,nt.ionnry hotlndnrjr layer is tllcn formed in t h e tteigl~honrhood of t.11~ rotnt,ing tlislz. Tllc dct.ails of t,Itc growth of a l ~ o r ~ n d layer on a disk started ar~ impitlsivclg were cornl)~lt,ctlby S. I). Nigam 1341. 15. nT. Sp:~rrowant1 ,J. I,. Grcgg [51] solved tllc problem of x disk w l ~ i c l ~ rot.atcs wit.lt a non-1111ifort11 :1,11grilarvclocit,y; (. R. Illingwort,l~ : 1251 ant1 Y. I). M'stlhwi~[G4] t,rc:nl.c.cl t.ltc [,rol)lon of t,ltc growt,ll of a Iton~ltlery Iaycr on a rottatsing1)ocl.y of rcvollrt.iott. 'l'lto cast: considcrctl 11y 11. Wuntlt, [70J,rlalncly tllnt of n ynwccl cylinder accclerat,rd i r ~ ~ ~ ) ~ l l s i v c I ~ v , ~:otist,it~~~t,t?s anot.11cr oxnml~lcof a t,llmc-dirner~siot~al, tion-steady I ) O I I I I I I R ~lli~ycr.Atltlit.iotia.l solrtt.ions for t.lircc-tlimcnsional, non-stcatly I)or~ntlary ~ In.ycrs cbnn I)c fo1111t1 rcsk. 120, 21, 22, 62, anti 631: in W. Wtlcst If,!)] ol)t,ainctl solrrt.ions for tehrcc-ditncnsio~~al rloti-st,catly bouritlnry layers on l)odics whicl~prrform non-st,cndy tnot,ions a t right angles t o t,llc main f, How. One cxsmplo consitlc:rctl was t l ~ : ~of a nylincicr in stcntly cross-flow wllicli is made t,o 11crform axial prriodic oscillntions. Tllc case of a wedge ~ v l ~ i c l ~ oscillates 11nrmonic:nlly in a direct,ioti parallel t.o its leading edge, also considcrctl. contains as slxbrinl rnsvs tltosc of :I. 11:~l. plat.c and st,ngnnt,ion flow.

l'lics proccw of bor~n~lnry-lnyrr forlltnlif~n f,wo-tlintt~~~sio~~:~lt,ltc c m c : ol' ~c~lil'ortrt ill Iltlw fi)r ncct:lcrnt.ioli of Lllc body Itan bcrll cnlct~lnLcdby 11. 13lnni11a. 'l'hc rmitlta arc*vary si~ltil;ir (.llc,nt? to for a n it~il~lllxivc st.nrt,of t.hc ~liot,io~i. ~ ) o k t ~ l . i vrloc*ily of I.lio I ~ ~ c lixy tlow givt.11 i l l 111,: 'l'llr nl form

is :tg:iitt possil)ltx to srries t.t~r111s ~f crs~i c n~)])roxi~~tnt.it~ti. I)y rt111. giv011 .IIt.Ilrsr:: t ~ ~ ~ r n x i ~ na%9illltc~ s cqlls. (15.12)n~lr ~c lc(15.1:)).vAss~~ttlitlg oxl)n11sio11f t.11t:(15.l I). :itio~ I.llon s:lt.isfy : i o nlrcnrn
:l
ill
a q

:111

f ~ ~ t t t . t i oi l l~ t c r ~ t i s t.ir11t: oC t of

IIlr rorlii

it, is ~ ~ o x s i l ) l c ~rlt:rll~r:r Lllo follo\ving clill'crc~nt.ial t.o cqlrntionn for (,(,/)

altcl

C, ( 8 , ) :
(15.51;)

to'" -t 2 '1 Co" --

4 5,' = - 4

'rl~c soltttio~~ thc funcliott I,,' givrrl by 11. nlasiun is of tho forrtt: Tor

lllanir~s slno able t give n solutiol~ cl' in clonrtl fornl. Tltc illilial ~lopcs wan o for w11ic:li sire rrtlllircd for tllc calculation of scparntioh nrc:

Tl~c heginlril\g of srpnmt,iot~ tllis cmc in givrn 11y rqlr. in two terms of t.he cxpan~ionnrc tlsctl we obtain

(LT,.RR),

and whnl orlly LIIC first.

or, witdl 1.11~ prccotlinl; nt~nlcrivnl vitl~~cs t,,"(O) CI1'(O): of nil11

1,

,dte
tlz

.-

- -

2.34.

424

XV. Non-atearly boundary layers

d. Experimental investigation of the starting proeem

125

[Jpon cornparing wit.11 cqn. (l5.45), it in seen that for equal values of dU/dz separation occurs rarlirr whrn t.hr n1ot.ion is startrd irnpulnively than whrn the acceleration is uniform. ll. Illasias mlrtrlnt~rlt.wo fnrthcr tt.rrns of thr t.xpar~sion, and with their aid the eqrlation for 1, is ohtninrd i r ~Ihr follo\ving ~notliliedfortn:

H. Goertler 1151 extended the t,llcoreticnl calcnlation of the proersn of bo~t~idnt~-ln,yc.r formation during acceleration nssr~niing potetit,ial flow of tho form IJ(z. t) = u r ( z ) t n , wit,h n = 0, a 1, 2, 3, 4. For n = 0 and n = 1 he obtained the preceding cascs of in~l)r~lsivc rn~iforrn ar~cl ncc.cInmtion respectively. H. Goertler gave explicit expressionn for tile first term in L e expn~~sion t,lic h of stream function in powers of time for the vah~es = 0 to 4. The second t<ertr~ cv:~lrlnt,~tt n uos at the wall toget,lier wit11 its initial slope 80 that tho instant at which scpxrnt,ion brgir~sand t,lle distance roveretl, e. g. by 11 cylindcr, can Ite con~l~~~tcrl. cnn~~cxioi~ In this a pnpcr Ijy l:.,I. \Yat.sotl [65] may also be consulted.

For t . 1 1 ~ c.:isc. of :i c,ylin(lrr \vhirh is 111:ioc:tl symtnvt.ricaIly with respect Lo the direction of flow the :I(. Iht. point, anti we oht:~in last tnrrn v:~~~isl~t*sclownsl rc.;un sl.ngr~nLiol~
1,2 --

dru dl.

- - - 2.08

U ( T ,1) = 1 III(T)- 2 6 1 sin wl~rrr? clerlol~:n1.11t: c:ot~st:int h :ircrlrration. I-lcnce 1 ) - - 2 b sin

-;

R'
z

z R

dw

dz

-2b

R-R'

'I'ho jboint :I& \vhi(:Ii sc?p:tr:~t,ir)l~ oct:nrs firs1 coincidwi, in this cMo too, with t.hc downstream I . '1'1111s from eqn. (15.58) we ohtain st.:ifinnt.ion point. c.03 (1//1) - -

The dist.nnrt! covrrotl hy t-he cylindcr 1111t.il separation begins is given hy s = $ b tS2.which then I,econ~rs n 0.52 11, and is also grcnhr Lhan that for the ewe of impulsive niotton. Theargt~rnent in See. XVb, concerning the point a t which separation fir& occurs, remains valid in the present rme. The pattrrn of at,ren.mlit~es the case ~tncler for consideration is given in Fig. 15.4, which is 1,mcd on 131xii11s'swork. This pattern corresponds to time T = 1 1 / bjfi = 1.58, the distance covered hy the cylintlrr hcing rq~lal 1.25 R. Ass~ln~ing = 10 em (about 4 in), b = 0.1 cm/sec2 to II (about 0.04 inlsccz = 04083 ft,/see2), obtain 1 h / = 0.1 scc-l, and the time elapsed since the we 1 ~ heginning of th: nlot.ionis 1 15.8 scc. Figure 15.4 shows the shape of the resulting boundary layer, t,l~& linear scale having hccn inrrrascd in the satne way as in Pig. 16.3. For water with v = 0.01 x 10 4 ~nz/sec(aI)o~tt x lo-' ftz/sec) the linear facf.or is cqllal to abolrt 418. 0.1

1 hc process of honndary-layer form;tl,ion earl 11c st.~~clit:tl \r,il,l~t.11~ rticl of I,llo prcvio~rsly cliscnssctl arinl,yl.ic:nl ~ n c t l ~ o tI,~rti t cntinot I)(: c*arric-11 ls vcry 1111rc:l1 I)c*,volltl the I)cgitining or se1)arat-ion. 'l'hc flow p:~lt.t:r~r o~rt.si~lc I~o~rntlnry 1,11c Iaycr I)c~t~o~nt!s markctlly ch:cngatl aftcr tell(: onset, of scpnr:~.l.ion, p:~.rt,it!~~l:~.r.ly 0 1 1 tJit- ~ I O I V I I S ( I . ~ ~ : I . I I ~ eitle of 1)lllnt t)odics srlcl~ s :Lc*ira~ll:~r a cylint1t:r. (:ot~socltrc-nl.ly, c.;~I(:~~l~~l,iotts I I I):t~vcI O llic lhcorct,ic;~l prcssr~rc dist,ril)rrlio~i tlcrivotl I'roni pot,cllt,inl 1.lroory give :LII i~~iic.r:~~r:~(,t: rcprescntat,ion of tllc flrrLhcr course? of 1 . 1 1 ~proccss. 'I'llc ~)l~ot,ogr:xj)l~s I'ig. 15.5 in jllustrntc t h e dcvclopment of t l ~ flow pntt,crri arour~tl circular cyli~rtlcr. c a I'igrrrc 1 5 . 5 ~ sliows t h a t a potcntial frict.ionless flow-pattern tlocs exist tl~rrir~g first irlst,n.nt.s t,l~c aftcr st-arting. Figurc 15.5b represents the ~norncritw h c l ~ soparalion l ~ a jlrst, b r g ~ ~ r ~ s a t t h e tlownstrcam stlagnattion point, ancl in Fig. 1 5 . 5 ~ tlic point of sep;~ml,ion II:IS already moved a considerable distance upst,rea.~n.T h e ~ t ~ r c a n ~ l it nle r o n g lthe , ~ ~ point of scpamt,ior~ cncloscs a region w l ~ c r c t.l~c flow vclorit,irs il.rc very srn:~ll.'l'l~e vorlicity is largest orilsitlr t01is st.rcamlinc; it* forrns :c vorlcs shcttt whiclr curls up a s t h c p t t e r n cor~t.ir~ues tlcvelop ant1 forms t\vo conccntmtctl vortices, Fig. 15.6el. to I n the tree stream belrintl thcse vortices i t is possit)lc t o clisccrn the cxistcnt:c! of a st,agnnt,ion point which coincides with the jrrrlctiori of the two streamli~rcsthrougli llle points of separation. Fig~rrc 15.5e shows t h a t the vortices continnc t o grow. 'I'hey Occolnc ~lnstal)lc witli t h e course of time icntl are carrictl away frorri lhc: I ~ o d by j~ thc cxt,ernal flow, Fig. I5.5f. 111 t h c stcadyst.atc l h c motion oscillates :~ritl t h e pressure distril~utionnro~rritltlie botly cliffcrs corisidcrably from t.liaL st1iprrlatcd by [~otent~ial-flow theory.

d. Expcriracrr~tnl invesligntinr~of tlrc s:nrti~~g process

Fig. 15.4. 15oundary Iaycr on the dowt~stream uidc of circnlar cylindcr during start witli llniform ~accelornt,ion aftcr t.he heginning of separntibn (BInsius)
Vrlorily: ll(l) = b
ti1r18

17nt.trr~b at

- 1 J6/1i - 1.53 ;
Ts
; -

1;

Svpnrxlinn Orat orrulrs nt

ls

l/iL/n

1.02

The phenomena untlcr corlsitleratiori hnvc been invostigittcci in morc tletoil on a circular cylindcr by M. Schwabe 1471, who measured, in particular, tllc pressure distribution around the cylinder during tlie process of acceleration from rcst. Pressnre-clistribution curves a r o ~ r n dthe cylinder contour for scvcral phases of ~ I I C process arc given in Fig. 15.6. T h e distance between t h c cylirrder ant1 t h e stagnation by d. I t is sccn point in l h c free st.ream 1)cliincl tlie two vortices is clcnotctl l ~ e r c t,lrat the measured pressure distribution is vcry close to tlrat in potcntial !low in (.he early stagcs of t h e proccss b u t deviates progressively more from i t a s t,imc a d vances. H. Rubach 1431 attempted t o dcscribe this type of flow al)out a oire~~l:rr cylintler witti thc aid of potential theory, assurning t h e cxistcncc of two syrnrnct,rical point-vortices downstrcam from the l ~ o d y t a position rorlglrly corresponding to a t * l ~ ain JFig. 1 5 . 5 ~ . is, l~owcver,necessary l o remarlc Iiorc t h a t t,hc rcscrnl)l:~nc:o t Tt l,o n pnttrrn wit11 I.wo R I I C ~ Ivorticcs is only t,rt~nsilory. Vc.1.y c*xl.cnxivc:c : . u ~ ~ t ! ~ ~ i ~ r ~ r ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ invrst,igations of thc wake formed behind a circular cylindcr in the range of Itoynoltls nnm1)rrs 5 < R < 40 Iinvc recent,ly been performed by M. Cont,nriccn~~ R. Ilonartl ant1

420

XV. Non-nl,mdy

rl. Exprimcnt,nl invcstigntion of tho ~tnrting process

427

[9b, c]; t,he preceding two pnpers cover t,hc steady as well na thc nonstcndy case. Reference [9c] estnblishes the limits of t,he Rcynolds n11ml)c.r mngo in which t.hr "twin" vortices, showr~in Figs. 16.6tl c t ~ i t l 16.6c, cnn cxisC n~ltlr~tlhcrc1.0 t.llc% I)otly.
Separation: Thc process of scpnrntion is much morc difficult, to clescrihe in t.hc case of non-steady lnrninnr boundary layers nntl in the cnsc of moving walls than for sten<lyflows along n solitl, stationary wnll. 1x1 1.11~ lnttrr casc, srpnrntion is tlctcr~ninrtl by the simple condition t h a t the shenring stress a t the wall must vanis11: t o = ,u(au/ay)o = 0. It was shown in a paper 1)y W. Srarz~and T1.P. l'rlionis [47n], ns ~ I r r d intimnted in earlirr papcrs by P. JC. Moorc [33] nnd N. R o t t [38), thnt in non-' y steady flows separation ocrrlrs when the shearing stress a t a n internal stagnat,ion point vnnisiles. Thus, for sepration
u = 0 and au/ay = 0 in the interior.

Fig. 15.58

Fig. 15.5b

This condition is known a s the Moore-Roll-~S'earscriterion. l'hysicnlly, this condition non-st.c:ntl,y, describes a blow-up of the laminar 1,onntlary Inycr. Such n ~opnrnt~ing, two-tlimcnsionnl I)oi~n(I~~,r.y (:xlriI)il,~, 11. ~ ! ( : ~ I , I L ~ (!xI,(*rrl,, H I L I I I C (!IIII,IVLV~~.I. 11 Ir~ycr I,II II I,III> ~ threc-clin~cnsionnl bountlnry lnycr li)rtr~ccl ~11c:nnglc 1)t:lwc:cn n flat, plr~tc: i r ~ r l11 H I ~ I I J L I . in r body mountcd o n it. In this casc, shown in Pigs. 11.20 and 11.21, Lllc Ilow t'ortrrs n separation surface; see nlso refs. [47 b, c). An extensive review on the unsteady flow around blunt bodics with many cxcellent flow pictures has been given by S . Taneda [66n]. I n conclusion, i t may be worth mcntioning t h a t thcsc separntion proccsscs occur on a much reduced scalc in the casc of slcndcr bodics, such ns c. g . slendcr elliptical cylinders, wllosc Iongar axcs arc p:~rnllcl t20 Lhc dircctior~of Ilow, or or acrofoils, Consequcr~t~ly, e cxpcrimcnt.al pressurc tlistribution around SIICII bodies th agrees, in most raqcs, vrry c l o s c l ~wit-11 t h a t given by potcntinl theory (sco also Fig. 1 1 1 )

Pig. I5.5d

Fig. 15.6. Prcssl~rrtlrst,ril)l~lion rncnsrrrcd nronnd a cirrl~lnr rylintlrr tl~trirlg t,lrr ~tnrting procrrm, :hffn.r M. Srllwnbc [47]

X V . Non-str;~dy borltltlary layers

e Periodic hotrndnry-layer flows .

c. I'criodic bolrndnry-laycr flows

420

1. Oseillnti~tg cylialder in flt~ida t rest. 111orrlor t o givo a n cxarnl)lr of a prriotlio I,or~ntlary-layer flow n.o now propose t,o calcr~lat~e bonrtdary Iaycr on a botly tphc whicl~p c r f o r t ~ ~ s rcc:il)roc:rt,ing, harmot~ioo~cillat~iorl smnll amplitrldc in n flrtid a of :I{, rvst.. 'l'his is :in (:xI,cnsion of t,11(: proltlnn~of tho I)ol~ndary layor on a ll:~t~ ~,lnt.o ~)c\rfortnin,q h:irlnonic ~ s ~ i l l : ~ t , i o r li1,s 1)I:ino wl~i(:Ii in s wi1.s :tlrc::lrly tliscrrssotl i l l Soc!. V 7. Tt will 1)c shown in this scotion l,llatt small osrill:~t,ionsof a body in a fl~lida t rcsL in(lnce c11nmct.crist.ic srconclary flows whosc n:lt.urc is such t h a t a stcnd?/ r~~ot.ion in~part~etl t h e wllolc flrrid in spitre of t h e fact t h a t t h e ntotion of tho is tto body is p ~ l r c l yperiotlic. EKcct,s of this kind occur, c. g., when d ~ r s tpattcrrls are c-rtrat,ctl in a Knntlt tnbc arid arc of somc importance in acoustics. Snpposc t11at the l)~t,(-ntiaI v010cit~ytlist,ributfion for t h e cylindrical body wl~ich wc sl~:l.llnow ronsitlcr is givon by fJ,,(x). '1'11~ 1)otfonl.ialflow in the oaso of periotlic: osc:ill:~l,ionswil,l~ c.irnrll:ar frrclr~cnc.~ is 1.l1or1 n 11. given I,y

with t,he convention t h a t only t h e real parts of thc complrx quantities in cjuestior~ hctve physiral meaning attarhcd t o them. l r ~ t r o t l r ~ r i n g dimrnsionlrss roordinnf,r n tlcfinrcl by

:111tl assr~ming h a t tjhc firsf,approximation t o bl~a t stream f r ~ n c t i o y,,,, ,is of t , l ~ fornl ~~ r -

s (x, y.t)
and henre

=v+
(lj"'

u 0 ( 4 i o ( n ) eln1 ,

wr oljtc~infrom cqn. (15.12) t81~c following (lilT~:r(-t~I~irtl I I : I . ~ . ~ ~for (t1(7,): I*(~ )II i

[,,'

==

i,

\Vc. sltall rtow :tsstrrno :a syst,cn~ roortlinnt,es linltetl w i t l ~t,hc solitl body. 'l'l~us of c - q ~ ~ (15.1) xntl (15.3) rnny I)e :ipl)lic!tl. 1.110 ~ ~ C S S I I~listriI)r~t,iott s. ~ C being givcrt I)y ccln. (16.0). 'I'ho I)o~tntl:lrycondit.io~~s 7~ = 0 for 9 arc: 0 artti 7~ = IJ for ?j = 00. I t is possil)lc to : ~ t t . c n ~ 1.0 solvo t.liis prol)lom by t.11~ pt mclhocl whicl~was ltscti i r l t,lrc*cttsr: of :tccalcrat,ion from rest,, i. o. 1)s c a l c ~ ~ l a t i r ~ g sr~occssivc? approximations lor I,IIc v ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ : i l , y - ~ l i function ~ ~ cI~:fint:(l in oqn. (15.1 I ) :in(l \vit,l~ s l , r i l ~ :is t ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ t,hc tiid of (:<jtts.(15.12) ant1 (15.13).
-. ;

\rit.h tile b o ~ ~ n t l a rrenditions y sol111 is ion

to - (,,'

O a t 11

-- 0

atttl to'= I :it 1 1

m. 'I'II(>

Cot

1 -rxp{-(1

-i)77/J2).

Itrvrrting t o tho real n o t a t i o n t we obtain tho functio~l llo(., y,t) = lJo(x) [em (nt) - c-XI) (--

,1/1/5)cos (nl - - ,,/1/2) 1

( I 5 62)

n.llic.l~ rcprcsent.~ the first a1)proximation tjo the ~ c l o c i l ~ ~ - t l i s t ~ r i't~nct~ior~. iI,~~~io~~ 'l'lbis

'I'his rnnt.l~otl appc:ars t o 1)c ntlmissihlc if

is ~ I I P s:bmc ~ o l n t ~ i o n t.11at for the oscillatirrg fl:tt. 111nl.c in oclrl. (5.26:~) as :.

Now 11 i)(I/an: 1Jm2/rlwlioro tb ~ C I I O ~ . C a linc:~rtlimcnsior~o l t,11c I~ocly(e. g. t.hc: S tlintnc.t,c:r of 1.11(: o,ylintlor). On t.hr ot,l~or hancl ~?(l/at (I,,, x ?r, wl~erc(I,, d c n o t c ~ t h r ~ r ~ n x i t n ~ ~ r r ~ of t,hc body. 'l'111rs wo have vt:lonil,y

* ao /a;
81

If tho second s ~ p p r ~ x i n i a t ~ iicl(x, ?/,1) is now cnl(:~~l:tt.cd on from rclrl. (15.133), i t , is scrn t . l ~ atlic oonvcc1,ivc tcrms on the right.-l1:intl sitlc ol.t,hc oclni~t.iot~ c~ot~t,ril)~~t.o t will l.vrrns wit.11 cos2 7 t 1. Thcsc, in t ~ r r r ~ , bo rctlr~cctl1.0 tcrmx with cos 2 71 t , s i l l 2 71 1 can nntl stcntly-sl,at.c, i. c. t,ime-intlrpcndcnt t.orms. 'L'&kittg int.o I L C C O I I I I ~t11csc (:irt:~ltl~st.anrc3swe can oxprcss t h e streant frlnctior~of t,11(: src:or~d :rl)~)roxi~nat~ion f h r n ~ i l l t,l~r

urp1
7Id
'

y ~ (x, ?I, ) , t
:111tl

:--=

f: [J,,(x)

Ilc:llcc

till" I -clz n

{ (I~(,,) e2i111 (11,(11~, -I)

'I'l~rI I I : L ~ ~ I I I I I ~ I vrlorit,y (I,, is proport.ior~al o n t

x s, where s is the amplitude, so t h a t

' 1 ' 1 1 ~ ~)r<:crtling t r g ~ ~ t n c shows t , l ~ : ~ t ~)ro~)osetl : nt 1.11(: n~ct.llotlof solut,ion nlay bc nscd in r:~s(-s wllcn t . 1 1 ~:~tnplit.l~,lo os(!ill:tt.ion is s p a l l colnj)arcd wit11 t h e clirnensions of or t.llc 1 ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ . 'I'll(: calcrll:iI.ior~ was pcrlitrtnr,tl I,y 11. S(:lllichting 1441 (see also ref. [ S O ] ) . Sirlac the: tliKcrcnt.i:~.loqt~nt,ions arc: linwr, it sccnls aorlvenicnt t,o nclopt hcrc lfho c:ornl)lox not,at.ion :rr~tlt.o write cqn. (15.59) in t,llr form U(x,t) - U0(x) elM,

: It

will1 11.y t i

~houlfl tlol4:tl L1j:~tI~orc. rlist,itlc:t frorn See.. 1'117, b11r sgslc:r~lol. c.oortlin:llrs is linl<c:tl hc as tho body; frlrtllrrlnorr, t l ~ rtlitnrt~sior~loss r~oortli~lt~lr tlilli,rs fro111 l.l1:11.usctl Illr*re 2, ftirtor i 2 .

XV. Non-utcncly booi~clary lnyers

e. I'eriodic ho~~ntlnry-lnyer flo~su

43 1

whrrr tltc bar ovcr tltc symk~ols tlcnotrs the rcspect,ive conjugate complex quantit.ies. 'I'hc nortnnl nntl t,sngcnt.inl c o m p o t i r t ~ tof t,ltc prriotlic cor~t.ril)~~t.ion vanish ,~ must
at. t,lto w:~ll, \vhercns : ~ tL large tlistnnc:c! from it only the tangential component : vanisl~t-s. lPrttt,ir~g -- r / l / 2 we ot)t.:~in 11'
I '

i
-

( I

i) 2

1 ( I I i) I,']

i-l
-

?)'rxpl

(1 1 i ) ~ ' .]

ltrgartlirtg t>he steady-stnle cont.riht~tioni t is found t h a t only the bounclary rontlikions a t t,hc wall can IIC satisfictl, ant1 t h a t a t a large distance from i t is possible t,o n~:tkc t , l ~ c tnligciit.ial component, finit.0 b u t not zero. T h u s
Slb'

3 =-; t

1 -- exp ( - 2 77') 4

Fig. 15.7. l'n1,tarn of ut~rcnrt~linru of the fitcnily uccontlnry tnolio~l in the nc.igl~I,onrhoodof no osrillnting rirc~~lnr t~ylind~r

4-2 sin 71' cxp ( -

17') -k

l'ig. 15.3. Scconclary flow i n t.110 nt.i~lil,o~lrllootl of n.11 oac:illnI.ing circ~~ler c:yli~~clcr. l'llc cnmorn r~iovcs wiL11 t l ~ cylilidor. 'l'hr ~rict.n.llic c pnrtpicltxn wllicl~sorvc to rcl~tlrrf . 1 1 ~flo\r. viuihlc sl~ow111, n.s wiclc bands owitla tn t,llc long exposure tilllo nl~cl their rccipror.:~ting to motion, nrtcr Scl~licl~l.itlg (441

'I'hr srrontl npproximat,ion is seen t o rontnirl a strady-st,ab tvrm wliicl~does not vattislt nb a Inrgc tlisLntice from t,hr bocly, i , c . oltkide tho boundary layer. Its magnit.utlr is given 1,y 3 t1U, ( I 5 63) u2 (2, 00)= --4 n '0 dz .
,. I itc precetlit~g nrgitnlcr~t t , l ~Ircl~its t,o t h e remarkable result t h a t a potentrial has ~ s flow wItioI~is periotlic with respect to time induces a steady, secondary ('streaming') mot,iori a t a Inrgc dist.ancc frorn t h e wnll a s a result of viscous forces. Tt,s magnitude, givrn I3-y rqn. (I5.63), is inrlrl~cntlcntof t.11~ viscosit,y. T h e steady-stfate c ~ m p o n c n t ~ of t.11~ vc~locit,y s11c11 , l ~ ntlltiil 1)nrt.iclcaarc sccrt t o flow in the direction of decreaqing is t l nnil~lit.ittlc t h a t component of the potential velocity which is parallel t o tJic wall. of

Tt is import,nl~t o notticc hare t h a t tllo first npproxi~nnt,iot~, itt ctltt. (16.62), t 11, shows t,lti~t, t,ltc tliffcrct~t layers in t h e fluid oscillab with clilTcrcnt phase shifts co~npnreclwith tltc forcing oscillations, and t h a t their amplitudes dccrmsc ont.warcls from t,lic wnll. 'I'l~c sn.tnc f ~ a t ~ l ~ were cxl~il)it.cdhy (.It(: sol~~I.ions rcs tlisi:~~rtsi~tl in (:ltnp. V. 'l'llc first approximntion, u, as wcll a s t.he so111t.ionsin Chap. V wi:rc 01), t,ninctl from c1ilh:rcntial eqttntions wl~iclttlitl not, contain the convcct.ivc tnrlns

An t~xntnplc:of

SIIC~Ia

niot,ion, viz. the pnt,t,rrn of streamlines of t.11~ stcatly

flow al)o\rt a riroitlnr cylinrlcr which oscillntes in a Llt~itl t rest, is show11 in Fig. 15.7. a

I'igt~rc- 15.8 cont.:~it,s phot,ograpl~ t,hc flow pnttcrn a l ~ o la cylintler which performs a of ~t a11 oscil1nt.or.y mot,ion i l l a tank fillet1 wit,h urxtrr. 'I'hc camera with which t>hephotogrnl>li was t.nltrn iilovctl wit.11 t . 1 1 ~ c:ylintlcr nnd t,lic surfz~.cc t,he water was covcrcci of \rit,l~fine ~nct.n.llic I,nrt,iclcs which rnrttlcrctl tlte m ~ t ~ i ovisible. Thc particles s l ~ o w rl i ~ p witlc 1)nrltis in t,hc pict,ltre owing t o the Ivng exposure time ant1 t o their as rr!ciproeat.ing ~not.ion. 'l'lle fluid partic:lcs flow t,ou~artls bhe cylinder from above and fro111 I~rlow, nntl move nwny in bot>l1 tlircrt.iotls pnrxllnl t,o t h e reciprocat.ing motion of t.hc cylintlrr. 'l'l~is is in good agrccn~rrtt wil.lt t,hc I,l~corct,ical pattmn of streamlines sl~o\vti Fig. 15.7. Siniil:~rr)I~d~.ogmpI~s also I,lll,lisl~cd hy 15. N. Antlradc [I], in urrrc who it\tlrirc.tl st.:~n(lit~g so1111t1 : ~ v c s a O o;I circi~lat ~ ~tt. nylintlcr and rcnclcrctl Lhercsulting secontlary flow visil)le I)y tlic injectio~lof smokc.

I t . m n , t,l~creforc, s t : ~ t c dt.ltnt y-dcpcntlcnt. ~)Itnsc I)c shilt.s :rntl arnplitiitles tlrc.:\ging with distance from the wall are cnusctl cxclrrsivcly by the act,iorl of viscosit,y. O n t , l ~ other hand, in tho second npproxirnat.io11, ul, there appcnrs a t,crrn which is not, c periodic anti which rcprcser~t.~ stcntlg st,maming s r ~ p c r i r n l ~ o s ~ l t h e oscilln.t,ory or1 rnot,ion. Ilcncc, i t can also be st>atcdt , l ~ asccontfary flow has its origin in t,l~e t rortvcctive tcrms a n d is due t o tire interaction bct~weeninertia ant1 viscosit.y. TL slto~llrl be i~orne mind t,Iint simplificat,ions in wlticlt (.he convcct~ivc in terms 'tavc I)ccn on~it.t.t~l lea~tl1.0 solul,ions whiclt arc frce from strca~iting ant1 itlay, thcrcforc, give n rnislcailir~g rcpresentatio~~ itlie flow. Streaming docs, in general, appear only wlicn t,ltc? solut.iot~ of is carrictl t,o a t least the seconct-orcter approximation.
'I'hc phenomena under consideration offcr a sirnplc explanat.ion of I<ttntlt,'s c l ~ ~patterns which are used t o dcmonstratc the cxistgcnt:eof st,:~ndil~g st sortnd wnves in a t,~lhe. TIICso~lndwaves in q~iest~ion longit.~~tlittnl nncl t.hr ~ n n x i l r ~of arc onrs n I.ht.ir nmplittrtlcs arc loc!n.t,t:tl rct. poil~tsof' r n t ~ x i ~ n ~:~ml~lil.t~ilo t,ltc: ~I.:~.t~clit~g tm ill waves (I'ig. 16.9). Thus a secontlary flow is ir~ducctlin (,he pipe and i b vc1ocit.y near the wall is directed from t,lte point of maximuni amplitude t o the nodcs. A t

432

XV. Non-ntcndy boundary layers

e. I'criotlic botlnt1:try -l;iyrr I l o ~ s

433

a Iargr rlistat~rcfrom t h e wall t,hc vrlocit,y must, evidently, change sign t o satisfy tho rot~t~ir~rriLy rcq~lircmcnt,.'Phis intll~c*cs'streaming' effects, t l ~ csl~ift~ing t l ~ r of part irlrs of c111st,,ancl causes t l ~ r r nt o form lit,t,lc heaps a t tho nodes. l t is clear from t h e prcc:ctling t1csc:ription th8.t t h e quantity of d u s t used t o protlucc I Z ~ ~ n tpxt~1,crrls of grcat i r n p ~ r t ~ a n cA. large quantity of d u s t will become lt is c n.git,.zt30tl ~ r ~m;ry rc::~c:ll the rc-gior~of i r ~ r ~ o r ; tl flow when vil)mtiorls of the tllhe arc cxc*il,crl.(~or~sc:c~~~c~rlOly not, be possil)lc t o cause t h e tl~lst, o move away from it may t 1,lln p o i ~ ~ tof n i ; ~ x i m ~ ~ r n .s amplit,r~tlc. howcvcr, only a small quantity of i t is taken, If, t.110infl~tenc:c:of the flow Ilc:Lr the wall mill t ~ c strorigcr n.ntl t l ~ c points of maximum nrt~i)lit.~~clc: soon Itocor~roI'rc:o of c111sl.. 1'rol)lcrns c:or~t~cclatl will witah st,cacIy n~ot,ion whic:ll :wconlparl.v os(:illatio~~s a v c l~ I~ccnt,rcntrctl in grcat,cr tlot,ail in publicnt,ions on ;~.c:o~~stic:s,1081. c/. AII nn:~logorls invrsLign.tior~of t,l~cflow a l ~ o ~a n axi:illy symmetric ellipsoit1 lt w11ic:ll ost:ill;~t,c:snl)ollt its axis of symmct,ry i l l a fltlicl at rcst was carrictl o u t by A . (:oslr 1171; c / . :tlso I). Iboy 1-40,411.

A cli;igram of this frinct.ior~ seen plotlctl in Fig. 15.10. 'l'l~cc~xj)rrssiott 1 5.6fi) s l ~ o w s is ( t,hat tlcviat,ions bct.wecn t l ~ true mean vclocit,y pr.ofilo 77 ;incl tht: q~lnsi-st~c.ntly e vc.1oc.il.y profile 7 ~ , which wonltl cxist if we were t o asslimo F ( J , 11) = 0, tlrl)crld cssnnt.i:llly 011 t.l~c an~plit.~tdc (z) of t,l~c CI, oscillation ~ L I 011~ i1.s vi~rint.io11 I tllIl/tl:r: :~.lot~g Ilo\v. 111 t,l~r p:l,rt,io~tl:rr, ovcl~ I;~rgc a n~nplitntlc oscillnt.ion will ~)rorll~c.c: c:ll:al)gc: i l l (,II(. vc.lot.it..< of 1111 profile if i t rcrnaitis c o ~ ~ s t a n t along t,ltc flow, i. c. il' I / , - c:o~~st.. ICroln t . l ~ t !tli:1gr:1rri in l'ig. 16.10 iL cn.n bc tlctlucccl t , l ~ a tllc I:~rgostrc~lnl,ivc t n~otlilical.ion 1,111: vc~loc-il.s of profilc occurs near t h e wall, bccausc F(y/d,) 11ns Ll~cInl-gt.s(. V:LIII(: F ( 0 ) - - 1 t.I~rrr. Sincc tfhcfluid part,iclas nearest t o the wall niovc r~nclrr rrl;~t.ivc~ly sln;~ll ;~cc:clr~.;tt ior~s. 1,llcntltlit,ionnl 1)rrsstlrc gr:~tlit:ntwill 1rrotl11c:c:1.111: g~.t:r~tt-st,I I : I . I I ~ ~I >( -S; I V 111c: 1v:111. ~, I

2. C. C. I,i~l's tlienry of h o r ~ t ~ o ~ ~ i c oscillntio~is. 111 1.111: p~.c~c:t:tlit~g section wc: h:ivo c:orlsitlc.rrtl Ly1)ic:;l.l ox:~~irl)lcs osc.ill;i.lrionsinvolving fluitis a t rest. I'rohlcms ol' i r ~wllic.l~1,lrc: osc*ill;~t,iot~snl)eritnposctl on :L strr:l.~nare t n n r l ~more import.:Lnt in is :~l~l)licn.t~ions,~ . n.lso 1n11c:l1Inorc tlif'lic:~~lt, an:~lysc. A certain insigl~tinto this IJII t,o t.yl)c: of 1)roc:rss c.:rtl I)(: ol)l,:rinctl witJ~t.ltc :tit1 of (!. (:. 1,in's t l ~ c o r y1281 tlcscril)etl i l l Soc:. XV;I.

(J (:I:, t ) :~= (J) -1- l J l ( : sin w, t , 2)

( 15.64)

PloL of ttllc f1111ot.io11 F(!//6,,) fro111 cqn. (15.67) for n single, lisr~nonic component in t l ~ ccstcrnsl strcam
Fig. 15.10.

\vc: ca:trl f i t ~ t l frotn rcln (15.23) t.lla.1. t,hc: osc:illn.t.ing component, of Lllc l o r ~ g i t ~ ~ ~ t l i r ~ n l vc~loc~il.y is givc.11 I)y 11

If t l ~ c r c were a spectrum of harmonics of frrqucncics kt!. (k = 1, 2, . . .), i. c. for a frcr-stream velocity

I l . is ~~ol.c:wort.l~>~ l,hc: ~)l~:~.sc: of 1 . 1 1 ~longit,~~tlir~:r.l r t . r ~ r b n tco~nponcnt, t,l1;11, sl~ift, ~)c io~~ ,II,(R., I), \vit.I~rrs~)(:(:t. l , l ~ c 11, 10 cxt,rrrln.l flow again clrpcntls on tho t.ransvcrsc coorrli~t:rt,r, 'I'Itc. t.r:l.nsvcrso ro~nltor~ent,, (z, t), can hc ol)t,nit~ctl y. v, y, wit,h t l ~ cl i c l of : t 3 i ~ c ,r o n t . i t ~ ~ ~rtl~~n.l,iott il,y (15.27). ant1 it., too, trxl~ibits h r t:ypic:n.l phase shift. LI:!. 1 : , > t sc:c:~rrotlosl)rc?ssiot~s lijr (:I:, 11. h ) :I.III~ ill (J, 11, t), we can calcr~lirtc t,hc apparent prosSII~P gr;~tlic*~~t, y ) fro111 t:(111. (15.21). 'rl~is~ S S I I I I I P St l ~ r l<'(:c. I'ortn

U (x,t) = u ( z )
wc wor~ltl obtain simply

+ C U l k(x) sin (klet) , k

(15.(iH)

F (z, = C y)
k

4
=

,o ,

434

XV. Non-st,cxcly boundary layers

r.

Periodic bountlary-1nyt.r flo\vs

435

F r o m w h a t h a s I ~ e c nsnit1 hefore i t i s clear t , l ~ a t h e position of t h e p o i n t of Iamirrar s c p a r a t . i o ~ aKcct,ctl b y t h e cxt,ernal osciliat.iona n n d t,hnt t h e p o i n t of is v s e p a r a t i o n 1n11st o s r i l l a t , ~it,sclf. Finally, C. (1. I,il~'s mcClrotl lentls t o t , l ~ e a l r ~ a b l e c o n r l t ~ s i o n , l ~ ;t,llr f ~ r n c l ; ~ ~ n e n I , n I t ~t oscill;tt.io~~ ilrtlrlcrs 11iglrr.r h a r m o n i c s i n t11c b o l ~ n t l a r y layer o ~ r i l l n t ~ i o ~ l . c 3. Extrrnnl llnw with ~tnnll, l~nrlnonicprrturLntins. The c ~ when t.hc extcrnnl flow perfor~ns sn~all, hnrn~or~ic oscillnt~ions1111s bcctl tronbed in n nrctnher of publicntions. 'Fhe method in described in See. XVn 3. employed was lhnt of a scrirs cxpnnsior~ t,hr pcrturbntion pnran~etcr We nnsnlne t h a t the extcrnnl flow is of t,lle fort11

- (1
with the bonndnry conditiorls I]=0 y = m :
:

rn)@{Ot
d ,@-0,

@=* aq=l;

@=O.

IJ ( x , 1 )

Tf (XI - I -

rr,

(x) ~ ' " l ,

(15.70)

The precwling clilTcrmt.ixl eqnntions arc, normnlly, aolvcd in t.hc forin of series cxpnn.sior~s.first. of tl for slnnll vn111esof F nnd then for large vnll~cs F. Asa~llr~ing ~ n t

nncl note t.l~nt,,for it, no st, investigntions rest,rict t,l~c~nselves the cnlculnt.ion of t,hc first to s~~proxitnnliot~, i ~ of the fnt~ctionsnl,ol, ant1 l', from eqn. (15.30). M. J. I,ighthill [27] tllxt. , f o r ~ ~ ~ r ~ lan r npproxi~nnt.e ~ tcd rnetl~otlfor tlrc solr~tion eqn. (15.32) for arbitrary forms of the of ftlnc:t.ion o ( s ) and iJl(s). The particular cnse when bot,h functions can be represented in the forin of power series ltnn been c.onsirlcred by 1';. Hori [24], wherens N. Ibott and M. I,. Itosenxwcig [3!)1 c~itn~inc~el C X R I I I ~ ) I O WIIOII the t.wo Ft~nct.ions#(x) nnrl #,(z) nro ui111p1epowers t.110 or r. 'l'llc c?xrltll~)~o st.;igllat,ioll flow st.lldiccl by kt. I$. (:lnllcrt 1131 nlld N. 1Lot.t [:!)I of 8s wc?II 1 as tlrc: Ilow along n Il:lt, plate n t 7,cro inciclcrlre dincnssccl by A. Gosh (171 nnrl S. (:il~bc:l:~lo 1, 121 11 oo11s1it.1lt.c s111)-c:nsc.s t.11~ of 1nt.tc.r. Finally, A. (:tmIl 1171 nncl 1'. (:. Hill ant1 A. 11. Strtlnit~g 12.71 pcrforn~edexpcritncnt~nlI I I C : M I I ~ C I ~ C I 011~ non-steady I ~ O I I I I I I : Inyers. I~ ~~~ If the oxtcrnnl flow is of the form

for small vnlues of t, we ere lerl to onlinnry dilTerentinl eqnntior~afor tho fttnctions a k ( t / ) nntl Or(7). The clerivnlivm a t q = 0 mrvo to cnlculnb 1 1 sl~enring 10 ulrenn n t t.Ite ~ n l IIR wt!II IIH 011: l locnl Nnssolt nntntmr. In (.his mnnncr we: csnn clc!rivo Ll~nt,
.. ..

- .
I

- 1"

< > ,

( 0 ) -1-

eln'
k-0

tk'DL1 (0) ,

(1~.8~~)

IS

(r,t)

and that
E

csm (1

einl) =

if

(I

ei1I1)

(15.71) Arcortling to 1'. K. Moore 1.711 (am nluo A. (:on11 [17J nntl S. (>il,l)c.lritn 112]), 111c. r:rsc of t.l~c. flat plntc a t zero incidence is reprcacntcd by the expression:

then rqns. (l5.:11) It-ael 1x1 I,IIc familiar d ~ ( r r r r ~ ~ trqtlntions for uin~ilnr iaI sohrtions, C(11lR. (9.8) nnd (!).Rn), ~~ntnc-ly,

nntl with

Asn~~tnir~gcqns. (1G.32) that in u, =

&

ei"'

v a , , ( 6 , 7,) ,

wo nrc Ircl 1.0 t.hc following tlilTcrer~l.inl cqnntir~t~n t.l~c for rt~~xilinry fitnetions a ( , 7) and O (E, 7): ~n -1- 1 nt 1 1" @ - ( I - 7n) 1' E QqE 4-- - / en,,, - ( t 2 71r/')a, -IfDqqv 2 2

,-

SubstiLlrting n = 0, wo rewvcr tho uasi steady eolution, whicl~ sigrlifioa thnt n t every inst,nnt the solution bel~nves the s h a d y J u t i o ; for tho instantnneous external veIooity The a penranlike co of an imnginnry term n t n == 0 moans t h a t the bonndnry lnyer aulrers n phase shift wit( respect ! to the external flow, the shift being diflereut for velocity nnd b~npcmt,r~rc. Wllereas the rnxxirnn in shearing st,rcsa lcnd the tnnxima in the cxternnl flow (in the litnit n x/IJm -+ CT 1.11~ pl~nse nr~glek n d a to 459, t9hc mnximn in lnmpcrnturo Ing hchintl t.l~rrn(in t.110 linrit, ?l,:r/!~,., - t m~ tho p l t ~ t e nnglo tetldn to '30"). 111ntldition, iL turns ont t.l~trt t Inrgt! VIIIIIOR of n ~ / l l ~t .. 1,1 ~ n 11111plitudc of the ahenring-stsrr*ls oncillntion incrcnaca withont bound, wl~crenst,l~nL I.l~c or I~nnt,l l ~ ~ x slowly dccnys t zero na n %/Urn is made t~ incrcnae. m When the solution of the system of eqttntions (15.33) is corricil to second ordor, it is fonnd thnt tho functions r~,(z.y,t), v,(z,y,l), and l',(z,!/,l) cont,nin n Irnrtnonic pnrt of do~tl~lt: C ( ~ I I C I I ( : ~ ~~ and n ~upplnmnntnry,a b n d y pnrl wlliclt in inclopontlonl, or 1.itrto. 'l'l~c~ Inl.lr.r ~notlific*~ 1111sic: 1.l1e1 flow and cnn I)o i t ~ t c r l ~ r c bRR a secontl~lryflow in coti~lrlnhr111111Iogy tl wi1.11 1.1111t,. I I I ~ I I I I I I I ( ~ ~i lI l~ ~ I ~ the nolutions of tho pmwding section. For stagnetion flow, we hnvo Ul(a) = const, anel it in fo~lrltl t.llnl. t.lrnrl u,,o, R I I ~all higher-order terma vanish, a s demonstrated by M. R. Glnuert [13]. Conneqnently, the basic

+ (1 - m ) / " @ t + [ .I-2 m = 0 ,

(15.76)

436

XV. Non.stmdy bortndnry lnycra

e. Periodic bot111dnry-lnycr floe.^

437

: ~ I I o s c . i l l : t t i ~ \~ ~~ l l first. givct; in rrfs. 11:). 67, 21. A solt~tion v; for tlto caso of rill itilitlite ll:it 11I;itt. \ v i t h s~tt,t.iol~ ~ ~ c . ~ . i c , ~ l irstrr11;~1 obtninctl hy J. tuicl c: Ilo\v S1.1lnrt1521, ~ind nxtcntlecl IjZ. . I . \\':11sot1 [(iO]i n i111 ir~~:ilc.lg rc.l:~tc.elIn, t.l~c: fortl~rr. 'l'l~o flotv :blo~lg 1l:lt 11l:~tx: zrro i~tcidr~lrr a nt \\IIIIs(- c ~ s l < ~ r l~c~ : v l l~(:rl~~rl~rcl tr:~\,t.lli~~g l ~ \ t is I)? :i \V:L\T was l,rr:~trtli l l (l(:I,:til l)y .J. l<rstit~, 1'. Is'. Al:~c.tlc~r I I I ~ 11. 15. \\':IIIC : ~ 1%(;1. 'I'lic: t>:isco f t.I~rr(~-dit~~c:~~siot~:~l 1,110 11c~ig111~o11r11ootl IIo\v i n C I C :L c.iri.~tl:~r c~ylit~tli~rc 4 1 e~sc.ill:tt.c~s I.llc tlircrlio~~ it,s :isis \v:ts solvtrcl by \2'. \Yltrst [6!)]. \r l l i it1 of

fie)\\- n l ~ g ~ ~ c * r ~ tI)y I e ' c t.l~c: t.rr111st l :1.11c1 i j l rot~stit~l~trsexart ROIIIL~OII, one, ~ ) ~ o r ~ o v r r , is t RII \vl~irl~ :~lscrc - s : ~ r , l for I I I ~ ; e~ottl[~l(.L(~ Ntivirr-Stolirs cqllntions ('/. also rvf. [67]). I$y :t ~llit~I110 I.rR114f i ~ r t t i : i l i e ~o~ v:iri:~l)lrs, t,ltc. lir~*rrcli~~g c : i t ~ bv I I I : L ~ C tn yield l,lto solt1I~ion8 tf r:isc for st,agt~aliot~

IIo\r el11

'r.

imposed for different frcqnencies. A full discussion of this ~ q n n t ~ i ofor nrl)it.rnry n values of n is somewhat tcdiol~s owing t o tllc prcscncc of t,he Bcsscl ft~nrI,ior~ \vit,Il n complex argumentr, b u t i,ltc two IimiLirlg cnscs of vory Inrgc nntl vcry stn:lll c.irc:tllnr frcqt~encics,7 t , rcspeot~ivcly prove t o be extremely simple. Expanding the Bcsscl function in n sorirs nntl rct,nil~it~g only i.11~ cltint1r:~tia torrns we ol)tnir~ cxprc:ssion whic:lt is vn.litl for i , l ~ c arr cnsc* of w r y snt:lll v:tl~~t.s or the tlimensiortless group i n / ; II (vory slow oscill:~i~ions):

:I I . O ~ i l l : ~ t iflow g111r01igl1 pipc.. 'I'll(: (.:IS(,o f t , l ~ t ?flow of n ll~litli.l~ro~tglt ~~ 1)il)e. t111tle5rI t t > ~ I I ~ ~ I I I * I I (01.~ S :I. p(lrio(lic 1)rc~ssIlro l . (liIl'crt~n(~(:tlT'ortls nttoi,l~(*r (>X:LIII[)~<: e l f ; I I I o s c , i l l : ~ i i ~ ~ ~ i l l 111~: I I ~ ) I I I I ~ ~ : I ~ ,I:IJYT, flow V 'l'l~isi,ypr offlow o(s,cllrs,c. g., 1111dcr ( I I ~ . i t ~ l l ~ t t * l ~ ( a t . :I, r.t.('il)t.o(.:t.Li~lg~ S ( . ~ I I :III(I ils i,Itf?ory\Y:I.S giv011 I I '1'11. St:sI 1481 of II , ~ :IIICI tJc.ltitl:~(631. It, will ttow 1i(t :LSSIIIIIC(I 1.11:1.t. pipc is vcry long ant1 circulnr S. t.11~ i t 1 c.ross-sc~t*I~ion. sl1:1ll el(.~~ol.t. roortlit~:~.i.c: I,l~o \\'t. i.l~o in tlircc1,ion of i,llc axis of t.llcx 1)il)v l)y ;r, tlvt~oiit~g r:~(Ii:~l l.l~t, (lisi,:~t~(*(- it, 11s Un(1c:r I,11c prcvio11s nss1111ip1~iorts Pro111 r. I IIV f l c ~ \ \ r n1:I.y I)(, i.nlrr.11 t,o 11c intlt~~~cnclcrtt, W11ct1 t l ~ c of z. nxinl velocity cornportcnt,, o , cvcs:tsc,s 1.0 ( l t l l ) ( ~ l l ( l0 1 1 .r, i.11c o i . l ~ r r ~ l o c i i . r o n ~ ~ ) o n c n t , v ~' mnst vanish togct,ltcr wit11 t,ltr: c.o~~vc*c.i.i\~e I . II):rr:~,llvl1.0 i.11~ ~,(~ IIS t.~il)o axis. 'I'llus i , l ~ c Navicr-Stolres eq~~at.ioti (3.36) : I S S I I I I I .~ ~ ~ t 11S for111

or, rcturrung t o tllc real notation,

The velocity distribution is sccn t o be in phnsr wit11 t h r rxrit ing I)rc,ssurr tlist,ribui.ior~, the amplitude being a parnbolic function of tltc nttlius :LS \v:ts tha case i l l sit~:~cly Ilow. Using tlre asymptot ir rxpnnsiori of 1 ltr I3c.ssrl Trr~lrt .Io iott (z) we obtain nn cxprt.ssion for vcr.y 1:~rgrvnlttrs of 1 / ? ? / 1 1 11:

1'21~ 2

PI

I -I!:

is

\\.l~ic.his vx:~c.i,:IS il. irt111lic.s no ntltlii,iol~:tl simplilicnt.inns. 'Thc I)or~ntlnrycondit,ioll 1, 0 t i / I :!I, i,It(. \vnll. W r s l ~ : ~nsstltttc? i,ltn.t,t,llr prcsstlrc grnclirt~tcn.ttsetl ll i)y t11t. 111otiot1 i . 1 1 ~ ol' 1)isiott is l ~ : ~ . r r ~ ~nntl vis givort 1)y oni

or, in t,he real notat,ion,

(I5.SH)

e
1-0
1)11t,

ax

3' = I {

cos nt , The second tertn is qllicltly tlnmpctl orlt, :IS tllo tlist,anrc? from t.hr \vn.ll, II - r , incre:~scs,proviclotl t,11at,]'Ti/; R is largr, ( ~ o n s c t j n ~ ~ ~ ~:I., I:~rgc t ly tIist,:inr(: ft,e)nt ~ I t r wall only t h e first term is imporlnnt; it is scan t.o I)c iritI(~l)c~t~tlt:trti.l1:1.1, of tlisi:incc. lltis sol~lt,ior~ a form typical for 1)otlntlnry I:~ycrsI)rc.n~tsc: n I:~.rgo has n0 clistnt~c*c: frotn

w l ~ t ~ r ci / e1c~l1oi.r~r o n s i ~ : ~ ~ t~ tis, again, c o ~ ~ v r n i r o ~ t , romplrx notratmion :I I . .. t ~ 11sc and

,.

: ~ t i r i l ~ ~~g~)l~~wic.:ll it l i signifir:~r~c.c only l,o t l ~ r rvnl 11:trt. A s s n n ~ i ~I.h:11.1.l1~:vc-loc.il,y frtt~ct~ion t,ll(?form I ~ ( I . I ) = / ( r ) ei"L,ant1 referring lg II:IS , (I5.S,[), \v(- ol)i,:~ir~ follo\ving t l i l l ' i ~ r ~ ~ t ~ t ~ i : ~ l for tJto fnn(:t,ii)ri / ( T I : i.Itt: rqn:~t,ion to (,clt~.

t.llc \?all tho fluid moves as if i t were frict,ionlcss arttl, rnorcovrr, iis ~~ll;tsc: sl~il'lvtl is by half n period with respect i,o the rxciting forrr. Tile skctcll in Fig. 15.1 1 r r p r e s r n t , ~t h r veloeit,y profile for nn inic,r~ncvli:ti t? freq~lcncy(]/%/; R = 5) of oscillet,ion :hij tlilTcrrnt inst.nni.s of onc ~ ~ r r i o t \\'II(\II l. a comparison is ~niltle l)ct,wceri t,hc v c l o r i f , profiles anti ~.II(: tli:tgrnm of 1.I1c. v:~ri:~l.ion ~ of t,Itt>prrssnre gr:uIit:ni, \viI,l~ l,i~nt>, i)loI~i,c~l t , l ~ I)oi,l,ot~~,(snlt>rgt%s i , l ~ c , llo\v r it, i,l~:tl, on t11c axis oP the pipe lags bel~intltlmt in t , l ~ layers n r a r i.lto w:~ll.I t sllonltl I I V ~toi~otl c t h a t in line wit,h our remarks in t h e preceding scctiott, i,lrc, ~ ~ r c s t soltti.iott is frcc ~nt from secondary flow hecn.use the non-linrar irlcrt,in t,crrns tlitl not npl)c,:tr in t.ltt? clifferent.ia1 eqnat.ion (15.84). On t l ~ cotllcr l ~ n n ( l ,t,Ilc c.1lnmrtcrist.i~ pllnst: sltifts and antplitutio dccays can be clearly tlisrerr~crl (rf. rrxf. 1271). The preceding typc of iion and JC. 'Tylcr 1371 who ~qtl:~.r(:el, 1)e ~ I ( : I I O I , ~ ~ by i,o CI ( 15.88) the expression flow was invc~si.igntfctl ~ x p r r i ~ n t ~ t ~ i1)y lR. (>. I!ic:l~:~r(lc ~n ly mcasrlrctl tllc rnc::Ln wii.l~ raspc.c:i, l o i.ilnr: of i,11(: vt,loc:ii,y w 2 . 111 i . 1 1 ~~ : I , S C or r:lsi, e)s~~iII:t~t,ic)t~sI ) I , : I ~ I II I . O I I I f s 4 l I l . t~t~ ,

1.0 ifllc 1int~n.rit.y of

Ilt.rc: .lo tlc-t~ol.c.sl.11(: Ilc~ssc:l Tt~ttc:l.iot~ i.It(? first, Itind :1.11(1of zero ort1t:r. Owing of ~ Y I I I . (l5.84), I.11c solni.ions ol)i,ninctl in cqn. (15.86) can bo supcr-

438

XV. Non-atcndy boundnry inyer~

,IIto ,

rortt,c:tn~)ora~ry, first d o v c l ~ > l ~ i n of ~ l , r ~ stt~~crsotiic: n.c-rotlyttat~iirsc.rc.:tI.c*rl :r

fig. 15.11. Velocity dintri5rtt.ion in oacillrd,ing pipe flow at ditTerent instnnta of one period, after S. Urhitlo

[G3].

I f the distance froni the wall y = R - r is small compareti with t.he pipe mdius R, t h e mt.io R/r can IIC rcplacctl by unity. 'rhlts, introducing t h c tlirncnsionlcss dist,nnce -fron~ tlic wall q = ( R - r ) 1 / i / 2 Y = y 1 / 4 2 Y , we have

P(!/) K212 2 = 1 - 2 cos q cxp (n

growing it~lnrcslin corn~~rcssiblr!, tion-sleo:ctly I~ot~nclnl.y I:~~c?rs. I~onttclaryI:ipt:rs (11' this kit~tl arise, for cxnlnplc, Iioliind sl~oclr waves or cxpnrision tfrtiit~s sltoclc t.ttl~r?r it1 or similar inst.allat.ions nsccl in acrotlynamic rcsonrch. A good ltr~owlotlgeof not)steady, comprcasiblc boclndary Inycm is nlso rcqt~irctl for the c;llc~tl:rt,ionof t , l ~ c dm.g ant1 a m o ~ r n t 11cat transfcrrcd by a fast-moving I~otlyw1tic:lt ma.y 11c tlrccloof ml.c:tl or accolc:rxt,ctl i n it8 flight,, ant1 wl~oscs~trf:tccl.ctnl~crnt,~tro tnny v:t.ry wil,lt t,irt~o owit~g :~cro~Iyn:itnic tn lt(::~l.ittg.111 wl~iit, follows, wo s11:iIl cx:itnit~et,wo si111()1(: rxnlnplcs of non-stcntly, Inmina.r, con~prcssibloI~olltltla~y 1:tycrs. 'l.'lto first c s : ~ t n l ~ l c will tlisc:ttss t,hc fortnal.ior~of a I~onritlaryIxyor I ~ c : l t i t t t l n t.r.zvolling, t~orm:tl sltoc:lc wave. '1'11~ sccoti~lcxatnple will concern it,sclf wiL11 a fl:it plate a t zcro itic:iclont:c in norl-i~niform moLion and wit11 a varying surface tempcratr~rc.Rcatlers who wisl~ t o ~ r n d r r t a k c clcepcr study of IIOII-steady, o ~ ~ ~ l ~ r c s I ) l ~ l~ n ~ l a ry c r :I.I.I: r(*f~~rr(:(l s c sio~ o I~ y s 1.0 l.ltc s ~ t t ~ ~ n ~ : t r ir civ ~~ w sl)y 11:. l%(:(:I{(:rI(il :itt(I I(. SI,(:\v:~rI.sort 1. x ti g 16~1 Icor t i t ( : s : ~ k col' simplicity, we slt;rll rcxt,ricl o~lrnclvc:~ I.ltr: col~sitl(:t.:~l.io~)~ 1.0 of a p(:rft,cl g:ts svl~osc specific 11cnta ant1 I'r:\~~dl,lI I I I I ~ I I I:).re c o ~ ~ s t , : ~ t ~ t . t l\vI~osc. ~?~ al~s viscosity is proport,iorial lo al)solut.c tctnpcraI,~tro ((11 -- 1 in cqn. (I3.4a)). 'l'l~c two-dirnctisior~aldynamic and tl~crtnal 1)ourtdary layers arc now tlct,crtninccl by eqns. ( I 5.1) t o (15.6) togebhcr witit tJlc bonndary conditions listed :&long witit tl~rln. Tltc oqual.ioti of contir~uit~y bc sal.isfictl 11y tltc it~t~rodnct~ionn sLrcnln can of fr~nc.t.ion y~(z,!y,l),ant1 the velocit,y cotnponents arc then mlnl,etl to it by Ll~c q ~ ~ a t ~ i o n s c

7)-tcxp (-

2 ' ). 1

( I 5 80)

'I'hr vnrintion of t,I~is mean is seen plot,tc.tl against, in Fig. 15.12. '1'1te maxirnuni val~tr dnrs not roit~ci(Ic~ i t ~t l 1i1 ~axis of t I ~ c . pipe (large distanrc), brtt occurs nrar 1.11~ wall a t I/ 1, )/it12 11 r - 2.28. 'I'ltis vnl~ica.grccs very well wit11 rnc?as~trcrnenl (E. G . I~icl~arclson's 137). "ntrn~tlar nKcc:t"). In this connoxion the reatlcr is also refcrrctl to M . Z. J<rzywoblockils cnlc~llntions compressil~lc for fluitis (Cliap. X I [GI]). Recent,ly I t . R. Icinney a.nd hia collnl~ornt.orcr [26a, b ; 44a] aucccedcd in calculating the unsteady viscous flow around n lifting aerofoil. Thie includes the process of developn ~ e n of t,he vort,iccs wltich stmart. t t,lie Icatling ant1 trailing edges. t a

,06 0

"1 1 1 iei----l--~l
-- - -. -

Fig. 15.12. Vnriatiott of t.110 moan wil.lt rr~pccthtime of the velocit,y sqltared for , pcrioclic pipe flow (E. G . Ilirl~nrclaoii'r,[37] "nnnulAr eKect")
y II,,,' d-i;s lKr9 /e ~ n 2 n' rrnm Lhs wall or LhrO P C L 10 llzne mcnn wllll ~ C I pip?;

-.

vt~lorllys q l ~ n r r da t large cllstanrc

I. Ilor~ildnryInycr bcl~ittcln tt~ovingtaorittnl sliock wnvc. 'l'l~n lit,sl. ~~rol,lc.tt~ of i r ~ t ~ r c s t , tlclinctl in Fig. 15.13; it concerns t l ~ c ~ o ~ r t ~ t l a r y wl1ic.11is for~nccl is l layer bcliintl a norrnnl s l ~ o c k wavc tnoving n1, a cotist,ant vr1ocit.y (1, inlro a lluitl a t mst, nntl a t n stater:tlcscribetl by t h e sul)script. 0. 'lll~cst,attr of tJlc gas bcltitttl t.l~c l ~ o c k s \\.nvc, l)nt o r ~ t ~ i d c bor~ntlnry tfhc Inyt?r, wilt I)c tlcrtol.rtl Ily tho sttl~cril)t, \Vn s11:~ll oo. sitnl~lilj 1.111: prol~lrttt 11y ass~tlning 1.I1;t.tLhc: l)nr;~ttiel,(-rs l,l~n in oxI,~:rt~:il IIo\v It('l~in(l t.l~t? sl~oc~lc wavc arc: i~tdcpcrldcntof n: nntl 1. ?'his is cqnivnlcr~tt,o ~~rgl(:c:t.ing1 1 ~ t. clr(:ct of I.lt(: growing 1)ortntlnry 1;ryc:r on t,ltc: cxl.rrnn.l flow w l ~ i c lt~ i ~ t sl)c rst~:c.l,c~tl ~ l, t,o nialtc itself felt in a shock tube. I t Lnrt~s out, t,hnt, the? p r o l ~ l o n fornirtl:~I.rtllratls so l o n s r t of similar profiles ancl r c d ~ ~ c c s 1.0 ono in td~c it sitiglc: vn1.ia11lv

OT

Illc

tO

LO

3.0

*O

rrotn

wall

5.0

440

XV. Non-st.cncly bortntlrrry lnycrs

f. Non-steady, cornprr*rsiblo bourttlnry Inyorn

4,ll

whir11 rr1)l:irrs tllr original, three varinblrs z, t. Assriming t h a t the stream fr~nction IJ, is of t l for111 ~ ~ - . -- - - (15.93)

Yt

11-shockwave

n)

Urn

1,)

'

.I

(.)

Fig. 15.13. I'ortnntiort of a 1)ortrlclilry I:ryrr 1)chintla ~iortnal nllock wnvr tnovil~g will1 ir vrlocil.y /Is

Fig. 15.14. i1(*It~~~il,y I l~(?ttr[:~rnl,ttr(*l i s l ~ r i l : ~ ~ l .1.ro111~u Y ~ I I S(15,!),l) 1 1 t 1 t l (l!;.lOli) i t ) JLII~ ~ it~~~ , Ian~innr I)orrncl~rry liryrr Imhillcl n ~ior~r~trl wrrvc of ~ O I I R I I L I : ~ v(.Ivt.ily, nf1.1.r 11. hlir1.1~ ulioc.lc ~ Tl~e p:tranrctcr /Im/(ls cltnrnctcrizcn tlrc ~l,rctrjil.l~ 1.11~W R V C of

S~tl)sl~it.ttt.ion tltc irl)ovn fort11 for tltc: stmatn ft~nc:tion together with the corrcsof 1)0110irtgform T - 7'm0(~l) (15.95) for t.ltt- l ~ ~ t l ~ p ( ~ r :~ lIi.~ ~.rrc l ~ ~ ~ l ~ i o r i (15.1) t o (15.5) allows us t o (lorive the ~ rI i int1o eqrts. folIowinx, ortlinnry tlifTcrent.i:~lrclrrnt,ions for tlrc fl~rlct~ionsq ) ant1 0(7]). 'I'11r.s~a r c : /(

Sec. V n 4) which tlenls wit11 t l ~ imprllsivc shart of n flitt witll. 1 tfis sccn front Pig. 15. I.In o t h a t t h e tlticltrless of a boundary lnycr bcllintl n r~orrnnlsltoclr cxcortls t,I1:1t, li)r tltc so-cnllctl IZnylcigh ~)rol)lcm. This mcn.rls 1.11at. I ~ O I t.11~ I I I:LI)SI: n c('rt.ni11 of (,inlt* . r / I l , y 1 after t l ~ c ~):~ss:~gt: t.11~ of sl~oclrwave, tPllc borlndary 1:iycr :LL n givcli ~)osil,iot~ 11:~s grown tJlliclrcr t h a r ~or1 a n i~npulsivclyst$:~rt~ctl p1at.c a f t m t.11~ s:tmc 1)t:riotl of t.irnt: has lapsctl from start,. The opposite is t.rnc for nsp:~nsiotr wi~vos. ,,he s o l ~ t t i o for s lirlcrtr tliffrrcrlt.inl rcl~~:ition 5.97) for 0(?1)~ : L I II)r rrl,rcsrr~( 1 ~ ~ t,lte (1 cd in t h e form of a linear c*o~nbination t,wo basic sollrt.ions, tlrfirlrtl :IS li)llous of

Thc frinctions r ( q ) and s ( q ) arc solutions of the following ordinary dini.rc-~~t,ial equation :

'1'11~: solittiot~sfor I I / I J , . ,--:' ( r l ) rrotn ~ Y I I I .(15.!)(;) i r S~ O ~ I r)lnlttc~lr k lpig. 15.14a. / C i 'Is1r(. r):tr:inirf,vr I r , . , / / l , I;)r t.l~c Iiimily of c-rrrvos cKar:tct.crizt:s t,ltc st,rcngtfi of the sl~ot-li \v:L\.r. 'I'IIo I~igllcs(. ~,ossil)lcvnlr~c:for ~J,,./u, is (iJ,,/fJ,),,, = 2 / ( y t I ) ant1 rot.rt-sl~o~rcIsit11 ittlirlil.c.1y sl,rortg sltnr:lc ; wil.11 = 1.4, t,his yicltls (fJ,,/lIs)t,,,z = 0-83. I,o N~'g:~.ti\.i-, ~ I I I , S of I ~ , . , / I J(~orr(:s11ontI lit:l.iI.iot~s, V:I S 1,o 11011-st~ra~Iy. n t ~ i r i l ~ o t ~ s ~o cxparisiott I':IIIS.~ Y I C I I irt~:~git~i*tli ~ t ~ i ~ ~ ~ in ~ nl ,sit~gl<- ~ l In tile p:~rt~ieitlnr i ~ ~ ~ t l , t front.. ~ case W ~ I C I I I . / - \vt. art. Ivtl t.o t.lln so-c:allrtl 1t:cylt:igll prol)lom (Stokes's first problem,

together with t h e boundary conc1it.ions

442

XV. Norl-stcady boundary Isycrs

'I'hc so111t.ionsfor P -= 0.72 have i)crr~ plotrt.ctl in Figs. 16.14b ant1 a. The nr~n~ericnl vnlnr r ( 0 ) is x mm.sllrc of t , l ~ c rccovory t.empcraturc, TI,, th:rt is, of tlic temperatrrre a.t.t.11c: l ~ r f n rof nn ntlinl):btficw:~ll.111t,l~is s c CRSC:, have O'(0) = 0 , ant1 l ~ c t ~ o e s ( ? ~ ) we =0 . It, follows frorn cclrl. (15.95)) tJiat t,he adinhatic w;rll t,cmpcrature is

where for cornpression waves (lJ,/lJs

>0)

ant1 for cxpnnsion uravcs (lI,/lJs \Z'hrn P -r I, \vr have r ( 0 ) - I, anti t,hc ntliabatic wall t.cmperatVnre 1)rcomcs identical with the stngn:~tiont c n ~ p r r n t u r rIc/. rcln (13 17)] Wlicn the Prandtl nombcr of t h r gas difrrrs little from unity, it is possible, according t o H Mirels 1291, t o rniploy t h r npproxirnnt ion t h a t r ( 0 ) = P" , wit11 a-039a:

< 0)

I ---

(U,./Vs)
0.13

0'02

for for

urn :-- (comprcsaion 0 (1.9

Urn

waves)

(15.104)

0.50

I -j

u, < 0

(cxpr~sion waves)

The I)o~it~dary-1:~ycr thickness exccccSs t-llo so-nnllctl Itnyloigli v a l ~ i cwl~cnt,hc wave is cornprcssivc; t.l~ia en11sc.4 s 1 1 0 ~ r i t t ~ tlhc ahrrus, I,II(! ~ k i t ~ . r r i ( : t , (:ot:l'fi(:i(-t~t, io~~ TLIICI t,ho Nt1ssc11, r ~ ~ t l ~ t l ) ( ! r 1.0 II(:(.OIIIII XIIIILIII:~ (:ott11)1~rc!(I wit.l~1.11oir l C ~ ~ y I t : VTLIII(*H.'I'l~t, i~l~ opposita is trlio for c x ~ ) i ~ n s i o n W:LVCS. t11c spnci:bl c;rsc when P - - I , t.ttc: Ilt::rt.In transfer formulae rctl~lccto Chc simplc Itcyriol(ls al~alogy

,.hns, finally, t h r t,ctnprmt,~lrc i s t r i l ) ~ ~ t i o r ~ I d becomes,

known t.o tthc rcntlcr a s oqn. (12.55).

1110 precrtling pro blot^^ w l ~ i c lcliscussctl t,hc hont~cl:rry layer brl~itrd n shock ~ wave of const,ant velocity c o ~ ~ s t ~ i t ,a n bidcnlizccl special c:rsc in thaL iL call bv ~t s mduccd t.o a stoatly problcm 1)y the fr1i~it.011~ c11oi~c : coor(1inato syst,rm in wllic11 of L the shock wave is at, rest. More genrrxl sol~rt.ior~s tJic s:rmc proi)lc~nhave beon of trmtctl in t,he worlts of R. 13ccltcr 13, 4, 0, 71 ant1 11. Mircls and .J. I l a m m n r ~ [:301.
2. Flnt plnte nt zero incicler~ccwit11 vnriable free-strennl velocity nr~rlsllrfncc temperat~~rc. our sc,c:ontl rsatiiplc wc collxitlc~rtlto cotnprcssil)lc I)or~nrl:~r,y In Inycr on a flat platc w l ~ c r ~ frcc-sbrcnm veloc:itty, 11,(1), a s wcll a s tho tcmpcmt,~lrc t t.hr a the surfacr, T,(t), vary in t21tccorlrsc ol't,imc. 'l'hc strc:brn rt~ncl.ion rrorn cqn. ( 16.90). y) a l ~ dthe t~rtnl)cr,zt.nrccIist.ribntiot~

r .

:we now tlctcrminctl 1)y thc ~ q l i a t i o n s

Onrr ngnill. nc.c.o~elil~g 11. Mirrls [29l, whrn t,Ilc. Prnntltsl n11ml)cr is near to unity, to it, is possiblr t o rrsort to Lhc following approximations: in which the prnss~lrc-grntlicnt tcrrn lixs I)e>crl dclotatl. 'rho variablc has I)rcn elc-fir~rd ill cqn. (15.9l), : L I I ( ~ (I,, anti 7', tl(*nolo the tlcriv:rtivos of ~~C(:-S~,I.~::LIII v,:lo,'il,.y R I I ~s\lrface t,rmpcri~t.ur(: I yitlll rcs~)cct. o t,inl(:, rc:spc~t,ive:ly. 111 orclcr t,o :rrrivc' :if. t solrrt.ions, the following series cxpnttsions arc post~~lal.ctl :

444

XV. Non-st,mdy 11o11ndnryInyora

Itcfcrences

445

00(71)

I
-

P I ~ I ( v )I P z O z ( ~ 1 ) I - . . .

ColbO(q)

( l ? t , ( ~ ) J - ( ~ ? L ~I ( ~ .) . ~ ~ ( 7 .. )

rJ zw
2c 7
-

7k)

{ S ( r l ) k 1'0"n(7) Ir] =
--

}.

(15.117)

Urn2
voo

22

T h e t h e o r y of latnillnr, n o n - s t e a d y b o u n d a r y l a y e r s has been dcveloprtl c o ~ l s ~ t- l e ~ a b l y i n t h e l a s t years I n f o r m a t i o n o n t h i s phnac c a n 1 ) fortntl i n t l l r r c volrttnrs of ~ c o n f c r c n r c p r o ~ ~ ( ~ r ( l i t r '1'11~ fitst, rtlilrtl Ity 15 A 15icl1rll)rrnttrr, rc%l)otls011 1 1 1 ~ gs. IU'I'AM S y m p o s i t t m " l t c r e n t R e s e a r c h o n UnsLcady I3ountlary Layers", Qrlc-l~rc 1072 [74]. T h e s e c o n d , e d i t e d by R R. K i n n ~ y [75], concerns a symposirtm o n "IJnstcndy Aerodynamics" held i n I 9 7 5 a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of Arizona,. l'hc tlrirtl is tlcvotcd t o n n AGARTI m e c t i n g lrcltl i n 1077 [7BJ. A rcvicw p n p c r fly N l t i l r y m a y also tnct it c o m parison [37a].

t"

(Im

. , etc
etc

(15.118)

I h e lwc(:c(ling fortns a r c snl)st,it,~~lntl t o t h e d i f k r c t l t i a l c q r t a t i o t ~ s o r t h e b o u n t l a r y in f Inycr ;~trtlit, is li)rttl(l t h a t , tlrc futlctiotis F ( q ) , /n(tj) , . . . ~ a t ~ i s f y o r d i n a r y diITcrentia1 cclrtnt.iot~s.S o l r t t i o r ~ sf o r tlrcrn wlrcn P . . 0.72 11avc beerr g i v e n i n refs. [35, 491. 'I'lro f r ~ n c t i o t t sF ( , , ) , O,,(T]) ant1 A'(71) a r c i d e r ~ t i c a lw i t h t h e solutiorls f o r tlre s t e a d y ~wol~lt-1x1 wil.lr CI,., in(.rrl~rc:t,c?tl as tlre itrsl.arrt,aneo~~s vrlocil,y ( q n n s i - s t c a d y flow). , Ire rcrn:iinitlg l.c:rt~rs tlcsc:ril)c t.l~c!c l o p : ~ r t ~ t r cfs o m tlto ( I ~ ~ : ~ ~ i - ~ s l ~ ~ :t ~ ~ iy t i . I r l ~l : f d o

T,,,,?,

I IIC r:~l,io<)I' 1 . 1 1 ~s l ~ ( * : ~ r i tsl,rt*ss :it, I,IIc \v:ill, ~,y is giv6.n I)y

3

T",,

I,(> I,l~:ibfor ( l ~ ~ : i s i - s l , ~ ~ : ~ ( l y I\o\v,

( : o r r c ~ s l ~ ) ~ r ( l i r t g I ~ , m l i o of I ~ c v ~ f i r ~ x r s :iL tltc wall for P = 0.72 ( c / . 1501) is I,It(b drscril)rtl I)y

I

,..

\Vltc?rr f,hc tnrt,lrotl jrtst, tl(:s!.ril)ctl is I)c.itrg 11sct1, it, slrortltl b c rcnlizctl, iis l ~ o i t r t c d or~t I)y I l . 'l'st~ji l(i21. 1.11:iI~1,Irc oxl)rrssions for (,,, ( , , . . . , P I , /I,, . . . :ire, gctror:illy s~)(':~liittg, ~ I ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ l ~ even~ for ~I)~.csc.ril)r.tl i t : ~ ~ ~ t ( l r t ~ ( . fortxrs of I I , ( L ) nncl 7'11,(1). Sot: n.lso the ~I:L~I(.I, 1 1 . 1). 1I:trris :I,II(I A . I). Yorttig 1731. by

[I] Ar~dratlc,E.N.: On tho airc~~lnt.ion musotl by t.110 vibr1lt.io11 :rir in 11t.11111.. of I'rot.. 1111y. St~v. A 134, 447-470 (1931). 12) Arduini, C.: Strnto lilnite incomprcnail~ilcInrninnro t~cll'int.orno pnnt,o tli rist.ngtlo t l i 1111 do1 cili~tclro ir~tlofi~~ito ouc:illanlo. I,'Aorotnc:nii:l~.I/, :I4 1 :I411 (l!)lil). [:)I I)cc*kor, I?:.: 1)m AIIW:L(:~IHO~I dcr C~OII~.H(:II~(:II~~ i l l I I I I ~11i11t.c:r (:illor I ~ ~ x ~ I I L I I H ~ ~ I I I H ~ v IIIU.. . ~~II~~ Arcll. 25, 155.- 10:) (1957). [4] Reckor, E. : lnatntiorliirc Crcnzscl~icl~tcn llintor VarrlicI~tr~~~gsst.iinn(!t~ I':x~I~IIs~~IIH\v(~II~:II 11t1t1 ZFW 7, 61-73 (1959). [5J Bccker, E.: Dic lnminnre inkomprcasible Grct~zscl~irl~t ritlrr tlr~ral~ nn I:rr~fr~~tlcr l l c ~ ~ \V deformierten ebenen Wnnd. ZFW 8, 308-310 (1960). [fi] Bccker, E.: Instationnre Grenzschicl~ten hintrr Vcrclictttr~ngsst,iiaset~ Ex~~nnsio~~sa~c~IIet rlt~rl Progress in Aero. Sci. I (A. Ferry, D. Kiichc~nnnn, nrld L. I<. Stnrrlc, od.), 104 - 173. Lo11tlo11, 1901. [7j Jlccker, R.: Anwot~dut~g nt~n~orisnhm rlca Fortsctz~tngnverf:rI~r~:t~n tlio ~ ) s o ~ ~ t l o ~ t : ~ ~ t ~ i t t ~ ~ nuf k o ~ ~ ~ p r o m i l ~~ n i n ~ ~ r c Itr lc (;rt>nzscI~icl~t, ~ ~ I I C I Stow\vrllc~~rol~r. 10, 138 1.17 (l!lfi2). in II ZIW [7nl llnrgrr, I<., nnrl Willo, 11.: I'orioclic: flow I I ~ I ~ I I ~ ~ I I ~ * I I I L . AIIIIIIIII IZ.c~vi(:\vof I P l l l i ~ l bIt.t.11. . I , :Il3 - 340 (1!)72). [R] lflasius, H.: Grenzacl~icltten Fliissigkeiten tnit klrincr l<cib~rrlg. hl:rtl~.I'l~ys.5fi. 1 : ) 7 in Z. (1908). [9] Boltze, E.: Grcnzschicl~ten Rotntionnlriirporn in Fliissigkrit.?~~ kloinor H r i l ~ ~ ~ t l g . an nit, llins. Gottingen 1908. [Dn] Dumitreacr~,D., and Cnzac~i, D.: Tl~corct,iscl~c t ~rx~tcrirnrt~tnllo M. l~ tl 130l.rnrl1t1111gr11 iibcr dic Striit~rnttg ziillcr I'liisaigkciter~ a111cine I'ltrtto bri Itlrit~ot~I I ~ tI t t i I t ~ l c ~l~r~1101~1~7.:t11lr11. II ~(:~~ ZAMM 50, 257-280 (1970). [Db] Contnncenu, M., nnd Ronard, R.: Expcri~ncnb~l dctcrtr~innt~ion t l ~ c of tnnin frntrtros of the viscous flow in tlrc wnkc of a circular cylinder itt nt~ifornltrat~nInt.ion. a r t 1 : Stct~clyflow. P J F M 79, 231-250 (1977). [!)GI Contnncen.~, and Bounrd, It.: Rxpcrirt~ot~t.nl l r r r t ~ ~ i t ~ aofi tho~111nit1frnttlrc!~of tho M., de t, o~ viscons flow in the wake of R circular cylit~der ~lniforn~ in t,rat~slnt.ion. Plrrt.2: Uttstrntly flo\%,. JFM 79, 257--272 (1!)77). [lo] Coin, T ~ I . Jlon~erltr~r~gdell "iil~nlicl~e~~" : zn innt,nt.io~~iiro~~ 1r1111i111rrtrnr o t ~ ~ ~ n c : ~ ~ i c ~ ~ l ~ n t ~ (~ gctl. Z A M M 36, :J!)Ii- :)!I8 (1956). [ I I] (;il~cllnt,o,S.: SLr:ito 1i111iLo nttorno tic1 I I ~ I :lust,r:b pint~tb ~ i11v(*8t,it,tr 1111 l l ~ ~ i (il~ ~ c ~ o : t ~ l ~ r ( ~ ~ s i (I:& o clot.ata di untt vclociti cllc c sonrtnn di rtnri I~nrtc rot1~1:111to(li nnii pi~rtc:~ i l t t ~ r t t i ~ t : ~ . o ;\(ti I:) 24 (I!l55 dclln Accadctr~intlcllc Scictlsc tli Toritlo 89, 180- - 1!)2 (l!)54 I!)55) trncl !)I), 1950). [12] Gibellato, S.: St,rato litnite terrnico at,tort~o utla I:~st,rapi:ttln invcst,it:l dn IIII:I e.or~.(*nto n licvcmcnte p~llsnnte flr~ido di incotnpressibilc. ALti dclln Acc~ntir~llin tlc:llo Srirnzc. t l i 'I'oritlo 91. 152-170 (1!356--1957). [I:!) ~ l i u c r t M.H.': l'lle 1nrni1;nr boutrd:~ry lnycr on oscillnt,it~g , ~~lnt.c,s c-ylintl(:rs. ,Jl~'RI I . :itltl 97-110 (1956). [I41 (;ol(lstcin, S.. nntl Ilosc~tl~cntl, I$o~~t~tl:iry ~ r e ~ \ v I .I'ro('. (!:LIIIII~. I,.: I:~yc:r l~. I'l~il. So(.. .l'! :$!12- .40l (l!):)fi). [I51 Giirtlcr, 11.: \'c:rtlrii~~g~~~~gn\virk~~t~g ~ i ~ ~ : ~r ~ nt ~ x x ~ ~111111 tI~rl ~ ~l( . l ( \ \ . i ( l t . t . ~ t : ~ 1~~~: ~ l . (lvr i : r t ~ (: n: : l~i ) ~ 11 Arc-11. 1 4 , ZHli- 305 (1!)44).

440

XV. Non-st,rndy bo~lnclnrylayers

/I61 Oiirt,lcr, 11.: (:rct~~sc~hiol~tc~~t~t~:l~~lng nn Zylindern bei Anfiahrt nrls (lor Ituhe. Arch. (I. Math. I. 1:IX---147 (1!)4H). (171 (:osl~. A,: (7ont.ril1ut.io11 I'6b11clo dc In cor~rlre A linlik lnrninnire inst,nt.ion~~:~irc. I~t~l~lirnt.ions Scicntifiq~trs t ' ~ ' ~ C I I ~ I ~ ((111IMi~xistAro l'Air NO. :$HI (1961). r ~I C~ de [IS] (iribhrn, It. .I. : 'Pilo Intnin:lr I~or~ntl:~ry on n I~ok lnyer cylinrler fixer1 in n flr~ct,r~nt,i~~g st,mnm. J . AppI. Mr.rh. 28, :%:<!) -- 340 (l!)<il). [I!)( Ilnsn:in, II.i\.: 0 1 1 I I I I ~ ~ C : Intnin:ir ho~n~tliiry I ~ ~ lnycrs. .ll'lM I :%OO --:104 (I!)(iO): see nlso ) . J A S S 27, 474 --476 (I!)fiO). [20( 11:1ynsi, N.: On si111i1:irso111tit111s the I I I I S I C : I ~ ~ I ~q~~:~qi-t\vo.(li~~rc~~sit~t~:il of inco~n~~rcssiblc 1n111in:irl ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ( l : ~ . r y - l : ~ y e r ,I. l'11.y~.S o c ~ rqn:tI,iot~s. J:I[):~II 2:%l(i--2:<2!) (l!)lil). I6, (21 ] Il~aynsi, 0 1 1 n(:t~~i-si~niI:~r N.: sol~~tionn1,111: ~~nst.r:arIy ~ : ~ . ~ i . t , \ v o - i l i ~ ~ ~ i ~ i rio no n n r r s s i l ~ I c of q~ r~~ si ~~)l Inn~inarI~o~~n~lnry-ln.yor eqnnl.inns. .I. I'l~ys. Soc*.Jn11:un 17, 1!)4 -20:1 (l!)(i2). (221 Iln.ynai, N. : 0 1 1 t.l~e :~plrroxinrnla ~ ~ l ~ ~ t ~ i o~n~ ~ ~ s t rq t t ~ y ~ i - t \ \ ~ o - t l i ~~~I ~ Pc~ :I ~ I~~ ~ i ? U -t ~ n l s of t.11~ i~ l ~ I I ~( r ~ siblc I:~.tnin:~r I~o~~r~cInr~-I:i?/or eql~n.t.ions. I'l~ys.SOC., J I I I I ~17, 203 -212 (l!)li2). .I. II [2:<\ Ilill. I'.(:., 0.11cl Stcnning, A.11.: I,nn~innrI~or~nclnry y e r ~in oscillntory flow. ,J. Rnnic ln JCII~~. $2, nn:, cioa ( I!)c;o). (241 llori, 15.: llnstcntly bo~tncl:rry lnycrs (4 rrporb). 13ullct,inof JSh11S 4, 664---671(1961); li, 57 -ti4 (l!)l;2): 5, 64--72 (1!)62); 5, 4(il- -470 (1!)62). 125) Illing\vort.l~,. It.: Ronntlxry lnycr prowl.l~ I :an~,inning ( : ~ I I~ocly. I'l~il.hhg. .I5 (7). 1 H (1954). (25nl Knkgiri, M.: U ~ ~ ~ t mhounclnry-lnycr flows ~+nst. i~~\l)\tl~ively cly nn st.nrted c,ircrrlnr cylinder. J . I ' I I ~ R . Sor. .I:rpn.n 40, 1171 1177 (1!)7(i). (21;1 l<c*nt,ill, hl:l~drr.1.. I?.. nrl,I \ V : I I ~W. : On 11o1111dary .I., ~ . lC. Inyen assoriatatl 1vitl1osrillnting xl.rt-iltns. r l l ~ j ~Svi. J1.c.s. A 10, I 22 (l!)(il). l. (2(i:r] I<innt:y, It.. I%., :ind Cirlnlc. Z.M.: At~nlysis ~~nst,c:rcly of visro118flow pasf, nn nirfoil. l'nrt I: fonnulntion 'J'hcorctit::~l tk:vclopn~ct~ta. AlAA .I. 15. 1712- 1717 (1!)77); I'nrt 11 : N~~~nc:ricnl ar~tl rt!s~tlla.A I AA .I. 16. 106- - 1 10 (1!)78): st!(: nlso: AGAlZ.1) C. 1'. 227, 2i;/l to 26/14 (IU78). (27 ( I,igIiLl~ill,M . ,I.: 'l'ho rcs1,onse of 1nlnin:tr skin frictinn and hcnt tmnsfcr t,o Ilr~ctr~ntions in t.l~e nbrcnt~~ vclocil,y. I'roc:. Itoy. Soc. A 22.1, 1-23 (1954). 1281 l,in, ( . . h1ol.ion i l l bl~c :C: hountlnry In.yc?r ~c-idl~ n rnpiclly osc.illnting externel flow. I'roc. 9th I n t ~ r n (longrr-9s Appl. hfcch. Rrt~ssrlsI!M7, 4. 155- 167. . 128:1] l,ngt., H. ,J.. :u~tltlrl.l~~~lillg. : I.n~nil~:~r pnnl, :rn n11r11ptIyncrclcrntcd cylirrrler a t H. ,J. flow 45" inc:irlrl~ce..I PM 65. 7 1 1- 734 (1!)74). (28111 hlcl11.n. V. I!., :111(1 I,:Iv~II, SIriirLing vorI.cx, scl~nrntiolrl111hb~r8 stall: A nr~n~oric~nl Z.: nnd str~tly I:tnii~xnr~ I I I R I G : flow ~ of I . ~ I nronntl nn airfoil. .J TM G7, 227-256 (1'376). [2!l1 r~ . . Mirela, if.: I $ o o t ~ t L I:iycr bnl~inclsl~orkor t.11i11oxpnnslori wave rnoving into st,ntiot~nry t111i~l. N,l(:,\ 'I'N 37 -12 (1!)5{;). (301 Mircls. I I .. : I I I ~ I~:IIIIIII:III, I,:~~nir~nr ~ .I. : I)o~~tlrlnry lnyer t~eliit~tl ntrong shock moving wit.11 I I ~ I I - I I I I ~ ~ vrIocil,y. l'l~yfiics of 1rI11icls ~~III ,5, !)I --!I5 (l0fi2). 1311 Moorr. 1 I<.: Ilnntn~ncly,I : L I I I ~ I I ; ~1101111tlnry . ' ~ li~ycrIlnw. NACA TN 2471 (1951). i32i hloorr. I?. I<., ant1 Ontri~<:11, : Avrrngc I ~ & l ~ r t , i ofs co~npreruriblelntnit~nr o n ~ ~ d n r y S. c h lnycr 011 :t tI:~t 11l:rtr \vit.l~ rnistc:uly flight, vel~~cit.y. NA(:&\ TN :<486 (1!)5(i). [:%:I) Moort.. I'.K.: 0 1 1 t,l~e ~rpiirnt.ior~ t.he 1111st,cw1~ of ln~ninnrI ~ o ~ ~ n t l n r g lnycr. IUTi\M-Sym~ ~ o n i ~I%onn~lnry ~in. Inycr~.I'rcihurg 1957 ( H . GBrl.ler, etl.). 206--311, Hcrlin, 1!)58. IN)S~IIIII.~ ~ t ~ ~ l n r y - l : ~ y m I!o rmcnrcl~, I'rcil~~~rg (H. Ciirt,ler. cd.). 290--311, Iserlin, 1958. 1957 1:14] Niga111. S. I).: ZciLli~I~cs I I W ~ ( : ~ I R C Icler ~:rcn7.*rchicht eincr rotierenden Sclreihe boi ,~ I nn pliil.zlic~l~c:r~~ Ilrginn drr Jlottit,ion. Q~~nrt.. Arner. Mntl~.9, 89--81 (1C)fil). (3fil 0ut.rn1~l1. Conr~~rrnniblc S.: lnminnr hor~ncl:arylnyer and heat t,rniisfer for r~nstmdymotions of 11 IIIII, plnt,(%. NAq!A 'I'N R5f\!I (1!155). [:%5:1,l ' r o u ( l t ~ ~ ~ ~ t I~I.~ I . J O ~ I I I ~ I(.: I ,I!OIIIIC~:I~Y l:l,yor gro\vt,l~n(::\.r :I r(:nr st:ag~~ntiott I., I I OI l~oint,. . . I ,I P'hf 12, 161 16'8 (l!)62). I3fil I A I ~ I I Il,:aylt.igli: On t,llc rirc.111nt.io11 nir ol~srrvctli t 1 JZr~nclt'str11)es nnd on xon~cn.llicd of :irc~~txl.it!al ~ ~ I I I I ~ I I I I'l~il. 'I'r:ins. 1l~)y. II S. Soc. I,ontlot~ 17.5, I --21 (1884).
~

12. 1 15 (1!)2!)). (37~1 Ililry. N.: IJnslc:atlp I:r~lrinnr11111tn(lnry Ingrm. STAM lbeview 17, 274---297 (1075). (:In\ I<.t~tt.. Ilnstx~ntlyviscc~usIlo\v ilr t.hr vit:i~~ity n nt.njinntion 1)oint. Qnart,. Appl. Mntlr. N.: of 1.3. 444 451 (I$lMi). [:%!)I 1lo11.. N., ru~tlI<oacvrz~~~c*ig. 0 1 1 I I I ~ M. I..: rc.nlwnsc of 1111,l:tl~~it~nr I~o~lnrlnry Inyrr 1.0 snlnll I l ~ ~ r ~ l ~ t i ~ It.I~r.n s of i ~ frrt:-sI.rt!:~~~~ vrIo(:it,y. .IASS 27. 741 --747. 787 (I!)(;()).

(39:l.J Il.ot,l..N.: 'rl~eoryof t i ~ ~ ~ o - d c ~ p rIntnil~nr t ~ ~ t l c t flow. I'ri~~col.ot~ ~ IJ~~ivemit~v Srrirx. IligI~ Sl~ortl Aorodyt~nlnios ant1 ,Jot Prnp~rlsion.I'rincct.on University Pros, Vol. i If. :)!)5 - 438 (ll)li4). [40] Roy, D.: Non-~tendy periodic hor~ntlnryInyrr. .I. Appl. Mrrt.11. P11ys. 12, :lti:l-- :SO6 (I9iil). [41] Roy, I).: 01% non-rrkady hoontlnry layer. ZAMM 42, 252-256 (lO(i2). t.he 1421 Jbonin. I,.A.: An npproxitnnt.ion ~nct,l~otl the integrnt,ior~I I t.11~ for ~ cq~lnl.ior~s :a IIOIIof st,:~t,io~~sry lnrlli~~ar I)onn(Inry I:tycr i t 1 an i ~ ~ c ! o ~ n p r c ~ ~ i I ~ NASA 'I'cchtl. '1'r:~nnl. 22 fl~~itl. le 1 I wn) \.. ".,,. (431 Jl,~~bncll, Uber die F,ntAbh~~ng n d H.: r ~ Vort.bcweg~lr~g Wirl,olpn:lrcs I~cinylirrtlrisc:l~e~l des Kijrpern. Diss. (:Bt,l.ingcn 1!)14: VDI -For~chung~llrI(, ( I!l16). 185 [44] Srl~lic*I~Lir~g, Uorechnnng cl~encrpcriodiocl~cr(:renzsc:l~irl~t~triit~~~~~lgt:t~. %. 33. H.: I'l~ys. :197 --- ! i I n:tm m 1 ....,- ,. , (44nJ S n l ~ ~ t ~ n l lA,, nntl Kinncy, It. 15.: N ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cst,t~tl,y IIIIR~A.:IC~Y I flo\v 1):1st.n lil(.tnp If. , r i c : i lof V~RC~ IR plntc. AIAA %J. 1%. l560.--1573 (l!)74). [45] Schnh, H.: Cnloulnt~ioti rln~tendy1)orlndnry l n y c r ~ two-cli~nc~~sion:rI of in I:LIII~II:I~ flow. %lp\V 1 , 122-1x1 - iI!I!i:lI. . .. . - . ,- . .. , [46J Scl~tth,H.: Oher die "Rl~t~lichen" Iiisu~lge~r instnt,ioniircn lntninnrcn G r e n ~ . s ~ I ~ i ~ ~ l ~ t (lor glciclirlngen in inkomprco~iblcrSt.riit1111ng.lqifty yonrR of I~o~~t~tlnr.y-lr~.yt~r (11. rt.nc.~irt-lt (:ijrt.lor nnrl \V. 'J'olltnic:~~, etl.), I~rnt~~~cral~wcig,152,. 147- (471 Scl~wnbe, M.: Ubcr I ) r r ~ c : k n r l ~ ~ i t . ifl.l l dt:r~ ~ g~ i c l ~ t ~ k i t i c tr~ ci ti~S i ~r~ i t ~ ~ ~I ~i t ln ~(:iiI.. ~~ ~ ~ ~ r t : .~ ~ o i ) r ~. . ~ ~ I I KI ( ~ I , lng. -Art:h. fi, 34 -50 (l!l:l5); NACA 'VhI lo:!!) ( l!)4:!). !):J5; [47nl Smrs. W. Jb.. nnd 'Pelionis, I).P.: Ilonndnry layer ~opnrnf.ionin nn~lcnclyIlolrf. S l Ah! .I. AIIIII.Mntl~.28. 215-235 0!)75\. .. . , [47b] Tclionis, 1). I)., nr~d'I'snllnlis, I).'I'Ir.: Unnkrir1.y tnrbr~lontbo~~ntlnry In.yc:rn at~tl ae(?1)~rnt.i011. AlAA -1. 1 4 , 408-474 (1!)7(3). (47cl 'I:snlinli~,J).TII.: l,nn~innrI~ocintlnry-layer urp:lrnt.iot~frotn nn nl)ot,rrn~\\ tr~ovingwrll. A1 AA J . 15,501 -506 (1075). [48] Sexl, Th. : v b e r den von E. G . R i c l ~ n r d s o ~ ~ cntdecktcn "Annnlnreffckt". Z. Phys. (i1. 349 (1930); see n l ~ o Tollmien, W.: Hnndh~lch : der Exper. Pl~yaikI 1', Part. I. 281-- 282 (1!):11). I491 Spnrrow, E.M., nnd Gregg, J.L.: Nonstcndy nnl-mcc tc~nprrnt~tre eni.c:tn on forced cotlvectiotr hest, transfer. J A S 24, 770-777 (1957). [t,O] Sllnrrow, E.M.: Combineel elfecta of unstcody flight velocity nnnd snrfnoc t.c:n~jwr:rt,trrr oti hent t.rnnsfer. J e t Propnlaion 28, 403--405 (l!)58). [51] Spnrrom, E.M., nnd Gregg, .J.I,.: Plow nbor~tnn n ~ t r n d y u roLnt,irrgdiec.JASS 27,252-257 (1960). [52] k q ~ ~ i I,.(:.: Ro~~nrlnry k, lnycr growth in tltrrc dirner~siot~n. Phil. Mng. .I5 (7). 1272 128:l ( 1954). , . [RR] Squire, 1,. C.: 'l'lie tllree-din~ensionnl 1)onndnry lnyer e q ~ ~ n t i o n s s o n ~ cpower scrirn nntl 8ol11tions. AJtC RM R O (1955). OF [54] Sbrvnrhon, I<.: The tlleory of nnsta:~dy Inrninnr bont~rlnry1:~yrra. A~lv.rlppl. h1rc.h. 6 , 1 -~37 (1!)6O\. -, [55] St.t~nrt, J.T.: A sol~ct,ioll the Nnvicr-Stokes ntid energy eqr~nt.ionu of illustrnting t.hr rrspnnsc of skin friction nnd tompernture of nn inlinitc p l n t ~ tlrertnot~~cter fl~~r(.t~nt,ions to in t,he st,renin ve1ocit.y. I'roc. Roy. Soc. A 231, 116.- 140 (1955). [55n] Stt~nrt,, J.'P.: Unstendy houndnry lo,yers. L. Itoclenl~end(ccl.): I , n r ~ ~ i ~ ~ x r 11o1111tl:try layers. Clnrcndori P r e s ~ Oxford 1903. nn. 349 -408. , [56] Tnni, 1.: An exnmple of rtnetendy lnrninnr bo~~nclnry lnycr flow. Inst.. ITniv. of T o l ~ y llrp. ~~, No. 331 (I!)58); nt!tr rilno: ~ ~ ~ ' P A M - S ~ I I I ~ Ilo~t~~tl~ir.y.I~~yor I ~ N ~ I I ~ I I . ~ ( , H V I I rt.11. I'.r~~il~nrg l!l57 (11. (:ijrllvr, ctl.), 347, l5(!rlin, l!)fi8. [5(ia] Tanctln, S.: Vinr~nl st.r~tly unxtc:uly sepnrnl,ecl flows nronnd I~i~dins. of I'rogrmr in ~\crosl~:~,rc Scicnrcs (I). I<iichen~ar~n, ccl.), L'orgnn~on I'ress, JAondor~, Vt11. X l i l l . 2H7 :148 (1!)77). [57] 'Pl~iriot., 11. : ~ I I I ~ < : ~ R ~ I c ~iil~vr~ ~ I(:rr117,~cl1ic:l11 I<. I I ~ Idie I t!inrr i~liiwigltcit iil~vr t:inr*r r d ivrvttclcn Sc:l~cil)c klninc!r Winkelecscliwinfliekeit~ii~~tler~lne. 22. 2:1 -- 28 11!)42). bei ZAMM [58] Thiriot, 1Z.H.: Grenzsrllirhhtromr~ngk u n n n r l ~dcnr pltitzli<.l~et~ Allln~~f h7.\v. rll)sto]~prr~ eines rotierenden Bodenn. ZAMM 30, 3!)0-393 (1!)50); Rrc ~ 1 4 0I)~RR.: i ) I t i t ~ g r ~ ~ , ( 1!)10: ZAMM 20, 1-13 (1!)40). [591 ' I ' ~ ~ ~ I I IW.:I I , ~ c (~rr117~t!t1i(:~lIctl. n l l ( ~ ~ ~ l~l~~x ~ ~ r r . - I If, ~ y ~ i Il, r27,l (l!l:lt). ~~ (It-r ~ ~ l ~ ' l l*:~rl, ((ill1 'I'ollnric~n, W.: 1)ir 'cit.licl~o I+~ntwiekln~~g rlr?r ltrtni~~:~rcr~ ~ ~ z ~ o l nrtlcrotit.rcr~tlc:~~ l i ~ ~ (:rr ~i I~~, %g cler. I)iw. (;iif.tingen 1924; ace nlso: Hnnclb~~cl~ IPxper.. Physik f V. I>nrt I , 277 (I!):%\). dcr

-.

448

XV. Xon-stcady boundary layers

[GI] 'L'ri~r~pi,. I,., itntl Col~er~, It N.B.: An intcgral solution to the flat plate laminar boundary I:lyrr flow cxint,ing insidc and aftcr cxpan~ion wavcs moving into ql~icucentfluid wit,ll part1cu1n.rnl)plicnt,ion t.o the coinplete ul~ocktube flow. NACA T N 3044 (1057). 1621 Ikuji, W.: Not,c on the uolr~tion the unsteady laminar boundary layer equations. JAS 20, of . z:)r,-znn ( m a ) . 1631 Urhitln, S.: 'l'he p:~l~nt.ing viscor~sflow superposed on t,hc steady laminar rnotion of int ~ o n ~ l ) r ~ ~1l11itl,nl ~ ~ u ~ i li n t:ir-t*r~lnr pipn. ZAM1' 7, 403---422 (I!)RO). [ti41 Wnrlh\v:t, Y. I).: Ilonndt~ry1ayr:r growt.11 on n u~)int~ing body; accclcr:~tc:tl n~otion. Phil. Mag. 3 (8). 152-- 158 (19.58). [(is] Wnt.son, 1 : .1.: Rountlary Iaycr growth. Proc. I t o ~ Soc. A 231, 104-1 16 (1955). 1. . i(i61 Wnt.son, . l . : A uolution of Llle Nnvicr-St,okes-equations, illnst,rat.ing tho recrpo118c of n Isn~innr 1,onntlnrv lrtvrr t,o a aivon chnngc in thc cxtornal strcarn velocit,y. Quart. J. Mcclt. nljld hfllt~l 1 1 , '805-326 (1658) 1671 W:~t.son, : l ' l ~ r .l. two tlitnc~~sionxl n i i ~ ~flow ncar the stagnation point of a cylinder which la ar 11m an nrh~trnrytrnnsvcrsc motion. Quart. .I. Mcch. Appl. Math. 12, 175-190 (1959). 1681 \Vcntrrvclt, P.J: The theory of steady rotntio~lal flow generated by n sound field. J. Arouat. . . Soo. An~cr.25. G O - - 67 (105:i). .I691 \Irr:rst. \\I.: (:r(.ni..uchi(:ht,cnnn eylintlriscl~cnItiirpcm nlit nichLqt,ationiircr Qtrerbowcg~~tlg. . Zhhlhl 32. 172 --178 (1!)52). [70] \4r~~t~tlt.,\I'nchnt.11111 l:linir~nrnn(:re~lznchicllt an uchrLg nngc8t.riimte11~ ~ l i r ~ t l h ri n 11.: tlcr c A~~r:tl~rt, tlcr I ~ I I I I ~ . :IUS In~.-Ar~!li. 212- 230 (1055). 2.7, ~. 17 11 Vane. 1<.'1'.: 1JnnI,c:1tlyl:rn~in:trbound:~ryInycrs in nn incon~prcssiblestngnat,iotl tiow. J . A ~ I Mrch. 25. 421 -'427 (1958). ~ ~ : Ynng, 1<.'1'.: IJnntmcly In~ninxr I)onr~dnry 1:~yers over ;LII arbitrary c ~ l i ~ l dwith heat transer fer in nn irloorril,rt-stiii,lc flow. J. Appl. Mroh. 26, 171 - 178 (l!)50). \.o~~ng, A.0.. nntl IInrrin. F1.11.: A set, of sin~ilar solntions of the coniprcssible laminar bonnclnry Iayc?r cqn:~t.iot~n ~ l i c k)r flow over flat plate with unstcmdy wall tetnperat,ure. 1 l ! 301 (1!)07). 13icl1rll)1~rnner. A . (ctl.): ll.crcnt, rcscnrrh o ~ r 15. 1111stmdy bonntlary layers. lUTAM Symposii1111 l!\7i. 1 :i11cI 11, l'rc,ssr (I(! I'U11ivr.rsilC. I.:lval, Q,ucbcc, 1!172. I<innry. I<.R. (ect.): Unst.cndy acrotlyn:rr~lic.n.Proc. S y ~ n pUniv. of Arizona, March 18-20, .
~

Part C. 'rransition
CIIAI'TEIt XVI

Origin of turbalencc I

Introduction. 'I'l~is ant1 t h e succectli~tgchapt.er a r c dt:vot.ctl t o a p r c s c t ~ t : ~ t . i o t ~ of relate t o t,ransitiorl frr)tn 1:srninar t o t n r b ~ t l r t ~ t flow. t h e conlplex of problems w h i c l ~ T h e first, erperinrental results o n this problcm wcrc oblainrtl 11y 0.1Ecyttol~lsi l l t h e cighties of t h e preceding c c n t u r y (Itcynolds's clyc experitnct~t,), s rnc:tltionctl in Sc.c. a I1 c a n d illustrated in Fig. 2.22. T h e principal thcorct.icnl itlcn for t , l ~ c analysis of this problem was cor~ccivcd y 0. Reynolds a n d I,ortl R a y l c i g l ~ t.his is 1.0 t.l~(> b ; c*lli*t:tt 11:tt. transition constitulcs a problcrn it1 t,hc st,:~l)ilit,yo r I ~ ~ I I ~ I I R flows ( I ~ c ~ I I ~ I ( I s 'ltypt). I. s 1,llesis). T h e theoretical investigations i n t o t,ltis problcrn wcrc crowt~ctlby a tlrc,isi\re breakthrough which occurred half a c e n t u r y later a f t c r tlecadcs of fut,ilc c:lli~~,t.s. '1'11is w a s accomplishecl in a b o u t 1930 in tlic f o r m of t h e st,al)ilit,y t,ltcory fortnnl:~.tctlOy P r a n d t l ' s school in Goettirtgen. I n t,he l i r r ~ cinterval I ) c t w c c ~1930 :mtl 1970, t,lle ~ whnlt: body of Irnou7ledgc regarding toransit,iorl was s ~ ~ c a o s s f r ~t.nlargctl, I)ot 11 c-sl)c't.illy ~nent.allya n d theoretically, a f t e r t h e a b o v e tllcory hat1 bccn I)rillii~.nt,ly cot~lirtltrd wit11 t h e a i d of very carcflll cxperirnents performetl i n I940 b y Ii.1,. I)rytlrl~:tntl llis

collaborators.
,l ,h e l a s t t w o decades s a w t h e appcnrance of a large nurnber of summaries of t h e field. T h e s e were, in t h e order of their a p p e a r a n c e : 1969, I1.L. L)rytlen [ 2 0 a J ; 1959, 11. S c i ~ l i c l ~ t i n1703; 19G1, 14'. Tollmien a n d 1 . Grollnc 11021; 1963, ,1.'1'. Sttltxt.t, g ) [Ol]; 1964, S . F . S h e n [86aj; 19G!), I. T a n i [IN]; 1969, M.V. M o r l t o v i ~161 a ( ; I!fT6, ~ E. I t e s h o t k o [70a]. I n m o s t rccent times, t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y s t a t u s of rescarell in (.his field was t h e s u b j c c t of a conference of t h c A G A R D Fluid I)ytrnrl~icsP a ~ l c o t ~ l "I,;t~ttinar-t.urbulcnt transition". T h e confercrlcr: w a s hcld i n (:opcnllago~t in M : L ~ 1!)77, ant1 i t s proceedings a r c s v i ~ i l a b l e AGARI) Corlf(~rcrlc(:I'roccctlings No. 224 1 I :LI. as
a. Sonle experimental resrllts o n t r a t ~ ~ i t rroln~Jnnlinar t o t o r b l ~ l e i ~ t io~ flow

1. Trnr~sitinnin pipe flow. Vcr.y oft'l.cti t.ho Ilows of rt%;~I ~ ~ i t t1ilL.r 11.0111t 1 1 t . ll ls 1amin:l.r flows consitlcrccl in Lllc prcc:ctli~~g cl~:~.l)tn,rs. 1t!51 ~r?cl~il)if. ( : l ~ : ~ . r : ~ t . t ~ t ~ r i : i t i t : '1'1 :L featurc? which is tt?rn~ctl lurbi~le?rce. l ~ e n Itcyr~oltls W tlic t~ntnl)c:ris irtc:ro:~.sotl,ii~t.c:r~~:u,l flows : ~ n t l o ~ l r ~ t l a r y b layers formctl o n solitl I)otlic!s r~ntlergo:I rc~n:~.rk:~bl(. t.~.:~~tsit,iot I from tlie 1aulina.r to t.11~u r b u l c r ~ t t rcgirnc. T h a origin of t,r~rl)r~lcttrc t . 1 :1(-r0111:sr~tl ~

450

XVI. Origin of tnrhltlence I

a. Solne experin~rnI.al rrrrrrltn ott transit ion frorn lnr~~ittar turl)t~lrnt to flow

45 1

p:t,t~yit~g trnnsil.ion from I:~tiiitin,r1.0 l ~ t ~ r l ~ ~ r l c r i t is ol' fctntla~nc?nl~a.l flow i~iiport,nnc:c for I.hc whole snirncc of flnid ~ncchnnics. 'rho iricidcnrc of t,~rrl)r~lrnc:c first, rocngwas niZcc1 in rclt~t~ion IIOWS tl~rotrghsl.rn.iglit pipes n.ncl clln.ti~iols.In n flow a t vcry tlo low ltcynoltls rii~rnl)rt.t.l~rortgh st.rniglit pip(: of uniform cross-sccttion a~icl n smoot.11 wn.lls, every llnitl p:irf.icln tnovrs wit,lt :I unifor~n v r l o ~ i t ~long a sl.rnightf pat.11. .~ Viscous forc:cs slow tlown the p:~rl.iclrs no:w t.hc w:1.11in relation t o t.liosn in t , l ~cxtcrnnl c core. 'l'lic flow is wcllortlcrctl ancl pnrtic:las 1,rnvcl a l o ~ l g noig11l)oirringlnycrs (In.niiriar llow), Pig. 2.22a. Ilowcvcr, obscrvat,ion shows t , l ~ a t this onlcrly p t t c r n of Ilow (:oases t o cxisl, a t liiglicr Itcytioltls r~rttnl)crs,lcig. 2.22b, :~titl t,h:i.t sl,rotig ~iiixing of all l.lic par(.iolcs occurs. 'l'liis rnising ~)roc:oss cnri ho mn.tlc visil~loin a flow t , t ~ r o ~ ~ g l ~ a pipc, as first shown hy 0. I ~ o ~ I I o I ( I R hy fcc<liriginto it, R t.liit\ t.l~rci~cl li(\uid (711, of dye. As long :LS t11e Ilow is 1arninn.r the l.lrrcatl maintait~s sharply drfincd I ) o ~ ~ n ~ l a r i c s all nlong t.hc sl,ro:i,~n. soon a the flow 1)ccomes turl)ulont the tfl~rcacl As 7 . diffuses into bttc stream ancl t l ~ c flrrict appcn.rs ~triiformly colonrctl at, a short tlist,nnce clownst~matn. In this case tltcrc is supcrimposctl on t,hc main motion in t,hc cliroct,ion of the axis of t,hc pipc a snt)sitliary motion at, right nnglcs t.o it wltinlt clli?c:l,s mixing. 'l'hc pa(,t,c.rn of st,rci~rnlincs t a fixcrl point bccomcs snl)jcotccl to cor~tirrrrorts a fluctnot,ions ant1 t l ~ c sul)sidiary motion causcs a n exchnngc of momcnt,nm in a t.ransvcrse direction beeausc each particle sul)stantially r o b i n s its forward momcnt,tim while mixing is taldng place. As a conscqiicncc, (,lie vclocit.y tlistlribntion ovcr the cross-section is considerably morc i ~ t i f o r r n n t u r b ~ l l c n t i than in larninar flow. The m c ~ u r c d velocity distribution for these two types of flow is shown in Fig. 16.1, where t h e mass flow is t h e samc for both cases. 111 laminar flow, accortiing t o t h e Hagen-Poiseuille solution given in Chap. I, t h e v e l ~ c i t ~tlist,ribut.ion ovcr the cross-section is parabolic (see y also Fig. 1.2), b n t in turbnlcnt, Ilow, owing t,o t.hc transfer of rnomcntnm in tho tmnsverse direction, i t becomes considcrnbly more uniform. On closer investigntion i t appears t h a t t.hc most, essential fcntr~re a turbulcnt flow is the fact t h a t a t a given of point in it,, the vclocit,y and tlic pressure arc not constant in time b u t exhibit very irregrilar, high-frcqucncy flnctuations, Fig. 16.17. The velocity a t a give11 point of can only be consitlcrcd constant o n the average a n d ovcr a longer ~ e r i o d timc (quasi-steady flow). Thc first syst,cmatic investigation into t8hcsctwo f ~ ~ n d a n ~ c n t n l l y tliff~rerit~ patkerns of flow wcre conduct.ccl by 0, Rcynol(ls [71]. 0. Rcyr~oldswas also t h e first t o investigate in grcat,cr tlct.ail t h c circnmstn.rrcns of the transition from laminar t o tnrl)nIrnt flow. l'ilc ~)rc:vionsIy mcntsionctl tlyc oxperimcnt was itscd by him in t,liis coru~cxion, ant1 he discoverctl the law of similarity which now bears his name, and wliich states that, trnrlsition from Intninar t o turbulent flow nlways occurs a t nearly talie samc Roynoltls nnniher 171 d l v , wlierc t = (;)/A is t h c mean flow-velocity 3 (Q volrtme m1.c of Ilow, A = cross-sectional area). 'rhc nlrmcrical value of tho R.c>ynoltls n~inibcr at, wliicli t,m.nsitiot~occurs (critical ltcgnoltls number) was
1

~ s t a b l i s h c da s bring apl~roximatcly

it1 Fig. 16.1. I'rlority di~t,rihtll.ion pipc;

n) Inminnr: h) ttrrhl~lrnt

Accortlingly, flows for which the Itcyrioltls nnml)cr R < R,,,,, arc s n p p o s r ~ lt.o he laminar, ancl flows Ihr which R > R,, :trn cxl)cctfctl t,o IIC t.tlrhrrl(.t~t,. ,,, 'l'li(: t~ittii(~ri(.:i.l valtlc of the criCical Itcy~ioI(lsnurnt~crt l c ~ ~ c t i ~ l s st,rongly on t.11(: vo~~tlit~iotin vcry which prevail in IJic inil.inl pipe lcrigtl~ ~ r l as i l l t,lic n.l~l)roac-l~il.. l':\~c.~rt c ~ ~ t ~ o l t l s :cs l 1.0 I tlioitgl~t~h a t the cril.io:tl ltcynoltls r i ~ ~ t t i l ~ c r t inc:rn:~qc.sa s t.hc tlisI,itrl):~r~c:c.s t.Ii(: ill flow bcforc tjhc pipe arc tlccreasctl. 'l'liis fact was c o ~ ~ f i r ~ ~ ~ c d csprrimc~ll.ally I)y 11. T. 12arnes and 15. G. Coker [I b], ant1 latcr by L. Scltillcr 1801 wlio rc-nc.hc:tl critical vn.llrrs of the Itcynoltls nnml)cr of up t o 20,000. V. W . ISlrtnan [24] succ~:ctlcd in mai~it~nir~ing laminar flow u p t o a critical Itcytioltls ~ i ~ r n ~ ofc 40,000 by prob r vitling an irilct which was mnclc cxeept~iotinllyfrcc from tliat 11ri):~nccs.'1'11t: 111)1)(:r limit t o wliich ttho critfical lteynoltls nr~mhnr can Ijc: tlrivcn if cxtrcmc: cnro is !,:II<(?II t o frcc tllc inlct from tlisturbnr~ccsis no1 Ict~ownn t r)rcsc:r~t.'I1lic:rc C X ~ H C S , 110w(:v(:r, a s dcmonstmtctl by niitncrons cxpcrimclnts, a lower bor~ntlfor R,,, whicli is approximately a t 2000. I3clow this valuc, the flow remains laminar cvcn in the 1)roscrIce of vcry strong tlistnrbnnccs. ,Iransitiori from laminar t o t u r b i ~ l e nflow is accompnnicd by a noticcal)le cltnnge , t in t h e law of rcsistancc. I n laminar flow, t l ~ c longitudirtnl prcssirrc gmclio~ttwliich maintains t h e mot.ion is proportional t o the first power of t.11~ c l ~ c i t ~(yf . See. I d ) ; v ( c ~~t bccorrirs ncnrly prnport3ional t o by contrast, in t , i ~ r b i t l c flow this pressure gradicr~t thc squn.rt: of bhc rnran vclocit,y of flow. l'ltc incrcasc in t.hc rcsisI,ancc t o flow has itts origin in the t.r~rl~i~lottt tnixing mot-ion. 'J'liis changc in t,hc I:LW of 1)ij)cfrict,ioii c:tn be inferred from Fig. 20.1. Detailed invcstigntions oftllc process of transit,ion rcvcnl thnt in a ccrtain range of Reynolds niimbcrs amond tlic critical thc Ilow t~ecomca"intcrrnit,tcr~t." w11ir:h means t h a t it alternates in timc bctwccn hcing laminar or trtrhrtlcrit. 'l'lic vari:lt,ion of the vclocity of flow wit.h time in this rangc is shown grnphicnlly in Pig. 16.2 which represent8 t h e results of mcxsurements performed by J . l t o t t a [75] in 1!156 nt diffcrent clistances along a pipe radius. The velocity plots dcmonst.rab t h a t periods of laminar and turbulcnt flow srrccccd cach d h c r in n rnndorn sequence. A t positions closer to t.hc ccntrc-line, the vclocity in tlic laminar intcrvals cxccctls the t,crnporal mean valuc of the velocity of flow in thc tturl>ulctitint,ervals; posiat tions closer to thc pipc wall, conditions arc revcrscd. Sincc during thc cxpcrimcnts care was taken t o maintain a constnnt rate of flow over long intervals of timc, it is concluded tliat i n t h e region of intcrmittcnt, flow thc velocity distriht~t-ion alternates between n corresponding dcvclopcd laminar distribntion, nrltl n corrcsponding fully developed turbulent distribution, a s shown in Fig. 16.1 a and 16. I b respectively. The physical nature of this flow can be aptly ciescribcd with tlic aid of the intermittency factor y, which is defined as t h a t fraction of time during which t h e flow a t a given position rcmains turbulcnt. 1-Icnce y = 1 corresponds t o r~s continuous turbulcnt flow, nnd y = 0 dcnotcs c o n t i n ~ ~ o laminar flow. The intermittcncy factor is shown plottctl in Fig. 16.3 for vnriol~sRcynol(1s nnnihcrs in terms of tho axial distnncc z A t n consf,nnt Itcynoltls nirrnl)c:r, tthc ir~l.crr~~it,l.c:t~c:y . factor increases continuously with t h c distance. Thc Reynolds numbers cover tho

452

XVI. 0rigi11of trtrhr~lcncc: 1

a. Some exprrirricn1:~l results on trarlsition from laminar 1.0 L~~rl~ulrnt flow

453

important ones being the prcssure tlistribution in tllr rxtcrnal flow, tthr rl:rf~lrc-or tllr wall (ronghr~rss) and the nature of t h r disi.nrbanrc-s in t,hc frro flow ( i r ~ i c ~ t i s i I j ~ of tfurb~tlcncc). B l u ~ Ilodies: A pnrticularly rcvn:lrkal)le ~rherlo~ntviorl ~t c:onrlrnt,c~tl wit,l~ i,rt~nsil it111 in t.hc hour~tlarylaycr occurs with bllrnt l)odics, Tor c x n l ~ ~ p spl~crosor (:irc:~tl:ir lc cylirltl(:rs. It, is seen fro111Figs. 1.4 : ~ t ~1.5 t,llat t h c r1r:i.g c:ocflicic~rlt r a sj)l~c:rr: tl o or cylindcr tlccrcascs : ~ l ) r ~ ~ j ) ia I yItcyr~oltlsr111mbcrs R : :I r I ) / v of al)orlt :1 x lo5. ,t , his aljrupt drop in t h c t l r : ~ ~ .I corfficic~~t, l~oticctllirsl, 11y 0. 12ifli.l [231 i l l rc~l;rt ion
I

ITig. 10.2. Variation of flow vclority in a pipc i n the tranuition range a t dihrent distances r f r o ~ npilw axis, as 111cns11rrt1 .J. I<ot.ta [ i s ] 1)y
]If> I I O I I I ~n ~ t r n o ~ r = ii.d/v = 2 5 5 0 ; axial t l i s t n n ~ ez / d = 322; E x 4.27 m/scc ( P 14.0 ltlsec); vclocitien given A in n r l s r r . .rhr.rr vclorily plols, o b l n i n n l witlt t h o nicl o l n Ibnt-wire nncmomatrr, rle~nonstratethe i ~ ~ t e r m i t l o naluro nt vf lltr. I l o w i n f l t x l pcrindr n l Inrninnr nntl l t ~ r h u ~ l r flow aurcerrl crcll othrr In time nl

t.o sphc:rc?s, is a conscc~~~ctic:c Lr:lrlsiUor~it1 t,hc I)o~~r~tl:lry of 1:iyc:r. '1'r:l.tlsii.iotl t.;tttsi*x tllc ;)oirll. o f scp:lr:lt.ion t o move clow11st.rcar11 wllicll consitlrr:~l)ly tlt:crcx:~sos i,l~(: witlt.11 of t.he walrc. 'l'hc t r u t l ~ this cx~)l:il~:~t,ion tlc1nonsi.r:il,nt1i ) y I,. I'r:r11111.1 of was 1411 w l ~ o nlor~ntctln thin wire Itoop sotncwl~:~t .-llrntl of 1,ht: cc~uator : si~llorc:.'l'liis of b causes artificinlly tile b0undar.y layer t o 1)ccomc turbrllcnt a t a lowcr Ilt:ynol~ls nun~hrr ant1 protluccs i,hc same drop ill tlrag a s occurs ~v11c:li I,lic Itoyt~oltlsI I I I I I I I I ~ > V is nlatla to it~crrasc.'l'hc stnolrc photogrii~)l~s l'ig. 2.2.1- n11tl 2.26 S I I ~ )~ ~ I ~ * ~: I V ~ ~ , in , tltr c x t c ~ of t t,hc waltc on a s p l ~ c r cit1 t l ~ c ~ : sub-critic:ll Ilow rcgirnc t,llc \v:~ltc is uitlt. arid t l ~ drag is large, ant1 in t-bcsupcr-crit,icnl regime i t is narrow nntl t h c clrag is sltlall. c T h e l a t t r r flow rcgimc was here crcatctl witll-the a.itl of L'ratitli.l's 't,ril)ping wire'. These ex1)eriments show coriclusively t h a t the jump it1 tllc drag curve of a sphrrc is due t o n boundary-layer cKect atld is caused by t m r l s i t i o ~ ~ . Flat plate: Thc procrss of transitio~r a flat plate a t zrro incitloncc is sonrc~~vhat. on simlrlcr t o understand t h a n t h a t o n a blnrtt hotly. T h c prorcss of t.r:rl~sit.ionin t.lrr bountlary layer on a flat plate was first stntlictl by ,J. nl. n r ~ r g r r s161. 13. (:. vat) der IIcggc Zij~tcli1411 ant1 Iat.er by M. ITanscn anti, it1 grca1.c.r clrt,ail. I1.y 1 1 . I,. 1)ryclrn 116: 17, 181. According t,o Cl~:lp.VlT, t,llc 11o1111tlat~y-layer t.l~ivlztlc~ss :i flat on plntc iticrcases in proportion t o w l ~ c r c tlcrtot,cs t l ~ c s tlistancc from thc Ic:atling edge. Near t h e lending etlgo the bountlary Iaycr is always I a m i t ~ a r t ,l~cnorningi,rlrbulent further dow~istrcam. On a ~ ) l ; ~with a sharp lratling edge ant1 in a. tlormal tc air stream (i. c. of int,crisit,y of turbulcncc T = 0.6 %) t,mnsit.ior~ t.:il<c~s lrl;~t.c> :I at, distance z from it, a s detcrminecl hy

Fig. 16.3. Intermittct~cyfactor for pipe flow in the transition range in tern18 of the axial distance z for different Itrylrolds llurnbers R, as rneasr~rpdby J. Rotta [75]
I l r r c y = i dcnotcs r n n l i n l l n l l ~ l ytllrI ~ I I I P I I L , IIIICI y = 0 1 - ~ ~ n t i 1 i u n l l 5 la~y
rnlrlnr Bnw

j/z,

On a Axt plaLe, in t h c same way a s in a pip(?, the c:rit>ic:il Itcyt~oltlsn111i11)c.r ran 1)r incrcasctl by provitlitig for a dist,urbancc-frcc cxt.orn:11 flow (vc.rp low ir~t.c*~lsil,y or t,llrl)~~lcnct,), Scc. XI1 tl 2. c/.

rango frorn R 2:!00 t,o 2600 ovcr wllicl~ transitpion is oompletctl. A t Rcynolds rtllmhc.rs rlcar i , l ~ lowcr lirnit, t,he process of tmnsit,iorr t o f i ~ l l y c dcvclopcd turbulent Hr)li(:J1 1,l1(, (lO,,r pS~,t:tl(lS ()v(,rvery Iwgc tIist,anccs mcasurctl in thonsa~ids tlialnctcrs. of Mc~asrlrc:tnt~nt.s kind Ilave been reccr~t~ly ol. i,llis amplified by J. Meseth [GO].
1

2. Trnnsitio~l in tile bor~nclnry layer on n solid body. As alrratly stat,eti, the Ilo~vi l l a. I ) o ~ ~ t ~ t l : ~ r y (:an also or~tlorgot,mnsit;on, a fact whicll was tliscovered I:rycr IIIII~~I I:~i,t:r~ , I I : I I Ii.r:111sii,ion a pipe. 1 ' 1 1 ~ in WIIOIC field of flow a l ~ o r a t ~ body irnmcrsctl i r ~:I. si,rt.:l.trt, a.tltl in p:l.rt,ic:itlar, t , l ~ c force cxort.etl on it, are strongly dcpcndcnt. on \ v l ~ ~ ~ i1 . 1l1~ Ilo\r. i l l t.11~ ~c~~ l)otlr~tl:~.ry 1:lycr is larniriar or t,llrhnlcnt,. Transit,ion in a I ) ~ I I I I ~ I :I I: ~ y r r 1 1 :I.solit1 1)otIy i t 1 :I, st,rr:~nl ar&ct,t*tlI)y mn.t>yparamctcrs, trllc most ~~ 0 is

incrrase In t h e boundary-layer tliick~lcss.111 lalnillar l)or~~iclarv a . . .. Iavor t.lrc tli~nc~nsion.. - . . less I~our~tlary-1;~ycr trhickricss, d / i v :,;/Urn, rcrnnins rorlst,:~nta l ~ t lrtl11;11,l ) p r o , ~ :I imatcly, t o 5. 'I'he dimcnsiortlcss boulidary-layrr t01icknrss is scc11 ~)lot,t.c~tlz : ~ i r ~ s t . :~ t l ~ clength Rcy~iolds nrimbcr R, =-: U , z/v ill l'ig. 2.2:) nlrmtly tnc!~li,iotlt~tl: :I(, R, >. 3.2 x 105 n s~ltltlcn incrcaso i l l 1.llo I ~ o ~ ~ t ~ t l : ~ ~ r ~ - l : is ~t.lt~:11.1~ I.l~i(.l<lt(-ss ~ ~~r visil)le. 'I'r:ltlsil,ior~ also involves a r~ot,icc:ll)lo c:l~:rrlgc: i t 1 ~ . I I v sl~:~l)tx i.Itt: vc-lt~t.ii~of

Rx(:ept for Ic~clitig-rtlgo scpnrat,ion wl~irh n1:ry orrrlr or1 a II:II. 11l:~lo fi11i1cl 1 i ( , l i 1 1 ( . 8 ~ i f of t ---prccaut.ions lravc h c r ~ ~ L:~kcr~ sr~pprrssit,a s c x ~ ~ l : ~ i t1:ltc.r. l to ~c~t

110

454

XVT. Origin of turbulcncc I

n. Some rxprrirnrnt,nl reuulte on t,ra~~sitio~t l n ~ ~ ~ i rton tr ~ ~ r b ~ ~flow l l fro111 l lct

455

Fig. 16.4. Vcloc:it,yprofiles in n boundary lnycr or1 n flat plate in the trnnsit,ion rcgion, as n1c:~unrrd by S r l ~ i ~ b a ~ ~ c l(lcnnd r 1,nnoff [83]
(1) laminar, I ~ l a ~ i u a pronle; (2) Lerballcnl. '1..-111 llowcr law. d = 17 lnln . . ( = 1.30 in), ex1.ornal vcloci1,p (1, = 27n1/scc (89 lt/scc); t11rl,111cnce inlensity T = 0.03%

!
0
0.1

1
a7

dZ

03

0.4

a5 06 ypnrh]

Fig. 16.5. Cl~nti~c L 1 s11nj~cfactor i n 1c I l l z = 0116~ t,lle J)o~~ntlnry of Inycr for n flat plnte ill tllc t,rnnnition region nu menuttrctl by Schuba~~cr Klcbnnofi [R3] and qllot.otl fro111[ti51

L6

f l

125

175

!5 7M

EEI

'+

LW

.lhll/

tlisI,ril,~~l,ion curve. 'l'l~cchanges in t-he velocity profiles in the transit.ion region have becn plottctl in Fig. 16.4. They arc based on ~noasurcmcnts pcrformctl by C . R . Scliubauer ant1 1'. S. IZlcbanoff [$3] in a stream of very low turbulence i n t e n ~ i t ~ y ancl i t is seen that in this case the t,ransition rcgion cxtcntls over a range of Reynolds numl)ers from about R, = 3 x 1 0 V t o 4 x 10" I n this mngc, the boundary-layer profile cl~angcsfrom t l ~ a of fully tlcvclopccl laminar flow, as ealcnlatecl by Rlnsius, t to fully tlcvclopctl turl)uloit flow (see Cl~ap. XXI). The process of transition involves shape factor lIlz.-.. d,/d,, as seen from Fig. 16.5; here dl clenotcs a large tlccrcnsc in t.11~ tile clisplnmmont thickness anti cSz is the momentum thickness. I n the case of a flat plxta, t,hc shape factor tlecrca.~csfrom IIlzw 2.6 in the laminar regime t o Illzw 1.4 i n t,lio f.~~rl)~~l(?rlt, rcgirnc. 'I'his change in tdie velocity di~tribut~ion tho transition region can be ~itilized in for t.11~ convcnierit tletcrminntion of the point of transition, or, rather, of the tmnsition region. rl'l~c principle is explained with the aitl of Fig. 16.6. A tmtal-hen11 t,ul,c or a I'itot tribe is moved parallel t,o 1,I1c wall a t a distance which eorrespontls t,o t l ~ c lnaxin~r~rn tlifirc~noe bctwccn tho velocities in the laminar and t n r l ~ r ~ l c n t rrgirrtcs. On I,cit;g rnovctl cIownst,rca~n across the t,ransition region, the tul)o sl~ows a fairly s ~ ~ d t l c r ~ inc:rcasc in the total or tlynamic pressure. 'I'mnsit,iorl or1 n flat platre also involves n largo change in tile rcsistanrc to flow, in this rnsr in t.11~ sitin friction. In laminar llow the skin friction is proportiorinl 1.0 I 111. I .5 p n w t ~ vrlocil,y. cvln. (7.3:3), \vIir~-as t,~lrl)~~lrnt, the ~ O W inrrrnsrs of in llow C ~ to :LI)OIII, 1.85, as shown a long time ago by W. I'ror~tlc (2!)1 who p r r f o r r ~ ~ c ~ l towing ~ x p r r i m e r ~ t ~ plates a t very high Itrynol~lsrininbers In this eonncxion the wit11 I reader may also wish t o consr~ltFig. 21.2. hlorcrcrcnt cxpcrimrnb performed I)y 11. W. Etnmons [25], arid G. 73. Scl~~rbaucr and 1;. 8. Itlrbanoff [83] hnvo ~ h o w nt*lliIt in t.hc case of a flat plal,c tfhe process of tr:~nsit,ion is also intrr~nitt~ent rorlsists of a n irrrgular scqncriro of Inminar ant1 ant1 t,11rI1111rnt. rrgions. As cxplni~i~cl Fig. 16.7, at. n given point in the boundary in laycr there occurs sudtlcnly a small t . ~ ~ r h n l c n t area ('tur1)nlent spot'), irregular

Fig. I6 6 . Erplnnntion ofthe rnrll~ocl ofclclrrrnining Ule pn~ition oft,Ilr pointoftrn~~dtin~~ nicl ofn totalwith tho hend tube or n Pitot tube

'w--w

I1I /
Ibm~nar

/ras,t~an

7w

W'rrn/
-

/u~bu/en/

in shape, whicl~ then travels downstream in a wedge-shaped rcgion, as shown. Sucll turbulent spots appear a t irregtrlar intervals of time and a t different, mntlomly clistribnlad points on tho plntc. I n the inl,crior of t,he wodgc-liko tlo~nair~ ~ ollow tl tt~lrl)~ilentt, whorens in t,ho atljoinir~g regions i f , nlI.crt~irt,os co~~t,it~r~oirsly is p r c ( l o ~ n i ~ ~ n n t l y het,wecn being laminar and tr~rbulcnt..In this conncxior~sco also rcf. I I:)]. A 1)a.pr.r by M . E . McCormick [57n] deals with l.hc problem of t,hc origin of sr1t:11 tturl,r~lt3~~t spots. S t turns out t.hnt an artificially creat,cd turbulent spot docs not persist w11r11 the Rcynolds number has a va111e lower than Ril = GOO; I,llis is c o l ~ s i s t . cwil.11 t,ltc: ~~l~ vnlnc of the criticnl Itcynolds 11111nl1cr cnlc111nl.ctl with 1,11(1 nid of 1.110 li~~tsnr #I.nl~ilit,y t,heory, cqn. (16.22). Vcrg dctnilcd cxpcrimcnt,ml invrstigntiotls t,~~rl,ril~trt, sl,ot.s, ancl in particular of the velocity dist,ril111t.i011 thorn, have l)ccn cnrricd out by in J. Wygnanski e t al. [lo$].

b. I'rinriplrs of tho tl~cory ntnhi1it.y of I : ~ r ~ ~ iflowsr of r~a

,167

flow. 'l'llc theory entlcavo~trs follo\v up in titno t . 1 I)c-l~:rvio~~rn t ~ h l i s t . ~ ~ ~ ~ l r : l . ~ ~ c t,o ~ ofs t wllot~t,ltcy arc! supcrim~~osctl t,hc main (low, I)r:lring in tni~ttl t,l~:tL t.l~(:ir ? L : I c ~ . on ~ f o r n ~stmill remains to be tletcrmiued in part,ic~~lnr rascs. 'rho tlroisivr cll~c~stiol~ 1.0 answer in this conncxion is wllctl~cr t,hc ilist,urbnllcca incrrnsc or tlir ant, wif.11 t.imc. If the dist.rrrbnnces tlecny witaht,irne, t,llo 1n:cin flow is consitlrrotl st.:~l)lr!; t,l~o o11 ot,llcr 11r21111, if 1 . 1 1 ~ l i s L ~ ~ r l ~ nincrcnse witrll t.irnc Lhc Ilow is c:o~~si~lt:rt:tl~ ~ s l ~ :III(I. l l.l~or(b ( t~~(:s r~ :~ ,l~~, cxist,s t.l~epossibility of transition t o :t t.url)rtlor~tpnt,l.crn. 111 f,l~is w:~.y:L L/IPOI.!/ o/ slnhilit?/ is c:rcnt,crl, ant1 its o1)ject is 1.0 prc:tlict t,l~c v:lltlc of f.h(- c:rific.:~l I < . t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ l t uun11)cr (ix :L l)roscril)ctl main flow. 'L'ho bnsis of' tho t , l l c ~ r y sf,n.l~ilit.y I)(. f r:~c:e:tl of (:an L 0 . Itrynoltls 1721 who s ~ ~ p p o s cl.l1:1L t.l~t:I:ln~it~nr o (l ~:LI,I.(TII,r i ~ tLg s o l ~ ~ I , 01'o ~ ~ I~ : i tlro diKcrcntial eqttntions of fluit1 d y t ~ i ~ m i c nlw:cys rc:l)rrst:nf,s n possil)l(: t.,yi)t: of s, flow, l)nff I)(:comcs r~nst.nbl(: above a tlc:firlit,c litnil, (~)rcc-isc.ly 111)ovc:f , I ~ t a c.rif.i~.:il I t t j r I nolds number) and changes into tho tfurbulcrlt ~):ltt,crn. Much worlc has Itccn tlot~n on I . l ~ t r ~ r r ~ ~ I . l ~ c ~ t n r f c.~~ :t~ ~~lt l r ~of . l t .~ .~ ~ ~ ~ ~ , l ~ l ~ ' ct i t ~ . .I io ( J. Ily1~)thcsis (luring rnnny clt~c:i~tlcs, first 1j.y 0. Ik~~y~toltls I~irnsc-If t t ~ t l I:L~.~-I.. ~ : I I ~ I ~ . : IIO by Jiortl Raylcigll (701. Thcsc cKort,s, wllicl~lo11 L vrry cornplic:~tctlc*:llt:~tl;lt.iol~s, o have remained for n long time devoid of ncl~icvcrncnt,.Al)oliL 1930, 1,. I'rnrltlt~l a n d his collaborators slicccetlctl in at,tair~ing irlit.i:ll o l ~ j c c of prcdic:t.irlg t . 1 1 ~\.;~luc! the t of tllc critical Rcynoltls rlr~rnbcr s sntisf:tct40r.y\v:~y.'I'llc c?r[)nrin~crlt~nl in vc~rifiral.iorl of t h e st,nl)ilit,y bhcory cnmc somc t.cn ycnrs I:~t.c:r w l ~ c rI~ . I,. 1)ryllrrl with I)is I co-workers were nl)le t o 01)t:~inbrilliant, agrrernc~lt~ I)cf,wct~r~ tllcory nntl cxl)oritt~c~r~t,. Comprchcnsive accounts of t h e theory of s1,al)ilit.y were givcrl by 11. S ( ~ h l i c l ~ i . i n ~ [7H, 7!)], by R.. Rct,cho\~ ant1 \TT.O. C~,i~ninnlc J , : I I I ( ~ 1)). ('.(.'. l,in (561. [4

.
q,t~.t(.r w I I ( . t l

<.
:I,,

:trlili,.i:tl ,,r ttnI~sr:tl l ~ ~ r l t 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ t l 1 0 1 W ~ I I I U ID?. 11 Y

'I)irlw

i ~ ~ l c r \I~.lw(.(.n 111~rkrr ~:~l trn!.cs i u

'/,.

ser

Slcncler bntlirs: It, 11:l.sI)con rst,:ll,lisl~rclt.l~;t.t t.hc prcssltrc gmtlicnt alotlg :I, wall exert,s itn irnpor.t,ar~t,l ~ f l ~ l r r ~ c c i on t,hc positiot~ f t,hc point of transition in t l ~ c o 1)ounda r y l:~y(:r. In rnng(>sof (Iccrcnsing IlrcsstIrc (nccelcrntod flow), tho boundary layer r r t n n i ~ ~ gcrlcrt~llysl)c:nlting, Inn~in:rr, \\,hrrcns cven a very sslnall presstlrc incrcase s, nln~ost, nl\v:lys 1)rings t.r;~~)sit,ion it. hlnltil~g with IISC of this fact, i t is alwnys possible i,o rctlllrr t . 1 1 ~skin frict,iol~ slcndcr l)o<lics(:l.crofoils, st,reamlino 1)otlics) by dison I)I:~t:ingi.llr point ol. t,ransit,ion as far d o w ~ ~ s t . r e ;a sm ~ possible; this is achieved by a s~lit,a.l)lo rhoic:r of shnpe or profile n.ntl of t , l ~ c corrcspontling pressure rli~t~ribnt~ion. 'S'llo sltin f~,ic.t,iotr I,oeIics ~)osscssir~g long I n t n i ~ ~ n r of s~tc:)~ init.i:rl Icngt.11~ 1)ound;iry of 1n.gc.r (Inrninnr 1)rofilcs) IIC rctl~rcctlt,o ns Ijfff.lc a s Ilalf or-less of what i t woultl I ) t on n more r ~ o r ~ n n l s11:rl)c. 'I'l~o~x)si(,iotl tClloltoit~tof trnr~sit.iorlant1 hcncc t,hc magnitude of t h e slrin of fric:t.ion C:LII be st,rongly aITcctlcd by othcr Incans also, for example by sucking away t11c bo~tntlnrylayer.

2. Forrnclatior~of tlre rr~etl~od s n ~ a l l of clist~~rbar~res. theory of stnl)ility of 'I'hc laminar flows dceomposcs t h e motion into a mcan flow (whose staI)ilit,y cconslitrttcs t h e subject of t.lle ir~vestigalion)and into n tlistnrl~nnccsr~pcrimposrdo n it. Lct the mean flow, which m a y be rrgnrdctl a s st,mcly, 1)r drsc-rihrtl I)y i k C:artc.sinn velocity c o m p o ~ ~ c n tU , V, W and it,s 1)rcssltrc I-'. 'l'l~c rorrcspot~dit~g s qrrnntitirs for the t~on-stratlydisturbance will be dcnotctl by w ' , 17'. IIJ', ant1 p', rcsprctivt~ly. IIence, in the resultant motion t h e vclocity componrrtts arc

and t,hc pressure is

p=I'-I

p'

b. I'riiiciplcn of the theory of stal,ility of lnrllinar flows I. I r ~ ~ r n t l ~ ~ renlnrkn. 15frort.s 1.0 c1nrif.y axil t,o explain t,ltoorrt,ically t,ho etor~ rr~nlnrlz:~l,ltr proc:t:ss of t,r:~.nsit.ionjnst drscril~otlwcic initiated many decades ago; fltt~?; 11:lvc: lctl t,o sncccss only in 1010 I:l.st, thirLy years. 'l'hese tl~eoreticalinvestig:~t,ions 11:lsctl or1 t,l~c s s ~ l ~ n p t , it,hat 1n.minnr flows arc affected b y certain small :rrc n or~ clisf.~lronnt:c:s; t,l~r in rn.sc: of 11ipr: flow t,llc:sc tlist,llrl,nncos may originnto, for cxnmplc, i l l I.II(, inIt:t., wl~c:ro:~.s t,llc case of a l)o~tntlary in lnycr on ;I solid body plncctl in a st.rcv~ntf,l~t,p n1n.y n.lso I)!, t l t ~ rt.o wn.ll ror~gltnessor t o irrcgurlarit.ics in tho external

I n most cases i t is assumed t h a t t h e quant.ibics related t o t h c dist~irb:~ncc small arc compared with t h e corresponding quantities of tthc m:ain flow. I h c i n v c s t i g a t i o ~of t h e stability of such a tlist.ttrb(:tl flow onn I)e c:arric:tl otrt ~ wit11 the aid of eithcr of two din'crcrlt mcthotls. 'L'llc first rnct,hotf ( c ~ ~ , e l g711,clhod) ?/ consists ~ncrclyin t<hccalculation of t h c variation of tho cnorgy of t,hc t1istnrt)nncos with t,imc. Conclusions arc tlrawn depcntling on w l ~ c t ~ l t c ~ cncrgy tlccronses or t.I~t: c increases a s t,imc goes on. The theory atlmits a n arl)it#mr,yform of t , l ~ supcrirnposctl motion a ~ t t l tlemands only t h a t i t shortl(1 be compntiblc wi(.h t J ~ c cqnnt,ion of rolltrinuilpy.'rhc cncrgy mct,l~otlwas dcvclol~ctlnlainly I)y I I . A. I,orc:rltx 1571 : I . I I ~ ~ l i t l r not IWOVC s~tc(:(:ssf~~I; s l ~ : ~ lthorcforo, rcfr:~irtfrorrt c:or~sitlc:ringit, i t 1 tl(,I,:~iI. wc: l, Thc sccontl mcthotl accepts only flows which arc c:onsistcrlt wit,ll tJtc r c j ~ ~ a t ~ i o t ~ s of mot,iotl ancl annlyzcs tthc manner in whic:l~they clrvclop in 1.11~ flow, I I roft:rcncc ~

..

458

XVI. Origin of turbulence I

b. Prinriplr~ t l ~ e of throry of stnhility of l ~ i ~ ~ ~flows n r ir~

459

t o thc appro~)ri;~l.o rlilTrrrr~tinlcq~~nLions. 'rliis is tlic mrlhod of small dislur6nnces. This scroritl nirtliotl has let1 t o complctr success ant1 will, for this rcason, be described with somr tlrtail. Wc s1i:ill now corisidor a two-tlimonsional incornprcssiblc mean flow ancl a n cclually trwo-tlimcnsiond distr~rl)anco.'L'l~c rcsr~ltir~g motion, clcscribcd by eqns. (16.2) a.ntl (16.3). sat.isfios tho two-tlirucnsion:~lform of tlic Navicr-Stokes equations a givcn in rqris. (4.4a, b, c). Wc shall f ~ t r t h e r , . simplify the problem by stipulating tliat t.11~ rncari vclocit,y TJ dcpcntls only 011 11, i. c., IJ = U(y), wlicreas t h e remaining two c:ompor~cr~i~ s~rpposcdt o be xoro cvcrywhorc, or V n.rc: W z Of. Wc havc cr~c:or~t~t~crctl oflows cnrlicr, tlcscril~ingthcrn :IS p,rf~llel s~~ li &o~I)R. tlrc cast of : 111 L chnnricl with parallel walls or a pipe, such a flow is rcprodr~codwith great accuracy a t a aufficient d i s h n c c from tho inlet section. The flow in tlie bo~lntlarylayer car1 also he reg.anlcd ns k good approximation t o parallel flow because t h e dependence of tlic vclocit,y U in tlie main flow on t.hc x-coordinate is very much ~ m a t l c r h a n t t h a t on y. As far a s the pressure in tlie main flow is conccrncd, i t is obviously rlccessnry to assume a dcpcntlcncc on x as well a s on y, i. e., P ( x , y ) , becausc the prcssurc gradient i)P/ax mairitair~sthe Ilow. Thus we assume a mcari flow with

wherc V 2 dcnotes t h c Laplacinn opcrator a2/i)22 a2/8!/2. I f i t is considcrctl tliat t l ~ c mrnn flow it,sclf sntisfics tlic Navicr-Stokcs oqrlations, t h e above equations cnn bc simplificcl t o

co spnvify Wc havc olltninotl ttliroe oqn:~i,iorisfor IL', 11' arlcl pl. 'l'11c l)01111tl11ry n ~ l i t i o ~ ~ s t h a t tlie turbulent vclocity comporicni.s IL' aiitl v' vanish oil t l ~ c wtills (no-slil~ coridition). T h e pressure p' can be easily climinatcd from tho two cqaat.ions, (10.7) ant1 (1F.8), so tliat togctlinr wvit>litJic cqi~nt~ion continl~il.y of tflicro arc t,\vo cqn:~i,ionsfor u' and v ' . It is possil)lc t o crit-icizc the n.ssnmrtl form of t l l c : riictLn Ilow, ~ ( 1 1 1 .(I(i..l), or1 tlic ground t h a t the variatiori of thc coniporicnt l I of t.lic? vclocity with x :LS wc:ll :I,S t h e normal component V havc hccn ncglccbtl. Jn this conncxion, howcvcr, .l. 1'rct.scli [44] proved t h a t the rcsult.ing terms in the eqnations arc unimportant for t h e stability of a boundary layer (see also S. J. Cheng 171).

Upon the mcan flow wc nssnmc siiperimposcd a two-tlirnerisional tlisturbance which is a function of time and space. Its vclocit,y componcnts and pressure arc, rcspectivcly, ? ~ ' ( x , y , t, vl(x,y,t) , p 1 ( z 3 y , l ) ) . (16.6) IIerico tho rcsnltnnt nlotion, according fn eqns. (16.2) and (16.3), is described 1)y

3. The Orr-Sommerfeld equation. T h e mean laminar flow in the 2-clircction with a velocity U (y) is assnmcd t o be influenced by a disturbance whicli is composetl of a number of discretc psrtlial fluctuations, cnch of which is said t o consist of n wave whicli is propagate11 in tho x-direction. As it, has already bccn assrirnctl i,li:tt tlic perturbation is two-diinensional, i t is possible t o introtlucc a stream I~nct.iori yi(z, y,t) tlins integrating t h e equation of contin11it.y (10.9). Thc st.rcam furletion reprcscntirig a sirigle oscillation of tlie distnrbnnce is assumcd t o bc of tlic form

I t is ass~imctlt h a t t,lic nio:Ln flow, cqri. (16.4), is a solution of t h c Navicr-Stokes equations, and i t is required t h a t t h c resultant motion, eqn. (16.6), must also satisfy tlio Navicr-Stokes cquat.ions. The supcrimposerl fluctuating velocities from eqn. (16.5) arc tnkc?ri t,o 11c "small" in thc scnsc t h a t all quadratic tcrrns in the fluctuating cornponcnts may be ncglccted with respcct t o t h c lincar terms. The succcctling scct,ion will corit,ain a morc dct,ailctl tlcscription of t h e form of t h e ~list~urbance. Now, tlio task of tho stability t,hcory consists in clcbrmining whether t h e tlisturbancc is amplifictl or whotlicr it clccays for a givcn mean motion; t h e flow is cynsitlrrctl ~inst.:rl)lcor stahlo tlcpcnding or1 wlicther the former or the latter is t h e case. Sr~bstituting cqns. ( 1 6 6) into tlic Navicr-Stokcs equations for a two-dimensional, incomprcssiblc, non-steady flow, cqns. (4.4a, b, c), arid nrglcrting quadratic terms in the tli~t~urbarice velocity components, wc obt,ain

c Any arbitrary two-dimcnsiorial d i ~ t ~ u r h a n cis assrimctl cxl)nntlcd in a I'ouricr scries; cacli of its terms represent8 such a partial osc:illat,ion. In cqn. (16.10) a is n real quantity ant1 A = 2 x / a is t h e \vavclcngt,l~of t.lrc clislurb;x~icc.T h e q~iant,il.y is complex, P = P, I- i PI , where p, is t h e circular freqlrency of t.he pnrt.inl ~scillat~ion, wlicrcas P, (amplification factor) ctctermines tlio clcgrec of amplificnt.iori or dampirig. The tlist,~~rl)nnvns arc tlanipocl if P, < 0 aritl tsliclaminar mcan flow is st,al)lc, wlicmas for PI 0 i~~st,:~l~ilii.y ~ c t in. Apart from a a.nd it is convcnicr~lt o introtlr~cc s t,lic,ir ratio

: .

C =

'

-=e,

-1- i c , .

t
t
'J'hcrr arc rrmt)rls In nopponc, a4 sl~n~vri ( 1%. C ~ I I ~ R I I P. ~ IClobnnofT [831, that I)y : . S nntl C S. t,llrnc t : o r ~ ~ l ) o rnrt: ~ ~ I ~ l)rt*sc1itrl l rcnl IIOWR, ~ c ~I\V:LYR i particularly in flow^ J I ~ R ~ plntcl~.I'hcir flat t~~ngnit.r~tle is r~t.gligil~lc tno~L for lIrwl)t>scs, thcy Reem tc) play n elart, not yct fully clucidatecl. 1)11t i l l thc proocas of trn~i~it.ion; nl~n RCO foot.~iotc p. 468. 011

Tho convenient coniplc?r noLrrt.ion in r~ortl Ilnr. l'l~ysivnlrnr~ulingis nt.trlc.llt.tl o ~ ~ tl o I.hc rral y part or the ~t,rcanir~n~ct.ion, tllr~n
Re(tl7) - - rkil I.+, ron
(~3:

/?,I)

.+i

(m:r

-- /l,t)l

whrrc q5

q5, -1 i

is 1,110 complcx smplit~rdc.

4(iO

XVI. Origin of turbuletlce 1

1). Principles of the tllcory or stability of Inrllinar flows

4G1

JIerc c, t1cnot.c~t.11~ vclocit,~ p r o p a p t i o n of t,hc wave in the z-dircction (phase of vclooity) wl~crcas agair~ c, doLertnincs t,l~o tlcgrce of damping, or nmplificntion, t1cpcit1ding 011 it,s sign. The arnl)lit,~~tle fr~nct,ion, of t,hc flnct,llation is ass~t~nccl tlcpcntl 4, to on y only ~C(:ILIISC mcn.11 Ilow tlcprnds on y alone. I'roni cqn. (16.10) i t is possible tltc f,o ol)t,ain 1.11(: c:ornl~oncnlSs t.hc pcrt,rrrl)nt.ion vcloc:it,y of
t)l/,

11,' -

i)y

,#,'(?/)

(a .' "

PI'

,
PI)

(10.12)

1)

-=

Ry1 -ax

i u +(?I)& m y

Irlt.rotl~lc:ir~g I,l~c:sc-valnrs il~l,o rqrls. (16.7) ant1 (10.8), we obtain, after tlrc clirninat.ior~ prrssnrc, 1,11(: following, ordinary, fourth-ortler, tlifferential equation for t h e of n.tnl)lit,utlc4(?/) :
,
. - . . ._ . . - - --

When tehcmean flow IJ (11)is specified, eqn. (IF. 14) col~t~ains pamrnnt.rrs, t t : ~ n ~a,l ~ four c R, c, anti c,. Of t.hcse tjhc rtcynoltls nrlml)or of t h e moatl flow is liltcwiso spccill(:d and, f ~ ~ r t , h c r , ~avcl011gt~11 2 n / a of the disturb:~n(:cis t o bc consit1crc:tl givcn. the i= 1 1 t.his rase the tlifferentia,l equation ( I F . l 4 ) , togcthrr witJh the I)orlntlary c:ot~tlit,iorrs 1 (16.15), f\rrnistr onr oigc:nf'~~ncLion ( ? I )ant1 one cornplcx c i g c n v : ~ l ~c~ = = c, 1 i ci + c for (%:tt!lt 1):tir ol' v:~l~tt.s, R. I Ivr(! cr r t : ~ ~ r ~ : s I,II(: t~)II:LSC a ~ ~ ~ I ~ s v(:lot,il,.y 01- I.II(: l~r(~s(:ril~t:~l t1isturbnncc wltcrcas t l ~ c sign of c, tlcLcrnlit~cswllctllrr bho wavt: is aml)lilictl (ci : . O ) or tla.tnpctl (ci < O ) t . For c, < 0 the correspor~tling flow ( I J , R) is s t a t ~ l c lllc givcn for va.lllc of a , wllcrms c, > 0 tlcnot,cs il~stabilit~y. lilnil'ing case c, : corrcsporlds. The (1 1.0 nrnLml (i~rdiPFcrrnt.) distrrrl~ar~ccs. Tl~c rcslllt of such a n analysis for a prescribcrl Iamirlar flow U (?I) can be rcprcscntrd grnpl~ically an a , R diagranl bccausc cvcry point, of tllis plane corrcsl~or~tls in t,o a j):tir of valucs of c, ant1 c,. In particular, the loc:~~s . 0 scpamt,c:s Lllc rcgiou c, = of st3:tl)l(:from lfl~all ~lnsl,:rl~lc of tlisl~~rI):~tlc:c:~. loells is c:tcll(:cl 1 . 1 1 ~ot,roc o/ )~rv~t/rctd 'I'his s/r~bi/i/.~/ (l?ig. 16.8). '1'11~ 11oinL on trhis (:rtrv(: n,t, \vI1i(:11I,IIc lt(!ynoItls I I I I I I I I I ~ ~11:~s ~ iLs srnallosl v a l l ~ e(tarlgcnt parallel L tltc a-axis) is ol' grn:tt,osO illl.orcst sitlcc: it, o int1ic:atc.s t h a t vnlrre of' the Itrynoltls nr~rnl)er belo\\. wllicll ;LII it~tli\~itlir:ll oscill;lI,io~r~ tlccny, whereas above t.11ntv s l ~ l c t least some arc atnplificcl. This smallest, Itoynol(ls a 11nm1)cris tile critical Rc?jtrolds nuin0er or livnil 01 stobilily wit,lr rt:spcct t,o t,lrc t.ypc of I a n ~ i n a r flow rlntlcr cot~sitlcrxlion.

'I'llis is t,tlc fnl~tl:~rncr~t.nl rlil/erc71,tiral cq~urtionfor thc! distl~rbrr.n,ce (.stnhilit~cquotin~s) \vllic*lt forrns 1,11(? point ol' clrl):~rt,urefor I,hc st,abilily t.hcory of lan1in:lr flows. I t is c.ort~nlol~ly rc:fi:rrcbtl t,o :IS (.he Orr-Rom,mcrlclrl eqlmtion. I1:quation (l(i.14) has been c:ast i t 1 din~c~nsionl(~ss in Lllat all lengl.11~ form have been divitlecl b y a stlitnbtc rc~li*rc~ncr IcllgI.11h or 0 (\vitlt.I~ c:lt:rnnrl or 11ortntln.ry-layert3lricltncss),ant1 vcloci1,ins of II:LVC I~retll i v i t l r t l I)y I,II(: n~;lxitnrttnvrloc.it.y I / , of t,hc main flow. 'Uhe prilnes denof,c t I~orcrcIini~rcttt~i:~.I~iot~ rcs[)rc:L t o tthc rlimensionlcss coortli~~atcs or ylb, ant1 wit.lr 2/16

0
Fig. 16.8. Curves of neutral stabi1it.y for t~vo-dilnensionalborlntlary layer wi(.tr two-dimensional disltlrbanccs (a) "non-visrolls" insla1,ilily; i n t h c rnsc nC vclocity ~ ~ r n i l l or 1y1m :t wilh poi111 *,f i l ~ f l r x i o n rs (1,)"visro~~q"Instahllity;

tl(.l~ol.c:sI.l~c Itryttc~lrls111tln0c:r wl~ic:l~ a c:l~:rra.c:t,rrisl,i(: t . 1 1 ~ is of tnc:Ln flow. 'rhc t,crrns 0 1 1 t.ho Ic:l't,-l,:~.n~l sitlt: ol' (:(ln. (I(i.14) arc: tlcrivcrl from t.hr inrrt.ia terms, ant1 t,lrosc 011 I,hn rigl~l.-l~:~.l~tl sklr f'rotn I.hc \~isr.n~ls l.(:rtns in t.11~ cqrlat,ions of lnotrion. I3y way of rx:ltnl~l(:. 1.11~: I ) O I I I I ~ ~ : L ~ , Vcon~lit.iol~s a I)o~~r~tlary-layer tlcmar~tlLllnt the li)r llow ~ ~ O I I I ~ N N I ofI l.l~(:~l~:rt,urt):~t~ic,r~ ~ I ~ , vc.loc:il,y n ~ ~ l s t , vnnisl~n.t. t,llc wall (11 -- 0) and a t a I:~rgt,t l i s l . n . r l c ~ cl'rorn il. (h(v ~ s1,rc::ttn). 'I'IIIIS :

I ' I , t h r rllrrc or 18r11Irnls l n b i l i t y is or t y p c in I11e raw or vriorit,) proIllrr nl type 8 uilhotrt poi111of lnflrxion, lltr rllrve o l erutml sl.nbilily is or l y p c b Tl~n nryrnplot~rsTor l l ~ n rrlrvc or rtrulral stnbility a al. R - - + r arc ohlxincd rroln lltr "rrirlionlrar" , slallilit?. rrlllalio~i(16.16)

: ,

At, I , l l i s sl.:~gc.i t , is ~ ) ~ ~ s s i l ) l ( , l01r ol)j(!c*t,iot~ tlist.~lrb:~nrc~s~ ~ r r i n ~ l ) o s r ~ l t,o r:tisr l.l~at, s~ 011 l,\vo-rli~n~~ltsioll:~l 1);11,I.rrn IIo\v ~lrtttlIIOL I)r I.wo-rlin~olsiot~al, n, cornl~lctr if nnnlgsis of' l.11c. tl11('st,io11 st,:rl~ilit.y 1.0 I)(: :\c~hit~vc~tl. o\)jcrtio~l 01' is 'I'l~is w:~srcrnovotl O II. I{. y Stlrtircb ( 3 7 1 \r.l,o 1wt1vt-tI. Iry :~ssrtlnir~g tlisl.~rrl):l.nc:(:swltic:h wcrr pc-riotlic: :~Isoin I ht* z~tIirc.t.lio11. l.lt:~.I. I ~ \ v o - t l i ~ ~ ~ c . r ~Iloa~~ ) ~~ t , l . c ~ n :I. sio~ ;: l I)t:c:o~nrs~~t~sI.:sl)lc:I 11igllc.r at. l{t.yr~oltls111i11111t.rI I ( ~ ~ ~ . I I ( : ~ I ~ s ~ . I I I . ~ ) ;:ISSIIIIIP(I ( ~t ~ l ~ r r ~ - t l i t ~ ~ ( : tl ,~~s: i to ~ ~ : ~ I \V I is L I I ( ~ l l ) \VIT(\II it, is sr~lrl)ost.rlto l . \ v o - r l i ~ ~ ~ c ~ l ~ s Ii Io ~ ~ ~ : scllsr t . \ v o - t l i n ~ c ~ r ~ s~lisl.~rrl~:~.nc~c:s I I,l~is~ I . io~~:~I : I ~ I % I I I O ~ I * t I ; ~ i ~ g t ~ r o ~ t s " \ r . ~ - ~ I i ~ t ~ o ~ ~ s it,l!n,t~ t : l ~ r t - r . ~ l i ~ ~ ~ r t t ls s o~ ~ : ~ l ~ a t ~ c r s . " Vor t ~ llo\vs t ~ r ~ , ~ l ~ i i t t ~rk I I ( . I I ( ~ ~ LIhr v:~lrlt.01' I l l ( . c*rilic.:~l I1,(?y11oItlsr ~ r n l ~ cor, tnorr prccisrly, of t.hc lownst n r, l i t ~ ~ i (t3 1. ' st:~lrility.is olrl.:rir~c.tlI)y cwnsitlvring two-tlir~~rtlsionnl clistrir0:~ncrs.
:I

I he rxprritnrnt,:~~I rvi(lrncr con(x~rnit~g t,ransit,iot~fro111 l:~n~in:t,r I , I I ~ I ) I I I I ; I I ~ , 1-0 flow rrfrrrrtl 1.0 ~)roviorrslyI(.nds 11s t,o cxl)cc:l, t h a t , ;LI, SIII:LII b ( ~ , y ~ ~ o I ~ l s I 111t111l)t~rs for wl1ic.11I:~minnrllow is ol)servc-tl. :LII \v:rvrl(~r~gt.l~s l)rorl~~c*c> l g wo~lltl o t ~ sl.:rl)lr tlisI.rlrl):~lrc~s, wl~rl~rn.s I:~r.gt-r ltc:g~~oltls :lip rllln~l)c~rs, ~ r\vllic~l~. I I ~ I I I I I ~ : I I I IIo\v is o11s(~r\~1~1, li I , ul~st,:~l)lc tlist~rirbarlccso~lght, c o r r c s ~ ~ o rtot lat, I(,ast, sonto \ V : L V ( ~ I ~ I I ~ ~ , I I S Ilo\r.(:\,(.r, t,o ~ . it is ncrrssnry t,o r c ~ n n r k t tallispoitlt t.l~:rt~ vrit,ic:n.l I<c~yt~ol(lsI I I I ~ ) ~c~:~lrrtl:~.t.ncl a t.11~: III :~ frotr~ st.nl~ilil~g c:otlsitlt:r:lt.io~~s rxnnol. Irc: c:sl)c:al.c~tl t,o 1 ) ~ . tv111:11t,o !.IIo I<.(~y11o1tls

r ,

On t,he ot.l~rr I~antl, is also posnil)lr t.o rrgnrtl R alld 1 . l t-irc-lll:~r it, ~ frc.qllrllry /I, :I.S fixcvl. I I I Illis ensr tjhr eigonrnlt~ei)rol)lr~nd c t r r ~ ~ ~ i t ~ r n a t~orrespo~~tlir~g of a ( I I)(: wnvt:lr:~~gl.l~) I.l~c: v:1111r? :111t1 corflit:ir~~t, a~~~l)lifit:%t,iot). of /I,. 'I'ltvs(: wrrt: l,ltt> (:o~~ilitit~ns ~ i s l 11.~ v l I ~ X ~ I ~ ~ ~ I1.:~rri1.11~ ~~t i y l,l)o I I ~ ~ I I o l ~ tI)y 11. I,. I)rytlctl ant1 Itis collal~or:~t,ors, (lcsc:ribc:cl i l l St.(.. S\'ItI. w11o11 n r l :~rliliri:tl ns distl~rbarlcc a tlefinite froqrrrtlry wn.s ~t~prritnposctl :t Inrl~ill:rrflow will1 I.11etritl of n suiof OII tably rxcitrd strip.

462

X V I . Origin of tnrb~rlmco 1

numl)er obscrvctl : ~ t.110 point, of l,ransiffion. If al,ttcnt.ionis fixctl on t,hc Ilnw in the t honntlary In.yrr along a wall, ~ I I C It,llc tllc:orct.ical critical Itcynoltls nnrnl)er indicates ~ the point. on t,111. wall at. u ~ l l i r l:~niplific:nI.ion somc inciividual tlisturbances begills ~ of ant1 I r o r r e d s clow~~stroam it. T h e transforrnat,ion of sl~cli;~~nplificd of dist~urbances i11t.ot.nrI)nlrn~:r t,altrs I I solnr timc, ant1 t,hc unst~al)lc ~ tlist,ltrl)nncc: llns hatl a chancc: t.o t.r:tvel sonic tlist,n.nrc in the tlownstrc:sm clircct.ion. I t must, therefore, bc cxpcct-cd tllnt, t.hc o1)scrvctl posit,ior~of thc poinl; of transit,ion will bc tlow~lst~rea~n the of calcr~lat~ctl, t,hcorct,ica.l limit of stability, or, in otller words, t h a t the experimental critical Reynoltls nr~mhcr cxcccds itFl t-hcorctical value. This remark, cvidcntly, applies to Rcynol(ls nr~mbcrs1)asctl o n t11c curmnt lcngtfh a s well ns t o those bsscd on t.11~ bour~clary-layertllickness. In order t o distinguish bctwcen these two vall~cs i t is usual t o call t h e thcorctical critical Reynolds number (limit of stability) t h e p i n t o/ l:nstabilit?y whcrcas tile experimental critical Rcynoltls number is called the point o/ t r n n ~ i t i o n t . Thc st,nbiIitg problem, briefly describctl in t,hc prccctling paragraphs, leads t o cxtremcly tlifficr~lt mat,llcmntical consitlcmt,ions. Owing t o tllcse, sricccss in the calculat,ion of t11c critical Jtcynolcls nnmbcr e111Jccl t11c workers in this field for several cleoatlcs, in spite of t h e greatest efforts clircctcd towards this goal. Conseq ~ ~ r n t l in, what follows we shall he unable tx, provitlc a complete presentation of y tile stal)ility t.hrory nrid will be forccd t a restrict ourselves t o giving a n account of t h e nlost i n ~ p o r t ~ arcsul th?only. nt 5. Geniernl properties o f the Orr-Sommerfeld equntion. Sincc from experimental cviclcnce t h c limit, of ~ t a b i l i t ~ c, = O is expected t o occur for large y values of tllc Itcynolcls ~ r i ~ m b cirt, is ~ i : ~ t l ~tro l a simplify tllc eqnation b y omitking the viscous bmms on t.hc right-)land sitlc of it, a s comparctl with t h e incrtia tcrms, b e c a ~ ~ s e t,llc smallness of t h e coefficient 1/R. The resr~lt.ingdifferential equation of is Icnown as t.110/rictionlr.~.~ .~lnhilil!j ~q7mlion, Ru?jIri~~A's or equntinn: (16.16) ( I J - - - c ) (4" - a 2 4 ) -- I / " $ = 0 . It, is i~nl)orl,:~.r~t. 1.0 rlo1.c Ilc-rc: t.11at of t.hc four bor~nelaryeont1il.ion.s (16.15) of the cornplctn equat.ion i t is now ~)ossiblct.o satisfy only two, bccat~scthe fricl ionlcss stal~ilitycq~l:~t.ion of t.ltc sccotl(l ortlcr. 'IYlc rcmai~lirlgb o ~ ~ n c l a r y is corrditiorl t o bc sat.isfic(l is t , l ~ c vanishing of t.hc normal componrnt,s of vclocity near tllc wall of flow, wall nn(I a t infinity, a (:II~,IIII(:~, or, in l)o~~r~(I:~.r.v-l:~y(:r t,I~(;irvanisl~ingal, l , l ~ c ,.IIIIS,in t.11~ I I:~l.l.cr case, wc 11avc y=O: +=O; y=m: +=O. (16.17) Lllc onlission of the viscous tcrms constitutes a tlra,st,ic si~nplifirat.ion, c c ~ r ~ s e h tile ortl(.r of t,l~o cclnn.t,ion is rocl~~rctl fro111 four 1.0 Lwo, ant1 t,llis may result in a loss prol~c!rl.irsof tho gnnom.1sol~ll.iorl l,hc complcl,e cqnnt.ion, as cotnparctl of of i~r~porl,:~.nO wil,ll its s i ~ l ~ p l i l iv~:rsion. Ilnrc we n1n.y rc~pcn.l.'t,l~o ~tl rom:~.rlesnol.c:cl provio~~sly in C1ln.p. IV in conncxion wit11 the transition froi? the Navicr-St,okcs ec~r~at~iotis of o a viscor~sIIrritl L t.hosc for a frictionless fluitl.
~, I

The n ~ a j o r i t ~ y cnrlier papers on tllc theory of sttal)ility usctl t h e frirt,ionlcss of equation (10.16) a s their point of tlcl~:l.rl,~rrc. t.his mannc>r, cviclrn(,ly, no c:rit,ic::ll 111 Itcynoltls number can bc o l ~ l a i ~ l c brlt i t is ~ ~ o s s i b l c :Lnswrr tllc clrlcst.ior~of tl t,o whctller a givcn laminar flow is st,ahlc or n o t t . Tllc co~rlpletc q ~ ~ a t ~ (16.14) was e ion arialyccd much later when, after many failnrcs, critical Itcyr~olds nnrnI)crs wrrc a t last s~~occssfrilly : ~ l ~ ~ a t c c l . cv St,art.ing wit,h the above frictionless sl,al)ility cqr~al.ion, cqn. (lG.IF), I x r d Raylcigh 1701 s~iccrcdctl n clcriving several importcant,gcncral tl~corenis i roncrrning the sI8abilitfy larninar veloritty profiles. ~ U valitlity of t81~csc lator I ~ c r n of I ~ Iln,s confirn~c.tlalso for tllc cnsc when t l ~ c clTcct of visco~it~y t.:tlccn into aoc:o~rnl,. is T l ~ c o r c m : Thc first iruportant,, gcrlc:ral t l ~ n o r c nof t,llis Ititltl, t,llc so-callctl I ~ point-of-i~ilZcsion&cxioz criterion, asscrts t h a t vclocity profilcs whicll posscss a poirlt of inflcxion are unstable. I,ortl Jtaylcigl~ was a i ~ l r onlg t o prove ttllaltttllc cxisl.olce of a 1)oint. of infl(:siol~ const.it2iltcs a nccessrrr!/ co7rdition for t,llc? occllrrcnc:c! of inst.r~l)iliI,y.h111e-11 I:I.I.I:~, Mr. r l ' o l l t ~ ~IiI ( ~ ~ ~ I I C ( ~ ( ~ ~ i~l l~ Isl~o~vitigI I L I , I,Ilis ( * o t ~ x t , i 11,Iso,I ~ ~ s OOj R V~~ ~I i ~ ~ ~ .v,I//;(;;cI,~ (:,,,?dilion for tile arnplificnt.ion or clist~url~:~ners. ~ ) o i ~ l t - o f - i ~ l l l o x i m Thc c:rit,trrio~~ ox is fundamental itnport.ancc for t h e theory of st,ability because it provides -- except for a correction due t o t,l~c omission of t,llc influrncc of viscosity - a first,, ro11g11 classilicat.ion of all laminar flows. From the pmct.ic:ll point of view, (.his oritcrion is important owing t o tllc dircct conncxion between the cxistcncc of a point of gradicnt. 111 tile case of co~lvcrgcnt~-cllnr~ncl inflexion a n d t h e presence of n prcssr~rc flow with a favourablc pressure gmclicnt, a s seen from Pig. 6.15, the vcloc!it.y profilos are vcry full and posscss no points of inflexion. Jn contraclistinction, in a tiivcrgent cllannel with a n adverse pressure gradient,, thc vclocity profiles arc pointed anti points of inflexion are pmsent. Jdcnt.ica1 differences in the geometrical fornr of the velocity prof lea occur in t11c laminar boundary layer on a body inimcrscd in a stream. According t o boundary-layer theory, thc vclocity profiles in the interval wl~crc the pressure decreases are free from points of inflcxion, wllcreas t.l~ose thc intcrv:~l in wllcrc the pressure increases always posscss tallem, see Sec. VITc. IIcnce, thc point-oft , inflexion criterion becomes cqr~ivalcnt o a ~ t a t n m c n tabout the clTcct of the prcssurc gradient in the external flow on tflc st,abilit,y of t,hc rc:sr~ocl,ivchorrrltl:try I:l.yors. As applied t o boundary-layer flow, i t amounts to this: a favourablc pressure gmdicnt st.al~ilizcst h e flow, wllerrns a11 adverse pressure gradient cr~llnrlccsinstabilit.y. I t follows t l ~ a t h e position of the point of mirlirnr~m pressure on a body placcd in a stream is decisive for t,hc position of the point of transition, and, rougllly speaking, we can say t h a t t h e position of tho point of minimum pressure determines t h a t of the point of trar~sit.ion nntl causes t h e latter t o lic close bcllind t h e former. Tllc irlflucncc of viscosit*y o n tllc solntiorr of tho st,ability c r l ~ ~ n t ~ i wl~ic:l~ on, 11:~s bccn rlcglcctccl u p to this point, cl~angcs prcccding corlcl~lsior~s vcry sligllttIy. the only I l ~ c~)rcactling ii~st,al)ilil~y ~cloc:i(~y of profilcs wit11 ~ ~ o i n of sinfloxioll is IISII:LIIY t~ refcrrcd 1.0 as "frictionless ir~st~ability" because thc laminar meall flow proves t o be unstable even withorit taking into account thc effectof viscosity o n the oscillatinstability corrcspo~lds ing motion. I n tile diagram of Fig. 16.8, t.hc case of f r i ~ t ~ i o r ~ l e s s to t h e curvo of type a. Evcn st R = oo tllcro exists alrcatly n certain ~inst,abl~: range
, 7

nlrrrltly cxplnirtrcl in Src. XVIn, rocn~~t, expcritnrntnl rcsr~lL~ \\I. ICrnrnons 1251, and (11. hvll~~l)n~tor J(ICO.ZII~IT[H:IJ) indi(::tll(: l.I~at, a11t1 Ll~crcis rlo wnll-delic~etlpoint of transition l)lit, 1.11:11, t . 1 1 ~ I~rocc?nn of I,r:111~it,io11 lrunin:~r1.0 f ~ ~ l l y fro111 tlc?~clopoeI turb~~lcrlt extendr flow ovcr a li~~itn cli~tdl~~m.

With the rc~ervntionthat the influence of viscosity on tho dintrtrbnncc itRolf Ilns been left out of considcration.

d(i.4

XVT. Origin of L~lrbulcnce I

of wavol(:ngblts; ill t.11~ tlircction of (lc,rrcasing Itoynoltls numbers, this rangc is scpnrntc:tl frotr~t l ~ c st.nl)lo rnngo by t,l~o anrvo of 11c:ntral st,nbility. [II nontrnst, wiblr t . 1 1 ~ ltrccctlirrg C:LSC,J ~ S C ~ inatahilily is associatcd wit11 a curvc I LS or tlcnl,r:~lsf.:l.i~ilil,y slln.lio b, also s l ~ o in rFig. 10.8, ant1 with 1)ountlary-laycr of ~ ~ prolilrs 1)oss(:ssi11g ~ i o i n t i~tflcsion.At Itey1101~1s no of tlltrnl)crs tentling t o infinity, l , l ~ r:~.t~gf: IIIIsI~:I.I~I~: r of \v:~.\~rlrtigI~lrs is rnnl.r:~cl~r~l point, anql (1om:tins or I I ~ I S ~ , : L I ~ I C to a osc:ill;~I.iot~s stsc>t~ oxisl, otlly for fi~~il,o :it.(% 1.0 Ilnyrioltls t~nrnl)ors. ~ c t ~ c r a l s~)r:~.Itit~g, ( ly t,ho n.tnorttit,of :~.tnplificnt.ion rntrclt largcr in t,lrc casc of frict~ionlcss is instfabilit,ythan in tho (;:IS(: of visc:orts it~sl.:~.l~ilit,y. ,, I llc c~sislrncsc: visc:o~lsinsl.:~l)ilily(::I,IIbc tlisc:ovr~~ctl of only in c:onrrcsion wil,ll a tiisc~~ssion 1,Ilc f i t l l Orr-Sornmcrli:l(l equat.ior~;i t const.itut,cs, tl~croforc,t,hc of moro tliffirrrlt, nn:~l~t,icnl c:tsc. 'l'hc simltlcsl; case of flow, n a n ~ c l yt,hat along a flat plal,c: wit.l~ zero Iwrssrlrc gmclicnt belongs l,o the Itintl for which only viscous inst,abilit,y tlocs oc:c:rlr; it, \rr:ls s~rcc:rssl'r~lly t,aclilctl only comparatively recently.
'rll corc. rn I I : 'l'llc sccontl in~port,:~nt goncr:~ltl~corcmsl,atjrst,11al,tsho vrlocit,y of 1~011n!:tt.i011 of tlnutrnl tlis1,nrl):anccs (c, = 0 ) in n I)orlrrtlary I:~ycris srnnllc:r tll:~n t.11~ m:l.xrtnlrnl vrloci1.y of t.Ir(- mc:nn flow, i . o. t.h:tt, c , < (I,,,. 'I'llis t,l~c:orc>rn was :rlso first provctl by J,ortl IXnylcigll [70J, albcit itnclcr somc ~.(~sfl.i(*t.i\~(*r ~ t n l ~ t ~ i o t l s ; I)I.OVC(I ngnin by 1' 'Yollmien [I001 for more gcneral :~.s~ if, was 4. conclit,ions. It, :lsscrt.s t,Il:tt in t,ho interior of t,l~cflow t,l~erecxist-Ra layer wllcrc IJ - c = O for nc~lt.raltlist.r~rl)anccs. 'I'l~is fact,, t.oo, is of funtlanlental imporhancc in t , l ~ c t.llcor,y of st.:t.l)ilit,y. 'I'l~oIa.ycr for which 11 - c = 0 rorrcspontls, namely, t o a sirlgttlar point, of t,lto frict~ionlcssst.n.l)ilit,ycqrration (16.16). Att this point #" I)cc.otncs ir~fittil~c! 11" tlocs not v:~t~isll il 1,ltcrn sin~ttlI.nncor~sly. (lisf.:tt~t:~= 'rllc wltrrc: 11 - ~ is c::i.ll(>tlt,11(: crilicctl. Inyrr or 1.110 tnr:an flow. If [I," 4: 0, ttI~crl tends c. 4" t o infinil,.~ its
.- ..

enong11 t,o cvsluato U (y) wit11 sllfficicnt dcgrcc of accnrnry 111tt.i(,ssrcorlcI ( ~ r r i v a t i v c d2Ultly2 must also bc nccurotely Itr~own.
\ f s ~ t r n t ~ i :of'rt,Iro so111t ~ .~ ions of l ~ , : ~ . ~ ~ I ((Y~II:IIr ion, l ) t ~ t * s ( ~ ~ ~ t ( ~1lI I C I I I : ~ (11t.~igl 's I'IXIIII tnnt,ician's point of virw, was ~)rcpnretlI)y 1'. (,!. I)rn.~inn11tl I,. N . I l o ~ v : ~ ~ .l5:aI. I tl

c. Itcsl~ltn t l ~ c of tl~eory stnbility us tltry ul~ply IIIC bu~r~ttlrtry of to 11t~c.r ntt ut zero ir~citlcncc

XI fl~tt pl;ttc

1. Soit~e olclcr i ~ t v c ~ t i g n t i n~ t~o i ~ts stnbility. 'I'l~t: c::rrlic\r it~vc-sl,ig:tl,iot~s r~~~tlt.~.l,:~.kc*ti as a cont,inttntion of I,ord 1tnylrigl1's \vorlc litnit.c>tlt.l~c~t~~sclvc.s :I(, lirst l,o IIrc (.onsidcr:ttiorr of Cor~ctt~e flow, i. c. t o tllc msc of li11cn.rvc,loc,il.y tlisI~ril)t~f.ion :L flow in I)et4n,ccn two pnrnllcl wnlls, I'ig. 1.1. 'l'ltc vvry (~xl~:arrsI.i~(~ I I S S ~ Oof' ~.II(> (.:IS(: (I~SC ~ wllich irlclr~dcdt,llc f-ull cffcct of viscosil.y j)rovitlctl I)y A . Som~ncvf(:ltl 18ti], It. volt Aliscs [GI] antl I,. Ilopf [45] let1 t.o t,ltc: ronc:lr~siotl I.l~al, [,Iris t . y l ~ :of llo\v ~ ( : I I I : I . ~ I I S sl.:~,l)l(*:tll I ~ ( ~ ~ v I I o I ( IIs I I I I I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ S:I.I, :LII \ v i t v ~ * I ~ ~ ~ g t , l r:I,.I . ~ I I I ( * , :I I.I,~-I. 1.11i::I I < ~ : : I I ~ ~ I n.1, :I,II(I lt'or s r(;sttll, 11:1(l I)(!(,II oOl,:tit~r(l, w:ts t l t o ~ ~ g ll,l~:it, 1 . 1 1 ~ it, ~l, tn(:l.l~o(l SIII:LII os~:ill:~l.iot~s of' \\,:IS I I I I S I I ~ I , ~ Ifor ~ t.11~ ~I l~l~~orc:t.iral so111l,io11 I,II(> proI)lc~n01' t,r:~t~sit,ion. l~~~:~~tsliit.c.tl of 11, later t h a t t.his view was not jr~st~ifird, brcausc Coiicbt,c flow is a vcry sl)c-c,i:al nnd restrictctl example. Aforeover, a s sl~o\vncnrlirr, 1,llc c ~ ~ r v a . l , t ~ r1n 1 1 ~ of . vcloc.il,y profilc pl:~ysnn rsscnt,ial p11ysic:tl rolc in t.lrc flo\v, nntl it. is not, ~)crmissil)ln Ic:l,vc it. o u t t,o of arco~rnt,.
1. 1"

' ' 1

1
! ---y/< /

(I,/,.

in 1.11~: ~lc:iglll)o~lt.l~oo(l1.11(* c:ril,ic::~.l1:tyc.r \vllrrc it, is [)crtnissil)lc t,o p n t IJ - c = of --- 1Jlfr(?y- yJi) :~.[tl)roxit~~:~l.cl.y; (:onsrq11~~111,Iy ~ - c o t n ~ ~ o n c t i I,IIc vclocil~ycan IJIC of t t)r writ.t,c.r~ :r.s

11011ntlary layers
j , y II(y) vclocily ~ l i s t r i l ~ ~ ~ l i lo, n, ; = v ~ l ~ l r ' i l i n llnr rrrr slrrarn; 6 = boundary l n y r r Lllirknrss; 8, = ~ l i s p l ~ r c ~ n tll~icknrs~: = p ~ > i ~ ~ l o f i ~ ~ f l r x ~nl, 1'1 I I I C llrflion OC I l w v r l n c l l ) ~ j?roIllc. h r R nlrs or l y p c a, 11, r, r l t t d I arc st:tl,lr; ~,ronlcs or lyltc c, d, g nrr r ~ n s l o h l r ; l~rolllrsor t y p e c r r i a t in n rit~011rab10 I)rPs?tIro f l r ~ t l i c n l ;1 y 1 T corrce~ 1,onds to cotlalanl. Iprrssurcq; I y p r g cxirta i l l an advers,: I ) T ~ S J I I T P~ r a 1 l i ~ 1 1 1 .

Velocity U
ffm

'I'hrts, a.ncortling t,o I,lrc frictionloss stal)ility cqllation, the c:omponent, IL' of t h e vrloci1,y wl1ic.11 is ~):~rallcl t,llc wall l)cc:otnos infinite if the curvatr~re l,lre velocity to of profile at, t h e critical layer tlocs not vatdsli sirnnltrnncor~slg.This mn.t~hematical sing~tI:~.ril,y t.lto fric:Lio~~lnss in sl.ar.I)ilit,yccl~l:~l~iort ~)oinl.s t.11~ l,o f:i.c:t tll:~t t.11~ cff'rcl of viscosil.y on (.Ire c(111:~I.ion motion tnttst noL be ncglcct,ctl in I,llc ncig11borrrf1ootl of of t , l ~ c oril.ic*:~l I:~ycr.'J'llc irlnll~sionof t,hc eff(:c?ot of viscosity rctnoves this physica.lly a11~11rd sing111:1rity of 1 . 1 1 ~ fri(;Ilion1rss st,:~l)ilif.y ccl~lat,ion. 'l'l~c n.na.lysis of t l ~ c cfial, of t,lris so-c:rllntl vis(:ot~scorroct.ion on I.l~c solr~ticfnof t,Irc st,abilit.y equation plays 1)nrt in tltc tliscussion of st.nbility. a fi~t~tlnmcnl.n.l 'J'l~ctwo tllnorcms tlr~c Lortl Rnylcigl~ l ~ o w h a t tho c ~ ~ r v a t u of the vclocity tjo s t re profile n.ni.ct,sst,al)ilit:yitr nft~ntlatncnt.:~l S i n i ~ ~ l t a r ~ c o u s has 1)ccndcmonstmtcd w:~y. it l y 1.11:lt the c~:rlaul:tt,ionof vc,locit,y profilcs in laminar bountlary layers must proceed wit.11 vrry high accnrary for tshc invcsl,igat,ion of st.ability t,o bc possible: i t is not

Velonly

111 t,llc ym.r 1921 T,. 1'r:1.11tll.l [07)rc~vcrl,rtl t , l ~ :l.l,tsrn~l)l. cx:r.t~tinc l)rol)l(.tl~ In c 1'0 1.11(: of sttnbilit,y by t,l~c?orct,ical n~et,Ilotls. orclcr t o c o ~ ~ s i t l1.110st:t.bilil,y of :L I:r~nin:~.r 111 rr bountlary laycr on a flat plnt,e w i l . l ~ o ~ i t unduc ~na.tl~cmnt,ic::~l c,oml)lic::rt,ions,vc:loril.y profilcs witlr st,raigllt sc~gtnrnl,~ wcrc ~tsctl,lpigs. 16.9n, 11, (:, t l in I,II(: s:t.tncX w:ry :IS was (lone prcviot~slyl)y I,ortI 11.aylrigl1. A c::~l(:r~lnl.io~t pc~rforlnctll1.y ( ) . 'l'ic.I,jvns I!tXI on t.11~ basis of t l ~ frict.ionlrss st.abilil.y cclr~nt~ion c sllowrtl t,lr:tt, in t.ltc rn.so of I~c~rtncl:~~~ylayer profiles, the exisl,cr~cc convcx corners, Figs. IB.!)a, I), c:nst~ro~t . n l ~ i l i f , ~ ~ , of s

whereas concave corners. I'igs. IC,.!)r, ( I , nl\\,:~.ys I(.nd t,o ins1.nl)ilif.y.I'his invcst.igat.ion matle i t p1ansil)lc t,o s ~ ~ p l ) ot11;~t s c volocit,y profiles wit11 points of ittflcxion, 14'ig. lO.9g, arennstablc. T h e tr~tt,li this supposition was later dcmonstratctl by W. Tollof micn [loo], a.s aIrra(Iy stat,cd in See. XVI I), Theorem I.

oscillat.ions we find 1,ltat. Generally spcnlring, for net~t~ral

I n ort1t.r l,o ol)t.nit~ l i n ~ i of stal)ilit,yoxl)rvssctl i l l t,crnis of a ltcyuoltls number :I t~ for ~tnst.:rl~lc: veloeit,y profiles (I'ijis. lC,.!)c :rntl tl), t,ho largest, visrolts terms appearing in t,llc c.on~l)l(-t,c st,nhiiit.yccln:it.ior~ 1 (i. wrrt: t,akrn i111.o c c o ~ ~ rnntl , it was crxpect,c!cl ( 14) a ~t. t.hnt, t,hry will p r o ~ n o l rtlnn~pitrg.'I'll(: i~r(lncr~ce viscosit,y on t,hn tlis!.~~rl):~.nccs of rxI.rntlctl I ~ r r conly ovrr a vrry s ~ n a l lrc.gior1 of (,II(: whole vc,locit,y profilo, being loc:ilrti it1 (.he i1111nc~~1i:rl~c~ ~lc~igl~l)o~trI~c,otl wall, in ort1t:r 1.0 sat.isf.y 1 . 1 1 ~1 1 0 - s l i l t ol'I.11~ contlit.iort. '1'11~ c.alr~tl:~t.ions ~)crlortnctlI),y 0. l'icl,jrt~slet1 t.o t,l~c vcry uncx~)crl,ccl rcsttlt, 1.l1:tt t.ltc?int.rotl~trliot~ a smnll vnlr~e viscosiby i11t.o t,l~c! of of c?clrtat,ior~s nol, tlitl protlrlec tlarnpir~g but amplificat.ion for all ltcynnltls nrimbcrs, ant1 for all waveIrr~gt,l~s t,ho tlisturl)ancrs. Morrovc!r, this rosl~lt of was ol)t,ainctl not, only for l~nstahlc velocity profiles (JFip. lC,.!)c:, tl) 1,111. nlso for t,ho prolilcs of typc: a ant1 1) in Fig. 16.9, which have 1)ocn show11 tto bt: Slnl)lc \V~I(:II viscosit.y was rtogloct.ctl. An interim revicw tlcscril)ing 1,rogrrss achieved betwccn the years 1920 and 1930 occasion of the annual GARIM mecting (German was given I)y I,. Pra.ntlt,l [67a] on t,l~e Society for Appliccl Mntl~rmat~ics Mcollanics) in lZad Elster, 1931. and. 2. Cnlc~~lation tlie curve of neutral stnbility. A sa.tisfactory explanation of the of by l99l in the year 1929. 11c demonst,mt,~d above pnm.tlox wrn.ss ~ ~ p p l i e d \V. 'I'ollt~iict~ t,ltat. t.11r. inflnrncc of viscosi!,y on tlist~ttrbnncesrn~lst I)e taken into a c c o ~ t n tnot only in the itntnrdint.c nrighl~ortrl~ood t,l~e of wall, a s supposetl by 0. Tiet,jrns, b u t t,l~at,;inatldit.ion, it mrtst be ncronntcd for also in t,lle ncighbonrl~ood t,hc crit,icnl of layer, where the vcloc:it,y of wavc prol~ngat,ionof t,lle tlist,url)anccs b e c o m ~ sequal t o !.he ve1ocit.y of t,Ilc n~n.in flow ant1 w11c1.c. s shown in Sec. XVI b 5, t,he cornponcnt a u' hecomes infinitn: according t o the simplified, frictionless theory, t.he curvature of t.hc profile bring tlilrcrrnt. from zero. 'l'hr rxistcncc of viscosity ratisas large changes in t.his criticnl l n y ~ r ahilc it is also cvitlrnt. t , l ~ a in rca1it.y u' remains finitc thcre. , t IIowcver, the inflltrncr of viscosit,y l~ccomcscvitlent. only i f the curvat,urr of the velocity profile is not Icft. out, of account. Tllcse consirlerations demonst,rat.cd t h a t it. was necessary !.o st,~tdy 1)c~h:~viortr small dist.ur~)ances t.he of with respect t o clirvctl velocil~,y profilrs ((121J/t1?/2 f O ) , and wit.11 visco~it~y taken into account bot.11 in t,I~e r~eiplthor~rl~ootl t.11c. wn.ll ant1 in the cril.ical layer. This programme was carried of o~tt. \V. 'l'olltnien in t,hr palwr q~tot,ctl by rarlicr, ant1 ns n r e s ~ ~ l htr was able tto find t,, a linlit of st.:ll)ilit.y ((:rit.i~alIteynoltls n ~ ~ m l ) cfor !,he cxarnplc of the flow in the r) bonntlary Itcyc-r o n a f1n.t pIn,te at. zero incitlcnce wlrich agreed well with experiments. In ortlvr t.0 int.(:g~~n.l,c* Ot.r-Somnlrrft~I(l t,111, nclunt.ior~ I ti. 14). which is of 4tl1 orcler, ( it. is nccemn.ry 1.0 rst,n.I)lisl~ f'~~ntl;ctncnt.n.l a. syfit,cm of solnt,ions for it,. For y + c a and with U ( y ) -- I!,,, = cons!,, t,his is

and, consequent.ly, $1 and $ 2 represent the slowly varying solul.iot~s, wllc:rens $3 and $ 4 become the fast varying solutions. T h e pair of s ~ l u t ~ i o n Is, # 2 sa!,isfics bot.11 + the frictionless disturbance equation (Raylcigh's ec~uat~ion) anti tohe V ~ S C ~ I I R Orr. Sommerfcld equation, eqns. (16.16) and (16.14), as y + oo. By contrast, t,hr pair of solut,ions $3, q5.4 satisfies only the viscous d i s l ~ ~ r b a r ~ c c cq~rnl~ion. Ihis rc-ason $ For 95:! are rcfcrrctl t o ns t l ~ c frictaionlcsss o l ~ ~ t i o n\vl~crcns#3, # 4 nrc r:cllctl ~ . I I ( -visc.oris s, so111 Lions.

,,

IVC nol~icc Inhat, thc s o l i ~ l i o t ~ s ntld 6,1 42 IIIIISI. l)c (lroppctl. 'l'ltis is ~ I I C I.II(\ f:11!1.tl11~1, 00 t.he boundary c o ~ ~ d i t i o n s (16.15) rcq~tirc !.ho vanishing of d, nntl 6' nt. ,t, * oo. '~'IIIIS

with the boundary condition t h a t $ = 9'= 0 a t y = O.TIie non-viscoussolution does not satisfy the no-slip condition a t the wall (y = 0) because $1' 0 there. Furt-hermore, a t the critical layer given by U - c = 0 we discover t h a t 41' + c a , as explninect earlier. I t follows t h a t the contribution from frict.ion becomes particularly large a t tthose two locat.io~ls, and t,hat t,he rcquired particular solution &(y), a s well a s the general sol~ltion#(y), vary with a t a fast rate there. As a conaeclncncc, it. becomes vcry t e d i o ~ ~ s calculat,e the cl~aracterist~ic t,o function $(t~) and the eigenvalue c = c, i c i , whether analytically or numerically, for a given pair of values of n a.nd R. When numerical methods are used, t h e special diflicult~icsste~n the fact t h a t froln the highest derivative in t,he Orr-Sommcrfeld equation, $"", is multiplied by t.he very small factor 1/R. Mat,hematically spcaking, t.hc lnrge diFTerence bet,wccn the course of thc funct,ion $(y) a t the wall and a t the critical lnycr a s dcpicted by the frictionlew (Rayleigh) equation and the equation containing friction (Orr-Sommerfcld) stems from !.he fact t h a t the order of the d i ~ c r e r ~ t i n l equabion is r c d ~ ~ o cfrom tl four t.0 two when the viscorrs terms arc deleted in it.

An at,tempt t o calculat,e numerically the characteristic functions 4(y) of the Orr-Sommcrfeld equation (16.14) for a large set of prescribed pairs of vnlucs of the reciprocal wavelength, ar, and Itcynolds number, R, puts enormous detnands on the capacity of a computer. This explains why 0 . Tietjcns [9R] and W. ITcisenbcrg 1421, who nt>t,ncltcdthis problem in t,ltc twcntics, failed t o nchicvc success. 111 t.hc c.ntl of t,ltc t.wcrlties, Tollmien rcvcr!.cd t,o this problcrn anti forind no other way but I,o f:dl back on a very tetlious analytic procedure. Nevertheless, these time-consuming analytic methods proved ernincntly successfult. Det,ails of t,hese calcdlations can be found in the original papers of \V. Tollmien (99, 100, 1011 and D. Grohne [38]. There this work hcrc, because t,he calculations have been rcndererl is no need to snmn~nrize

t ' ~ O ~ ~ I I I ~ ( . Innnlylic. invrwl ig~rtion~ ~lro(lrlc,c.cl. I'R I!)!)] nnlong otl~c.rs, ~)l~yair.rrll~~I I I I I I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ I I , 1110 itlll,ol
t l ~ s t vclociLy con~ponent~ of t l ~ e the u' distrrrbnncc cxpcric~~ccs pl~asc s sl~ift angle 3 "poll of crossing the critical layer. Thia ellift ia due to the viacosity: c/. tl~n caIcr~Intior~a [nnn]. in

468
7

XVI. Origin of tnrbulrnce I

ol,sol(.f.c. I I I~ I I ~ I I ntt~n(~ric::~.l ( ~ t , I ~ o ~ l s o n Inrg':, of'fic:icmt, clcc:t,ronic cornp~~t.crs. ~ I . ~ . ~ t~i I):tsc(I r I IIV first, S I I ( : C C S S ~ I I ~111tlnrri~a,I solut.ion of t.11~ Orr-Sommetfel~l cquat,ion was ptiblished in I,hc: y w r 1!)02 I)y I<. 1'. 1Zrlrt.z ant1 S . 11. Crandall 1511, t . l ~ ais t-11irt.y t years aft.cr t h e p~~l)lient,ion \\'. 'l'ollrnicn's 1991 original r e s ~ ~ l t'L'his work was improved in 1070 of ~s! in f,wo p a ~ ) t \ r s R. Jortlinson 147, 481. I m p o r t a n t int.roduct.ory worlr was performed l)y I)g RI . It. 0sl)ot~nc: lli2j :rntl I,. 11. T,(!c ant1 W . (2. Reynolds [GR]. 7'he ~ ) e c t ~ l itlifficulties ar of' t,llc n ~ r ~ n e r i c : ~ I c?valrlat,ion of f,llc chnrn.ot,cristic solut,ions anti the eigenvalues of tile Orr-Sotnrnt:rf(~ltlecl~~at,ion Ilavr I ~ c r nagain discussed shortly a.fterwards in t h e work of , J . M . (:c\lsl.ing a.tltl I). 17. .JarlI<o\vslii1301 a.ntl A. 1)avic 1121. li"l~rt.ll<~rtnorn,llcf,ehov 17.. ant1 \\'.O. C~.inii~l:~.lv \ ~L( * I I I I I I ~ I ~ :~.~:roltnI. t.l~(: g:~ : S ,I.~ of dil'licttlt~irs~ ~ s s o c i n t ,\vif.ll t.110 c~I ~~r~rnc>~.ic.:~I l i o r ~tllr 0t.r-Sornrnc~rli.ltlrcltln,l.ion in t . l ~ r i rbooli [4], 1)n.sing it. o n s o l ~ ~ ol' I{,, 14;. I < : ~ ~ ~ : L I I ' S [48:11 NII'I' t,Il(-sis, 111 t,Ilis connexion t , l ~ c ~ c a t l r r ~ III:IJ~ also ~visll l,o constllt (!II:II), 5 of It'. M . \Vhif~c'sI)oolc 1 1071. As :I. s c c l ~ t ( 1.0l rcf. 1.471, t,llc cfi:c.f. of' a sligllf, st,rc:amwise change in 1.he 1)asic ~ IIo\v \vns s f ~ ~ c l ia.* ~ l ( nun1l)rr of f.itn(:s 12. 4n., 31, 4fi:1., H4a., 1061. As alren.tly poinl.ctl ottf. I)y . I . I'~.c~f.sc:l~ [6!)1. I l l i s c*lT(,ct.is sti~:~.ll. It Inns be nscfnl t,o p ~ ~ i n t . at. 1.llis sl.age i r our clcscript,ion t l ~ a l Illc st,ahilit,y 0111, ~ , a.nnl.ysis ol'a Ilow lieltl in a. 11ot1ntlat.yIayrr is, gcncrally speaking, more tlifficnlt t h a n of that. t l ~ t . o t ~ g hcI1:lnnc~l.'l'llis is tlnc t,o t , l ~ fact, t,hat.one of t h e boundary conditions x c Sol. I,c~t~tr(l:~ry-l:~j~(~r flow is infinif,g. \vl~crcas Lot.11 bonntlarics of a channel a r e Ioc,:~tt~l l i ~ ~ i ttlis1~nnc:rs.'l'ltis is aggmval.etl by the c-ircnmst,ance t.llnt, t.lle velocity n.t. c, l)~.ofiIr l ( ~ j (11' Ile nlain flon, in a, bounclnry lay(-r is not, a n exact. solttt,ion of tjlleNavicrf ) Si.olic.s c>cl~~af,ions. cont.t.ast, wit.11 a. c~11:~nnc~l p. llagen-l'oiscr~illc flow). Finally, in (c. \I,(, tvisll to I.C~:III fllnt, 1.I1r Orr-Son~mc.~.I'cI(l rclrtnl.ion 11srlf wa.s tlorivrtl on t,Ilc ass11111l)tio11 1 1 1 ~ : ~n:tillflow ll(?/) (IOCS 11o1. 111:1l. c-llxllgc. in t,Ilo tlircc:t,ion of 1.l1c st.t.can-1. ' I ' l l i s :~sstltnl)Iiol~ sn.t.isfirtl in rllannrl flo\v l)nt. not, in a 1)orlntlary 1:tyc.r. All these is c ~ i l ~ c . l t r l l s t ~ : ~ ~ l rotnl)inr t o rcbntler the stnl)ili(.y ana.lysis o f n 1)oundary layer ftindac.c.s tr~c~nla.lly 11101.(: tlif'lic.t~ll. h a n for. rlln~tltlc~l t flow.

S I I ~ W I I in ccln. (7.36) Lo be given by 0 L= 5.0 I/;;:c/ I J ~ 'l'hc, vclocit.y l)rr,fil,: 1)osst:ssrs . :\ 1)oint of inllr:xiorl : ~ 1,llc wall a r ~ t lcorrcsl~ontlst,o t,hc: orlc s l ~ o \ v nin I ~ ' i ~ . t I(i.!)f.
'I'l~tls,in Lhc ligl11,of Lllc poilit.-of-i~~llosio~i crit,criot~ \vIlir:ll \vt%sl:~f.ctll l Src-. S \'I I ) 5, i f . i is seen tllat, llIlis profile lies just o n t*llc bortlcr-lillc between profiles wiLI1 n o 1,oiltt. of inflexion, which nro st.a.blc ac:cortling 1.0 t,Ilo fric-t.ionlrss t,l~cbory, :III(I prolilrs wit.ll a p o i r ~ t inflexion, wllirll a.rn nnst.nl)lo. of

Tl~e result,s of st.a.1)ilit.y r:slcul:tl~iorls porforrnrtl in :~c:c:ortl:rnc~o wit.l~t.In. nrc~f.l~otl tlesc:ril)rtl in 1.11~ prccrtling scct,ion arc sllo\vn in Pigs. 16. I O :l.rltl I(i.1 l a s \vc.ll :ts 'l':~.l)le, 16.1. 'l'hc st~nl.rl)oir~f,s along l.llc?c r ~ ~ , vII~c~trlsc~lvc~s cs t.c*1)rrsc*111. ~I(\III.I.:I.I S I ~ I I I ~ I I :0114:I I ~ I ~ S ; II~ II rcgioti crnI)rac(~tl t11c c ~ ~ r c ocr ~ ~ e s ~ ) o n ( lIIIIS~~:I.I)I<: ~ l i s t . ~ ~ t ~ l ) :: ~t ~ ~l fI1:11,~o111si1Ic lty v to s t t ( c~t s, it, c:ont~ainssf.:~l~lc: point,s. ?'hc t w o l)i.anc:I~(~s t.11~ : I I ~ of ~~~ctlt.ra.l of ( v sl.:ll~ilif.,y 1.c.ntl t.o\r.artls zero a.t, very I:~rgc Itc~y~toltls lu~tnbc~rs. 'l'lll: sn~:lll(-sl.I<.c:ynoltls ~ l l l n ~ l w r , for \vhicll one intlirrcrcrlt tlisl,rrrl)n.ncc stmillcxisfls, r(~pr(:sonf.sf.11(: crif.ic:ll 1l.cynoltls n11111brr ant1 is given b y
=

fTl)r,,t

RCrtL= 520

(point, 01' insf~:tl~ilil,y)-1-

Table 16.1. \?'nvelengLh 441 nnrl frcqr~cncy dl/ll, olnc~~t.rnlS I ~ I I ~ I ~ R I I CiC S trr111s (II(: l{.ry0, (~~ n 01 nolds nulnber R for the bountlnry lnycr on n flat. plnte nt zrro it~c~iclcncc (Illnsi~ls ~)rolilr).I ' l ~ r ~ o r ~ ' nfter \Y. Tollmien [!)!)I; r~urncricnlcalculutiot~sby It. Jortlinson 147) ntlcl I). It. 11o11st.011. I)OLII for pnrnllel flow. Scc Figs. l(i.10 :111tl Ili.1 l

:I. I(CSIII~S for tltr Ilnt pl:~tc. As :I, lirsl. :~l)l)lic::tlio~~, 'l'oll~nic~n !I!)] \V. [ (~1111)10g(:tl n~c.fl~ocl IIlr i ~ ~ \ ~ r s t . i g : ~ tof oIaI~(, stnllilit.y of t . 1 ~ to ,i n borlntla.ry layer o n a flat 1)1:~(,1* :I.( z c ~ oitlri(lc\nrr. 'l'l~c veloci1.y prolilc of surll a bountlat,y layer ( r l l a s i ~ l s 1)rolilf.) is S ~ I I I \ ~ I Iin Fig. 7.7. '1'11~: prolilrs a t tlill'ercnt st.atiorls along t,he plat,c :II.(- sitl~il:lt.\ v l l i ( . l l I I I ( ' : ~ I > S III:LI. 1.I1rg rill1 I)(: nla.tl(>1.0 roil~eitlc:wllcn t.Ilcy arc plot,tctl :~g:litlsf. ?//(\(.I.).1lrl.c. d(.l.) tlc>rtot.rs t.111. Oonn(lnry-l:~ycl.t,hicIz~~css \vIli(:h hits been
Ilis
.. - . .
Ill(* O ~ ~ . S ~ I I I I I I I ( ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ( I t~111:tli1111 (lli.14) \!Ihirl) f~o111ai11s : I ~ I C I ~ I ~ ~ I I I I: ~ I~ I I L S I,llr ~ I I;i(.lzol ~ ~ ; ~ r n l l r l iinn Illo 0;1sir IIo\t- r:tn I ~ r rfot~~i(l :i I);Ll)cr I I \\'.S. S:~ric s i ill ~ : I I I I / ,\. II. Kit)l;.l~ (X.4:~j. 'I1111.r0 ilrc s i x :t~l~liIion:~l LT~IIIS. trr111sarc: i~lt.~.o(llcr,rtl thr 'l'\vo hy ( ~ I I : I I I ~ ~i>t 1 III{: ,r-~li~.r(~l t11r: I I I I ~ I I ~ ~ IoI f~t IIIC ~lisl~~rl):~nrc, io1101 ~ t,\votcr111s :III(Io(I t ~ y t,rnns. arc 111:: VIYXI. t . c , l n l ~ o ~ l r n t I I I ~ 01 velocily i l l llle I,:lsiv Ilow, otlr Inorr trrnl is d ~ t.o lllc rllnngc i l l t,l~c ~ c \vi~vc.lrllgtl~f I l l ( : (listt~rl):~n('r ~ I I C ~:-(lirrt.(io~~ finnlly, tile sixth terln r~orrc~sponds o it1 nn(1. to I ~ ~ p l ~ ~ ~I r .-~n IrIi ~ l ~ ~ r ~ I Sl I)or~ntl;~rg-l:iycr l I Iirory (srr (!II:I~). jX).'I'll(: I)rcsrnce of s~~rtiori blon.i~~g or ~ I V ( > Sriso l o I'11rl11cr ? ~ I I I S . A n invrstig:ttio~l II of tllr 111111irriviil solt~t~ions LIIC so ~~~oflifictl of OrrSon~~~~rrI'rlcl: ion lor v:kriy~~s I*~II I~ vc*loril,v~~rolilrs I II(! I":~llznc~r-Slinl~ 12. :{I, IO(i],lniletl of sc,rics, 1 0 ~ I I ~ I I I ( I$111 :l(l(liIion:~l c~ 1rr111s I I I O S ~I.:ISI-S. For I.llis ~ ~ : I S O iIl I is ~ l i l ' l i t ~ ~ ~ l111:lIie iro~np:~rison in to l : I , I + I \ \ I ~ I . I I s1n.11so111Iio11s \\.(-I1 :IS I I ~ . I \ I ( Y ~ I I 1 1 1 ( ~ 1 1 1 :111cl 01r S O I I I I ~ I I I I S 01 I I I P "19in1l)lilir~l" its OrrS ~ I I I I I (IY ~I I~ I ( ~~ I.III.~i v ( . ~r r , i n IIIIISI (.~ISVS1111. (.II:IIIKV I I I ( . l i ~ l l i t(~I'sl:~l~ilily lo l:~rl( I : ~ ~ o ~ v ill (IIID n f ~~:w:~llrlis~llI 0111 l o I I P R I I ~ ~ I IIl'~~nl(*~.irill P I ~ R I)i~vr III~I S . ('JIII~ IIPPII givrn 1)y F. (:. 'r. S11enct.nl. 185111 .

'I'II(. V X I I * I I C I ~ (~I O I I I 01'

i~ltrc,cl~rvcvl I l l ( . 11s

::Jr[

470

XVI. Origin of ll~rl)ltlcnce T

itlst~hiiit~y tile poin' of l t r a ~ ~ ~ i l ,o\virlg t,o t h r nn~plifirntionof t l ~ rrrnsl.:~ble to ior~ disturbanrcs. 'rl~iscontlition is satisfic~tlin 1 . 1 1 ~cnsc ltntlcr consitlcmt,ion. 11:~ve
\\'(a

= 960
rr:l

(point. of t r : ~ t ~ s i l . i , ~ ~ ) o

wl~ic!llis cotrsitlr~rtb\~ly 1:~rgnrtllnn t-11~ I L ~ I of 620 wl~icllwe clr~ot,t:tlc*:trlic*rfor 1,hc V I~ point of inst.ability. I,he clist,nncc b c t r w c c ~ ~ point of inst,:~l~iliI:y l,l~n tilo nntl point. of l,r:r.~~sil.io~~ tlcl)c:~~tl.r

R,.:, =520

R;

%A

R,,,, ' 5 . 0

Fig. lfi. 10

Fig. IB.11

n*i

Fig. lti.10. C:rlrvr.s of nc~ltrnl st.:tl)ility for the tiint.rtrbnncc freqllerrcy /?, and thc \vnve velocity c, n fnnclion of llnyr~oltls ~nrtrrbcr t.hc hnllndnry lnyer on n flnt plnb nt zero incidence (Blmius for prolilr). 'J'11ror.ynorortlirrg t,o W. 'l'olltnicn (991: nrrlncricnl cnlc~llntions R. Jordinson [47]; see by nl~o 'l'nl~lr16.1

on t,llc dpgrec! o f n.mpli/irnlio~, ant1 ttl~(: kintl of t l i ~ t ~ ~ ~ r l ) n11rcscnt in 1.11~:cxt,ernnl r~ccs stream in tens it.^ of t~lrbltlcnce), 1)11t. . 1 1 ~R ( I ~ ~ I I R In ~ c c l ~ n t l i sof n:1.11111Iificnt,io11 I)(: t ~ C:III ol)t,ninctl from td~e s111tly of tllc ~n.zgnit,~ltlcs tllc ~~nr:t.rnctr!rsl l t.hc inlr:rior of l.l~r: of i ctrrvc of ncut.rnl stfnl)ility, P, > 0. ( ~ n l c ~ ~ l n t ,oro t e l l is Itin(l wc:rc: first, ~)e:rlilrrrlc:tl i ~~ s hy 11. Scl1Iit!l11,ing1761 l'or 1J1o fl:~l, 1)1111,(:;l,lt(:y I I I L V ~ : I)<.,(:II r c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~l),y~ . l ,I*'. ;SIICII ~ S. ( c l 1851.

I n orcler t.o g ~ i n clenrcr i ~ l s i g l ~ t t.11~ irtt,o mcc:Itnnics or Lltc oscillnLitrg rnot,iott, JI. Scl~licl~tirlg dctcrmincd t h e cigcr~fi~nct,iol~s for scvc~.nlno~ltr:~.ll i ~ t ~ ~ t r [77] $(?I) t
hances. Tllis enabled him to draw the pn.t,tern of strc:rmlincs of t.11~ tlist,r~rl)ctl n~ot.iotl for ne~~t~ral oscillnt.ior~s.An exnmy~lc such n pnt.t.crn can I)e foltn(1 in Fig. I(i.14. of

Fig. 16.1 I. Crtrveu of nerrtrnl nt.nhilit,y for t.llc tli.st.~lrhnncc wnvelrngtll n 61 n n f~rnct,ion Rayn of 1101(i.sni1nt1)cr 1.11~ for 1)ol1ttd:)ry Inyor on n 11:bl. plntc a t zero itlciticncc (Bin-4ill.s prolilc). 'l'llcory ncc-orclingto W. 'l'olll11ic?r1 [99]; rrnnrrric:nI mlcrllnt,ionn by 1%.Jordin~on 1471; see also Tnblc 16.1. Tlre nrnplit,tr~lc> tlist.ribrition for dist.tlrlmnc:cn 1 nnrl I I in given i n Fig. 16.20

I ltis is tlrc ~ ) o i r ~ t .inst:rl~ilit.y(i)r t.11((11\)or~~rtl:i.ry ~ . ~on n Hat, 11lxtr.. 11, is ~.c.tnnrkal~l(: I: cr

7

I llc tlin.grntn in Fig. 10.12 illr~sl.t.:~l.cs~ o t l nn~j)lilic:nl.ic~n IIIINI.ILI)I(\ ( l i s t . l ~ t . l t : i l ~ ( : ( ~ ~ of in t h e boutlclary layer or1 n flat, p l a h . 'l'l~etlingrnm, baser1 o n n recent, cnl(:i~lnt.ion performed by 11. G.Onibmwski c t nl. [GR], extrends ovcr n witle rnngc of R.cynoltls nurnbrrs. It turns out t01nt tllc rnaximrttn nrnplificntion rntc does not 111:~co it.sc4l' a t very ltigl~Reynolds n ~ ~ m b c r -+ m) l ~ n t , locntntl in the motler.ntc rango of R =- 10" (R is to 10". ?'Itis is tlr~c 1.11cfnot, t.llnt. t,llc crtrvc of nc~lt,rn.l to sl.nl~i1it.y n !In( 1)ln.t~ of fcrr is

7 7

t.hn.1.only n c~orrly~:l.r:~l~ivc:ly tt:Irrow mngo or'wnvclcngtl~s n.rltl Sreq~tencirsis "dnngcrorts" l i ~ r t.110 I:l.rnir~nrI)o~rncl:~ry layer. 011t,hc one Ilnntl, t.llerc is n loutel. lirriit. for t-llc Itc.yrtol(ls n~ttnI)cr, t,ho ot.llcr, tllcre is an ~ c p p c rl i n ~ i t on for the cl~nrnct.erist~ie mn.gnil-~~tlcst,llc: tlistfuri)nnccs.Once t h e Iat,tc:r arc cxcceclcd no itist,nbiLit.yis cnusctl. of 'I'l~c n~~irtrricnl v:1111es :%re:

A tlct.xilcd c:ompn.rison bet,wccrl the precctling t h c o r c t i r ~ lresults and experiment next ~ e c t ~ i oITcre we shall only remark tllat the position where n. will IIC given in t,l~c t h e bolrnrlnry layer bcconlcs first ~ l n s t ~ n laccortfing to theory (point of instabilit,y) ~le must. always be expected t1n lit: ~ ~ p s t ~ r c ofmthe experimentally observed point of n tfrsnsit,ion I)ecn.~~sc nctr~nltvnrhr~lencc created along the pat11 from t h e point of is

Fig. 16.12. C~lrvesof cor~st~nnt, temporal amplification for the bonndnry lnyer on a fiat plnte nt zero incidcncc ovcr n wide

d. Co~npnrisorlof the tl~rory sl:ll~ilily~ r i t c-xl~rrirnrnt, of l~

47:)

1:1tvr(.i~nos. .'l'. S1.1tn1.t. !)(I] ; ~ n t lI). (:I.OIIII~ ,I 19, 1341 ~ n : ~ t l e at.l,c~nl)t, tlot.er:III to I,II(\ : ~ , t ~ ~ ~ l i I i ( ; a01't , 1111s1~a~l)lc s t ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ a ~ ~into a,rcontit, t , l ~ e , ior~ ~li taking i e e s cII'ec.1, of t h r ??o?f-li?lrnr t,c!rms in 1.11~: c:clna.l,ions. In t.l~is conncxion i t is irn[)ort,:~~tlt fro ~ x ~ a l iIII:I.I 1,110 a n ~ p ~ i I i e : ~ lori o n 1 I I I I S I . ; I ~ I~ ~ s i ~ ~ ~( -~ I~S ~\ Sa . t I ~ : (r :~ If~ o \ ~ z(~ ~ 11 ~ ( Ii ~ I ( Ill(: ~ ~ ~ I I s ~~o<!Olltr:~vl,(111it,c (~t111si(lt~r;1,111~1.i l l I 111.11. Y I I I S O S r11a11gc Iht: t ~ r n ~ ~ s r rcn(v'gy from 'l'l~is. ~ a in nf r I IIP III:I.~II IIIOI ion L t l ~ c o osril l a l . i ~ ~ g inoI,ion.sincr it, is 1)ropo1~I,ionnl rI71/11?/.1'11c t n : ~ ~ i ~ i t,o ' csll'~.ct01' t.l~is l.l~:it,:it n Iat.t:r stngc 1.11~ ~ t ~ s t . n .tlist,r~rl)a.nccs 1ongc.r amplify in is ~ l)lr no I U . ( I ~ I I I,o ~ s ~(PiIr) I ~ r l t ,t , o l t l 1.0 a fit\it.c \rnlnc: w l ~ i c h intlepcntlent of t-he initIial W c ~ ~) I is vaI11c.
111 I I I ~ I 1I1e (:ottrs(\ 01' I ~

More 1,Iin,11n (l(~*n(lt; xvns l,o eli~l)sc l~(*forc r:xprri~n(:t~I.:~l a11 v(*rili(-:ltio~t t h e or n l ~ o v c t.l~coryof s1,al)ilit.y c o ~ ~ l t1)e ol)I.:lint~tl. 'I'ltis \\*;IS I~l~illi:~t~l.ly l :~rl~ic:vc,tl I)y (1. 13. S r l ~ r ~ l ~ : l r l r r 11. I<. SI<~:IIIISI:I~I :in11 \vcSs11:111givv :if1 : I ( . ~ . O I I I I ~I.~ f . i r :i11tI IS21 01. l \vorlc in 1.11~ r l c c c c t l i ~ ~ ~ s scc~t,ion. i i l,in~(: At, wl~c.n tl~c,sc: c ~ x l ) t ~ r i ~ l ~ c ~ l ~ t ~ :\vt:re rrs11I1.s ~ I nlrc:~tly l<t~o\vn,C. C. 1.i11 [541 r t y ~ : t t , ( ~ l I,II(: C : I I ~ ~ I I I : I I ~ ~ I I I S :ill 1~1*(111irv,l t l ~ c ill tl(:vc*lol~nrnf. 1.l1c: t h r o r y ; his c ~ a l ( . ~ ~ l ; ~ .ngrcscvl :I(, :III c~ssc~t~l.i:tl of liol~s ~,r)ir~l,s \vi(.l~ t,liosc d u e t o \V. Tolllnien antl 11. Srlllielrt.ing. Navier-Stokes ecluntions: A t a mrtc:l~ lntrr t,imc,, 11. IT:~sc,l 12Rl)l c ~ : t l v ~ ~ l : ~ l ( ~ t l 1I1r l.crnpornl nrnplific:nt.ion of artilicinlly incl~lcctl,pt-l.ic:tlic: tlisl~~~~.l):t~lt:c~s. :I 1111I I(' 11stvI rncricnl m c t l ~ o t ant1 cmployctl t,llr frill N:~viel~-St.ol<c*s l cclrl:rl ir)ns. ' 1 ' 1 1 ~ t.c~srtlts :~g~.i,c.l il all csscnt.ial ~ ) n i ~ l \vit,ll t,I~osc l,s re1)orl.c(1 c:tr.lirl.. lltnl is ~ v i l l ~ 1 ~ . c . s ~ ~ l t s t l ~ t c ~ I'I,~IIII 1.1 ~ tl . ~l t.llc linear sl.n.l~ili1.y t,l~cory basccl on t.l~t, O~.r-Sotn~r~c.t.I't~I(l I : I I .S(T I ~;I s o C(~I ~~ :I [:):):I1 :111(1

[57 ti].

'I'llr tlist,:itrcc bet,wcctl t , l ~ c point of t.r;~nsit,ion arltl t,llc point of nc>lll.~.nI sl,:il)ilit.y tlrl>(xntls col~sitlernblyo n t l ~ e u ~ / ) I I , ~ P ? ~ c F ~ inl~7?.sity atltlition l o its dcprntlcncc on in nrnplifirat.ion (see also Sec. X V I (1).

Fig. I(i.lB. Ct~rven of con~t,ant. ~ ~ ~ 1 t nniplification . in1 for 1110 I~o~~nrl:lry on n li~ynr flat 11IaI.e at, zero incidence in t,lw lower mnge of Reyxs nolds n~lmbrrs cnlr~~lnt,ed I)y It. .lordinson 1471

I . Ol(lcr rnensiirc~~icttts lrntisiliot~. '~VI(: p ~ , c c ( > ( l iI.(-SIIIIS \v(*I.(! Iltr lirsl, of ~~g 8o~ttt.io11s l , l ~ L11cor.v of S I I I ; ~ ~i~ I , ~ ~ r l ~ : ~ t ~ r r slet1 l o I I I C ,.~:IIII:II (11' :I (<t.il of' r cl s \vhit:l~ it111 ity1.1 Itcylroltls I I I I I I I I I ~ T of 1.l11~sn111(:O I T J ( . ~ of I I I : L ~ I I ~ I . itsI I ( ! I I I ( ~ : I S I I ~ ~ Y ~x l ) ( ~ ~ . i t ~ ~ ( ~ ~ ~ f . : I I l.l~:il. (~ In nc*cortlnr~c:c: \vit.l~I,llo t,ltcory, sn~:tlltlist,~lrl):~r~crsi c . l ~ lit11 \vi(lli~r c-c.rl:~itlr;~tlg(. \\pl~ :i o f freq11rtlc.y nt~cl wnvclc~rlgtll ilrr :in~l~liIit:(l, \\'II~>I.P:IS ~lisI111~0:i11(~cs 01' s111:1Ilt~r r o Ii~rgcr wavelongt.l~sa r c tlnmpcd, r~rovitletl f.l~al.t h e Itc:y~~oltls I I I I I I ~ )(*x(:o(vIs I (~I. :I ecrt.ain limiting vnluo. 'l'ltc t,hcory shows l.l~nl,t l i s L ~ ~ r l ~ : ~ n c ~ c ~ s \ \ . ; I V ( ~ I I ~ I I ~ ~ , I I S \vlrose 11.r~ lnrgr ntltl rclual tso :l r n ~ ~ I t i j )of t.11~) o ~ ~ ~ ~ c l a . r y - l :~ ~ ~ (i-~ .~ ~ r~ I~ :tI ~ I~ s :sI I I : I I . I , ~ lc l I ~l y ~ : I (& I ~( "tlnlrgcrol~s". 1 1 is Litrtl~cr :issrttnc*tl 111:ii. l , I ~ amplilic:;1.(.io11 tlisl,t~rl~:ir~c:rs c of rvc~~~l.r~;r.lly cfTects tile tra.nsition from laminar to t.~~rl)rllerlt, flow. 'I'll(: 1)rocess of :iml)lific:ition reprcscnl.~,s o t,o s a y , t,lle lirilc bcLwccn t h e st,nbilil.y t.hcorg antl t,Ilo oxl)ori~t~cnl,:~lly cst,ahlisl~ctlf a c t of t h e existence of t,ransition.
Some t.ime I)efore tJie first snccesscs of tlrc 1.llc:ory of st2:rl)ilit.y 11:ltl I1rc.11 :~t.l~it~vc.(l, I,. Schiller [81] ci~rricd o u t ext,cnsivo cxpt.rirncnl,nl invcsl.ipt,ions it11.o 1.l1c I I I I ~ S rlorncnon of tm.nsit,ion, pnrt,icularly ns il, oocurs irl piprs. 'l'l~csc: Ictl Lo t,I1(: tlrvcloyttnrnt. of a semi-empirical t,licory of t,r:it~sit~ion \v11icI1\vns I):tsc(I 011 till(: 1)r~nlist: l.l1:11.. c~sscnt,i:rIly, t.rnnsit,ion is tlue t,o finit,c t l i ~ l ~ ~ ~ r l ) a n \vl~ic:ltorigin:iIfc i t 1 t,I~c,i ~ ~ l r1.0 c~c:s t, t>hepipe, or, in t h e case of boundary-layer Ilow, in t,l~o cxl,c:r~~al frcn s l , r c a ~ n'l'l~c~sc, . itlcas were h l r t h e r tlevelopctl t,hcore~ic:~lly, pnrt,ic~llnrly (>. I. 'l':~ylor 197 1.1. I)y ,l~e I tlccisiori a s 1.0 w h i c l ~of (.he l,wo l,ltcorirs sl~orlltlIN: atloj)t.c:tl 11:itl 1.0 I)(: I(.I'l.

1,o cnpcrin~ellt,.E v r n before t.11~ st.nl)ilit,y t,l~c:ory\\,:is ~ ~ s ~ . : I I ~ ~ ~ R I ~ c ~ IO,I I :I. I~r;~.nsifion Il:~t,plal,c 11:l.tI I)c,cl~i11vrsl.ignLct1 cxl)c:~~itnor~t:cIly i r ~ nr~tl tl(.l.:iil I)y .J. M . I$~lrgc*rs I(;!, y(x, y, t )

--4

( y rsp (

I ,

n,) cxp [ i

((3,

p,

t)].

It. follnn.s t.l~nt. t,r~npnrnl t,lic n~npIifir:~t.ion t.l~e of ~~nsl.nl)lc tl~sl,\~rl~nncrs is dcqo.il)r(l hy 11> 0, \rllct.(::~s loon1 :in~pliIi~.;rtio~~ I.hr is tlmcril)t:cl Ily a < 0. Ncr~triil i . stn11ilit.ycorrcspontls Lo fit = O : I I I ~ ,\I - - 0 intli~~nI.inp I,II;)I, i t . is ( . I I ~ - S:LIIIP 110l,11 l,in~c for and place cIo~)r~~drnt, :11111jlifi(,:it.i(11i. A IIIO~~. deln.ilrtl sl,r~cly t . 1 1 ~rrl:lt.io~~ of I~rt.\rt.c.n fe111l~1raI loval ~~n~pl~fir:~t.ion nntl (or (In,~~lping) of rlisl,~trl~:l~~crn t ~ ~ i n in~lwo p:ll)ers l ~ y (::~sl.c.r is r o n c l RI. 1-32. :I:!]. (!onlpnre l~nrc, pnprr by A. 11. t,l~n \L';IY.Y.:III 1: I I I I I I - N I - I V I ~ I I ~ : Ill~~itls dis(+~~ss~vI I < . A . I'enr~on 104aI. 1 iO4;1 II :lrr k~y,J.

"In t,l~e t,llirt,ient,l~e Into prevailing view 1vn.s probnl)ly ns cxl~rcsnr~l (:.I. 'l':iylor [!17 1 i11 I!):IS I)y \\-Ilo w R of the opinion t l ~ n ~tnbility n t tllcory Ilnd lit,t.le or no r~onnrxiorl\ r . i l l ~ I)o~ln(li~ry li~yvr t,rnt~sition. Only 1.110 Grr111n.n~. prol)or~t~tlctl 1hrol.y nn~l wl~o thr rrl~ortrtlq~~:ilili~livc-I ~ I I I ( \ I I I . II::~ wit.11t,l~c Ilow-vin~~alizat.io~~ expori~no~~l, of l'rn.ntll.l (I!1:1:l) i l l I IIV (:octl I , ~ I I ~ ~\:~II.~I,IIIIII(.I. (~I g:tv(. any crrtlrnrr t.o I.11r l.l~rory. 'l'l~rya.crcSrigI11.:'I1I1e rrirly P I I I P ~ ~ I I I ( ~ I t.011111 IIVI(Y.I ~H 1101 'I'olll~~i(.l~~ v j t l i c l ~ l .!vnvrs, bet-ttrtsr t.l~rywrre ovrr\sllrl~ncclby tl~c:very 11oi3yI):~vItgrr~~~nrl in~ I.II~IIIIIC.II(.~ in t.Ile \rind-t,~rnnrl t l ~ o ~ c of tlnys" (qnotetl fro111F.hI. M'llitc 1107J. 1!)74).

474

1 XVI. Origin of l,t~rl~~tlct~rr

of d. Compnriml~ tho theory of stnhility with cxlwri~ncnt, 1)c,not,i11~ this t,imc-avcrn.ge of tho ~ ~ l ~ c n m p o r ~ e t ~ l . ~ rce 11y ivfc~tsily Lc11~1) t ? ~ r h ~ ~ . lof ~ rstaream ns (or of r~a .c

478

1%.(:. vnn dcr l l r R g e Zijnon 1411 and M. Tlanscn. 'i'hcsc mcasurernents let1 to the rc.sult. t.11nt.t,l~n crit,ic:~l Jbyr~oltls nc~rnl~cr cor~t,ainccl the rarlgc was in

p, ,VC 3,

(lrfiIlc t,tlc

Soon nfi.cr, 1I . 1,. I)rytlcn I 16. 171 antl his c:ollaltornt~ors r~ndert~ook vcry t,horougl~ IL s.11(1 r,aroli~l inves(.ig~t.iorl this l,yl)c of flow. I)tlring t h e course of tht:sc invcst,igat,ions of c.xt,cnsivc tla1.a. O I I t,l~o voloc.it.y clist~ril)lrI.ior~ were cnrcfirllg plot,ttcd wit,l~ t.he aicl of I~ot,-wire a.ncr~~omct.crs t.rrrns of spncc roor~linnt~cs timc. Ilo\vc!vnr, t,llc: srlccin n.nt1 t.ivc an~~)lilicat~ion l i s I . ~ ~ r I ~ a n ~ t ~.s \ d i ~Ityr the theory coaltl not y e t Itr det.cct,cd. of ( lc~ ( l. (l At n l ~ o ~t3hcsame time, c x p c r i ~ n c r ~cn.rrictl out n.t Goct>t.ingenon a I l n b [~lnt.o rt ts i l l a w:rl,cr chnnncl yicltletl a qt~nlit,at.ivc confirmation of t,hc t,heory of s t a h i l i t , ~ . 'i'l~e 1~Irot~ogr:rplls Fig. 16.15 clcpict n t,~irbrilentregion which originated from n in tlist.nrl)nncc of long wavelcr~gtl~. similnrit,y bet,ween these pl~ot,ogmphs 'l'he n.ntl the l.11corctici1.l p x l , t c r ~ ~ nt.reamlit~rsof a neutral clist,t~rbnnceshow11 in I'ig. 16.14 is of irrcfttt~:tI~l(:.

where denotes t h e mean velocity of thc flow. T gcnernl, n t n c:rrta;hir~ n cIist,at~t.c. from the screr:ns or Itoncyeombe, t l ~ c torbeloncc in a wirid hi1111elb o c o ~ ~ i.~otropic, ~es i. e. one for which tho mean oscillations in thc tltrcc components arc cqttal:

rJ,

-= - = p .
,'I2

"'2

111this cnsc i t is s ~ r f i c i c n t rwtrict oncsclf t.o thc o~cillnt~iorl irl t,l~cdircat,iorl to u ' of flow, and t o p u t T=

~/Z/U,.

nnrl volt~city11inl.rib11tion n nr~~t,rnl for dist~trbnllcein the I'ig. 16.14. Pnf,tnrns of nt.rra~nlinrs I)or~i~rln.r~ on n Il:rt. plnln at zrro incitlcncc (tlinI,c~rl)nnce in Fig. 16.11) li~yrr I 11, d , / v A03 -- Reynolclrr nrlnlhnr: (I(!/) 1- u'(r, 71, 1 ) =- qlixLl~rhrd vriority ~liatril,r~Llon; (I(,,) ntrnlt flow; A -- 4 0 8 , -- W,,V,.I~,,~I.I, I , , ~ Icr : , ~o,:15(1,,r , I ~ ~ , ~co: w a v c p r n l ~ : ~ ~ : ~vt:l#~c:iLy; ti<~t~

-%

(
it

fly -

11 172 rl,

Fig. I(i.15. Flow along a flnt plnta; tt~rbuIence originating from n dist,urbrc.ncc of lo~ig wavelength after I,. Prnndtl [A81
The photngraplln r c r c Inken with thc aid o r s alnw molion-plcbro eamcrh, which lravrllcd on s lrollcy nlong will1 the flow; conscqllrnlly, lhc camara In trsincd on the nnnlc group or vorllcrs nil tbc time. TLr? flow la made vinihlc by uprinkling alumlnirtm dust o n Lhe wafcr m1rCar.e
r .

i n l r n s i l y of clisL,trbnnrc

111 tIisc:\~sing(,r:~nsit.ionit is necessary to irlt,rodnce one very irnlw)rt.ntlt pnrarnrt,rr which Incn.surcs trite "tlcgrcc of disl,~trl~nr~cc" the external stream. Ik imin ~tort.:t,tlc-r wn.s lirsl, rccogniscd when mrnsttrctnc~ltsof t,ho d m g of sphrres were per(i)r111r11 tli(lr.rcnt, win11 t ~ ~ r ~ t i r l s tellist:onllexiot~it/ was discov~rcd h a t t h e critical it1 111 . t Ilrynoltls nrrml)or of a sphere, t h a t is t h a t v a l ~ l cbf the Reynolds number which rorrcspontls t o t h e a\)rnpt,t1t:crrasc in tllc dm.g cocflicierrt s l ~ o w n Pig. 1.5, depends in vt-ry rnn.rl~t:tIly"11 t.111!sl,rcngt.l~ tho tlist~rrltnnccsin t , l ~ c of free stream. This can bc ~~~cnsttrrtl clt~nt~t,il,at,ivoly with the nict of 1.110 time-averngc of [.he oscillxl,it~g,turIntlrnt, vt~locilic~s t.l\ry occllr, for exn.nlplr, I ) ~ : l ~ i t ~ ( lS ~ ~ ~ (seeI a190 Scc. X V l l l f). :IS a O I

Ll~isai1nyler definition of turbalcnce intensity is very o f i c ~ l11sct1it1 pracl.irn eve11

in cases when the turbulence is not isotropic. Measuremel~ts diffcrcnt, willd Ir~~rtncls in skiow t h a t t h e critical Reynolds number of a sphere d e p e ~ ~ t very st,rongly 01, tlIs ts turbulence intensity, T, t h e value of R,,, increasing fast ns T dcorcmcs. I I I r~ltlr.~ ~vitltlt,11111irIs (t;onsl.r~~~:t,c(l I~(;forcl!)40), l,Itc it~f.t,~~sii,y, I I ~ I ) I I I v ~ I 1~11s I I I ~ ,OI.(I~-I. 01, I ~ ~ c 01' of 0.01.

476

of XVI. Ori~itl turhulrt~cc1

(1. Comparison of the throry of ~tal~ilityi t l l rspcrinlr~~t. \c

477

2. Verificntiort of the theory of stability by experiment. I n 194.0, 11. L. Dryden, assisted by G. 13. Sclitibnt~er and H. I<. Skramstad of the National Rurcau of St,andarcls in Washington, undertoolr a new and extensive e ~ p e r i m e n t ~programme al of ittvrs(.ig:ltion itll,o (.llc ~)hotlotnrnon t.rnttsit,ior~ of from lnminar t,o tllrbulent flow [H'LI. 111 t,lw mc>.attt,irnci t brcntue acccl~t,ctlt d ~ a tt,he intsnsit,y of t,rlrhulence exerts :I tlc.c.isi\'c. i t ~ l l ~ ~ ( ' t ~ (011 t,ll(: o~o(:(:ss :(\ of l.ra.t~sif,iot~. I I s ( ~ ( I I I c I I ~n ~speoi:~Iwir~tl (:~ . ~, t,nr~ncl \,.:ls ~ ~ o ~ 1'01. ~ ~ , I I (~~ S ( iS t ~ \ n , ( ~ s ~ ,iot~s, ~ ~ l i ~~~ l :III(I I1.y I,II(: IISO or : ~l:i,rg(:~ir~rnIj(:r l ~ ~ ~ L ~ l ~ ofsr~il,:tl)~o sc.rc.clls : L I I ( ~ :t \i(,ry I:trac: c.ot~l.rn,c.l.io~~ l.l~c r:lt,io, itiLcnsity of' turl)rtlrncc was retl~~cctl (,(I I,II(* ( ~ s l r ( ~ t ~ i ~ ~:\.II(I ncvrr prcvions1.y :~I,t.a,in(:(I, low,, l y V:LIIIC

'I'II(~ sl.r(+:ttn \r.:ls I , I I ( ~ I r l s c ~ lfor t,hc t.liorortgI~it~vcst.igat,iott t,llc I:i~nir~:~r of l)orlntlary 1:lyt.r 011 :I. II:II 1)1:1t,c m r o in(-itlcncc, wllcli it was tliscovorctl t.hat, nt very low :tt I I I ~ I I ~ I I ( * I I ( : ( : itll.(:t~siI.i~s,r . of l,hc ortlcr of T < 0.001 , t.110 prcvior~sly rsl.:rl)lisllc:tl i. V:IIIIC of III(- v~.iI,ir:~,l l?ry~tol(ls I I I I I ~ of) ~ ~ : 3.5 t,o 5 X 10' W:IS itlt*r(%:~st\r\ I ~ Rcrit z

long t,he plate; these were t~ndertnlrcnfirst utttlcr normal condit.ior~s( i . <,. it1 l,lIc: presence of natural tlistnrbances), ant1 then wit,ti art.ificinlly procttlcctl tlisI,lrrI):l.t~c:~~. Such art,ificinl tlist~urhanccsof a tlcfit~it~c frcclnct~cywore croatcd \ r ~ i t . l ~ t.llc* n i t l of :t thin mrt.al sl,rip whiclt was plncctl nl, a, disl.anc:c of 0.15 111111 frotll I,IIC \v:lll : t ~ t ( l i l l which osoillntions were cxcit.ctl olcct,ro~nngncl.ic:l.lly. 'I'll(: cxislrncr of' : t . t ~ ~ l ) l i l i ( - ( l s i ~ ~ ~ t s o i ( I :l ils l , ~ t t ~ l ) : ~ ~ ~ ~I)(:- ( c ls( ~ ~ r l yl c ~ ~ ~ o t ~ (*v(-ttr in1~ I ~ ~ I~I ,~, Sl( - I I ( , ( ~ of ~~ (>OIII(I ( ~ ~ s l ~ : I,II(* ~ ( nrrl~rvr~l oscilltr1io~r.r(i. wit11 tto nxcil.:~l.iot~), Ij'ig. l(i.17. O\vittg t.o I.II(: osl.t~cs~~tc~ly scc low int.ct~sit,y t.~trbrtlc~~oe, arc Il;l.rtlly ally irrcg11l:lr osc:ill:il,iol~sI(.fi, i l l (.It(: of t,hcrc I)or~ntl:l.ry Iaycr, 11111.. n.s l,l~o poitilf of l.rnnsil.ion is appro:lc*l~c:tl, l.I~(.r(: :1111)(':rr: I ~ I I I O S ~ . 1111r(:lysitirtsoi~l:i.los(~ill:~l~iot~s; a ~ t r ~ ~ I i I , ist :I,(, <first, st11:rIl :111tl itl(,r,\:~s(~s l.l~cbir ~ (l ? r:ll)itlls in 1,:lc tlowllst.rc:ltn tlirccLiotl. A short, tlist,at~oc alrc:l.tl of t,llc poi111,of. f,r:~,tlsiI.iott. oscillat,iot~s vrr.y I~igltatnplil,r~(I(: of tn:~IicI,ll(*ir p ~ ) ( ~ t r : ~ t ~ (IJI(\ l)oi111~ a 111, : r . ol'l,r:l~~sil iotl, t,l~esc rcgl~lar osrillaf2ior~s l)renlc tlown : L I I ~arc S I I ( I ( I P I I I ~ I . ~ : L I I S I O ~ I ~ Iillto tilt(? irt.cg~tI:~r C(~ pntjt.crns of Iligl~frcqnrncy \rrhicl~:we c:l~nract,rrisl.ic: l , r ~ t . l ) ~ ~ri1o1.io11. of lrt~l.
(%.

fl~rl,ll(y (lisro~r(,rc:(l, r(-vr:tl(vl l)y lcig. 16. 16, I,]I:L~. :L (I(Y~I~I:;&S(~ :IS l.l~rl)lllrrlc:c~ c,:iltsrs 1,\1(: c,ril.ic%:llItc:yttoltls 1111111t)rr i l l ( . l ( * : ~ ~ ~ , t,o nt. lirst. clnite rxst,; aft,cr n valrle of al)outT = 0.001 lias been :ttt,ninctl, n crit.ical I t r y noltls Illlrnl)eI. RCric = 2.8 x 10"s rrnchctl a.rltl rct,ninetl at, lower t.urbrilcncc int,ettof sitairs. 'l'Ilis tIc~rnollst,ratcs cxisLcncc of nrl I I P ~ CIitnit. of t,I~errit,ic'al lt~y1101ds t,Ilr I. nllrnl)rr or1 n flat plnt,e. A ~ncasurccipoint. obt.:linrtl cnrlicr I I A . A . linll nntl G.S. ~ Ilislop Is!)]iit.s clnits wcll into t.hc grnljh of lpig. 16.16.
s(.f.

ICig,

1 (;, 1 ( j . 11.

\,T~s

ill

()I(.

itltc.llsil.y of'

Fig. 16.17. Oscillogra~n the a'-romof ponent of fl~tctualions carlscd by ranclon~ ("11:1t,t1ral") tlislr~rl)nt~ccs it1 the Intninar bor~ndaryI:~yrron n flat plate in a strrarn of air. Moasvrementa on t.mnsition from lntniriar to L~~rbrtlent flow drte to Sc11lrh:~ncr and Skratrtst.nrl1821
I)lslanc.r fro111 wall: 0 % rrlln; frrc-slrrnrn vrlorily ( I , , 24 r ~ / c r r , i n ( r r r n l h r l a r r n tilnc Illark*. 'I.. s r r

(37

2.23 - . - - .A -- - -. "
,-r/Xl1\

D $
S

152

2+8 * .

'

% 8
6

.
. . .

.
.

I .

2.74

* 2 2
3
r

A,,

n~~l*^-annhn.v.mr.i
,An'&

(H
Tronrifion

.yz

!~~C.&/'vf!v'J.,/','
-. . . .-.

- ..

. .. . .

of 111 1 . I l 111111t(~t1c(: i~lt(~nsit,y t,~~rl)lllcnc:e critirnl ltcy11(>1(1~~ I I on IIII I)er o n flat, plate a t zero it~cidvtlcr. as I I I ~ ~ R I I I)y ~ Scl111l1nrlc.r i111tl ~ C Sltr:t~~lnlntl [S2j

I ltr tnc~;~surclnrnt.s tttltlcr ronsitlc:r;~tio11 also l.l~rc~w liglll, on t.li(> c l t ~ c . s liott :IS to \ \ , I I ~ SIICII :in~pliIi(~(l sinr~soi(I:~l os(*ill:tl~io~~ (,s(*:~l)t~l l , ( ~ ( ~ l . i t(1111,itlg (l(~ )t~ (>:lt.li(\~. I I ( . I , ~ (~X III(:III,S. L I I ~ I I SO I I ~ , ,I I ~ I I Il,haL~ ~ , 11, ( ~ I~rat~sil~iott is C:LIISI!(~ (lir(*(,l,ly I I l~l ( , ~ : I I I ( ~ O I ~lis1111~. I II
3

1)a11a(~s is not, [~rcc%cclrti n sclccl.ivc :unl)lili(.:ttiot~of' sinr~soitl:il r~sc~ill:lliot~s a11t1 by il.

~ I I Cit~I~(:ttsil~yt~urI)i~l(:ti(:(: iti(:r(::~s(:(l, :LII.(,:I(I~( ~ I I I ~ O I I I V I .I'~.OIII ~ , I I I ,: ~ l ) t ) \ , t s V;II(IC. or is :LS III o f T -= 0.0003 t,o T = 0.01, i.c. tea v a l ~ t c c~olnnlo~lly~ ~ c o ~ t t ~ l io1t 11rc~vio11s ~ ; I S I I I . ( ~ o t ~c~tl III(
tnrtlLs. 1)11ritigt8hc(:xp(:ritn(~t~I-s /~rti/i(,i~rl \vit,Il (~~.v/~~I./J,III(.c.G :I I I I ~ I IIII(*I,:II st,~ril~ I S I I ( I I I I ~ (.\I ovvr :L wi(lt,li ol'nl)ot~l, ctn, 0.05 m m I,ltictlc : t ~ t t l2.5 nlm tl(v,l) \\,:IS ~ l : l c , r v:I(. t l i s l ; ~ ~ ~ t . ( . 30 ~ l :I of 0.16- nlni fronl 1,Itc wall nntl wn.9 cxcil.c.tl I)y :I tn:~gtlc.l,ic: lic.l(l in(l~~c-c.tl ( I I ( , : ~ i ( l wiI.11 of an alt.crnat,it~g crtrrrltt.. 111 this wnjr il, \\.:IS possil)lc: 1.0 in(lrt(-(~ L\vo-(litt~(~t~siot~:~I

478

X V I . Origin of l.rtrb~tlmcr 1

cl. Co111pnris011 tllc t.11roryo f nt1t1)ilit.ywit 11 c:xl)rri~~~rt~I. of

47!)

tlis~.~trl)anc:rs ~)rc:soril)o~l of frc:cl~~nnry, s st,ipolat.cd by the tflicory. This gave rise a t,o ntnldilircl, cla~npc(l anel n r ~ l t , m loscill:rtions sim~lt~anoonsly. They were again rnrnsurcrl wil.11 1 . 1 1 ~aid of a 11ot~-wiro nncmornctcr. Itcsolt,~of s ~ r n l1ncasuren1rnt.s ~ :rrc! s l ~ o w ~ ~ ~)lol,tc.tl l l l ' i ~ . Iti.18. 'l'l~c. c~spcrimrnt.:~l i 11oi11t.s, wl~ic:liare joiric.ci I)g a I)rolic.~ilint,, rc~l)rrsrr~l~ rnc~:~s~lrc~cl nc:1tt.r:11oscill:ll,ions. 'I'llc t,l~corc.t,ic.:iI c,llrvc: of rlr11tr;ll sl~:~l)ilit,.y fro111 Fig. 16.12 II:IS II(Y>II (II.:I\VII ~~o1n~):trison. LIIC :1grr(~111~~11l. I;)!. :IIICI is

I)nt~c.c-s:II. v:~ryirlgtlisl.:tnc.c: l'rotn I,II(: w:~.ll.I'ig. 16. I!) sl~otvs osc.illogr:~tns ~ I I ( : s i t t ~ t of soitl:il niot.ioti for t l ~ o c:o~iipo~icnt, IC:LI:II osr:illogmm rnnt,nins t.wo sitnnll.ar~c~ons 11'. cnrvrs, O I I C of \ v l ~ i ( < l ~ :~l\v:~jw \v:ls t,:tl<c:11 :\,I, t J ~ 5:%11ic r (I~s~.:I.II(:cfrom the \vall, t l ~ ot,lwr c having Ikcrn t,;~kena t various dist,ances. Tlie variation of the amplitude of the U' oscillnt.ion over t.11~ ) o r ~ n d n rI:~ycr witlt,l~is shown in Fig. 16.20. Ttlo din.grn.m I ~ r c p r e ~ c n t ~ s results ol)t.aiticd by S c l ~ n b a ~antirSlrrarnstnd and refers t o t,lic nc~rt~ral t,llc ~c tlist11rl)ancc~s mnrltccl I and 11 in I'ig. 16.1 1 . 'I'llcrc is good agrrcrnent with t.11~ t,licory ( 1 1 1 ~ire) 11. Sc~l~lic:l~t,i~ig 1.771.

\'c.ry cnrrfnl rsl)rri~iic-nt.s t,llis Izin(1 IIRVO I)ccn ~ ~ c r f o r n i emore rct:erit,ly l)y of d ,J. A . 1104s (-1.11.1. who llntl a t !.l~ci~.disl)osnl 1741 n, wind t.rrnncl ol't,l~r vc:ry low ~ ~ U ~ ~ I I ~ C I I C C int.crlsit.y T perimcnt.

1:;s. I(i.18. (:urvc,s of ~mr~t.r:~l ,st.%1)ilityfor 11~11lrnl frrq~trncic~cIinl,t~rof t):~t~c:cs 011 n flat, pl:rtr :tt zcro i~~e~iflrr~r(!. Blrs~s~~rv~~~(*c~taI I I < I I I l~o S ~ I I,:III(.~ I L I I ~ I S ~ ~ : L I I I (821.I I 'I'l~(:ory X~ .(~ clue to 'I'olln~ic~r [99]

-- 0.0003. '1'11ry

report cclrlxlly good agrecmcrit betwccn tlieory and ex-

\\lc. l1:1~(: :~lr(-:~,(l.y rronnrkctl c.n.rlic*r t.It:~.t. t.lrc oxpc:ritnrnt,:~lvorificat,ion of t.l~c? st.:l.t,ilil.y I.l~c.ory\\.:IS first. n~:rtlf-~)ossil)lc: wl~c:n :I st.rr:i~nof vory low l.~~rl)rrlt:ncc int.cnsit,.y (:ottlrl I,c ~,rotl~rcrtl. oltlvr os~)c~rimc~ll,s wcrr 1)rrforrnc.tl a t a t8~trl)nlrnre 'I'll(: wl1ic.11 int.cnsity of T ..-.0.01 c.ot~lirti~ctl c~s~)c:c*t,:~t,ior~ o l ~ s r r v c point of t.ransitiori t,I~ct,lln.t,t.11(: ~l lirs tlownst.rc~:~n~t , I i ~ : ~)oint. ins(,:~l)ilit..y of 01' i)rc:(li(:t.c:(I l)y tl~c-ory.Ilowcver, the clist,nnc.o I,c,t,\i~c~c.r~ t11r ~ ~ o i nofs illst.:~l)ilit,yI I I ( ~ t.r:~t~si(io~i t : (lc:l)c~~cls 8% n~nrlzctldcgrcc t.11 on t.rlrl,~tlrnc-c. int~c~~lsit,y. t.o l)c c.xl)c-c:t,c(l lfl~nt. ~ i s I t . is t I clist,anrc sl~o~rltl tlcrrc:nsc a s t.11~: int~rl~sit~y t~~trI)~tlrr~c.~: of is it~cr(-:~s(-cl I)~.(-;IIIS(! in tllv prrscn(*c of 11igI1t,rtrb~tIrnrc a sn1:1.11 nrnottrlt. of :irnl)lilic~:~t~ior~ srtflic.c~s ~)rotlttc.c- ~ ~ ~ r l ~ ~ ~ l c - n c c unst.nl)lc tlisto I from t.hc r t~t~~l):~nc.cs.grn1)11( I I I ~t.o 1'. 9.(:l:rnvillc 1361 : L I I ( ~ S ~ I O W Iin Fig. 10.21 ill~~st,rnt.cs I Ilr ~ t.l~is point. in r~,l:~,tiono t,l~c I ~ I I I I ( ~ l:~.vcron :I fI:~t% t I :L~~ plate. 'I'11c cIifTcrrncc l)ct-~vcc~i t.I~c: Itc-y~loltls n~~riil)c:rs fortnntl t r l i t . l ~tlic ~nolnrnt~rrrn tl~icltr~ess the points of tranat sit,ion :incl it~st.:~I)ilit~y, 11a111c~ly

2
L

0,

; 2
B

3 - ,0 F
03 03

3 orr
b " 7

/V n
Y

I 8 053
059

064

I . l ! l ~ I ~ : L S I I ~ ~ 0I1 1I Insi:ill:tl,io~~nl PII~~ il l,l~r I I I I I ~ I I : ~l ) t v ~ ~ ~ t t l ~ l~tyc-r111!rli)r111r1l I ~ tr.y 11.y S c l ~ ~ ~ h n ~ t eSkrn~l~ut,ntl nncl r [82] S i m ~ l l l m r o ~ lrocorrlirt~ or vl~lorlly will1 Llir nirl of s Iwo Ibol-wirr ~llrlllOlllr1rrJ l~lnced n l n ~lislasmof

1 . 2 0 . \':lri:bi.io~i of al~rplit~ltln t.11~ of ?~'-llual~~:rLio~~ 11c11tr:rl for t\vo (list.url)nnces in n. lanlir~nr I)o~~~ltl:~ry I I 11:1t i)l:tl4r nt. zrro lnyrr O 30 c n ~ bol,ind l l ~ r rlril!. Tlbr lowcr ctlrvo enrrragontls i~ic:itlcnr.e.htc.:ts~~rr~tln~t.sl,o S(.ll~~l,:t~tcr clllr lo n ltol wirr plnrrrl n l :t clirl.anec wf 1.4 l n r s f r o ~ n lllc wnll: 1111.Ill8l!rr rltrvr carrr.r),oncls L n Ibol. w i r r o :tncl Skrn~n~t.:trl '1'11r.ory ~ I I ( : 1.0 Sr~l~lic:l~(82.1 plnrtvl n L v : ~ r ) . i t t ~ 1 i r l n t ~ r t . u ~ frrtltl lllr wnlf nr i t ~ ~ l i c ~ l ~ ~ ~ l . t.it~g[771 ' ~ I I I *qlrlp wnr pl:tr~.*ll n ~ l i r l a n c r n I)O rtn III.IIIIIII I I l l I a I I Yrntlll~nr?,70aee'. 'I'lw r r r v r r l 1 1 l ~ ~ 1 1 ~ ' ~t1t d 11 ( . ( ~ r r ~ : s ~ )1~0~ 1 ~ 1 I~ 1 t t t 1 t LWO n c t ~ l r n lt l i % l l l r l ~ ; ~ r ~Ic t - ~ ~ lI 1 i t ) Iqg. lli.1 I nr vrlucity 1lm = 13 lnlsec

480

XVI. Origin of turbulorice I

d. C'ornpariflon of the theory of fltability will^ rxprritnrt~t

481

uit.ioir o l

Vig. 16.21. Mraunrrn~c~~t~s on t,r:~r~n 11:~l,~ ~ l n lnftrr 1'. S.l : r n ~ ~ c, villr (:)(;I. l)illi~rrt~~~c t.11~ I)cl.wc:ct~ Itcyr~oltls numheru at, t,l~opoinb of transit.ion and inst,:~hilit.y Irrnls of turirr I~rrlcncc inlnnsity. Au t.rtrItrtlcnceintnnsity incn?ascu, thr point of (.rannition moves closer to t,hc point 01 instalti1it.y

Iqig. 16.22. Stnoltc pict,ure of t.hc flow in t l ~ r I~o~~r~tlnry or^ rill nrrofnil i n 1.lic I>rc.scxllc,r.of In?jcr prriotlic ( l i ~ t , ~ ~ r l ) 11.f1~r ~Ik\rg11 151 ~ ~ n c11. , r lqrcr-strmrn vrlocil.y (1, -- 4 m / ~ c n ; frcq~lcn~y ( I ~ s ~ I I ~ ~ I I I/I, I ~--. ~ I45 l/31~! of I

and J . T . Stuart [DO] : see also R.O. J)il'rirna c t n,I. 1141 antl .I.'I1. Stlrnr,t,I!)I 1. i s r r l l j t l r \ ary of t,llis prol)lrn~ area was givrn by A. R4icl1allrr. M . llzrtl:~14(il)]is :~lso oI'ir~lt~~.t.st. All c.xl)(*rirncvrt,:rI~)oitit,s 1.r:lc.ca sitlglr: c:rlrvc. 'I'ho point of t,mnsit,ion does not coincide wil.ll t,lrr poitrl, 01' irrst.:rl)ilit.yr~rll,il vrry ltigl~t,~rrbrllcr~cr int,c~nsilics aI)or~t =0.02 of T t,o 0.03 I~avc,I)t5nlt rr:~rlicvl; c/. I 1. Otl~rr vclncity profiles: W r now l)roc:cctl t.o tlescribe 1)ricfly i~ivcst~igat,ior~s int,o t.11~ st,nl)ilit,yof'oI.llc~ vc4oc:il,yl)rofil(:s; a more tlct,ailctl account is given in Chap. X V I I .

A clear idca of t h e tlctails of tllc ~nccl~anism nn~plificaliot~ of (:an I)(; fi)rmccl by studying the smoke pictures of t8hezone of t,rnnsit.iorr i r ~ Ollc bonr~tlnrylay(-r or1 a n airfoil takcn by IT. ncrgh [B] ancl rcprotl~~cctl Fig. 16.22. :I'll(: :~rt,ific:i:~I in clist.11rI)anccs wcrc protlllccd with tlic aid of a lor~tlspcaltcr;t.l~c:y :Ire sccn to i t r t l u c - c : i r r t h e t~oundary layer a succession of amplified, regtrlar waves, t.lleir amplitr~dc incrc:~sing in t,l~e downst8rcam direction. See also [I].
Three-dimensionnl flows. The cxprrimcntnl cvitlcnrc ntltltlc:ctl so 1i1.rsllctn.s (,lrnt. transition is st,artcd an a result of t,hc amplificatior~ t,wo-tlir~~c:tlsio~~:~~I of tlixt.~rrl):rtrc!t:s. 'l'he growth of sue11 tlist,urbances was investigatetl in great tlrt,ail I)g G. 13. S(:l~~lltanrr and IT. I<. Sltmmst~atl[82], G. J3. Sclli~ltanrr nntl 1'. S. I< lol~:~r~on' ] , 3,s \vc.ll as 11y [S:! I. Tnni [D2, 951. It, t,urncd out t,hat t,l~c a.mltlificat.io11 t.11~ of 1111st.n j)ln,tlr \vavc,s :I I\\.:l.ys ltlc po(luces a tlist,inct,ly t,l~ree-din1ensiona.l flow st,t~~~ct,ure. t h r n.tnplit,utln o f tlrc Aft,cl. wave has rcrtcl~eda crrt,ain magnitrrtlc t,hcre sct,s in a ltcriotl of st.t.ong ant1 non-1inrn.r atnplificnt,ionof the dist,nrbance. This process is n.cconipanict1 hy n t,mnsfrr of rnrrgy in tJre transverse direction and tf1liscli~t~orts original, two-tlitacnsior1a1 cll:~mct.er the of t,llc I~asc flow. T l ~ u s t l ~ c , I~rcnlctlowr~ 1:~rninar of flow ntitl, l~c:r~c:c, I ~ i r ( .of' (,11rI~itt,hc l~ Icncc: :tppc:tr t o be a conscclucrlcc of tho tlcvolopmcnt of tJlc r~nst,nl)lc tlint,url~:~~~r(:(~s it1 tl~rcc tlitncnsions. T11is is acconipanietl by the appcarancc, t,o a ccrt,nin cxtjcnt irr t,llo bountlary laycr too, of vortices whose axes lic in the tlircctiori of t,l~cflow. Further light on this problem can be thrown by a sttutly of t l ~ worlc of G. 13. Snhllc ktauer, 1'. S. I<lebanoff and I<.I). Tidst,rorn [84,49. 501. 11. Gocrt-lor ant1 11. 127it.t itrg [35] a s wcll as C.C. Lin. D.,J. l3rnny nntl 11.1'. (:rrensl)nn 156, 3, 371. ,,l ~ r l rxprritnort:~I rrstilts rcporlrtl in this c*lr:~plc.r qllosv NII(-II ( ' o n ~ ~ ) l ( :*Il ~ * Y ~ (( rncrrt wit11 the t,llcory of stability of laminar flows t,l~itttJlc I:~ttcr m:ly rlow I)r regnrtlctl a s a verified component of fluid mcchanirs. The l~ypotltcsis- tll:~t,t l ~ c

'I'l~c- t.li('o~.t,n~I t , l ~ inst,al)ilit.yof volocit,y profilcs possessing a point of iriflcxion, OI c \ v l ~ i c . lis tlrtr t.o I,ortl Liaylrigh anti 111. 'l'ollmien, I~aclnlrcatly been strbjcct.ed t,o an ~ csprrirnrlrl.nl vc.rificnt.iot~ G . Jtnscnl~roolr by 1731; Ile was also able t o rrport complet,? :~gt.c~c.tnr~~t. I)rt.\vc~cn t.I~rorct.ical ~)rrtlic.t,ions ant1 cxperirncnt.
A I):L~)(~I. S . Ilollirrgtlnlr [4:,l nont.air~sa cont.ribut,ion t,o t,llc st,utly of t.11~ IIJ st.n.l)ilit.yof vrlot:it,y prctfilrs in t,hc w:rlre of a solitl botly. 'l'hc stlability of Iatninar ,ic.t.s w:~sst,~ttlic.tlby N . (:III.I~: (IOJ. Mrril,ioti may, finally, bc made of llir \rrorlc of I\. R ic:Ilalltr : ~ t l c l 11. Sclln,clc (581, l . l ' 'l'nl,surni [!)Oaj, I,. N. IIowartl [4G], ant1 C. MT. (.~lrnsI~:~.\v I). 15lliot. [ I I]. 'I'll(; Inst rcbli.rcnce est,al)Iishetl a limit of stability of ant1 R C r i t - - 6.5 for :t 1)l:~nc. jc:t,, t.Ilc I ~ C ~ I I O I ~ I S tr11111I)cr 1)citlg fortnctl with t . 1 1 ~jct wirlt'lr at, II:I,II' l~(,igl~t,. A liti(~:tr. st,:~l)ilit,y nn:~lysis for t h r t,\\ro-tlimcnsi~~nal of cl~annclflow was first case r ~ ~ l ~ l i s l ~ c(:.(:. I,in 1641. 11c: fnrtntl t,l~n,t. critical Ttcynoltls number, rcfcrrcd t,o 1)y t l t,llc t.l~c,~ n a x i r n ~ lvc:locit,.y II,,, ant1 t,lw Irnlf-wit1t.h bf the channel, b, hati t,hc value ~n

482

XVT. Origin of t,nrbulencc I

the point of t,rnnuit,ion warr al\vnys con~itlcrnblyreduced con~pnrctlwit,l~ that for nk~tionnryllow when t,hc "non-st.eatlyV Reynolds nttmbcr a m Inrge, i. c. whcn R N S > 27000. In t.l~c.sc:t.xpcriiiicnt.s. t.rn.t~nit.ion tho flnt pln1.c in st.nlionnry Ilon. s(.nrl.ctl nt. R,,,, -- 1.8 x 10". At.t.or,li~lgto oli Fig. I(i.l(i. thin vnlt~tj Rz.1, c o r ~ . c ~ p t ~ n t I p ~ ) r t ~ ~ i ~ n n L o l y . of ~~ ~. t . n tt~rl~rtlet~co ~ itrlr11nit.yof T 0.230/,, in the cxtnrnnl nt.rennt. So far, n nnt,isfnctory t,heory of ut,nbilit,y for hountlnry lnyors in t,hc I)rcocnco of nr1 oxt.crrinl o~cillnting ut.rcntn doen not cxiut { I I a]. 011servnt.ion of intern~ittnnt t,nrl~~tIct~cc ir~ I.11t! I~rrwc~t1r.e of n frro-st,rcntn oncillntion ~ I I O \ V Rt.hntl its freqrroncy fl, is of thc antnc ortlor of ~ ~ ~ n p ~ i nn ~ ~ c l o t . tl~nt, of nntitrnl. neutrnl disturbnncer of the Tollrnie~i-Scl~licliti~~g fro111ntnhilit.y t,l~eor.y;s m also typo I'ig. Ifl.18. The freqitenry, ,I, of 1.11~ oscillnt~ii~g invcst.ignktl Irr?rc \vrn ~innllrr 11 l':~ctorof flow 11y al,ont 100 1.hnt1 thnt in 1.11~t~:bl.~~rnl, nc~rtrrtltlint.t~rbn~iccs. A review of Ilte prorcns of trnnsition in thr prcnnnrc of frrc-strrnnl n~rillilt,io~ln rrt-rntly \\:is prrhlinlird hy 1t.J. l,oehrkc, M.V. Morkovin, nntl A.A. k'rjcr 148I1J

process of t r a n s i t i o n f r o m ltbminar t o t u r b u l e n t flow i s the c o n s e q ~ ~ c n of a n inst.nbility ce i n t.he l a m i n a r flow, enilnciat,cd b y 0. Reynolds, i s h e r e b y completely vindicated. It. ccrtsirlly r e p r e s e n t s a posaiblr: and observahlr: m e c h n n i s m of transition. T h e q ~ l c s t ~ i o n as t o w h e t . 1 1 ~ t~p i n t s a complet,e p i c t u r e of t h e process a n d w h e t h c r i t c o n s t i t ~ l t e s i t h o on.l?y nloahanism o n c o u n t c r c d i n n a t u r o is still at p r m e n t an o p e n o n e . T h e l a t t e r cjt~:st.iotis n o w oconpy t.hc at.tcnt.ion o f m a n y research workcr*.
e. Effect of oscillntiilg free s t r e a m o n t r a i ~ ~ i t i o n

Aftrr it hntl bccn dincoverccl \i,it.l~ aid of the o x p r i n ~ c ndracrihed earlier tlint. the intensit.y 1.11~ t of turbt~lenc:cof tho cxternnl stream, thnt. is t l ~ n t the presence of an irreguhr tittle-dependent f l n r t n n t i o ~ ~ t,he free strcnm, cxert.ed a strong ir~flnence transition, i t was natural to nnderin on tnke st,i~dicu t,ho c h c t of regular flttcti~nt.ionin the free stream on tratisi6ion. The effect of a on nnperin~posrdflnct,llnt.ion of smnll nmplit,udc ( E < 1) in an cxternnl stream U(z, 1 ) of the form on tho ~t,rt~t*t,~rrc lntninnr bonndnry lnyer w~ diucnuned in SBCB. of n XV n 3 nnd XV e 3. Sincc the Il*ynolils rirlrnbrr nt. trnnnition clnrrrnr*r ronnidorsl~l~ tho in tan nit^ of tltrbnRR lcni.r inrrrneu, it iu ~.'lnllniblcLo s u ~ ~ p o Lhnt n ainiilnr e r e c t nhould occur a8 the amplitude d u = ue ~ 1 1 of the periodic cxternnl stream is 111;de to i n c r e w . The effect of an oscillation euperimposed 1 on the external strent11 on thc transition of a hmirlnr boundary layer was clarified experimentally by J.H. Obrernski nntl A.A. Fejer [63a] arr well aa by J.A. Miller and A.A. Fejer [60a]. Theee inveetigntionu conwntrated ntteution, in the first place, on the boundary layer o n a flat plate (Bi~ius profile). In this cnse, the velocity clintribution in the externnl stream is

f. Conclrsding r e m a r k

At; t h e cwtl of t.l~is cllnl)t.nr wc wislt t.o l)~.cscrlt,, w:hy ol' S I I ~ I I I I :t.Itt* ~ ~ t ~ , t - t ~ s s I)y ~ . ~),
of t,rnnsit.ion in t,ltc I~orrt~tl:i.ry 1nyc:r o n n (In(. ~ ) l n t , in {.hr I)rc.scvlc.n 111' :III t~xlt~r11:1.1 r Ilow i ~ f l o w , I I I . I ) I I I ~ ~ I Ii~~ ~. t , ( : t ~ s i l .H(.(-II I'I.OIII I4.i~. IlI.!2:I, 1,11t! 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ ~( AH ~ . ~ o I I I Ii. ~ I I ~ I I 111,.1 ; 1 1 1 1 ~ \ 1 ~ K ~ ing stngc:~, st.nt,(.irig wit.11 tlic Icxtlirlg r t l g r : (1) S t a b l e l i i n ~ i n a rflow following t,llc Ir,zcting ctlge.

\rravcw. (2) Unst,nblc, Intninsr flow w i t h t,wo-tliincnsionnl Toll~nirt~-Scltlit:I~t.i~~~ I>cvelopmcnt of ~tnst.nble,Inrtiinar, ffhrc%r-clilnc-nsio~~nl V C ~ vort.t.x li,rnlnW ~ n.ntl (3) trim. of ill S (4) I511rst~ 1,111~buIc11cc I I ~ ~ L C O01' very Itiglt local v o r l i c i t , ~ . (5) F o r m a t i o n of t u r b n l e n t sr,ol,s in plncrs wltrn t.hc t,~rrl)t~lt~rtt, vc.loc.ity 1111ct1tn~.ic~ri.s a r e large.

Hcrc {J, is the ti~nc-avcrngc thc frco-strcnm velocity which is independent of z,d U is the of nn~plitudc the ternporal R~~ctuntion the external stream, and n denotea ita circular frequency. of in 'rho mcnsrtrcn~enb rcported in 1 6 3 ~ 1 werc performed in a n incompressible stream with

( G ) Conlcscencc. of 1.11rL1tlcnt s1)ot.s int.0 :I fr11l.y tlcvc~lopt:tl t . ~ ~ r l ) ~ t l t )*O I rI tI .I ~ ~ : L I1:13't*r. I ~ .~

and with frequencies of n = 4 Lo 62 sec-1. Them very carcful experin~entnlinvent.ig~tions yielded the following e m n t i a l results: (a) The c-riticnl Rrynolds ni~mbcr tho start of transition, R,,fr = Urnzc,/v dcpends only on the of arnplit~ldc AU/Um of t.he external fl~~ctuation.

I n m o s t CRRCR, t,rnnsit.ion frotn t,r~t.l)ttlc:ntspvt,s t.o I.illly tle\~clol)otl~ , I I I . I I I I I ~ ~ Iis~ I ~ t,hc I associated w i t h t,hc furrnntion of a scparat.ion b u b b l r , n s nlrrxtly ~nont.ionctl c:otlncxin ion wit,ll F i g . 10.10. At, t h o present, tirnc, o111ystngcs (1 ), (2) ant1 (3) n r r : ~ m r n n t ) l e L t.o :
t,hcoretical analysis. T h c c o m p l e t e clnrificat,ion of t.11~ ~ r ~ n n i t ~stngrbn will rrtl11i1.e t it~g rn~lcllntltlit,i~)nnlt.l~corc~t~ici~l n r c l ~\vorl<. rcse

(h) Thc di~ncnsiorilr.strnnuition length, thnt in the distance between the start of trnnuition and itn ronil,lrtion, R,,t - RZsc, del~cntlsonly on the froqr~ency the externnl oscillationt. of (c) '1.11~ record showing the varintion of velocity with time demonutratm that the line of transition by is chnrart~rized n regular and intermittent transition. The meaaurementa led to the conclusion thnt trnnnition rnn hc tlrsrribrcl by the following "non-steady" h y n o l d u numbrr:
Sinrc t,hr rhnrnrlc~rirfic length of tho cxtrrnal, oscillnt.ing st,rrnn~ C iu cxpreun the '.t~o~t.~tt~rrtly" IXt~y~~oltls nnn~bcrin thc form
RNC =

0 9 9 9

llm/n, it, iu po~sible to

( 1 ) St:~blr now ( 2 ) 1 ~ ' 1 1 ~ t ~ 1 l ~ l~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ - H ~ ~ l ~ l i ~ ~ t ~ 01--x ~ u ' ~ f r !v$~vtw l i ~ I?,,,,

uz (Au/rrm)

2nvn r' l l r r e All/l?, in tlie rlittler~uiol~lr~~ nn~plitude tile impredsed oscillntion and ns/lJ: is itR dimenof sionlr~ufrnqrrt-~~t*y. n ~ m n ~ l r r n ~ s nib w ~ ltlint tlie llcyrlolds number Rz.t, = 11, ~ t r / vn t 'rhr rl o

- -t Start of

t.rnnrrition nt R,,(, . (1, .rl,/t* -- lower curve in Fig. 16.10. Complct,ion of t,ranuition nt. R,,I, - 11, .rl./l* - nI)pcr t:Irrvc it1 Fig. I ti. I(;. Over the t1iut.nncc from z , to x r i t is observed t 111:tt Ihr intr:r~~~ittr:r~ry incrcnucu fro111 p = 0 to y = 1; this is interprctcd by t,hc statefnctor nlrnt t.hnt in t.liin zone \ye ohnerve "trannitional torbulcnce".

lominor I-

Ironsilion
11

A,,,,

JdTig.16.23. Itlci~lizc~cl sltclrl~ 1.rnnsil.iol1zone ill llin I ) O ~ I I I ~ ~ 1:1~t:r of I L T ~ 011 clcl~cc after P.M. While 11073

Ililt l)llltP

111 Z~.I.O

Rc

i11t.i.

484

XVT. Origin of t~~rbuletice I

Itelcrcnces

[ I ) Arnnl, I).. ,Illlien. .T. C., sncl hlic:l~cl,It.: Annlyee exp8rimentnle r t calcul de I'appnrtition e t (111 t l i ~ v t ~ l o l ) ~ ) r ~ i i In~t,r:insit,ion tlc In c ~ o ~ ~ c l i e rlc o ~ l . lirnite. I2GAR.D CP 224, 13-1 Lo 13--17 (11177). [It11 A(:Altl)-~l1'-22~l:: I I I ~ ~ I I ~ ~ - ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ) I I ~ ( ~ I I ~ 1':l.f~ors I, t~r:~~~sit,io~l. pr(:sc~it,ednt t,hc 1Pl11iclUynnrllir8 I'n~lclS y ~ i i ~ ~ o :lti 'l'c:rlii~icnl Univcrsil.y of I~cnmn.rk, s ~~l~i Lyngby, Denmark, 2-4 Blay 1077 (l!)77). 1 ll)\ ll~ir~ics. ll.'l'., :111el (!<)I(rr,I<.(:.: '1'111; IIo~v01 \vat,er t~l)ro~~gli l'roc. I b y . Soc. 1,o1iclo11 pip<!s. 74, 34 I -:!ti0 ( I !)05). 121 II~irry,M.I).,J., nnd Jtosa, M.A.S.: Tlic flat. plnto bounrlary Inyer. Pnrt 2: The eKcct of i~lc.rc:lsi~ig I.l~ic:kncss stnbi1it.y. .lFM 43, 813--818 (1070). on [3] Ilr1111y. -1.: A non-lit~c?nr I). theory for oscillnt,io~~sn l~nrnllel in flow. ,I I 10, 2 0 9 -2:lti (l!)61). M ' 141 Ilrtc.hov., It... nnd C:ri~ni~i:~lo. W.O.: St,nl,ility of pnr:lllcl flo\vs. A c e t l c ~ ~ ~ i r I'rcss, l!)(i7. I4n] Ilor~t,liirr, St~.l)ilit.6 BI.: li116niretlcs 6 c o ~ ~ l e ~ ~ i r n t f i pnrnlli.les. I. .Jol~rnnl MLrnnique prmqnc clc, 11, 5!I9 W1 (1!)72). 11. I,n couchc lin~ito I3lnni11s. Jor~rrlalde M6ca11iquc 12, 75-!I5 2 tlc (l!)7:3). I51 I5ergI1. 11.: A tiiet~liodfor visunlizirig periodic borlndnry lnyer phcnonlcna. IUTAM Sym1)osi1111i I{o~~~iclary-layer rescnrcl~(fl. (;iirl.lor, otl.), Ik:rlin, l!)5X, 373-- 178. (61 Jh~rgcrs, .l.M.: 'l'hc 11iot.io1i n flr~itl t,lie ho~tntlarylnyer nlong n plnnc? ~111oot~l1 of in sl~rfnec. I'roc. I'irst, 111trrn.Congress for Appl. Mec.11. 113, Ilelft, 1924. (71 C:llcng, S..I.: 0 1 tlie ut.nhilit.y of Isniitinr hor~ndnrylnyer flow. Quart. Appl. Blat,ll. 11, 1 346.- 350 (1!)5:!). [XI :l~rllfv-, il:irry, M.l)..J., nrid Ross, M A.S.: Non-linur stability tllcory of the flat plate I)., ~ol~ncI:iry Inyrr. All(: (:I' No. 1296, (1074). [!)I (lo~~rt.tc. Ift,i~tlcs le frot,temcnt clrn liorlideu. Ann. Chirn. PIiys. 21, 433--510 (1890). M.: sllr (10) (:rIrlc:. N.: Ilytlrocly~~nti~ic ~t.nbilityin rlnlitllitcd fields of visror~sIlow. l'roc. Itoy. Sac. I,ontlo~l I\ 2.78. 48!)-501 (1!)57). 11 I] (.'ler~sl~n\v, (I.\V.. nnd l$lliott, I).: A ~uilnericnlt.rcnt,~nent the Orr-Sonlnrerfelcl eq~~:rtion of ill t11c c~i~sc n ln~nirinrjet. Qrrnrt,. J . i\lc.rh. Appl. Mnth. 13, 300-313 (I!)liO). of I l l n ] 11:lvis. S.: '1'11~ st.nl)iIit,y of 1)rriodi~ l o ~ v ~ f AIIIIII:III<cview Fluid Mccli. 8 , 57--74 (1976). 1121 1):tvic:. A,: A ~ilnl)lc ~ i ~ ~ i ~ c r i c n l for nolvi~~g ~ 111etlioci Orr-So~~~~nerlclcl probIc111s. Ql~nrt). IJ. Mrrh. Appl. h1:rth. 26. 401--411 (1073). 1131 I)l~:~rvnn, arid Nnra.~i~iilia, Some properties of houtldnry layer flnw during transition S., It.: frc~lnInn~it~ar t , ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l c ~ i t , J1'M 3, 418--436 (19511). t,o niot,ioli. 114) J)i i'rilli:l, I<.(:.. I'3rlzliillls, W., ~ 1 1 0 Segc, L.A.: Non-litlcnr wnve 1111111hcr i~~tera(~t~iolls ill ncxnr c.rit.iral t . ~ ~ ~ o - t l i ~ ~ ~ cflows.~.I I'M l 49, 705--744 (1!)71). nsic ~in [I51 1)ortst:h. 11.: I111tnrnucl11111gen cinigcn Profilcn rnit geringcin Witlcrst;tntl ill1 I%crcioli nn Izlcit~rron-C\'crlc. .ll), clt,. J,oft.fnhrtforscllrl~~g 54--57 (1940). - I, 1 5 1 l)rn7,in. 1'. (:., n11d tlo~snrd, 111 L.N.: tIyclrodyrlxr~lic nt,irl)ilit,yof pnrnllcl flo\v of illviscitl flrlitl. Aclv. Ap1)I. hiecli. 9, (1906). [I(;( L)rytlrn, II.l,.: Ilo~~nclnry lnyer Ilow ncnr flnt, platrs. Pror. l'orirtli Intrrn. Congress for Apl~l.hlrrl~. (':~mhriclgr. I'~~~glnllcl, 19.74, 175. [I71 I)ryelrll, II.1,.: Airflow i l l t.hc 1)ountlnry I:~yerttmr a. plate. NACA Rep. 562 (1936). 11x1 l)rvcI(!l~.11. I,.: 'l'~~rl)~~lc*~~c.c:1)0111i(l:\ry . n11el t,lic. Iitycr. J A S 6, 85 .-I00 nnel 101 ..- I05 (l!13!l). . , . [I!)\ I)ryclc~n,11. I,.: So111c rre:e~il. t:o~it,ril)~lt~io~~s I . I I ( I ~o f t . r n ~ ~ s i tti110t ~l~ r l ~ ~ ~I lIrO Il It I ~ ~ ~ I ~ T ~ to 1 . 1 1 ~ R .i~) , l ~ Inyers (1':ll)crn prcsentccl nt t.lic Sixth I~ltcrnnt,. (:orlgress for Apl~l. Mecli., 1':'ris. Srl)t,. 1!)41i; NA(:A 'I'N I l(i8 (1!)47); sc!e also: 1I.rccnt.I L ~ I V I L I I ~ Cl R (.lie ~llcc.l~nlli(:~ O I I I I ~ : II I~ L~ ~ C ~ i l of I I I~O\V. A(lv:i~le.c.~ AI)I)I.MISC~I. York 1, 2 40 (l!).tH). Now [20) l)rydcn, 11. I..: J<rcrnt.invcst,ig:lt,ion of tlic probleirl of t,mnsit,ion. Z1W 4, 80--!I5 (1956). 120:11 I)l:\clrli, 11.1,: 'I'rn~lsit.iol, fro111lnriliri:lr to t , t ~ r l i ~ ~ lflow.t ,High Speetl Acrotly~ix~l~ics o~l nll(l .IrI I ' r o l ~ ~ ~ l 5. o ~ ~ s i 3 - 74, I'rir~rc.ton and Osfortl, l!l5!1. 121 1 I~rvelc~l~. I<cvc~~it. 11. I..: :i(Ivn~ler~ the ~ilrc-I~n~lic*s in of l,or~~ielnry lnger flow. Adv. Al)pl. Blrc!ll.
, 8

1241 I ~ ~ I I I\:.\V.: , 0 1 1 tl~c.~:II:III~C st.t.iicIy to I I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ . I I ~ , o l litI~~icls. ~II fro111 tllotion i211<. f. 1\I:tI. t\st.ron. or11 19s. 6. No. 12 (1!)10). [25] ICnin~ons,H . \\I., nlltl I3ryson. A. l':.: 'l'I1c. In111i1iirr.~i1rl)11l(:11t~~ ~ i ~ iil lt i ~I ~o lI I I I ~ ~ ; II:I>esr. t,ri :I ) ~~. l'nrt 1 : IS. 4!W-408 (1!)5l); 1'11rt I I : l'roc-. First (IS Nt~tiol~nl (:OII~I.(~SH 3 I t ~ l 1 , ,\1)11l, 85!1 868 f. I !1V2), , (21il Ihge, >I.: lilr~id ~ilotiotlt,ransit.ion fro111 In111i11:lr I . I I ~ I ) I I I ( ~ I I flow i l l :I I ) o I I I I ~ ~ ; 1:lyc.r. to L I~~ I'liys. Sor. JLcp. or1 I'rogrcs8 i l l 1'llysic:n 6, 270 (1!):5!)). r271 lc:~gc%. : lCsp(!ri~~~c-~~Ls I)~(!IIIZ(IO\VII of' I : L I I I ~lIlIc~ L,.~ ~ l S , 51:) 517 (l!l.tll). A. 011 t,Ilc )~ l 7 1281 I'i~gc~, O I I ~l'rcstoti, J.11.: I C x ~ ) c r i ~ ~ iOrI In tt~ n ~ ~ s i t ~fro111 ln111i11:1r ~ I I ~ I ) I I I ~ i~ lI IoI ~ I\., r io~i to in l l ~ r Ooi~~iclnry layer. I'roa. Roy. Roc.. I,oticlo~~ 178, 201 -227 (1!)41). 11 [28:ti l":lgt3. ,I.: l'r:i:isit.io~lin tllr I)o~~ncl:rry Inyrr ~~nllsc.el t ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l c * ~ ~ ( . c ~I8!)li (1!)1?). I,y ,\I<(! llbl . 12811)I':lsc:l. ti.: Invostigr~tio~~. 1 1 ~ of t ntnl~ilit.yof I)o~~t~tl:~r,y l)y II l i ~ ~ i tclill~.rc~l~~~e. l cc,I' l l~~yc.rs ,. ~l~,~c > t.llc. N:tvic$r-Sto1zc.s~ : ( ~ I I : I ~ ,JI<'R1I H ., 355 ~ o I iS :!x:! (l!)7ti):i\ss. JIIRO: se~, 1)iss. S I I I I I ~I!)?,$. I~I [291 ICrolldo. \Y.: 15xl)cri111c.11l,n 1.11~. sr~rf:le~c or1 fric:l.io~l.I{ril.. I(t.11. 1x72. I:!()( (:c,rsl.i~~g. -1.M.. 111111 .In~~lzo\vslzi. I:.: N11111c.rir:ll I I ~ * I I I ~ I I H i ~ r ~ ~ - S O I I I I I J V I . , ~II~ I ~ .I I I S I). I ( O I ~ ~ ~ ~~ I I 1 1 J. N ~ ~ ~ c r iIrent ll ~ o d 1 1 1 g i 1 i e r i 1 , I ! 201; (1!)72). i 4 1311 ( h s t r r , Bf.: On t.hc clli:ct, of bo~l~ltlnry 1n.yc.r gro\vt,l~ Ilow st.:~.l,ilily..II'M (Xi. I(;.', 480 011 (1974).. > .-, [:!:!I (::LH~.(.I.. hl.: A 11ot.e.or1 (111~r(.l~ilic,~~ II~.I~W,.~:II t ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ r :el1111 ~ l ~~ ~ I ii ,iu~c tl~ i r~ c > ~ ?:c ~l ~ ~ i ~ l l ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ l y ~ l i ~ clisl~~rl)n~~c~c-n i l l Iiyclrocly~~~r~~~ic sl1~l~ili1.y. .ll~'hI 1.1. 222 2211 (I!)li2). [:):!I (:ustcr, M.: '1'11~rolc of npntially gro\villg \rr:lves in t . 1 1 ~t.11c:or.y of I I ~ c I ~ ~ c ~ ~ sI tIi ~ l ~I iIl i t~~~. ~ ~L I I'rogress in hero. Scic~lcc!~ Kiirlletl~n~in, (1). rd.). 6. 251 270 (I!)(;5). [33n] (:nste,r, RI., and Jortlinson, It.: On t.l~e eigr~lvnlucsof tlln Orr-So~nmc.rfcl(lc h t l l l i l t i.IIPhl ~ . ~~~ 72. 121 I:!:% (1!)75). -,[34] C:roli~lo.I).: lCi11 15citri1gZ I I ~ nicI~t-li~)c:~rr~) St,:\l~iIitiitstl~cor~c~ cI)c11c11 , : I I I I ~ I I ; I ~ S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ \re)~~ ~ r grn. ZAMM .52, 256-257 (1972). [35] c<)rtlcr, )I., n11r1\Vit,Ling, I i . : 'Jl)eoric*(lcr s c l ~ u ~ ~ d i l~ist;il~ilit,ut, I ~ I I I ~ I ~ : I ~ ( , I(;v,-llz. irc~~ clc:r I scllicIit,r~i.il'T12hl Sytrll~osi~tni. I Ilor~llclnry-lnyrr Jtr~cnrc-11t i . (:iirtlcr,ctl.) I I0 121;. I<(:rliIl. ( I !IRR. . . [Xi] (:rn~ivillc,1'. S. : 'l'llc r n l r ~ ~ l n l i of~v~ s r o ~ ~ s or I~oclic~s rc~vol~~t.ir,~~.l ~ t ~ l ~ l ~ ~ , l l , , . l l ( , ~ o i tlrng of NII\P~ '~'IIL, l):ivicl 'l'nylor i\lorlc:l ~ { I ~ s l<cy~ort, (1!)5:!). ~ I I , 840 [371 ~ : r c e n s ~ ) :11.~ i , n11t1J ~ ~ I I I).-1.:,0 1 1 sIlcnr.lnyt!r i~lst:~I~ility, ~ l'., II~ l)rcnIzcl<)\\~~~ t r ; ~ ~ ~ ~ i t i ~ :~11ci JFM 15, 133.- 153 (I !)63). 1381 Grolllle, I).: Ul)cr (Ins Sprkt.r11111I)ri I':ige1lsrll1vi11g111l~11 cI)ct~c.~.l : ~ ~ i ~ i ~ ~ i ~ r ~ t ~ r i i ~ I ZABIM 3.1, 344 357 (1054). . . [:1!)] Hall, A.r\., nlid Hislop. (:. S.: 15x~~cri1irc1il.s tllc lr:~nsiIion of 1.111: Inll~illi~rI ~ I I I I ~ ~ : I ~ ~ on I layer CIII a lI:~t,1)I:itr. All(; JlBl 1x43 (I!J:!X). [:tg:lI J ~ ~ ~ ~ C ~ IIt,.:: No~ilinear1~cr111rl~ibt,io11~ ~rr-Sc)~~~~~ic.rfc?Icl , :1sy1111)k)t,ir II ~IIII, of tho cqt~:~t io~~ expansion of tho logarill~micplinae shift,across t,he crit.icnl l:tyc!r. SIAM J . M:L(.I;. AIlnIsSis 7, 70 -81 (1076). [4Oj JI:IIIIPI,(:.: 7411111 ' ~ ~ ~ r O ~ ~ l e ~ i z ~ ) rNitc.111..(:c:s. M'iss. (:iit.tillgc*~~, oI)lt!~ii. M1itI1. I'lIss. lil:lSse 261 - 2 7 0 (1011). [41] r:ur dcr FIegge Zijncri, J3.G.: Moas~~retncnts tlio vclocil.y t l i ~ t ~ r i l ) u t it1 ~ ~ I , o l l l l t l n ~ y of i o Ill(. Inyer along n plnne sl~rfnce.Tl~csisJlelft 1!)24. (421 IIc*isc~ll)crg, \Ir.: St.:rl)ilitiit 1111rl ' ~ ' I I ~ ~ I I I ~ OVOII l~liissiglzc~il~sl,rii~~~c~~~.I'lIsH. I)l~c.r IIZ AIIII. (1. 74. 577.. (i27 11!)241. < , (431 Jlollit~gdnlo,S.: St,al)ility nntl r o ~ ~ f i g u m l , of ~ ~ wnkcs protlrrrrcl i o the solicl I,oclirs 11lovi11g I I I I I .i I I 2 2 257 (1!)40). I44j IIoIRI(~~II, 01):'r (lit! iilttly(?r(:I I I I ~i1111or1,~ O ~ ~ ) I I I I ~ R ~ C II, ( sI i ~ ~ ; (I .I ~, ~ ~ , IIIl I ~ ~ ~~lIl i l l . ~ . r 11.: ~ S ( l ~ , : i Sll.iin1illigrtl. ZAnlM 30. 25--49 (1950). [45] ilnpf, I,.: A m . (I. Phyn. 44, 1 (1914) and 59, 538 (1919); so(. :llso: Sr~lli~llxry rrport. 1ly 1'. Noctllcr, ZAMM I. 125--188 (1921). Ilownrtl, l..N.: 1lytlrody1)nniic stnl)ilit,y of n jrt,. -1. Milt.l~.I'l~ys. 37, 28:) -293 (l!l50). (46x1 IZarl~nt~ov, JZozlov, V. V., nnd I,cvc.l~cnko,I.A.: Uche~iyir S., z:ll)isIzi TSA(:l V I . 5, 137 -140 (1975). [46l)) Ikccln. M.: Pirlit.~ dist811rl)nnc:ce anti gro~vi~)g vort.irc~ n t , m o - d i r r i r ~ ~ s i jvt.~ .lI''hl 80, in o~ ~~l 401 -421 111177). , 1471 .Iorclinno~i,Jl..: 'I'llr: 11111. 111111c~ I)o1111tl11ry ~ I T . l'111.t I . N I I I I I ~i~~~ ,~~ g ~~:~ l~i1.111:~ 01.1.. IIL l t , ~ r o(. o t I , So~~ln~t~rli:ltl eclllntioll. .J I 43, X O I - 811 (i!l70). S(:c :iI~o:1'11. I). 'l'Il<.sis I~:clir~l~~trgl~ M ' (111iv. Inox.
\ - .

\ - -

486

XVI. Origin of k ~ r b ~ ~ l e I r e n
I641 Orr, W.M. I?.: 'I'l~rst,nhilit,y or inot.nl~ilit,y thr stcncly tnut.ior~n a pt:rrr(:t lirll~id r ~ c lof of of n IL visrnt~nIit111icl.I't~rl,I : A ptsrfct!t. Iiq11i11: 1'11~1, 11: A V ~ ~ ~ I ) Il i q ~ ~ i ( l '. ~ I I l<c)y. l r i ~ AvII(I. I R ~ I:. l~ 27, !) 1;s IIII(I (;!I l:l8 (l!)07). [WaI Pearson, TJ. 1<.A.: 111st:tbilit.yof non-Ne\\,toninn How. AIIII.Itev. Fitlid Rlrr11. 8, I(i:l 1x1 (197G). [65] Prrsh, -1.: A st,~rd,y l ~ o ~ ~ n d n r y - l at,r:unsition frorn In~ninnrto ttrrb~~lcnt of yer Ilc,\r.. US Naval Ortltrn~~rn Lab. I<cp. 4:J:1!) (1956). [R6J l'rnntltl. I,.: llbcr tlcn I,t~ft.~vidcrst,:~~~cl von l<r~geln. Nncl~r.(;en. Wins. (:iit.t,i~~gr~~, M:tt.l~. 1'11yu. J<I~ssr, 7 7 - 1!)0 (1!)14); sot: nlsn (!oil. M1orlts 11, 5!J7--608. 1 1671 1'rn11clt.i, 1,. : I3ernnrlrt1ngcn iiber die I ' : I I ~ , s ~ , o ~ I ~der~ '~II~I)IIICIIX. hl 1. 431 - 4:Mi (1!)2.1) III ZAM and J'II~P. 2,?, I!)- 25 (1922); nee nlno (7011. C\'orlzs I I , 687-696. Z. [67aJ I'rn~~cltl. u l ~ r die I4;ntst,rl~t~~~g I I ~ I I I I I ,ZAh4bl 11, 407 --409 (l9:Jl). I'.: r ~ l c r~ ' !II~. [68] I'lnnclt.l, I,.: N e ~ ~ c r o ISrgrl)~~issc: ' I ' t t r l ~ ~ ~ l r ~ ~ z f o r s Z.~ ~ ~ n g . 105- - 114 (I!):):!); nne tler c l VI)I 77, nlso: (!oil. \\'orltn. 11, 105- 114. [60] I'retsrl~, ,I.: J)ie Sl,~~I)ilitrit einer ~ I ) C I I C I I I , ~ I I I ~ I I ~ ~ ~ ~ bci ~ l)r~~clcg~:fiill~: ~I)rr~ck,~ ~IIIIIII~IIII nncit.ieg. Jb. rlt.. 1,uft.ftl.l~rl.forsc:hung 58-75 (1!)41). 1, [70] 1,ortl Jb;tylrigI~:0 1 1 t,l~c sl,nhilit,y of rrrt,nin fl~tidrnol.iot~n.I'roc:. Mnl.11. Soc.. 1,~,11flr)t1 57 11. (1880) ant1 19. 67 (18.47); Scirnt.ific l'njrcrs I , 474.- 487 I L I I ~I~l l , 17; RCO illso Scic~~I,ili(: Papers I 1'. 2113 (l8!)5) and 1'1, l!)7 (l!)l:J). 170111 JI.r~l~oIlzr). 11o1111r111ry ~l.rrl~ilil.yl l c lI , I . I L I I H ~ ~ , ~A II II.I I . I 1 t ~ I. " l ~ ~ i c MIV.II. , :Il I :[.I!) I<.: Inyc:r ~t ~ l S i,1!)76). . 1711 Rrynolds. 0 . : On t,l~o expcrimrnt,al invr~t,ignt,ion the c:irc~ln~stnt~rcs of whicl~drtcrrl~inc whether the notion of water sl~nll direct or sinuouo, ant1 t l ~ e of rmist,n~lcc parallel be Inw in chnnnels. I'hil. 'rrans. Roy. Soc. 1 7 4 , 935--982 (1883); see also &11. Pnpcrs 11, 51. 1721 Reynolds, 0 . :On t,l~c tlynn~i~icxl theory of inc.otnprmsibIc viscous ll~~itls t l ~ c and clolc:rrt~inntion of t.116oritcrion. Phil. Trans. Itoy. Soc. A 186, 123- - 164 (1895); see nlso Coll. l'n.pcrs 11. 1731 Rosenbrook. 0.: Instnbili tiit der Giei bchichtcn im ucl~\mch clivorge~~tcn KRIIILI. hlM %A 17, 8-24 (1037). lliss. Giitt.ingnn 1!):17. 1741 l<,osu,J.A., Ilnrncs, I?. 11.. I ~ I ~ I .I.(:., I L I I ~ILosn, M.A.S.: '1.110 lI:tl, pltrl,t! 1)01111(lt~r,y I ~ , l;~,yor. Part, 3. Cornpnriso~~ theory nnd cxpcrimc.111. JrM 43, 81!)- -832 (1!)70). of [75] Rottn, .l.: l3xperimenkllcr Ihitmg zur I C n t ~ k l ~ ~ tr~ ~r l ~ ~ ~ l e t ~ t e r rlg St,riim~tng l<tlhr. 111g.in1 Arch. 24. 258 -281 (1956). 1761 Schlicht,ing, tl.: Zur J5nbtcl11111g 'l'r~rb~~lcnz flcr I ' l n t . t r t ~ u t ~ r o ~N:rc:hr. ~ g . M1iss. rlor hci ~ ~ r ~ ~ (:rs. Giit,t,ingen, Math. Phys. Klasse 182.- 208 (1033); nee also ZAMM 13, 171- 174 (19:):)). 1771 Scl~lichting,If.: A t ~ ~ p l i t ~ ~ d c n v e r knnrl ~ ~ ~ g i l ~ Enrrgirl)il:rnz tlnr kleinct~Stiirr~r~gct~ dcr bci 1 lattenutrii~nt~ng. Nachr. Grn. W ~ R R . (:iit,t.ingen. hlntJ~.1'11~s. KImue, Ptt~:I~gr~tl)l)e I , 1. 47--78 l19315\. ,[7R] ~chlichting,H.: Lher die Theorie der Turl~ule11zcnt,shI1~11g. Sumtnnry lteport,, Forsrhg. 1ng.-Wes. 16, 65-78 (1950). [79] Gchlichting, 11.: Et~tstcl~nng Tarl)~llc~lz. dcr IInr~dbuohtler l'hysik (S. IPliiggc, ctl.), $11, 351-450, Springer-Verlag, 1950. See also: Hnndbook of F l ~ ~ i1)ynarnica (V.1,. Strrotrr, tl ed.), hIc(2raw-IIiIl, 1961. [80] firhiller, L.:~ J n t e r s r ~ c l ~ n iiber e n ~ ~ g Ia~uinnre ttnd t,urb~~lef~t(! St.rii~nt~t~g. Foruchg. I11g.-Wes. Heft. 428 (1922), or ZAMM 2 , 96--106 (1022). or I'l~yniknl. Z. 2J, I4 I!) (1922). I S r l i l l ~ rI : I ~ t i ~ V i I I I I r I ' I I ~ ~ I I I ~ I I I I I I I I I ~ I I AI I . ~ v I I 1 , I I:! (I<J:)4). . . [R2) Schr~ha~ler. I:.. an(J Skrarnutnrl, 11. K.: l n n ~ i n a r (. ; trr~t~rtflnry rmr:ill:~t,ions slaI,iIit.y layw nr~ri of laminar flow. National I l ~ ~ r of~ u r Xtanrlnrrl. I'kwrzrch I'a1r:r 1772. Ikrtrint, of .:r,rtlirlr,nt.inl S,\(?A Ikp. tlatx~lApril 1943 (Imkr ~ I I ~ ) I ~ I I I I I :an NA(:A Wrir.t.irr~i: II I9:lf. W 8 ) I,.II,~ I # , .lA!{ 6!)--78 (1947): nee alno NACA I k l ~ 00V. . [RR] Schubnuer, (:. 13.. nnd KlehanoR, 1'. S. : (:onl,rihotionn on lhe rrl~~ot~arlinn1)c,11111lrrry of Irbyc:r transition. NACA T N 3489 (1955) end NACA lbp. 1289 (1956); nro also Proc. Syrnposiurn on Boundary Lnyer Theory, NPL, Englat~d,1955. [84] Schubeuer, G.B., and IClobanoff, P.S.: Mechanism of trnnsition n t fl~rbsonic speeds. IUTAM Symposium, Roundnry-layer I h c n r c h (H. (:iirtlcr, od.), 84-107, Berlin. 1958. [84n] Saric, W.S., and Nayfoh, A.H.: No~rp~rnllol sb~rbilit~y I)or~~nlury of layor (lows. I'hys. of Fi~rids 945-950 (1976). 18, [$5] SIICII,S. 17.: Cnlcolnlcd nmplifiod osc:illt~t.iot~n ~ I I L I I'oi~e1~i11c~ Illrrni~~n in I~ nncl fIo\v~. .!AS 21, 62-64 (1954).
I-....

1481 J o r d i n ~ o ~ ~ , S I ) P C ~ , ~ I Irigcnvnlnrs of tho Orr-Somtr~erfrld 13.: of I ~ I eqltntion for lllnsilla flow. l'l~ys. I'l11i11s 1.1, 2535 --2537 (l!)71). ~ < l ; ~ j ~ l r I<. .IC.:'I'III* n1.11l1iIi1.y I I I I I I ~ I I I Ii~~ ~ r o ~ ~ ~ l ~ r ~s ~ i I t t I ~ I~ryrrs t 1 t.I~t-prrnrn(.e 01 t~ 01' r )onn I,! ry i c t ~ ~ ~ ~ p lI i~nt ~ ~tt.~ ~ c l1'1r rI).r u'I'IIcR~R, t ~ 1. i . I(IILSH~IOIIIIHUL~~~ IIIHI,. 01 'i'1:~1111nIogy./\~:ro-I':I~~sli(: ICII(I Strurtr~rrs I<esrnrrh I,:rl)ornt,ory. ASRL 'I'lt 116-1 (1964). 148l)J I,ocl~rke, 1<.,1., Morkovin, M.V.. nntl I'rjrr, A.11.: Iteview. Transition in nonreversing osc:illat.ing b n ~ ~ n ~ l : t r y layarn. .I. k'l~~iclsh g . 'I'rann. ASMJS Serico 1, 97, 534-649 (1975). l [49] I<lebnnon', 1'. S., n l ~ d l'ic1st.ro111.1<.I).: ll:vol~~t,ion amplifier1 wnvrs lentling t,o t<ransit,ion of in n I ) o ~ ~ ~ ~ c l n r y wit11 zero prcssurr gmtlicnt. NASA TN 1)-195, (19b9) layer j50] Klob~n~on', l':S., r i ' i d s t ~ r o ~ ~ ~ , and S;trgcnt,, L.M.: The t,l~ree-din~et~nionnil I<. 11.. nnt,r~reof bor~t~cl~~ry-lnyrr i~~stnl~ilit,y. 12, 1 --34 (1062). .lI'M I51 , l- ~ ~ r t ,1':. . I?.. :III(I(:rn~~cln.ll. 11.: Co~nl~t~trr-nirletl l < z S. nt~n.lynin l~gtlroclyr~n.nlic of nt.nl1i1it.y. 1. ~ n t . l l.l'hy.s. 4.1, 21i4 279 (1!)ti2). . 1521 I,c\vin, 1:. W.: Sounr tnoclern ~nct.l~ocls rrarnrcl~ the prol,le~ns flight,. The 1!)39 (27th) of in of Will>~ar " Metnorial Jr-ctrlrr. .J. I<ov. Acro. Sac. Jdndon 43, 7(i!)-802 (I!):*!)). . . . . Wrirrht . . 1531 IAV, 1,. I-[., n11t1 Itrynol~ls,W.C.: On t.6r npproxi~nnkand nurnericnl solrltion of OrrSon~tnrrfrlrl~ ~ r o l ~ l cQuart. . .I. Mecll. Appl. Mnt.11. 20, 1-22 (1967). ~r~s 154) 1,in. (:.C.: 0 1 1 l.11~ slztl~ilit,y two-rlin~cnnior~ni of parallel flows. (311nrt. Appl. Mal,h. 3, 117.142 (,lnly 1!)45); 3, 21:) 234 (Oc:t,. 1!)45); 3 , 277-301 (Jan. 1946). [55] I.in, (:.c!.: Tl~c? I.l~roryof I~ytlrodyn;r~r~i(: st.nhility. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1055. 1.561 1,in. C.C., rind Ilrllny, J ) . . J . : On the instability of sheur flobv~. I'roc. S ~ I I I I )Ap1)1. . h1:rth. Id, Ilyclrotlynn~nicI11sta11ilit.y1--24 (19fi2). [571 Lorer~tz, I1.A.: A I I I I R I I ~ ~ I I I Itl~eoret.inchr iiber ~ Physik 1, 43--71, Lcipzig, 1907; ne\\, version of earlier pnl)or: Aknd. v. Wet. Arnst.crdnt~~ 28 (1897); see also: Prnndtl, L.: The n~echnA, r~ic:sof visrot~oflnidn, in ~ ~ 1 1 r a l l t ~ I?.: Aerodynnmic theory 111, 34---208 (1935). W. , [57a] MoCormirk, M.1Z.: Ail nnalysis of t,he fort~~at,ion tr~rl)rtlentpntehes in the trnnaition of boundnry Ir~yrr..I. Appl. Mcch. 3-5. 216--219 (1968). [57bJ I,rsncrl, M.: sre C11np. 1X. 157~1I ~ n n r n .M., n.11~1 I<", S. H.: On t.ho low Ibcyr~olrlunumber stnhility chnrartcrist,ics of the 1al11it111r i~~ro~~l~)rcsxihlt: I'hys. o IPlnidu 12, 404-407 (1969). l~nlfjrl.. C I57d ( Mt~ck.I,. M.: A n~lmnricirl nt,~tdy t.11~ of t,c~~iporal eigenvnlt~e p e c t r r ~ n ~ t.he 13lnsion bor~nds of ary Inyer. ,I I M 75, 4!)7 --~520 ' (1!)76). I57rl. M:~rlz, 1,. M.: 'l'mnsitior~~)n:dict,ionnncl lincnr n1,nI~ilityt.l~cory.AGAR1)-C1'-224, 1 -- 1 to .. I -22 (1!)77). [57f] Mittl,ingly, (:. I:, anel Critnit~nlo, 0 . : 'rl~r .. W. stx1)ilit.y of nn inoompresnihle t,mo-dinicnsionnl wake. .Il'hf 51. 2:1:1 --272 (1!)72). I581 Mic.l~nlke.A,. and Scl~ndc,I-I.: Zur Stnl~ilitjitvon frcien Grenzuchiahtr?n. 1ng.-Arch. 33. , I - - 2:1 ( 1 063). [59) Miohnlkc, A. : 'rho i l l s(nl~ilit,y frrr sllenr Inyrru. Progress in Aerospace Sciences(D. I<iicheof tnnnn, etl.) 12, 213-239 (1072). [GO] Meset,l~, J.: 15xpritne11tclle I l r ~ t . c r s ~ ~ cder ~Ubcrgangszonen zwiscl~enInminxren und h~ t~g t,urb~~lot~lcn St.rii~n~r~~gngobictc:~~ intcrn~itticrot~der Itol~rut.riitnulrg.Mit.hilungen nrls den1 M a x - l ' l a n o k - l ~ ~ ~ t , ifiir ~ l . t . ~ St,rii~~~~~~~gsforst;I~r~~~g 11nt1tler Arrodynnrnisolre~~ Versr~cl~nnnstnlt. (~iit,l.inpen. . No. 58 (1!)74). I60nl Millrr, .l.A., nntl I'rjer, A.I\.: 'l'ransilion p l ~ e ~ ~ o n inr onc.ill~rt.ing) o ~ ~ n d : ~ r y flown. ~ na I lnycr JFM IR, 4 3 8 - 449 (I!)G4). [ G I 1 van hlisrs. 11.: IZlrinr Srh\ring~~ngon 'l'tlrh~~lenz. untl .Iahresl)rr. I)t. Math. \'c:rrin. 241 --248 , . (1912). hlorkovi~~. >I.\'.: On t11r man>- facrs of transition, in: \'isro11s drag reduction ( ( : . S . \\'rlln, I ' l r ~ u ~ Prrss, Ke\v l'ork, 1!)69, pp. 1-- 31 ; see nlso: Critical evaluation of transition ~n [rOll~ lnlninnr to tnr1>11lr11t sllrnr lngrr ~ v i t e~nphnsiaon hypernonically travelling hodirs. l~ Air Porcc: lqligl~ti1yna111icnl,d)., M'rigl~t,-1'nt.tcrso~ l'orce Base, Ohio, T l t 68- 149 Air (I !)(;!I). 162) Osl)or~~r, I<,.: Numcric~tlnlot.hocls for l~,ytlrodynnrnicnt,nbilit:y problems. SlAM J. Appl. M. Mn[,11. 1,5, 539 -557 (l!)ti7). (631. Olnl,rn\vski, If.(:., Morkovin, M.V., ntlrl Iwnclnl~l,M.: A porl,fnlio or stnbilit,~. charnctcri~t.ic:s of incoinprrrmil~lthouncbrry Inycn. r\(:Altl)ogrnpl~ No. 134 (I!)(i!t). I(i3n.l Ol)rcntnki, H . . I . , nntl I'rjrr, A.A.: 'l'rnr~sit,ior~ osc:illn.ting bor~ndnryInycr f l o \ ~ .lFM 29. in . 9 : ) I l l (l9li7). I48nl
L

488

XVI. Origin of t~rrh~rlence I

(HRnJ Slim. S. I?.: Stnl)ilit,y 01' I:~nlintbrflo\v~. High Spc.ctl Aorodynnn~ir~ ~ ,let, Prop~~lsion ~ n d 4, 71!) H5:l. I'rit~rrlon nntl Oxforel, l!)(i4. 185111 Slirn, IP.C.'l'., Chctl, T. S., nnd Ilrtnng, I,. h f . : The elTt!rt~ nlninflow r:~dinlvrlority on the of s(:~l,iliIy tlrvc.loping lnnrinnr pipr flow. .l. Al>pI.Mccl~., of Trans. ASMTl: Srr. IC 43, 200-212 ( I !)71i). In(il S o t ~ ~ ~ n t ~ r ( i ~ l I(Cl~. I I I3rilr11F; ,\.: znr I I ~ c I ~ o ~ I ~ I I : L ~ I I ~ sI':rI<l5rungdtsr t.t~rI>~~lrnten ~I~~~II Pliinsigl~t*i~sl)~*\%t*g~~~~gv~i. ' o ~ ~ g 111tvr11:1l. h1:~t.. I I . I I(; --124. 1ton11~. :\{ti clvl 4. ( r. dt:i I lf)OX. IN71 S ~ ~ ~ t i 11.. It.: 0 1 1 I I I P st~trl)iliIy ll~r<.<\.tli~~~r~isit~~~nl rt . 01' tlist.riI)~~l,ion \risoo118l111iti l ~ t - l . \ v t - c v ~ ol' I~:trnllc:l\v:~lls.I'rt)<..I<oy. Soc:. I,o11<lo11 1.12. IiZl- li9H (1!)33). A 1881 Slr\\2nrl.so~~. <\ nor~-lilic:nr I<.: inritnl~ilityt.11ror.yfor n w:lvr systenl in plnllc Poiscllillc flow. So~~clc*rl~c~ft:lX (l!)5(i). 32 I!)O] Slttnrl. .l.'l'.: h ' t ) ~ ~ . l i ~~~ t ~ ':C ~rSl 11y~lro~Iy11t1111ir I I C ~ il st.:~l)ility.['roc. X t l ~ Itilern. Congress of t2ppl. Illcrl~.,Sl.rc.s:~,(it! 07 (I!)(iO). [!)I] Str~nrl,.I. 'l'.:Ily(lrotlyr~nn~ic stnl~ility. in: I,a~ni~rnr hol~nclary layers (I,. Itoscnhcnd, ctl.), 4X2 57!). (:lnrenclon I'rcna, Oxfortl, i!)(i:%;Bee :duo: <\pp\. Mech. Rev. 18, 523-631 ( l!)(i5). [!I21 'IT:~ni.1.: S O I I ~I S I I ~ Y : ~ S : (' of bo1111~1;1ry tr:lnsilion $11 snl~sor~ir 1nyt.r sl~cocls. i\tlvnnc.ra i n r\oro~ i i ~ t ~ l ~ i r ; ~ l ('1'11. 1 I < ~ , ~ I I I ~ ,rrl.), .7, l4:!-- l(ill, I'rrgnn~o~~ S(,it.~~(,c.s . II. l'rcsfl, Nt.11 \'t)rlc ILII(I 1,011tlti11, l!)li2. I!):\\ 'l'nni. I.: 15inigr I\cnrr.rk~~~~pr-n tIt.11 l : ~ ~ ) ~ i ~ ~ i t r . l t ~ r l U~nsc\~ln.gn(:rcni..scl~iol~tii1,t.r >t~I~'~~te in ~ t r i j ~ n ~ ~ZAhlhl .5J. '1' 25 - ' ' 32 (lIl7:l). np~n l 1!)4] 'I'nni, I.: I.o\v xl~rorl flo\v~ i~~\fol\,inF; bt~l)l~lr ~('1)111.~tiOll. 1'rogrc~sfi,\rro. Sci. 5, 70 - 10:l (1904). [!).',I 'l'nni, I.: Ilrvic.\v ~ S S O I II I- X I~) O ~ ~ I I I C ~ I Irt.s11I1son Iro~lnilaryI~tyr:rtransition. 1'115.8. of lil~~ids ~ ~:I~ Sllll])I. I ( / , I I - - - 11; (I!)(i7). \ ) I rl':~ni. , : 11o1111Oi1ry !G I l;~yt:rt r i ~ ~ ~ s i t r o \ ~~ ~ ~ ~ of 1P\rti(\~ \ i t . \tr\~ir\v ~ : Merl~nnic~ I00- I!)(; (1001)). ~ 1, [!)(in1 '~':l~~llllli. I I I I ~ I < ~ I ~ I I ~ < I I I'I*.: '1'11c: 8tnl)ilit.y of 11 L \ V O - ~ ~ I I I ~ I I R ~ lnlllirlnr jet. JI'h2 4. A,. I~. OII~~
8 .

C l l Al'TER

XVII

Origin of turbulcncc 11 t

,I .lie r(:sr~Il.stlc:sc:ril)rcl in (:hnp. X VI hnvc tlt:tnot~sl.r:~I.c~tl,~~rinc.i~ll(:,~ :c~ ~ ) ~ , l i it1 ~l .

~ a h i l i t ~ y t.11~ of niet.l~otlof small dist.rtrl~ancest o tJlo st,rttly of t,lto ~ ) l l c t ~ o t n c ~ n o ~ t of tfrnnsit~ionfrom laminar t,o turbrrlcnt, flow. W o tnny, I,licrcli)ro, c-xl)rc:L 1,11:1.t,t.llis l.lleory sltoi~ltln.lso srrpply u s wil.11 itlfor~n:rt.iotlt:ont:(:rt~ing l,11r o(.11rr p:~t.:lrnt.t.rrs wlliclt e x e r t a n import,ant inflrlencc o n l,r:~nsitiotr,in :tdtlit,ion Lo t.ltc: sitiglr otrr, t.he Rcyr~oltls ttunibcr, tiiscu~setl o far. W c 11;~ve s alrcatly 1)ric:fly roi)ort.ctl in Sor. X V I b t,hnt, t h e prcssnrc gm.tlictit in t,he cxLcrnnl flow lins n grr;lt inflt~cticc 1 1 1,11t* 0 s(.;~l)ilit,y of t . 1 1 ~ > o ~ r r ~ d a r y I layer, xrltl 11et1coort lfr:l.nsit,iorl,in t h o sonst: I,II;LI. I';ivort~~:~l)lc~ n I,rt:sslrl.c gr:rtIirnt stnl)ilizes t,lte flow nntl a,n atlvrrsc prrssrtrc gril(li(,t~t~ rc11<1crsiti ICSS sL:rl)lc. Botly forces, sue11 a s t.he cent.rifngnl force in n cr~rvntlst.rcnm a n d 1 . 1 1 ~ I ) I I ~ > Y : I I I ~ ~ i n a norl-liornogcncous s t r e a m , a r c very important, fi)r tlr:~ttsillion.111 tnort: 111otI~rt1 t,inies problems connected with bonnclnry-layer control t,llrongI~sirction o r I)lo\ving a n d their effect o n transition h a v e become intport.ant (c/. Chap. S I V ) . Snct.ion nxcrt.s n stn1)ilizing effect., b u t l)lowillg prornot,cs insl,;~l)ilit.y.111 t.lic c::iso of flows w11ic:li occur a t very high speeds, \ \ ~ l ~ rt,hc fluitl m u s t t~c: rrga.rtlc:tl a s I)c,ing vornrl pressible, t3hc presence of I ~ c a tt,rnnsfrr from o r t,o tlio wall (1lc:nLirrg o r cooling) nffcct.~ transition t o a n important, clrgree. 'Vlte t.rxnsfcr of 11r:l.t from t.llc flrlitl t.o t,Ile wall h a s a highly st.nbilizit~g cffcct I)ut if t,I~c flow of l ~ c n is from t.11~ s n l l o tire t ~ t flrtitl t.11eeffect is revcrsctl. Ipinnlly, problcms connect,rtl \vit,h tllc inllttcncc ol'rorrgll~lcss on t,ransit,ion a r e of g r c a t pract,icn.l import,arlcc.

2 O 217 (I!VP5). U 'I'oll~iiiv~~, 0Irt.r (lit. 1Sntstnl111ng ' l ' t ~ r l ~ t ~ l ~ nMitt. Xncllr. (ks. \\'ins. (:iitti~~grn. \\'.: tlrr I. z . tr:~nsI.i n K,\C',\ Thl (;I)!) (1!):31). Al;~tl~. I'liys. I<l;lsst. 21 44 (1!)2!l): 1C11pl. I I O O I 'I'olln~i(.n.\\'.: I C ~ I I :~IIg:.~nrit~rs I(ritrrin~n(Ivr I~~sl:~l,ililiil libn~ini~rrr (:rsrl~\vi~lcligli~~itsv~rlc.ilt~l~gt.~~. (if.*. \\'iss. (:iittic~gc.lr.hl:~tl~.' l ~ y ~I<l:~ssc-. N;~c.l~r. l . I~:~c.l~gr~lppe 7!)-1 14 I . 1. (I!l35); 1+:11gl. Ir:~nsl.in XZ\(''\ 'IT&1V (l!l:!(i). 72 ! J 1 1 l I I 'I'oll~~~irn. . \ s ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ 111trgriltio11I I ~ ~ \\'.: c)~~R(~ tlrr S~i~rt~~~p~:lini:rt~~~ti:~IgI~icl~t~~~g rl)erler I:rtniItnrcr S ~ ~ ~ ~ I I 1)c.i I I I I ~ ~< ~ ~I I I O I I I S S I ~ I I I - Znlilc-11. Z,\hlM 25/27. 33--50 nntl 70bX:1 I IIO)I(*II I I ~ II
I!I!lI

11i55 I I ; ~ ~ ( I ! I ~ , 'I ) . - f 1 Ill71 \Vliitt-. I*', A l , : \'isc,ot~sIl11ir1 flo~s.hit,(:^^\\ ~ l l i l l .K C \ \ ' \-or\(. 1974. 1 I I ~ N l \ \ . ~ ~ I I : I I $1.. ~ < ~ . I s S11l~t1lov. l , , :I,II(I V ~ ~ ~ I I I : I IOn :I I I I ~ I ~ I I "sl~crt.'in n In111i11:br ~ t l n ~ ~ b I).: I . ICII~ b i ~ r y : ~ y c .)I1'h! 7s. 785 XI!) (1!171i). \ ~.

'Uir resent, cltnptcr will conttnin a rcvinw of nil l.ltc~sctlivrrso prol)lvnts, ant1 we slin.ll bcgirl wit.11 t.lio st,utly of t.lir clrcct, of 1,rcssllrc. gr:~tlic-nls I)c~c-artsc f ils grcv~l, o irn~)ort~nncc prnct.ical npplicnt.ions; in t.his conncsion t.llt: rcntler 1nn.y r t ~ t ~ s ~l l c l f . in f ~ t.tvr.o snrrtmary revicws, t,fie one by I. 'l'arti 12381 \vrit.t.ctl in 1!)60 a t ~ t ll.l\c ot,l\rt I,y E. R,rshot,l<o[l94n.] [)r~blisllctl 1!)70. '1'11~ f;)rrt~t:rooncc~~~l.rnt.c.s i l ~ r o i ~ l l ) t ~ c ~ s s i I ~ l ~ in or1 flows. \vltereas t h e latt.er ernpl~asizcs romprcssit~lcflow a t ~ t lltrnt t,r:~nsfcr. \Ve \\xisll once ngnin t,o d r a w t'he render's at,tcnt.ion t.o t h e sotnewllnt, oldcr, r r l . ~c.sc*rll<bnt,, , r r v i r w of this gi~ol)lc~n nl,ca prrpnrctl Ity J .'I'. 8t.11ril.t. 1227 rr,l.

I nrn very n ~ r ~indebtrrl to Dr. L.M.hlnrlc of t,l~e I'ropnlnion I , ~ ~ h o r i t t ofr ~ l ~ c ! ( ' : ~ I i f ~ ~ ~ ~ l i ~ rl~ .Ict. o L Institute of Tcchtrology, Pnnedenn, Cnliforniu for t,he cot~~plct.rly reurrit,ten, prmcrlt, vcusio~r of S~ct,ion Xt'lle of t,his rhnpter.

490

XVII. Origiri ol t,urbulencc 11

a Effect of prennl~re . grndierit on trnnsition in bo~rndarylayer along ~ n ~ o o walls th

a. I3hct of pressure gradient on t~ransitioti bountlnry layer along ~moot.l~ it1 wnlln

491

r J 11c bo~lntl:~.ry 1;lyor on a llnt pl:lt,c a.t zero inridolcc ull~osc stal)iliI,y w:ts i n ~ e s t i g s t ~ ein Chap. X V I has the pcc~rlixrcharactteristic t h a t its vclocity profiles tl a t tli&rcnt tlist,anccs from tho lending ctlgo are similar t o each other ( c f . Chap. VII). I n t,his case sirni1nrit.y results from t h e al)scncr of a pressllrc gm.tlicrit in the external flow. On tthc other h:trld, in t l ~ c case of a cylintlric;r,l I)otly of arbitmry shapc \rhen the pressurc gradient along tfhc wall changes from point t o point, t,llc rcsoll.ing vcloc:it7y profilrs arc not,, grncrally speaking, similar t o each ot,hcr. I n tho rangtrs wllere t,l~o prcssure docrc.ascs tlownst,marn, the v ~ l o c i t ~profilns have no l~oint~s inllcxiol~ y of ant1 are of t,llc typo shown in I'ig. 1 6 . 9 wllcrcas in regions wl~crc prossure inorcnscs ~ t,llc: d~wnst~rcam they arc of t,he type s l i 0 ~ 1 1 Fig. 1 6 . 9 ~ in ancl (lo posscss points of inflexion. I n t,I~ccaso of a flat plate all velocity profilcs have t h e same l i n ~ i tof stal)ility, nanicly R,,, = ( f J , d,/v),,,, 520; in contrast with that,, in the case of a n arbitrary body sl~npc, the intliviclrlal velocity profiles have marlrrtlly tlifiront limits of s t a b i l i t , ~ I~igllcrthan for a flat plate wit11 favo~rrableprcssure gratlicnt.~, , and lower with aclversc prcssuro gratlierlts. Conseqrtrntly, in ortlcr t o dct,orn~ir~c t h e position of t,he point of instability for a body of a given, prescribed shape, i t is necessary t,o perform the following calculations:
7

t o work witsli a nicnn llow wlioso vclo(!it8y Il (y) rl~l)t?n(ls ollly 0 1 1 t,llr 1 r:itIsvrrsc c o o r t l i r ~ ~ ty. c'l'ho inffl~onccof Lhc I)~I:RSIICC gra(/irnt 0 1 1 ~ l , a l ~ i l i t~y a ~ ~ i f ' ril,sc~lf ~ ,n sl.~ t.11ro11gl1 fort11 or ttIic vclocit,y 1)rofiIc gives11 by fI(?y). \\'t: IIILVI: nlrt:;ttly s ; t i c I it1 t,Itr See. XVLI, thnb the limit of st,al.)ilit,y of a vcloeil.y prolile: dr1)t:ntls sl.rongly o11 il,s shape, profiles with a point of inllcxion possessing colisitlrrably 1owc.r lin~itw of criterion). Now, since t.hc pressure stability than tShoscwithout ono (poit~t-of-inflexion gradient cont,rols t,lic curvatrlre of the velocity profile it1 accordance wit(11~(111. (7.15)

t.hc sl.rong tlcpentlencc of the limit of stal)ilit,y on the shapc of tho vrloni1.y profile n.mo1111t.s a largo ir~flt~cnce the: [ ) ~ C S R I I P O gmclictit on sl,al)ilif~y. f , is, I,ltc~rc.li~ro, t.o of I true t,o say t h a t neceleratetl flows (tlpltlz < 0, clUrn/tl:c: 0, f;~vo~rr:lblc > pressure gradient,) are considera.hly morc stable thnn clccclerat,ctl flows (tlp/clz>O, clIJ,,,/dz<O, atlvt:rsc prrssnro gr:~.tlirni,). ,I he stxong infl\icncc of t h e pressure gratlior~to n stnl)ilil,y ant1 on t,l~r: :lrnr)li1

1. DctcrminaI,ion of the pressure tlist,ril)ut,ion along the contour of Lhe body for frictionloss flow. 2. I)etcrminat,ion of the laminar boundary layer for trha.tpressure d i ~ t ~ r i b u t i o 3.. Dctcrmination of thc limits of stability for these indivitlr~al n velociby profiles. T h e problem of determining t h e prcssure di~t~ributiori belongs to pot,ent,ial throry whicl~ supplies convenient met.hotJs of computation as, for example, tlescril)ctl by T. Tlleodorsen and J . 1 S . Garriclc 1242) and F. Riegels [193]. Conve~lient nietliods for the calculat~ion laminar boundary layers were given in Chap. X. The third step, of t,he st.al)ilit.y calculntion, will now be discussed in detail. I t is ltnown from t h e theory of laminar boi~ndary layers, Chap. VIT, that, generally spealring, the curvature of t,he wall has littlc influence on t h e development of tho houndary layer on a cylindrical body; this is tarlie as long a s the ratlius of ~ u r v a t ~ u rof tlie wa.11 is mnoh larger tjhan t h e boundary-lager thickness, which e a m o ~ l n t s saying t h a t t h e effect of t h e centrifugal force may be neglected when too analyzing the formation of a boundary layer on such bodies. Hence the bountlary layer is seen to develop in the samc way a s on a flat wall, b u t under t,I~e influence of that, pressnrc gratlicrit whicll is tlctermined h y t h e potential flow pnst tfhe body. The same applies t,o the tl~t~orminat~ionthe limit of stability of a boundary layer of with a pressure grntlient which is different from zero. Tn ront,rast with I,hc cSase of a flat, plate, whrro the external flow is nnilbrin a t [J, 1const,, wr now 11:~veL con0cncl wiLh a n ex1,ernal strram wlrose vrlority, o I / , ( T ) , is :L f~lnrfionof the lrngth roordirlat,e. The velocity Urn(z) related to tlle is prrssuro gmtlirr~b tlp/tlr through tho Rrrnonlli erluation

lirnI.iot1 of smn.11 tIisttlrbn.ricos ~)rctlic:l.crlIpy t,llc ~)rt:~c!nl, (Jltwry WILH c:ot~lir~r~r.,l q9xpcrin~ent.ally by G . B. Scl~ubauernncl 11. l<. Slcramst,ad, Scc. XVlcl. 'I'll(: gr:~l)lts it1 Fig. 17.1 represent oscillograms of the velocity os'cillations o n a fl:~twn.11 wiLh a prrssure gradient. The upper half of the cliagram shows t h a t a prossrlrc! tlrop whiclr amounts t o 10 per cent of the tlynarnic prcssure causes a cornplcl~r tlartlping orlt of tile oscillat.ions, whereas tlrc prcssttre increase wl~ichs ~ ~ c c e c t it ant1 which ls a n ~ o ~ ~ n t ,only 5 per cent of t,he tlynanlic prcssllrc, on.rlscs not only stxong amplit,o s fical.ion I I I I ~ .protlllccs l,mnsit.ion a t onc:c. (111 t,llis corirlt??tion att.cnl,io~~ tlratvn 1.0 is t,he redrloed srnlc of the last two osrillogmms!)

111'spi1.r of l,hc tlrpcntlcnc:c of l,l~c cxt,rrnal vclocif.y on t.he 1cngt.li coortlinat.c, it, is 1)ossil)lt.. :IS sIio\vt~ . I . 1'rc:l.st-1111771. 1.0 : L I I : L ~ ~ - A C I.hr sl~al)ility 1;t.rnili:~r I)? of llows \viI.l~ a prrssur(: gt.:~~li(%nl,l ~ t sn.tnc! w;r.y R S in illsaI)st:n(:c ( ( : l ~ a pX V l ) ; il, is again ~,ossil)lo ill lr *

Il'ig. 17.1. Os~~illogr~~ti\ o l vc*lo(.it.yIlr1t:Ln:r1.iolisi l l I:~~nin:lr I)ot~lltI~ry wit11 preslityrr sure gr:ttlirt~t., ~iic~:tsttrrtl C:. 1%. ns hy Srlirt1)nrlrr nritl 11. I<. Sltra~nst;~tl. 1)ccrcnsing prcsstlrr ~wotl~lrcs tlnrnpit~g; iric:rmsirig 1)rrsnllrr rnllsrs strong :ltnl~lifir:at,ion niltl ~wo(ltirm tmr~sit,ion

492

XVII. Origin 01 turbrllcncc I[

a. Effect of presslzro gradient on trannition in honndary layer dong ~mooth n l l ~ 493 w

st.ipulnt,e. for t.hc S R ~ Cof si~nplicity,a one-pammeter family of laminar velocity ~)rofilns.AII c x n ~ n ~ l e s u n l ~a one-parameter fnrr~ilyof velooit,y profiles, which, of nlorrovc.r, (:o~~sI,ihr~l~c solr~t,ion~ I,hc bor~ntlnry-l:~.yor ~ r ~ a l ~ i o l ~ s , exa(.t, of ec is rr~)rcsrrlt,ncl by I lnrl rcr's \r.ctlg(. flows. 'l'l~cirfree-sl.re:~mvelocity is givrn I)y

nr~d t.l~c ass.ioc:inl,ctl ve1oc:il.y profilcs can bc four~tl plotft,cd i ~ r Pig. 9.1. IIcre m de~lot,es tho sl~:~,pc farl,or of (,he ~)rofilesar1c1 tho wctlge angle is = 2 m./(m..I- 1). W h e r ~ ni, < 0 ( i ~ ~ c . r c : ~prc:ssrlro), t,l~c : . si~~g vcloc:ilfy prolilcs 11:ivo a point, of inllcxior~;whcr~ 111. > (1 (ttco~.cn.siii~ prrssr~rc), t.11C1.eis no point, of inflrxion. AS cerly a s 1941, J . J'rctmh [ I 78, IT!)] cnrricxl o l ~ t,l~c: t sta1)ilit.y calcr~liil,ion a scrics of profiles of t,his one-parafor mc:t.rr family. l,at.er, in 1!)G0, thcsc cal(:r~lations were considerably cxtentlctl by El. G. O~nbrcwslzi([G:!] of (:ha.p. XVI); Ilc cvaIuat,e(I not only the critical Reynolds number I ) I I ~a.lso l.hc, an~~)lificat~iot~of t.hc ~ ~ r ~ s t stlistnr1)anc:c-s. 'l'l~cralcr~In.f~ions . m1.c l~lc: rcvcr~l a s1,rongc.r ~i~.pcwtlrnc:o t , l ~ cril.ic::~I Ih:y noltls I ~ I I I I \ ) I '011 l.11t: sl~n.~)(: of c ~ I'n.(:l.or1 ) ) l.hnn t l i t l (s:~rlivr \vo~.lz.'1'11~ c l i : ~ y , r :ol'~ lciy,. 17.2 (lrscril)(:s O I I C r c s ~ ~ l<)I' ~ ~~ l . l,l~rsc<::LI(!III:LI,~~IIS, n:1n1(.13; C I I I . V ~ S const.ant, ampIilic:al.ior~for 1.11(: vcloc:it,j ~)rolilos (11c of nssocint.c:d with (.II(. c~xIcrr~al flow givrn I)y nqn. (17.2~1)wit11 m = -0.040 whicll corresporlds t o = : -0.1 ; c f . A . R. Wnzzan [I041 of C l ~ a p . XVI. I<. I'ol~lIr:ir~sc~n's ~ ~ ) ~ ) r o x i m a t ~ c : mothotl clescril)etI in C l ~ a p . is the most X c:onvc:~~iont, for trllc c:alc~~lat,iorl laminar velocity profiles and it is, t8llerefore, one of I I S ~ > ~ I I I1.0 i~~vc~sl,ig:~.l,n l.11~ sl.:~l)iliLyof I,l~o associated vclocit,~ r)rofiles. 'I'l~e s l ~ n n c l o' t,lle vrlonit,y I)rofilc:s is tlct,c~.rn~ncd t.hc shape factor I)y

[Gig. 17.3. Curvrs of ~lrr~t,r:~l xt.nlrili(.yfor I:i~~~ir~:ir I)o~l~~dnry-l:~ycr wit,l~ prcssrtre dccrcnnc 11roGlm ( A :-- and l)rt:ss~~rr 0) increaac ( A < 0 ) . Thc nh:bpc factor of the vclorit,y profilo i s tlclir~cdns

Fig. 17.4. (!riI,icnl I L C ~ I I O I I I S I I I I I I I ~ ) ( T of I)o~~nci:iry-l:iyor volooil.~ profilm with prrxsurr gr:icliol)t ns n f t ~ r ~ c l . i o ~the of ~ RIIRIW: fnnt.or A

A =

1J2

'I'l~rI : ~ n \ i of vnlocit,y profil~sw:w sllowr~in Fig. 10.4. T l ~ c l ~ a p e l~ s factor A assumes v:~lr~c,s I)cl,wcc~t~ - 1- 12 r~ntl- 12, the latter v n l ~ corrcspor~tling1.0 ~ c p n m t ~ i o ~ l ; A ~r

dl/",
---

tlx

srr aIso.liig. 10.5

a t the forward stagnation point it is cqual t o A = -1-7.06, ant1 a t t,ilo point of minimum pressure we have A = 0. For A > 0 t.hc pressure tfccrenses; ,I ( 0 corrcspon(1sto a n increase i t 1 prcssrlrc!. 'I'll~o vcloc!il~y~)rolilc:sfor A . 0 c!nc:l~ I)OSS(:SS : a point of inflexion.

Fig. 17. 2. Curvca of const,a~~t tetrap l n~nplificntiol~ the b o n ~ ~ d m for ary lirycr in rot,nrdetl flow wiLl~ freestream vclocit,~ given by ( I , = C xnlcalculated for a wide range of Itcynolds numbers after [GB] of Chnp. XVI
11:
1

p/(Z

p)

- 0.1

0.048

11. Scl~lic)~t,ing A. Ulricl~[200] c:brriotl out, sl.nl)ilitt.yccnl~:t~lat~iot~stAis and for farnily of velocit,y profiles. Thc ctlrvcs of ncntral sl.abili1.y arc sl~ownin Id'ig. 17.3. Ilot,l~ ) r : r ~ ~ r l ofr s I ~ t,hc curves of nc:uI.r;~lsI.:ll)ilitty for :III vc.loc.il,y profil(,s \\.it11 :L( I ( % ~ r c n s i t ~I,rc,ssrlro (A > 0 ) tecrltl to zc:ro :LS R - >m,jr~st,:LS \V:LS (::I.sI!(ill. I,II(S Il:bll g 1,110 plate, A . 0. On t.hc ol.l~cr11nntl tilo Ilpl)rr I)r:~nc:l~rs c:cl~.vc:sc'orrc:sl)o~~tli~~g or 1.0 ~wofilt*s wil.11 :~rlvt:rsc~ ~ r c s s r t r c g r n t l i c (11 ~ t ~)s l c ~ ~ t.o :III :~syn~l)t.ol,c:l ~ i r lrlil1'c.r~ ~~ ( 0 cl w ~ from zcro so tl~at,even for R - OQ tl~c?rc > cxists a f i ~ ~ i ~.c,giot~ wavcdc~~gt.l~s , l~c of :~t wl1ic41t l i ~ t ~ ~ r r b a naresalways arnplifictl. 'I'llc vc:lorit,y ~)rofilrsl l t,l~c cc i regio11of f ' ; ~ v o ~ ~ r a l ~ l cI)rc.ssllrc gra(1ic11I~ > 0) :LS wrll :LS l,11(! ~)roliloli)r (.ot~sI.:~nl,. , ~ S S I I ~ O l 0) (11 I)I (, I)clong t.o I,l~c l,yl)c of "viscor~s" insl,:ll)ilil,y (c:r~rvc: i l l I'ig. l(i.8), \vl~c,rc.:~s 1)roIili.~ 1) I.III> in I,IIc r:~ngeof :~(Ivcrscl)rcsst~re? gratlicnt (A < O ) arc of 1,11(! t,goc cl~:~r:~c:(,c,rist.ic: ot' "fric:t,iorilcss" il~st~ability (cr~rvc in I'ig. 10.8). I t is sccw I'ro~n Icig. 17.3 I.II:LI, the a

404

XVII. Oriein of tnrbnlenco TI

Fig. 17.5. Sl~nrlograpl~ pict,r~re reverse t.ransit.ior~ of front t~rtrl)r~lnnt,l:rn~it\ar to flow it1 n \)orr~t~lnry layer it1 sl~pcr~onio ro11r1(1 corner at. M = 3, nfkr J . Skrlll)erg [215j flow a

gral)ll of \vn.ve-likent.rcnk I ~ I I C R i l l a water vl~n~it~el ~)l~l.~illt*d 1,111? nid of lrltc t.cll~~ritt~tt \vit.h 111t?t11od by IT. X . Worttt~nnn1257, 2581; di~tllrbnitcecrcnktl nrlificinlly hy n.11 os~ill:~t.i~~g ( 3 x A00 sllril) >: 0-03I I I I ) ~ ) . T l ~ e strip is lovntcd nt n ~t.iiIiot~ \vltnre R 1 =- 750; t,llc at,renlz l i 1 1 ~ 8 c:rnnlrtl xt itre R, == 950 (Irft.border of figure). The rollir~g ~ p r ofnt.renk linrs tlo\r-~~ntrrn~~t in n rottncqrlrtlre of t,l~e instnl,ilit,y of the prrt.t~rl)ot.ion wnres. 'l'hc figl~rra r10110te 1listnnc.r~ l rln il NIIIII(-~/I.II~ ~ I I I ~ I I I ~ ~O I I I I I ~111yrrst1 1111, vt.1tlt.r 1 9 1 I1w I I u I I ~ I ' : I I ~ I I lor I I I II~~ \'olorlLy f ~ t ~ l s i d c t101111dnry 1:1y~r. IJ,,, = 11.1 ~ I I I / S C C I)isl~i:trel~~ctlt 1Itirk11r.w r t l I ~ n t l ~ ~ < lInycr, 6, nry 1.4 rttl \ \ I ~ \ ~ P I C I I X I I 01d i s t ~ ~ r l ~ t ~-- ~I8 .C I ~ I I 1 t c

wig. 17.1;. Srltrtitnt.ic rrprc~cnl,nt,ionof the flolv in t . 1 1 ~I ) o l ~ ~ ~ d n r y ill perIstyrr aonir: flow nrot111cln vornrr, nfl.cr .I. Sterltberg, c / . Fig. 17.5

11r)-t~~~lds l111111t)~r. U,,, = 1250 R, d,/v Sltnltr rnl'tnr, 6,/d, - H , , = 2.0 l ' ~ ~ I l ~ : ~ t ~ s r ~ l ~ I V I I Irqn. (10.21). A 1v:~rnlnt-tvr

-- U

r e g i o r ~of u ~ i s t ~ n b wavcle~igthsencloscd by t h e curve of n e ~ i t ~ r ~ lt a b i l i t ~ y much le a is y t greater for b o ~ ~ t i d a rlayers with adverso pressure g r a d i c n t , ~ h a n for acceleratetl flows. T h e dependence of t h e critical Reynoltls nurnber o n t h e s h a p e factor A which follows from Fig. 17.3 !ins bean plotted i n Fig. 17.4t. I t varies wit,h t h e valno of tile sllnpc factor A , and hence wibh t,ho pressure gradicrit,, very st.rong1.y. r I I I V ~ l i : ~ ~ t . :t l1 n 1~C i ~ . 17.2 t . ( ~ t ~ l i i i ~ l: s . t l t l i l i o ~ ~ r ~ l.l~ t,~ . \ .of' sI~OIISI:IIIL : i t ~ ~ l ~ l i ( i ~ ~ ; r t i o ~ ~ i ~ c y t~ ~ ~ j / ~ -l , ~ Y I I I S I . I i ~ r:I. v~slocil'ypt,tt[ilc a,ssoci:~tvtlwit,lt tPlicsninll r:tt,tx of 1)rrss11r<:risq ' l ~ s o t i l I i / ~ - -~-O.l. A c-otlt[)nt.iso~~ \vit.lt IT;#. lfi.12 cot~vi~lt.c*s t11:rI. 111,. s l ~ \ t ? 11s r:~lcs01' I I I . ~ S S I I IIYI .** ; I S ( - ~ ~ o ~ ~ s i i~ ~ (~r ( - ;t~~1 ts;~~ l ~ l l I i f~ t ~ :t~t,t tlx i o ~ t ~I (. ( ~ l , ~ 1s v, ~ t t ~ ~ ~ i .; .
3

'l'l~rvnlr~cR,,,

- A45 givc'lt hcrc for A - 0 tliffcru so~ne\vl~nt from the v a l ~ ~ e givrn pre520 vior~ulyin Jpig. 16.1I. 'l'ltiu is duc 14) t l ~ c clilli:rc~~ce betweon t l ~ c exnct I%lnniunvrlocity profile 1 1 s f ~ l ) r ( ~ v i o ~ ~ t l I nll 1 b ~ ~ l ~ r o x i l l 1 ollr~ rlltl~lo,~c:c~ 1 . 1 1 ~ ~ nll s y :ttf for ~)rol~ar:bt.io~rrig. 17.2. of

T h o phot.ogra,pli of Fig. 17.7, t,nltcn by F. X . Wort1rt~ntttl[2T,B. 2561 it1 a wn.t,c:r c l ~ a n n c lcoriveys n clcar ini~,rcssion o f unsf.cLl~lroscillnlic)its in n. 1ntni11n.rI)ollntla.ry Inyw. T h e yictllre was obtained b y t h e t r l l ~ t r i ~ ~ r n ~nt:t.hotl/256]. l'hc a.rt.ificn1 tlist.nr0nnces were generated wit,h t,ho nit1 of a n oscillnt.ing strip placctl near t.hc n a l l , in n m n n n r r siri1ila.r t.o l,hat crnploycd by S c l ~ u l ~ n r ~ clrl.t l ~ ~ltrr?rnst,atl ant1 tIcse1.il)cc1 in Chap. X V I . 'J'ltc ~ ) r r s s ~ irise a.long t , l ~ wirll is s o srnnll t.l~nt. I ' o l ~ l h n ~ t sp:trnrc r tho e~~ tnct.r~ frotn rclti. (17.3) llxs t.11c vnlnr A --8. At. t.hr s l . n l i o ~ ~h r r r tlrc. tlist.t~~.l):~nrt. w is g c t i ~ t . n l ~ I.II(.l 1oc:trl Il.c:ynol~ls c~ IIIIIIII)I'I.11s. l ~ r 1 1 t \~II.IIII\ R b l - 750, I I I I ~ Il.11(* (litll('t~siol~lcss wa.vrlt:~~gl,lt l,hc tlist,url)nrico is n l (TI -= 2 nOl/l - - 0.48. 7'11is [ ~ o i r ~ t . loc.:~.t.ctl of is f a r in tJir ~lnst,nl)lr ficltl o f Fig. 17.3. '1'11~ inst~ntit.n.nc~o~ts n l ) s l ~ of; t.It(> sl.rc.n.lc lincs s~l o in Pig, 17.7 sl~o\vsl11(, fii1:11 11I1ns(* lht%t ~ \ v o - t l i ~ ~ ~ c t ~ Is~i :o~~ ~ ; ~ Il ) ~ of' I1111.* (lisol' ~ ~~~I ~I I~ III~ t,rrrltnnc:c n i ) o ~ ~ t , wnvc~lrngt.11~ 20 tlownst~rc~nrii ( . l ~osril1:rf ing st,ril). 'I'l~istlisl.nrl~:~nc.t: of c nmltlifirs in cornl)lt~t,c n.grrrmrnt of t.l~rory~vil~li c!xl~rritnri~l.. 'I'll? t l ~ ~ c t , ~ ~ n . l i t i l ~ i c l ~ ~ v n, is stmilltwo-tlirnrnsior~nlnr:tr t.11~ Irf't. rtlgo of t.I~c: ~ ~ i c t ~ tIt~ ~ c o ~ n tlisI.ot~t.c~d i1.s trr t~s in rnitltllc by t.lic: o ~ ~ c o t n i t longitutlir~n.lvort.iaos. A t t h r t,igl~l, ig ctlgc! ol' I,III% l)it:l.~tt.c. is it. nlrrntly ~)ossil)lr tliscc:rn " t , ~ ~ r I ~ ~ tc.ot.cs". 'l'l~isrotifit~tnsour ~.c.lnn.l,lts Y I I I ( : ( * I . I I ~ I I ~ t,o lent~ ( t,l~rcc-tlirr~rnsiotinl tlist,urbanccs givrn nl, t.hr c>rltl of t,his cli:tpt.c~..

490

XVII. Origin of turbr~lcnce I1

b. Drt.crminntion of the ponition of tlrc poittt of insl.nbility for prrscril)rtl I~otly shnl)c

407

On sevcral oc:cnoions wc have sttrcsscti thc fact t h a t n pressure increme along a 1)oundary lnycr sttrongly favours t.mnsitrion t o t,url)ulent flow in it. Conversely, a st,rong pres,?ure tlecrease, such ns may bc crcat8cctbchi~id sharp cdgcs it1 snpcrsonic flow, cnn carlsc a turbulent boundary laycr t o become laminar. Interesting observations of this kind were made by J. Sternberg 12151 who employed a cylinder providetl wit,li e conical forc-body. Pigrtrc 17.5 shows a shadogmpll of the flow along the conics1 fore-body a t a Mach number M = 3. The boundary laycr turns turbulentr a t thc tripping wire providecl for t h e purpose. Further downstream, hnhintl t.11~ corner forrnctl a t lrhc jnnct.ion of t.hc two bodies, the t ~ ~ r h u l e n t , bor~ntlary 1:rxt-r 1.1rrnsla~nirrar again, Fig. 17.0. This phrnorncnon is explainctl by tlia circunnst,:incc t,h:lt t.11~ lnrgc f:tvo~~ml)lc pressure gratlicnt a t the sl~onlderimpresses a very strong acrrlrr:tl,iotl 011 t,hc flow and t.l~is,in turn, ~xt~inguishcs t.nrl)ulrnce, in the a w:iy rcniinisc:c~ntof the eKccl of a strong co~ttmct~ion placed allend of t l ~ c test scct,iori of a \vin(l t~lnnt:l.Q~lalit~ative intli~at~ions this process can bc found in a on ~ a 1 ) n r W . 1'. ,Jones ant1 E. 15. 1,auntlcr 1 low. According to t,hcsc nuthors, rcln~niI)y nnrixn.Iion (nxt,inc:tion of t,rlrbrtlcncc) occurs in incomprossil)lc st.rc:nrns w l ~ c :t,l~c ~~ tli~nc~nsionlws acc:rlcr:~t,ionparamctcr sat,isfics the inccl~ralil.y

We I~cgin\vit,ll t,he evalrlnLion of t,l~c laminar 0onntln.ry 1:Iyc.r from t.I~r pot,c.~~tinl veloc.it,y tIist,rilrnl.ion l l , , ( x ) / U , , w l ~ i c lis regnrdrtl :i.s kno\vn, I)y (.II(- ~ t s t * 1'0111~ 01' II:IIIS(!II'sI ) ~ ) I ~ ~ X ~ I I I : I ~ , ( : :I ~tit:t,I~otl ortl.Ii~~r(l (!II:L[).X. Sr1t.11:i t*:\l(:r~l:~(,it)~r r t ~ i s l ~ t - s in l'~~ vnl~tcs Lllr s l ~ n p c of faclor A ant1 t , l ~ tlispl:icctnct~tLllicltnc~ss in t8crnisof t,ltc Icng(,h c (TI of arc x , measurctl from t,hc forwartl st.ngnat,ion point.. On proc:c:ctling long IIlr 1:~lnina.r I)ont~tlary I:~yorfrom t,l~c for\vartl st.:~gr~:il.it>r~ in :t tlowr~sl.rc~:~nl point, tlirc.c.l.iot~ :LL ari : ~ s s ~ ~ t n r t l cot~st~nnt botly ltcynoltls nltrnbcr IJ,l/s ( I -- Icngl,I~ I)otly), it, is tlot.it-t:tl or tJ~at.,a t the bcgirining, t,hc limit of stal)ililpy, ( ( I , A,/v),,~,, is vrry lligll o\vit~g1.0 t,hc s11:tt-p prrssllrr dccrc:~.sc. t,l~c; ot.llc:r 11nl1dt.11~ On I)orlntl:~ry I:r.yrr is t.11i11 :LII(I c o ~ ~ s e q ~ ~ c ~ ~ t , l local ltcgrioltls ~11tn10cr O,/v is ccrt,:~it~ I)c srn:illcr t.lrnn trllc t,I~c y (Jm 1.0 crit.icnl v a l ~ t r ,(/I,,, dl/v),,,,, ant1 t<hc1)onrrtl:iry Iayrr is st,:~l)lc. Pr~rt.hcr l o w t ~ s l . ~ ~ t ~ : ~ ~ t t,hc r:rt,c of prrssrlrc tlccronsc brco~nns st~l:lllrrnr~tlis l'ollo\vt~tlI)y :L I ) ~ ( \ S S I I I . ( - ~II(~I.(%:IS(: bchintl t.11~ point of minimum pressure so t,h:it the local litnit 01 sI.aOilit,y,( / I , , r ~ I / ~ ~ ) c r i t . tlecrcasrs in t4hc tlowr~st~rcam ciircct,ior~, wl~crcast,he l)ou~~tla.ry-l:~~~t:r Ihit~l~nc~ss :111tl, \viI,lt il,, I.11t: lo(*:~lt ~ : g ~ ~ oIlI~ l s I I I (/I,,, ~ ,I / j ~ ) , l III )~~O ittt:rt::r,s(-.AI, :L t . ( - t , I , : ~ i t ) 11oi11lI I ( - I\vo I l~i!~!olllt~ ~~1~11:r.l :

Introtltrring I'ol~lhnnsen's shape fartor A from cqn. (10.21), anti using eqn. (17.3), wc ran t r a ~ ~ s l n the prrcrding contlit.ion t o rcari tc

ant1 from t.h:tt, point onwa.rrls t . 1 Itotl~~tl:~.ry is ~tnst.:~l)lc. I I ~ ~ Itlttli~~c.tl ~ 1:~ycr 'l'l~t. I ~ . l)y cqn. (17.4) will be referred t o a s the point o/ i7r.~ltahilit?/ it.s posit,ion clor,s, r*vitlr~~t ant1 ly, tlnprntl o t ~ t.11~ I)orly ltcynoltls n ~ t m l ~ r(r(,I , 1)ec:nrtsc l . I ~ t , loc9:il I ~ o r ~ ~ ~ t l ; ~ ~ ~ y - I : r t.liir.l~nrssis irlllr~onc:rtl by it. I 11t: r : ~ l ~ ; n I : ~ lof tl,l~t: posiItion ol' l , l ~ t ! l)oi111~ it~sl:t.l)ilil~y I.(*I.IIIS I , I I v l<,~.yio ~ of in ol'
1/31),

..

tvl~rrt.R6 -: ll,,,t\/), tl(~nol~t~s Itc~yt~oltls ~ t ~ ~ n l ) r r l,o t . l ~ r IIlr ~ rrli~~.l.ctl t.l~irlrncssof 1 . h ~ I,~~~.l)rtl(*t~t,I I I I : I . I . ~ I L is I I O ~ : C S H I C ~ Y 1.0 slrcss (.h:tt this is a purely empirical I~OII 1:~yct.. t.ritr~.ion.A 111o1.t. tlrt.:~ilrdinvrst.ignt,ion was mrrirtl out. by R. Nnrasirnll:r nntl 1Z.R. Src~c.t~i\,:l.srrt~ I ; st*(: :~.lso I 14% l.li(- c::~rlior 1~11)cr \I. (:. I'nt.cl tint1 I\I . It. 1lr:itl ( Is!)]. by
'I'll(: t.t.ansit.ion f r o ~ n t,ctrl)~tlrnt. n larninnr flow ~)at,t,crn a tnbo of cirrnlar n 1.0 in cross-scot,ion was invcsbigat.cil in dctail cxpcrimcnt.xlly by M . Sibnlltin ns cnrly a s ln(i2. In part,irrllar, t.11is invcsl,igat,ion cxtcntlcd t o a study of the att.enuation of longit,ntlinnl t.r~rl~rrlrnt flnctuat.ions ant1 discovered tflrat t.llis is st,rongcr ncnr the wall t.l~nn the ccnt.c:r of t1he pipe. in I he prcxt,rtli~~g rrs111t.swill c n a l ~ l rus 1.0 ralrr~lat~c t,hc following secfiot~the in ~ ~ o s i t of l . I ~ i , point of i n ~ t ~ a b i l i for the casc of two-tlirncnsional flow past a body ion ty o f arbit mry .;l~al~c.

r~oI(ls I I I I I I I W ~s l ~ ~ ~ l .i (1~I .l I~ r1~1,t*rt*(Iittg I t I v ~l 1):11.:1gr:11)11 I N - ( ~ t ) ~ ~ v t * t ~ i > (-*tI~I I lI yI I I ( Y I (::III It . O ~ wit.11 t,l~c:nit1 of t.lrr: cliagr:itns i l l Vig. 17.8. I t will I)(: tlrvrlol)c*tl i l l IIIOI.(* (l(*l.:rilfor

..

11. I)c.lc.r~~linnlio~~ positin11 of the poilit of instnbilily for prescribetl hotly sl~ope of tlre
., I 11c: tl~:t.crminn.I.inr~ t.11c posif.ion of tJtc pdint o l bransit,ion for prcscril)ed of

I)otl~~ sl1:111cs(in t,wo-tli~r~c:r~sior~al becomes very emy if IISC is made of the rcslllts flow) c:o~~l.:ririrrl\ !pigs. 17.3 nritl 17.4,'I'lrc esst:nt.i:~l it ntlvnntf:r.gcof t,l~t:tnrt.Iiotl t.o \)ctloscri\)ctl II(*I.~, cor~sisl.~I.lt(: f:1(:1,l~lr:itJno f t ~ r l ~ ll:iI)orio~is in ~cr ~nIc~tl:~t.ions rcclrlirntl, t,he Lctlio~ls arc j)arI, of 1 . 1 1 ~work Ilnvit~gI)ccn con~plctctlonce ant1 for all whcn compnt,ing the diag r a n ~ s i iFig 17.3. ~

Via. 17.8. C:xlrrrlntion of the position of thr point of inntability i l l trrtlls of tlte Itrynolds rntmber Urn 1/19 for an elliptic cylinder with slenderness ratio a/b - 4 2 1' - v l r c ~ ~ t t ~ ~ r r ~ ~ ~ c i -

498

XVII. Origin of turbnlmco II

h. 1)ctcrmination of thc posibion of lllr point of ina1al)ilil.y for prrsrril~rtl1)otly~11npc 499

t,hr RXILIIII)IC of 1111 cllil)l.ic: rylirttlcr wltosr tnnjor axis, o, is rel;~tctlto its minor axis, I), Oy 1.11~ r:~t.iorr/O :- l'hc flow will he assumecl parallcl t o t>he major axis. 4. T h e pot.rnt,ial vcln~it~y-clist,ril)uLion frlr~ct~iori such a cylinder was already give11 for i n l'ig. lo.!), ant1 the results of the calculations pertaining t o the boundary laycr are shown in Pigs. 10.10 and 10.10b. From t h e variatiotl of t,he shape fact.or wit,]l 2, Fig. 10.1 11), and wi1.h the aid of Fig. 17.4. i t is now ~)ossible plot t h e variation t,o her, R,, = (U, d,/v),,,,, a s shown by tile crlrvc of t,lte locnl crit.ical Itcynoltls n ~ r m market1 lipnil o/ slnhilil?/ i l l l'ig. 17.8. I'ron~ thc calcr~lat~ion t h e larninnr bounrlary of layer wc ca.11 also 1,:t.lte l,ltr vari:~t.ionof t.11~ tlimensiot~lcssdispl:~ccmcnt,thicktlcss ((r,/l) (I/l/,l/v), a s SIIOWII in Vig. 10.IOa. For n givon I)oely Reynolds ~ , t t n ~ l ~ r r 71, llv, it is now possil~lct o cvnlr~:~t.c locnl Itcynoltls nrlmbcr, I J , d , / ~ basc,tl tlte , on t . 1 1 ~clis~)l:tc~c:ttton1. 1I1ic:l~nt:ss;sitlrr 1Fig 17 9. I'onitiott of l)oiltta of instnbility for clli1)tic c.ylir~ilers of ~lrt~tlr~rt~c..ss rnlio n/b - I , 2, 4, 8, co (II:LL plate) plot.ted against tho body llrynolds r~un~hcr R ,

5-

wlicrc! ttllc valuc of 1J,,(z)/fJ, is known from t,hc polcntinl vclocity f ~ i t ~ c t . i o l ~ . 'J.II(: curves of C, r?,/v in trrrns of t,Itc arc Icrlgth, zll', have also been draw11 in Fig. 17.8 for variotts values of t,lin Ibryrtoltls nrtn~bcrT J , l/v. The point.s of intersection of thesr r ~ ~ r v with 1.110 liwiil 01 slrrhilil!/ givr the position of the point of i n s t a l ~ i l i t . ~ es for tht- ~~c~sl~c~rt.i\.o of t.I~oItryl~oltlsnrrml~c:rt. 'l'lto ~ ~ o i n tofs iristabilit~y for n v;~ltlc. , falllily oft-llil)t.i(:c:ylitttlrrs ofsl~:ncl(~rnc?ss r;tt.ios n/b -- 1, 2, 4. 8 arc shown in Fig. 17.9. I t is rc~m:~rk;~l)lo t.l~c t.lt;~t, sltif't. of (.It(: ~ ) o i tof tirtstabilit.y \vil,l~ i~tcrcasing ~ at1 Itcynoltls n11n111c.r very slt1:11l for t,ho rasc of :L c.irc11l:tr c:ylintlrr. 'l'llis shift becomes nlore is ~ ) ~ o I I o I ~ I I L ~ ~ t.l~rs l c ~ t ~ t l t ~ r tr:~t,iois irtcrrnsctl. as ? ~ I ~rss 'I'hr lwsif ion of 1,I1r~)oiitL f irlst;~.l,ilil.,y ;LII arrofoil ran be cosily c:alcrllat.c:tl o [or sirtti1:rr In:rnrlcLr. 111 l.llis c:ottrtc?tiot~it, is ~~nrt.ict~la.rly inlportanl, t o tletcrmino t l t t . t1t~l~c.ncIt~11c.o1.I1t. at~gloof' itlritlc.ncc: in a~lclit,iottt o t h a t on t,ltc: Iteynoltls on ~ltrlnl)c.r. 'l'ltr rt.stt1l.s of s ~ t c : l t c:r.lt~nl:~t,ions t,I~c for C:LSR of a sym~nct~rical Zhukovskii nrrofoil ;I(. varying nng1c.s of incitlcbncr ant1 lift, cocffirirnt,~ arc sho\vn i l l Fig. 17.10. 11. is s t s t - t t t.l1:1.1., :IS 1I1c :111glc:of ittt-icl(~nc.t: in(~rt~nsrs, tninirnrttn of IlrrssItre 011 t.h(: 1.11~ s ~ t rioll sitlc I ~ c ~ c . t ) t t t rtt~nr(: l s :11111 t1iot.c j)rotl~ittt-i~tI ~ I 1110vrs forw:~rtl, \vIlrrcas t.ttat RI O I I I.l\r 1~rt>ssur(* siclt* \~?c.otn(*s I1:~t.tc.r; w t l njovcs t,o t>llcrcnr. T l ~ i s ranscs t.hc point 01' i t ~ s l ~ ; ~ l , i l1.0t . nlovc: I I I ) S ~ , I . ~ ~ : I . I I011 1.hr suct.ion sitlc ant1 tlownsl.rrnm on t , l ~ I)rrsslirc i ~ I c s i ~ l c s :IS 1.11t~ t t ~ ~ l ( ~ itlt*i(l(.t~c:c i~~(:rrwsc.cl. : of is Silltrtltr:tttt~o~lsl~v l ) ~ i t of t itlst.:~l)ilitly t,11(, ~ ~ ) I Il hv s11t.t ion s i t l c * c4e)sc.s 1 1 1 ) t.o\v:trtIs I . l ~ c *I)oit~l, ntinitl~t~nl of' 1)r(*ssttrrfor all It(!;\~ttol(ls it1111111t~rs - ; r ~ i s eof t.11t: s t , t ~ : lco~tt~sc I,lt(*(:r~rvt:t1o;I.r ltltt\ t n i n i n ~ i ~ r n ; 01)posit.c I)t~ : ~ of t-hr t.lli.c.1. ot.c.ttt.s 0 1 1 l . I ~ t ?I)rcsstlrc> sitl(b, ~ v l ~ c I.II(, c.1lrvc.s :Ire Il;lt near the n~inimunl rn r.:rusit~g t h r r ~ ) i n l s it~sla.l)ilil!, to tlivrrgr. In any rasr t h r tiinpram i r l Trig. 17.10 tlisl,lays of' vrry rI(ta.rly lit(, tlolrlinnt~ittgi n f l ~ ~ o n r o t.ho prrssrlrc tlist.~.il~ut,ion t.11~ of on posi1.ion o f (It(: point of ittsl.al~ili1.y :ant1 hrncc: on t,llat, of t,lrc point of t.ra11sit.iol1. 1Svcll att lliglt Ilc*ynolels~lnn~l)c:rs1 1 ~1)oitlt of it~sl.n.l~ilit,y 11cnc.ct,llc point of t,ransit,ioti) 1. (qncl llnrtllg 1novc.s i l l I'rottleof l h r point of n~iltirnun-rprcssrtre, whcreas hrllind t.lle point
i t 1 :I

--. I

5
4 s

6 ,_ >4 s , f,l 5

8~~

1- 'I'llc'I'lliq

I,IIVV~S
:I

I ~ I ~ , I IIII I

i s :I

I [ , , , h I / ~1'1,rv ; ~ r i o ~ tva111rs f ( I c , > 1/1, C:LII 11t: cIr;i\v~t fro111rnc11oll~rr t,rn~~slnt,it~g * n o 11y (Iirwli(111 : I K I { \ I ~11) 1111- :\xis l>r ~)r~li~>:il,vs, Ic~y:~ritl~tnic is t&sc,cI for l,lt(s IILI.IIT. II if ~b wc.:~lt: vvry ~ I V I I ~ ~ ~ I sI i~ ~~ ~~ ~I ~ ~ l i I i c 10 ~I S C c \ ~ Ir I ~ , I I:I gr;~pl~i~,ttl- l , l ~ e )isI ~~111p1t1~i;cl. I I ~:I li ~ t~~t c

Fig. 17.10. Prcss~~rc distributinr~ -, position of point. of iltst,:~I)ilit,y- - . or1 n uylnn~rtrirnl ZIt~~kovsltii rtc*rc)li~ill v11rvi11rlin n

500

XVTT. Origin of turbulence 11

1). I)etcrn~inalior~ t l ~ posibion of t l ~ poinl, of itlsta1)ilityTor prrsrriI~c*tl of r r I,otly slt:q,o 601

of ~ninimttm prrssttrr irlstnl)ilit.y and, ronsequcntly, transition sets in almost a t o n r r r v r n a t low lteynolds numbers. I'igurc 17.11 SIIOWS, furt,I~or, posit,ion of (,hepoint of it~stnbilit,~, c1et.erminert t11e as cxpnri~nrnt:tllyfor a. NAVA n r r o f i l , w l ~ i c l possrssrd :in almost, idrnt,icnl prcsslirc, ~ dist,rib~tt.ion with l,l~:il, ol' tl~c? Zlt~tliovsltii:lc:rofoil ~ttttlrrror~sitlt.r:~t,ior~. is scrll 11, t , l ~ : ~ tl,Iir, l ) ( ) i t ~ t ,(PC t,r:tnsit.io~~ I ~ v l ~ i t ~ tl I t ~ , 1it.s t l)oitlt, ol' i t ~ s t ~ : ~ l ~ i l i t ~iy1 frot11,of l , l t t * 1)11t, t ~ ~ ) i t tof l:~.l~litt:l~. L ~(*~):il.ill.ioll :III \':111105 of Ib~ytlol(ls (i)r 11111nbcr ant1 Lift rocffioict~l, :IS rsl)o(:l,rtl f r o n ~tl~c:orc,lic,:~l t.ot~sitlcr:it~iot~s. Soror~tlly,t,hc shift, of 1.11~ point of t,ratisibion wit.11 a v;iryitlg Ibcynoltls I I I I I I ~ ~ I:rntl lift, rosffirirnt, follows l,h:it, or ~.II(, ~:~ poit~l, it~st:il)iIil~y. ~ ~ s ~ t of . syst,(:tn:it,i(~ of lt Il s (-:~l(:t~I;it,iot~s on t,11c posit,ion of ~ , I I ( ? l)oit~t, of tra11sili011 :~(*roIi)ils v ; ~ r y i t ~ gI ~ i c l i t ~ < : ~caml)rr cn.n 1)o F ~ I I I I ( in a rcbl)ort k)r of t, alltl ~ I l)y I<. I ~ I I S S I I I ~ I ~ nncl A . lllricl~[IO]. II

by the pressure gradient,. R. Michel 11501 discovcrc.11n rcn~:~rlc:l.l)ly sitlll)lc, I ) I I I . ( ' I ~ ompiricnl, rrlnt,ionship bct~wcnnthe rnt,c of at~11)lifinnt~ion tito tlisl.:ittc:c: l)rl,\v(.(*t~ :tntl tltc: throrcLicnl posit,ior~ thn point of in~t:il)iliLy of RINI t.I~o~ x p c : r i t ~ ~ o ~ ~li t i ~tI I j~ ~ . t ~ ~ i ~ ~ t t ,~ .c ~ position of the point of transition. More rcccnt,ly, A. M . 0. StniLl~[211J s ~ t r c r o ~in ~ ~ ~ l l confirming this rcl:it,ion on the basis of t l ~ c st,:il)ilit,y t,hcory. As it c t ~ t c r s Ill(: rvgion of ittsl.:~,~)i~it,y, 17.3, cvory t t t ~ s I . : i l ~ ~( t~: ~ ~ I , I I ~ ~ ) : I I \vI1i(,11 r : ~ v t ~ ~ ~s \ v I I s ~ ~ s ~ ~ f: rIt I*IrIs lvig. I(~(: 1 ~~ ~ ~ ~ a n :~tr~l)lificatiori whiol~is proport,iot~nl cxp (Pi t ) , or L 10 o
C"P(

/ /I( (11) ,

(17,(i)

if /I, dcpcntls on time. llcre Lhc ir~tcgrnlsl~ouldcxtotrtl ovor Ohc r:irlac of ~~nst.:il)lc: distnrbnnces which is trraversccl by t l ~ e tlist.tirbnnce nftcr it, 11ntl cr~Lcroctt.l~c rrgiot~ of instability. The amplification clingrams of pi = nonst (of 1,llc ltintl showt~in Fig. 16.13) which are associated wit11dilfcrcnt 1)rcssrlrc gr:idirnls 11nvn11crr1cval~~:lt.(:(l by , J . Prnt,sclt [ 1791. 1111957, A.M. 0. S I ~ I ~ I ~ I ,Ii l i ? , ~ vt,lt(~s($ t,t l (Iittgt~ti~ns~ ( l I ) ~ * I ~ I ' O I ~ I ~ ~ ~ Y I tbt $1, Inrgc 11umI)crof cnlculntions for noroli)ilx ntltl l)otlic,s of r(-vol~tt.iot~ \VII it41 ('sl)(.i.i1'01. mcrl(.al dct,crminaliot~rr Lllo poit~Lof I,rar~sition of wot.c nv,iilnl)l(:. I l o c.a.l(:l~l:~t,c.{l t.ht: arnplificnt.ion r8t.c fro111ccln. (17.6) cxt.c~~tling ir~l~c~grntion t.l~c* tdtc ovc-r 1):1t.l1 ft~111 t,l~e theoretical limit of stability t o t h e cxpcrimentnl point of transitdon. 'l'l~c rns~tltof his calc~lnt~ions sllown in Fig. 17.12. '1'11~ is rcst~lt tl~csc:c:nlcrtlnt.ior~s of wl~ic-11 rc:l:il,c~tl t o rnarly tliKcront mcnsurcmcnt.s pcrformatl at, vcry low t,~trbrtlct~c:c ir~t,o~sit.ic~s in t h e free stream and with vcry smooth surfaces leads t,o t h e coilcl\ision td1n.t. t.hc amplification rate of unstable tlistj~rrbanccs, intcgr:~t,etl along t.11~ pnt,l~from tltc point, of instability to t9ltcpoitlt of t,r:ir~sit,iott, 11m :i 17alrtc: of c x ~ ( J /dl) = r x p 9 = 8101. ?~ (17.7)

Fig. 17.1 I. I'osit,iot~or l~oint, inst.nl>ilit.y of ~)oint t.mnsibion as a ffnnctionof l i f t cncffiricnt o C and of Iloynoltln I I I I I I ~- . ~t.ltrorol.icnlpoint, of inritnl)ility:J 0015; - - - - n~oasurcdpoi111of ~ )- . ~ tr:~tisil,io~~: 0018 NA(.!A

This discovery was confirmed, a t about t h r same tirnr, by ,J.1,. vat1 Ingsn [!14]. S r r also a paper by R. Michel 11661. JII lnodern times this discovery was cot~firnlcdI)y tnnny rr~ras~rrctnc.nts 1104] which intlicn.te an amplification factor of about r x p 10 -- 22,026

A s a, roltgl~gt~iclcin approxitnntc cxlcttlations it is possible t o cletlt~cet , l ~ e rule thatf Ill(: poir~t~ t,rn.t~sit.iotl of nlmost, coil~citlcswit11 t h e point of millirnl~m pressure of 1,llc pot,ont,inl llow in t.l~nrange of Rcyrloltls nrrlnbers from 106 t o 10'. At very I:l,rgc 1to.ynoltls nl~rnl)mst,hc point of tr;insittion may lie a short distnncc in front dist,nnce behind i t a t small Itcyof t,lt:~l, l)osit,ion nt~tlit, rnny niovo n consitlcr:~.l~lc ~toltlst l t t t ~ l ) c > t pnrl.icttl:irIy w11c:n f.llo prcssttrc: grndic:nt;, w l ~ c t l ~positivc or nca;it~ivc, t ~, cr is slna.ll. 0 1 1 t,llc o t l ~ c rllalltl, it, will I)c not,ctd thnt tho point o f instability a l w ~ y s lirs i l l fro111 1 . 1 1 ~ of point of I:itnin:ir sc~):trnt.iot~ irr(~spcnt,ivn t,Itc v:ilt~cof'tfI10 It(:yof noltls I I I I I I I ~ ) ( * I . . 'I'hns WC:C : ~ I I rst.nl)lisl~ r t ~ l r t,hn I.l~at p o i t ~ t it~st.nbiliI.y I,llc of lips bcltintl t,hc>p o i ~ oft t r ~ i t ~ i ~ n ~ t t ~ t 1)11t, f~0t11, l.lto'point of laminar sopnrnt,ion, a t ~ prrss~iro in of :III c ~ x ~ ~ c vc-ry Inrgo I<.c~yttoltls l ~ ~ m b c r s . ~l)t. ~
'1'11(, ~)rr<*isc: n c ~ : r l isl,n I)c-t,~vocv~ poittt, of 1,m.nsit.ionnr~tltlln poinL of inst,:tl)ilil.y t,ltc: tlvprn(ls on 1.l1r: r:~.t,c f : ~ . t ~ ~ ~ ) l i l i r : ~ . l~,II(: tttr~st.iil)l~ o of , i o ~ tlist,nrha.nocs ant1 on tlls i~~t~cnsit.y ~ I ' I ~ I I I . I ) I I Ii I l- I.II(>-fr(:r st.r(*;1.111.1,11rr1, t.:it.r of nlnl)lificnt,ior~ st.rongly ir~fl~lnt~cntl l II( (~ 111 (.II(: is

Fig. 17.12. l)cl.cr~nination tlrcan~plificaof tion rntc rxp (/fit for trnshl,lc: di~tllrbdl) at~ccsextetldctl over the pet11 frotn the theoretical limit of stabilit,~ the cxpcrito ment,al point of tmnsitioti, after A. M. 0. Smith [211]

Tlte tlisl.nttcc I)rt,wcen tllc poir~t, i~lst.n.l~ilit,y t.11~ ol' n.ntl point. of t,rnr~sit,ioltcan bo rcprescnlccl irt t,llc forrn o f (.he tli1li:rrrlc:c: Irct,wce~t h e Ttnynoltls numl)ors forrnctl t \\,it11 thr? nit1 of t.ha r n o m c ~ n I . ~ ~ t n 1.I~i~lztlcss 1.ltcsc tewo points, a s wn.s a.lre.zdy clotlo i~t irr Fig. 10.21, t h a t is, a s ( l l r ? , / ~ ~ -- ,(116,/11),. Fig. 17.14 sllows a 111ot.of t.lris q u a n t i t y )~ ill t,erlrls of t.llo tncarl I'ohlll:llrsor~ 1)~r:lt11rt~cr : ~ n t lis hn.srcl on t,llc vnlltcs fottlttl J? 11y 1'. S. C~rn.nvillc 1751. llorc we 11:~vc:
1, '
2,.

r J fto mc~nst~rrt:rr?nt,s wltich have I)cnt~ t,:llzrlt itr1.o a.cco~tttt, t.llc :l.l~ovo it1 c:nl(.ltl:tt.iorl wcrc: :111 ~)crfor~tiotl t very low L~~rl~rtlnt~cc: af ir~t.o~sil,ics (I'ron-lligllt tnc:lsllrrr~rc.t~(.s nllrl r n m ~ s ~ t r c r n cirrl ~ ~ n low-l.~trbctlrrtcc witltl l.ntrncl~). 'l'ltc tli:r.grnm in Fig. 17.1.7 sllows ~,II:I,L tjlrc rrsn1l.s t l r ~ cLo mnny cxpnrirnctlt.rrs nrrangn ~~IIPIIISCIVOS snl.isfnclorily "11 n single

\'cry cxt,cnsive mcnsrtrc~ncr~t.s lnlnirlar nrrofoils wcrn carrirtl ollt dl~ririg or1 l.llr See-or~tl Worltl Wnr it1 tlrc TJ~ritctl StnLcs [ I ] . 11. 1)ortsclr (:I1 I prtlrlisl~r~tl first 1.11~ rxl":ritnrntnl resltlt.~on Inrninnr ncrofoils a s r:lrly ne in I!):l!), 1,111,1s. Rl. .lotlc!s I!)SJ It:ltl l ) r ~ ~ v i o ~ t s l y nl~scrvotl rcnr;n.k:~l~ly lotrg sl.rct,c:ltos ol' I:~trtitr:~rI ) O I I I I I I : I ~ J . I : I S ( \ ~ ~ clu1,ittg c:sl)c.rintcnt.s in Iligllt.. I,arnitl;l~.at-roli,ils n1.c- witlrly usctj i l l I I I ( * ~ . O I I S ~ I . I I V ~ I O of glitlcrs. IZrsrr~.r~clt l'~rntlntrlrnl:~l of itnl~or1:tnc.c~ I I r~c.~~trf'~,ilsgli11f.1.tvirtgs II:I\.I* O k)~. I)[VII 11rrf'ortrrc~tlby IF. S . \VO~~,III:I,IIII; ~ t r cI ~ I I I ) \ V I ~ :ts 1p.X. :~.t~~.ot'oils II,IT I11c.y :I.IIII c:lt:~rnalc~rizc~~l121. Ii'ig. 17.14 sllow,s tllr ntnotrr~t.o f s:~villgit1 tlt.:lg IIlnI (.:III it1 :rll.:l.itlc*tl wil.11 I:t.tni~rnl. c~c.r~oli,ils. ' I I ~ ~ s , ~ . v i r ~ lg~ l t * 1 0 1 I 1 t s "llrrl~itl~tl. 'I t I'II'IY.~" I.(':II.II(.s V : L I I I ~ S 0 S 3 0 l,o 50 p r r rctrt,. of (lr:ig 01' t ~ o ~ . t n : ~ , l~ v c ~ l ' i11 it111- i ~ i I . t * ~ , v !)I' \ ltt-)I~~ t~ ls :~ 11o11la I I I I I I I I , ( ~ I . 2 x 1 0 1 ) R :I : 107. ,I,, v1.1.y l i ~ t . ~ , , I ~ . ( ~ I \ ~ I I I ~ II ~ III HI I ~ I ( . I . S . X J I ~ , I I R > 5 x 1 0 7 , l.11e 1atninn.r cfl'rct, is lost. I)rc::~us(:l . 1 1 1111illI t.~.a.t~sitior~ I I I V :I~.I.o: ~ of OII foil sItif1.s stt(ldr.rtly l'ol.\vnrd a s elrlnnnclntl 11y I.hr st.nI~ilityt11rol.y. rl'ltc, I)I.('SSIII'~' ~listrilr~ttiott (.t~rv(*s N ~ ~ I I I ( :of' lplt(t ~~rrol'oils S ~ I O \ V I I i l l lcig. 17.15. '1'111, I I I ~ : I S I I ~ I V ~ lirr :rrn

fl)
II

Ipig. 17.1:s. d l c ~ ; ~ s r t r r . ~ ~ ~ c~~t1~. 1 .1s~ ~ r r r i n l ,or o: t 1.rsnnitic111 Itort~~~lnry it1 I:tyrrs wiLh prr:ss.riure gr:~tlirnt.,~ f t e r : (:r:t,~~vilI~: (821. I)ifrcrc~lre11ct~vrrlrt l ~ c - I<cy~~olcls 111r111brrs 1 . h ~ at. point. of t~rnnsitic)~~. == (fl,,, R8>z,,, 02/v)tr.~ I I C Iat, t,Ilr l r o i t ~ t ,or i~~st,:~lrilit,y,, ~ ( / I , , , ,S2/x,), :IS :I R,i2 f1111vl,io11of 1 . 1 1 ~I I I ~ ~ I I 11rrss11rr ~ ~ c l i r l ~ t I g 11, fro111 c-cll~. (17.8). .-. O ~.orrrslro~lrls :~c.vrlt:r:lt.rtl :11111 i 0 10 clrcrl~~ratnd i flows r. altd [?03) 0 I1I11. ~ t l : ~ lScluttl,:~~lr!r S k ~ . ~ t t t s t : t d (-) NAf:A :wr#~roil \.WB 1 1 ~ ~ ~ 1 ~ 1301~ 1 1 0012. 1~t Svctivn sid~. Acrort>iI A C A f i ? q 2 1 ~ )-1 1 4 , I I r w . N
:

I , r c s s ~ ~ r c ~ i t t l w v a 1 ~V i s t : n ~ ~ t i e 1 171 ArrnToll or 8 % l l ~ i c k ~ ri11.10. s I!. hl. .IO~PX [DRl ~~s 17. 30, 2031 I B ~ ~ : N S U I ~ Pi ~) ~I I O W ~- I ~S I I ~ I ~tlin,lI t V~ I ~

(0l.ri 21 (5) I'B 35 - I53 ((I1 N At',\ 00, 215 ( i l R A f ' A G d ( 2 x 15) (A) NAf:A 05, .41X cn) N A V A 65 (,.,) - .IZO ( 10) A ~ r ~ > l b i l m ~ e t i ~ ~ r ~ svit11

(:I)K A ~ : A our) oo

( I ) N A c ' A 0012 (2) N A f ' A 5.115

1111.: 1111 1

~ . ~ ~ ~

~ 7 5 l l r ~ ~ ~ . l I%!!.:\sttrrtwnLq Ii~l~L

(*Itrvv, '1'11~ (IifTt~rcttrc- ( l ~ ( ~ 2 / v ) .i ,( ~ J 0 2 / r ~is , t*o~~si(lor:~l)ly~ I T (or I':I,VOII~~:I~I~(: , ) I:II. llrc~ssrlrc:g r : u l i c t \ ( ~ : 0) 1.11:1.11h)r :LIIVI:~SO ottrs (17 < 0). At, ~:OIISI,RIII, (I? [)rc>ssItrc ( I 0) t,llis tlilli,rettrc: :rf,f.nit~s V : I . ~ I I o f n . t ) o ~ r t \i,l~ic:l~ n ~ 800 :t.grc%c:s wrll 1vit.11l.l~:tt, given i l l Fig. lli.21 for n llnt ~)lxl.c t very snt:~.ll t , t t r l ) r t l ~ ~intensity. I n tlris conr~exiorl a ~rr srts n ttot.r Iry 11:. It. van Ilrirst xncl C:. I). Illrrn~erIROJ. i,rr~~ti~tnr nrrnCt~i1~:'i'hr st.:llrilil,y f~:~lc.lll:~lio~ls s~~nrln:rrizrtl I?igs. 17.9 nrltl it1 17. 10 clvrnnnst.rnt,c.very c:onvirtc*it~gl,v t,l~nt. ~ ~ l ~ c s s v ~ ~ c ~ g tltaxnclvc~isi\~c: I II(. ~ : ~ t l i t ~ n t . ilr(lrtr11c.c. O I I sl:~l~ilit,,v :I,II(I t.r:rl~xitiotr i l l V O I I I ~ I I ~ I :1.~r~~c.trl(-111, ~ I I ( * : I S I I ~ I'1'11~I(lnsig,~ ~ . V wit,l~ -~~ ~*II~~

Fig. 17. 14. Skill-friction c~orfficie111~~ of Inn~il~ar arrofoils and of "norlllnl" nrrofrrils :lCtrr I I I : I I I ~ ~ iiI [MI. 1,B '24 -- .Jnl)nnrst:Inrt~i~lnr nt:roroil nftrr 1. 'I':III~ 12:14j. 1"X 35 153 I : I I I I ~ I I ; I : ~ v r f r f ~ :1ftcbr F, X. \Ifnrtmann (2571. Acrofoil wit11slict,ion nfl.f.r \I. l'lrnl~illgrr,(till of (:Itnlr. S I V . (!f~rvt,s (I), (11). ( I l l ) rrltrt!nnnt ~.II(. nltill fr.irt,io~t II (11~1.p111t.1' zrro i~t(.iilt.ll(.rl l I I I I I I ~ I I I I ~rl11Is ~ . I I I . ~ I I I ~ I . I ~ ~ . of nt, i .

~nrcltrnnsitio~rnl(low

504

XVII. Origin of tr~rbulencc11

b. Dcterrninntion of the position of the point of instability for prrsrrihrtl horly nh:q)r 505

positmionof t , l ~ c point of t,mnsit,ion is shown in addition for aerofoil R 2626. It is seen t h a t t,rnnsition occurs sliortly a f t e r t.11c pressnre ~ n i n i m r ~i m complete agreement n with t,lle t,heorctical results in Fig. 17.10. Figure 17.16 shows, furt.her, plot,^ of d r a g cocfficici~t.si n t e r m s of t,hc lift coefficient for three aorofoils of equal t l ~ i c k n e s s u t b varying caml)er. I t sl~orrldbe noted t h a t h y increasing tllo camber i t is possible t o canse a sllift in t h e region of vcry small d r a g in t h e direction of higlier values of lift,, I)rtt rvrri so, t,lic rngion of rctlr~cctld r a g still ~ x t ~ c n tover a definite wicltll only. ls Needless t o s a y , in tlie case of laminar aerofoils t.he int,crart,ion bet.wecn t.hc estrl.nal st,rcarn antl t.hr bountlary layer is very irnport.arlt.; mct.liotls for t h e c:i~Icrtlation of sncli effect8 have been (leveloped b y R. Eppler [BO]. A t this point, it, is nrccssary t , ( ~ remark t.11ut cert,ain rircumst.ances c:anse consitlcrablc difficulties in t.he pract,ical applicat,ion of laminar nrrofoils. Principally t,hcse a r e d n c t o t.he great. d r ~ ~ ~ 011 ~ d s n ~ t,he s m o o t ~ l ~ n c s s itlie surfaces in order t,o exclnde p r ~ ~ n a t , e transit.iot1 owing t o of re roughness. I n this conncxion we wish t,o d r a w t h e reader's at.tent.io11 t,o a p a p e r b y I,. Speidel [212] on lnniinar aerofoils placetl in a Iinrn~onicallydist,urbed free streatn.

'L'hc discussion in this section m a y bc sr~minarizctla s follows:

1. T h e t41icoryof stSal~ilit,y sliows t l ~ a ttlic prcssure gmdioll; cxcrln a n ovcrwl~c~ltnir~g , influence on t h e stability o f t h e 1n.minar bouritlary 1:rycr; a tlrcrc-n.sn in prmsrirc in t h e tlownstream directlion h a s a st.nl~ilizirig cKcct,, wltcrcns increasing prrssrrrc: leads tjo irlstnbility. 2. J n conscqucncc, tlic position of t h e point of maxirnurn vclocil,y of t.lic l)of.rnLi:~l velocity dist,rit~ution furlction ( = point o l ' m i r ~ i n ~ u rprcsst~rc) n it~llucr~c:cs tlccisivcly t h e posit.ion of t h e point of inst,nl)ilit,y antl of t,hc point of t,ratisitio~l.I t car1 I)c a s s ~ ~ m c ta , a roltgll grticiing rnlc, t31i:~tl t 111c:tlinm 1tc:ytioltls ~~rirnl)c?rs =--: {Of; ls a (R to lo7) t h e point of inslability coincitlcs witti t.11~ poinL of rninimrlrn pressure a n d t h a t t.lie point of transition follows slrortly aft,crwards. 3. As Urc angle of incitlcnce of a n acrof'oil is iticrcasctl a n c o n s t a i ~ lltrynoltls L number, t h e points of instability a n d transition m o v e forwards o n t h e stictiori side and rearwards o n t h e pressure side. 4. As t,he R.cynoltls n u m b e r is increasctl a t const.nnt incitlcnce t h e point,s of inst,al,ilil.y ant1 t.ransit,ion m o v e forwards. 6 . A t very high Reynolds riumbers antl wit.11 a flat prrssure minimum, t , l ~ e polnt o f ins1.nl)ilit.y m a y , nntler ccrt,ain circumstfant:rs, sliglit,ly precede t.hc poitit of n i i n i ~ i ~ nprrssur(:. t~t 6. E v e n a t low Iteynolcls numbcrs ( R = 1 0 V t . o 10" t11c point,s of irlstl;tt)ilil.y : I . I I ( ~ t,ransition precede t h e p o i n t of laminar separation; nndcr cert.xin circunistnnres t h e In.minar boundary layer m a y become sepxrabrtl a n d m a y re-at,t.acl~ s a a t l l r l ~ l l l ~ ~ l~to l l l l ~ l layer. ~l ~ nry Flexible wall: Anothcr effective rrietlrod of stabilizing n laririnnr bor~ndnrylnycr is to rnnke the wetted wnll flexible. In contrexion with the obsorvetl antonishing switrinring performance of porpoises [go], it hns been suggested that these nnimnls have n very small skin-friction coefficient bernuae the boundary lnyer on then1 remains laminnr even nt very Inrge Rcynolrle numbers owirig to tlic flcxibility 01 thcir skin. Jri ordrr t,o put t.hiv Irypot,llesis to the tcst,, M. 0. Krnnter [110] perfortned ~ncnuuretnenLq drng on olwt.ic cirrrrlnr rylin(lcrs plnced in a st,rrnn~ of ~)nrallel to their axes. Indeed, reductions of the order of 50% in drng, co~npared with rigid cylindrrs. have been observed in the range of Reynolds numbers R = 3 x 10" to 2 x lo7. Furthertnore,T.B. Benjnmin (41 and M.T. 1,nndnhl [I201 itistit,uted cotnprehett~ive thcoretical atialyses on the stnbility of bouridnry layers on flexible plntes with tlre aid o l tlre ltretlrod rxplninetl in See. XVIc. Thcse revealed t,hnt,in nddition to tho Tolltnien-Sclrlirhtitig wnves which occur in n form nrotlilied by tlro flexibility of t . 1 ~ wall, there appcnr tnodifietl c1nst.i~ wavcs in tho wnll itaelf. Such elnstic waves are creatod owing Lo the prwence of tlro flow outttide the wnll. F~rt~lrer~norc, appear waves of the Kelvin-Helml~olCztype, rnther like those observed on there free shear layers. The first effect - the n~otlificationof tlre Tollmien-Scblichting wnves by the flexibi1it.y of t,he wall - may, taken by iteelf, explain tlre drnatic displacement of t.hc point, of neut.ral utnbility in the upst.rearn direction. However, tho three effectn which depend on t,licint,ernnl friction in tile wall counteract each other t,o a certain extant. For this rcnuon, we would expect only a small overall effect. Thus, M.O. Kramer's experiment.al results appear to be confirmed by the ~1.nhilit:y t,lrrory only qrlnlitntively hut not qrlnntit,nt~ivoly. sr~ppo~ition M.O. Krnrnor's 'l'hc 1.ltnt r~~nr~lltt ltorltnpn 1)o ox11lnit11~d t,ltn inll~~otice wnll llcixil~ilil,y thr~111Il.yrlc~vc~lrtlt~~cl cttuI(l lty 01 on t.urbulcnt boundary layer induccd U. Zilnmornrnnn [25!)) to r~nclcrtakc tlroorctionl invcntigntion o into thin problem. He came to the conclr~sionthat the flexibility of the wall could leatl to a roduction of the shearing stress on the wall of the order of 10 per cent,, nt lcnut in bhe presrnce of a fluid 01 theory of turbrllc~tc:~, is i~npossible it. of high den8it.y such as water. 111the nbsettc~ n co~rrplete to view these rwulta nu more than est,ilnaks. 'l'he pnpcr. [259], contains references to additional contributions which concern themselveu with the effect of wall flexibility on the stability and turbulence of boundary-lnyer flown.

NACA -

--0.151--

-66]-,,

, \ 663-2t8 -

, - - 6q-Lt8 0 \

Fig. 17.15. I'rr*ns~~rn dist,rihrtl,iot~ li~.tnitinr lor arrofoils at zero incitlmcc ( c , 0). i\erofoilsOOI2, 65, -012, 66, -012 fro111rrl. [I]; wrofoil It 2525, nftrr IIort.sc11 (Dl]
5

'' = posilinlt or pcrinl or trxnsilion for R I

--

:1.5 x 10'

Fig. 13 Ili Corfficirtrts of profile drng. c,,,, plotted ngninst lift coefficient, c,,. for three Inniinnr nrrofoils with vnrying rwnhrr, R 9 x 10" from ref. [7]. The rrgion of smnll drag ntovrs townrds higher lift roefficients, c,,. as rnmhcr increnscs

SO(;

XVI I . Origin of I,rtrl~~~lc~~cc II

c. Erect of sr~ction t,rnnuition in n boclnclnry lnycr on

607

in c. E f i c t of ~llrtintlon trnt~nitio~l

hn~rrltlnry lnyer

It, has nlrratly I ~ r r npoit1t.ctl o r ~ fin CII:I~I. SIV t.hnt Ihc npplicntiotl of suction I.o a 1:11nir1nrl)ot~rttl:~ry Ia.yrr is an rrrccl,ivc mc.:rns of rrtlrtcing clrag. The clrect of s r ~ r t i o ~ ct.o sI.nbilizr I Ilc t)or~ntlary is laycr i n n way sirnilnr to the cffcct of tlie prcssrlrc gr;ltlicl~cttliscussctl in t l ~ o prccntling srctior~, nntl the rrduction in drag is nchicvctl 1)y 1)rt:vc11Iingt,r:t~tsiIi(~n fro1111:rtnit):tr t,o I I I I . I ) I I I ( ; I I ~ . IIo\v. A tnorc: (lcl,:~il(:(l :~n:~Iysis rrvcnls t,l\nt.t.lrc itcllr~c~~cccsc~c.Iionis 1111(: t o t . 1 ~ 0 of cn;'(:ts. First, s ~ ~ c I , iret111ct:s ~ I I C ot~ l)or~~l~l:~ry-l:~.yrr t,l~ic.ltnrss n.ntl a t,I~it~nc.r I)ol~ntl:~ry Ia.yc:r is loss pronn t,o I)ocotne l.t~r1)rllrnl.. St.c:ontlly, s~~c:l.ion crt::cl.rs :I.I:~n~it):~r. vc~loc~i1.y ~)rofil(: l ~ i c l~~ossc:ssc:s I~iglcrr w ~ limit. of stal1ilil,y (c:rit.ic::~I I<.cyt~oltls rc[rml)t,r) (.II:LII v(:Iot:it..y profile wit11 no s~~(:l,iot\. ti So far only c:ont.inuo~~s s11r1,ion cnrl I)o t.rrnOrtl ~n:~t~l~cm;c.l~icnllylsrvcrnl nt~t solr~t.ions srr(:I\ r a w s II:LV~. :r.lrr:uly I)eon given in (:hap. XIV. 1x1 conncxion wit*h of 1.l1r ~ ) r o l ) l r n ~ ~n:cint.a.it~i~~g of I:rlnin:cr fIo\v il, is i ~ n ~ ~ o r l . :1.0t tost.imntc t-hc clr~:rt~t,ity ~ t. of' fluitl l,o 1)e rrtnovctl. I t is ~)ossiOlt:to ol~t.:~inn y tlcsirc:tl rctluctiorr in I)orrntlnrya lager t.l~ic:ltnrss, antl lccncc t.o Itccj~ ltcynoltls ~~rrrnl)cr 1,ltc: bclow thc limit of st,:il)ilitsy, ~wovitlrtlt.llnt, c r ~ o ~ ~ t gi tll ~is srr(:lzt:(l :~~v:ty.I o ~ ~ c ~a r , fl t I c large srl(:tlion VOIIIIIIC is ~t~~t~rot~ornic.:)I I S :I Inrge proporI.ion of f,l~o I)~C:LI ~ s:bving i t 1 powc:r t111ot,o l . l ~ rc:tlrtct,iotr c i t 1 tlrng is 1.l1rnr~setl o tlrivc t,ltn srtc:t.ion ~ H I I I I ~ ) . is, t.lct.rrforr, import,:~rtt tlrt.c:rrninc t It, tfo 1.111: n~ini,~clc~tct r l i o ? ~ s~ ~nlitmcwl~ic-l~ rc:cltlirc.tl in ortlrr t,o m:rinI,nin 1:~tninnr Ilow. is I hr s:~vingin t 1 r ~ g~ c I ~ i c v ~(,I\rougI~ :(I sr~(:t.io~l grca.tcst, wI~c:n t,his tninimutn vnlnc is is rtsrcl l ) r c a ~ ~ n c ~ y s t higher s~tct,ion o l ~ t n ~ o lcntl to a t.hirlncr I,or~ntlnry lnycr v will ant1 l o an inc:rr:~sc:i l l she:rring sl,rcss 11.t I,Ir(? wall. As sl~o\r,r~ (Ihnp. XIV I.1tr solt~t~ion tho 11o11rtrlnry-layer in of ntl~lat~iot~s with s11cIio11 in(:lr~tI(~tl 1):1rl,i(:ul:1rly is si1111)lc 1-let: (-:LSC of :i flat9plntc :LL zcro itc~i(I~:r~cc for wit,lt nrrifortn sr~c:t,ion(vcloc,it.y of' sr~c:tion tl(:~ioL(:tlIty - 11,,t). I t will Iw rnca.llot1 t . l ~ : ~ l ~ r r l o c - i li)rofilr:, : ~ r ~ c11c:nt:c: t,l~o tt ~ .~ l I,ot~~~tlnr,y-1:iyt:r l~l~i(:lzt~t:ss, I)cromc intl<?prntlcs~~t 1,11(! c:crrrc:nt, roortlin:~.l.c:fronl t i c:c,rl.:~.i~r of tlist,:~r~co frorn t,I~c Ic:~.tlingc:clgt: onw:~rtls.As sl~o\vni l l r(111.(14.7) 1,11t: tlisl)l:rt.c~111t*l11. Ifl~ic.ltr~t:ss 1.l1is oi' rrsl/ml,lolic . W L C / ~ ~ ~ L l~rn/ilcis given I)y

be more than 130 times larger then on n. flnt plat,r a t zcro incidrnco nnrl in t h e absence of a pressure gradient or suction. Tllis vnltlc tlcmonstratcs t , l ~ r higl~lyst,&bilizing cffect of suction. Furthermore, t.hc prccctling argrtrncnt, shows t.l~nI. I:i.rninnr flow is milint,nincd not, only owing t o tlcc rctlr~ot,ion in I)o~lndary-layert,l~ic:kncss b u t also, a n d in part,icular, owing t o n Iargc itlcrcnsc in t l ~ c limit of sl:~bilit,yof thc volocity profilc. Tho cctrvc of ncutml st,abilit,y for t,l~casymptotic sr~cLion profile is shown in Pig. 17.17. ([ = oo). I t shoultl bc notctl t h a t tlie limit or st,ability is increased a s compared with t h e case with no suction ancl that, in addition, the range of nnsLnl)lc t1isturl)nncc: wnvclcngtllrt circttmscribecl I)y t,hc ntlrvc of nc~~Lr:il st.nbilit,~ is rctI~~cc(l cor1~it1crnl)ly. Tho ~)rcccding results n.llow 11s now t o lint1 nn answer 1.0 tfhc important clucstion of how mucll Nl~idmrlst bc removctl in ortlcr t.o m:~int.aitllntninnr Ilow. Ass~~rning, by way of si~nplification, h a t tho asymptotic profile alrcatly cxists a t the Icncling t etlgc of thc flat plate t,o which uniform sr~ct~iorl I)ren applied, wc conclr~tleLh:~t Iras a Inminsr borrntlnry laycr which is stjnblc along tho wholo platc cxists if t,lce v,zluc of the tlisplacemcnt tpl~ickncss Roynoltls n~rmbcr smaller t.llnn t.ho limit of st,:il)ility is given by cqn. (17.10). Sl~:ncc,

,.

Using t.11~ A I I I ~ of 8, for t,lcc nsy~npI.oLicprofilc from cqn. (17.9) we hnvc V

Ac.c-ortlingt,o this rrsr~lb t.11(:I)orl~ctl;iry I:ryrr wortltl I,(: sl.:c.l)l(:if t.110 v o l r ~ t l ~ c coc~Sfic~ic:nt, of s~~t~I.iotr t,l~c l1a0 cxt.rc-mrly low viilr~c!of 1/70,000 1-7 1.4 x 10-5.

I(. 131rssr11:~nn 11. R.111c:rczI!)] c::rrrictl oltIf an invcst~ig:~l,ior~ the sLnbilib.y ant1 ir~l,o of t,l~is profilt: (Fig. 14.0) on the lint-s of t,l)c rnct,l~odoxl)la.inctl in Ch:~p. XVI. As sc*cn from rtln. (14.(i), the: vc:loc:il,y prolilr is tlt:cril~c:(lI)y (.It(! otl~r:~t,ior~
t;tIrvv ( A ) :
~ ~ s y l ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ l i ~ ~ * t ~ v I i o ~ ~ ilv prof

for ~vl~ic:lc t~rit.ic~:~l t.11~ I<.t~yt~oltls t1111111)rr 1.l1t: vrry I:lrgr v:iltrt: 01' 11:rs

I l~rrs,tlcr c*ritic.:tl I ~ t ~ y t ~ o lnrt~nl)c~r t l ~ rnsymptotic scrc-lion profile is sern t o tls or

Fig. 17.17. Cc~rvcs of
\viIlc
IIII~~(>~III

n ( ~ ~ ~ l rsl:~l>ilil,y l l ~ t *v(~lt>~~il~y O I I :iI ror ])rolili~s

:
,

:i

II:LL 11I:ctrat, y,(.rft i ~ ~ t ~ i t l r n ~ o

~~~t:l.iot~; C

- ro2

R r tlt-~~ol,(*s tli~~)t!~~nio~~lt-ss~ I I ~ I I I t11v inlt-1, I I

608

XVII. Origin of turbulence TI

Table 17.1.

c. Effect of suction on transition in n hounclnry lnyor

509

I t nligllt b e rcrnnrlrc*cl 11c:rc LhnL n m o r e nccurnt.e m l c n l n t i o n wo111tl p r c s u ~ n n l ) l y lr:~11t,o n h i g i ~ c rvn111c: o r t,llo volumc: cocffic:ic~lt,.'I'11is i s t l ~ l ct o t h e Fact t h a t tllo :~syrnpt,ot.ic: vclorit,y ~)rolilc,o n wllosc oxisf.crlcc t,llc nt)ove c:~.lc~~lat,iorls hnsed, wa clc.velops o n l y n t n, cc:rt,:~irl clist,:~llce fronl t h e lantling edge. 'l'lle vclocitty profiles I)rt,\vrc:rl th:~t,p o i n t n n d t.hc lentling ctlge :Lrr of d i f f e r e r ~ t h a p e s , cllangirlg gmtlunlly s f r o ~ nt,hr I ~ ~ : I , S ~ I IrS wit.11 110 s11ct~ionat sllort dist,anees b e h i ~ ~ d leacling e d g e fo m t,ho t.o t h e :~l)ovc:a s y ~ n p t ~ o t I'or~n.'l'lle profile s l ~ a p c s t,llis i ~ ~ i t i : st,art,irlg IcrlgL11 for io ill ~l, t h e lamirlnr b o u n d a r y Iaycr w i t h s u c t i o n h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d i n d e t a i l i n F i g . 14.8. All t h c s e vclocit,y profiles h n v e lower l i m i k of s t n t ~ i l i t ~than t h e asymptot!ic o n e , ant1 y it, follows t.11at t.llc qu:bnt,it,y of fluid t o b e r e ~ n o v c d v e r t h e initial lengtll must; b e o larger t l m n t h o v n l u c g i v e n i n cqn. (17.11), if l a m i n a r Row i s t o b e msilltainetl.
1 1order to analyze this m n t b r in greater detail i t is necessary to rcpcat the stability cal1 culation for thc scrica of velocity profiles in the starting length taking suction into account. These profiles constitntc n one-parameter family of curves na shown in Fig. 14.8, the pararnekr being given hy

Dependence of critical Reynolds number of velocity profilra wit11 srlction on dimensionless suction volume factor [, after Ulrich [243)

I<

"

10.005

om

om

I /
0.18

ox?

--

oli

tho flnt plnto (13lnnius flow) in Fig. 10.13. Wit,lt 1110 ulLR of t,hiu crrlrulntion i t is no\\. cStlrryIn) clot.errc:. rnino the volnn~e coelficicnt of silction which is si~fficicntto ensure stnl)ility ovrr 1110 st,nrting length. I t can be obtained from Fig. 17.18.in which the limit of stn1)ilit.y fro111 Tnhlc 17.1 and t,lle variation of the dimensior~le,ssdisplacement thickneaq

ancl changing from 6 = 0 a t tho leading edgc to 6 = w for the nsymptot,ic profilc. In practice, however, i t may be assunlcd t l ~ n tt,hc starting length ends with 6 = 4. The resulting critical Reynolds nrln~hers have bccn compubd by A. Ulrich [243] and are given in Table 17.1 ; the corresponding curves of neutral stnbilit,y have been plottcd in Fig. 17.17. The nmplification of unstnble dist,urbsncrs for t.he asymptotic profile has been calculated by J. Prcbch [180]. The highest drgree of amplificat.ion obtained in this calculation was about 10 times sn~nllerthan that for

for :r ~~rcnr:ribe~l vnllro ~ r fc~ - (--v,,)/Um I~nvoI~oor~ 11lol.lntlr~g~linnt. cli~~~c:r~niol~lr*n~ 1.110 I~.II~I,II coordinate. lierc (-8,) ijl/v is known in t c r ~ n s { f r o n ~ of tho calc~~lation t l ~ c of ho~tncl:rry layer, Table 14.1. I t is sccn from Fig. 17.19 that tho limit of stability is not crossccl a t nny point over the whole Icngth only if the volume coefficicnt is kept a t a v a l ~ larger than 1/8,500. Hence, the ~e critical v a l ~ ~ c the volume coefficient bcconler, of
cQ

1.2 x 1W4.

(17.12)

We are now in a position to answer the question which was left open in Chap. XIV, naa~ely, t,hat concerning the acL~lnl dccrcn.qc in the drag on a flat plntc a t zcro incidrt~co \vllonc: I)o~tlldirry Iaycr is kept laminar by suction. Figure 14.9 (:ont,ninccl a plot of the cocf~icirr~t slcilr of friction under these conclitions cxprrssetl i n tcrrns of tlie llcyrlolcls nntnber wit11 t.l~c: voll11110 coefficient eQ nppearing as a parameter. If the curve wl~ich cormnponds to cQCrcl fro111eqn. (17.12) is now plotted in the diagram, i t is possible to dcduce Lhc variation of t,he cooffic:icllt of skin ion~ o RIIOWII in Pig. 17.1!). 'J'llc clintalicc friction for a llnt plate nntlnr c o ~ ~ d i t ~of oplimum ~ ~ ~ c t inn n , between the curvc marked 'optimum suction' ancl that n~arkc!cl'Lurb~~lcnb' rorrcspo~~tls 1 . 1 1 ~ 1.0 saving ili drag erected by the application of suction.

Fig. 17.18. Deter~ninat.io~~ of crit.ical value of volunlr coefficient for maint,cnance of 1%~ninar flow through suction for Oo~ttldnry layer on flat, plate

Fig. 37.19. C~oefficicnt skin frict.ion of :i of flat plate a t zcro incitlcncc. Oplirnu?n auction dcnoles smallcnt volr~rnccoeffiriolt cqrrrc = 1.2 X 10 whii4i just s~iflicesto ~ n a i n tain laminar flow

Fig. 17.20. 1tc.l:lt.ivc snving in t1ra.g 011 flat p1:rt.c nl. xrro i~lc.iclcnrc!wit11 s c ~ c l i oI~ ~: I ~ I ~ II 1,:rining 1n111i11ar :rt, O ~ ~ ~ I I L ? ~. Is I~I ~ r l i fron~ llow o~t I'ig. 17.19
' 4 r ~s -

'1 rurb - ' 1 iat>titt,tr toilh

sucli,,m

510

,I I t ( ? l.c4:1(.ivc:s : l v i ~ ~ tg tlrng c~nlcr~l:xt.rtl i t u~itllrcspnct t o trrrb~rlont, m g irlrrrnscs d sonlc~wI1:11. I l l ( : I<(-ytloltls 1111n1l)cr it~crcasect, l'ig. 17.20. It varies frotn 05 t o :rs is AT, 1)vr ~ ' I ' I I ~ , .in :L r:rngc? of Itc~ynoltls~ ~ t ~ n l l )R r s lo6 Iflo10R. Expcrimrlll,:tl r o s ~ r l t . ~ c= c.or~c.t~r~~itlg l)onr~tlnry-1:lyc.r corlt.rol Il:ivc~ nlrrntly hcen disc~lssetl in CII:L~. XLV. ,I l~c,soI~l~c~orc:Iic*:tl s ~ t l c~ol~rrrtlit~g saving of clrng dnc t,o snct.ior~Ila\.c follrltl rt~ ls 1.110 a.11 CX(Y:IICIIL coltfirt11nt.ion in tllc r n p r r i ~ n c n t scarrictl orit ill flight ant1 in a wind t.llnnc*l Is!), !)!I, loo], scc also r i g . 14.19. 'I'l~crlTc.rl, of srrc.t,iol~ Ifhe litnil, of st4:~.l)ilil.y on t.ogcl.l~rr with t11n.tof :I. prcssllrc grntlitvlt, ran It(: rrprcsrl~tc:(lgr:l[)ltit.:lll~r 11y plot.t.ittg t,l~o cri1,icn.l Rcynoltls 1111rnl)cr :rgait~sf, l,ltc s11:sl)c I':it:I.or Illz --: B,/dz of (,)I(: I)o~rntln.ry layer profile, a s was clor~t:in Fig. 17.21. '1'11f. c,ril.ic::~.l I?.ry~~oltls t~rtrnbcrs a f1n.t 1)lnt.cwit,l~ for zrro prossllrc. gr:l,tlict~f, ntlcl 1111ili)rnl s~tc:l.ior~ (Iglisrl~ ~)rofilvs,I'ig. 14.8), tfl~osc for a ~)l:tt,cwith srlct.iotl tif~srril)ctlby ti,, I / \ / x ( ~ ~ I I S S I ~ I ) T O~ ~I Fig., 14.12) ns well a s tllosc for the caso : L I ( I ~CS wiI.11no snt:I.iot~ l~llt. \viI.ll a 1)rrssr1rt'grit~licnt. (Ilartroe 1)rof los) place t,llernselvcs well or1 :t singlt: c31rrvc?.I'or I,II(: :~sytnl)t.ot.ic srlct,ion profile we hnvc N12 = 2 ant1 for tllc plnlt: wit.l~ I O st~c*t.iotl vn.lno is /IIz = 2.59. I t.ho

XVl I . Origin of 1.1trb11lrnroI I

is s t rest nntl tlrc outer cylintlcr rotates ut~iformly, t.11~ veloc:il,y in 1 . 1 1 ~ : I I I I I I I / I I S increases ~)mct,ically ~ c a r l yfrom zero ab t,)lc: innor wall 180 Illlo ~)c~ril)llrr:~~l h vclloc:il,y of thn oltt,c?rwtlll. A fluitl p:lrl.ialc from nrl o111,cr Inycr ol)poscs n lt~t~tlc:t~t:y I,t*ittg lo moved inwnrds becanso i b centrifugal fnrcc oxcectls t.l~:~l, n pnrt,iclc noxror t.llc on axis of the cylinder anti shows a tertdcrlcy t,o briug t,hrown out.wnrrls. lCrlt~nlly, motion orltu,nrtls is mntlo tnorc tliffic~rll,I)ccnrrsc t,l~c:c*c.tlt,rif~tg;tl li)rc:o nc,Iit~g :in on int~rr p:~rl.ic-lo snlnllrr I,llnl~ is tfltat,on a pnrl.irle fr~rl.l~t%r l't.orn I,ltr :!xis so (,II:I(., nw:~.y consc~tlt~cwf,ly, 1)nrticlcs nrc :~ct.ctl 1lj)orl I)y wll:rt. tnigl~tIN: I,c:rtnt*tla. ' r t ~ r ~ l r i l ) r llil'l,'.l ~:~ lltv~rt-, ~ * : I I I IN: :~pprrci:~l~c:fl it, t11:1,t l ~ r : ~ t ~ s v mol,iot~s ~ ~ r s ~ : \vIlit:l~: I ~ Pt * l ~ : ~ . ~ ~ t ~ I t o[ ~ i s l , i ~ ~ ~ t I , I I ~ I ) I I I ~ : I Iflow : ~ r c I, itnp(xIt:tl I))? ~ v ~ t ~ t ~ r i l l'o~~-(:s. ' t ~ p t l 'l'l~t~s, t,l~is it1 t-:IS(%, I,II(:c!rtttriI'ttg:~l t'ol-c.rs I~:rvc? s1.n.l)ilixing :I, r,lli,c:t.. 1\11 sl~:~l)ilil,y : I I ~ I I I : I ~ . ~ ~ I I s ~~ (l,*st.t.il)(,(l l':~r\v~-rt: so t-ot~fit~tvl lI:ll, l)l:~lt-s.1 , (:II,,I.Ilo 1 Icr [83] gcnrrnlizetl 'l'ollnlicn's st.abilit.y c:rit.c,rion lijr profilt:~wi0ll :I. ~ ) o i to f linllcxiotr ~ ~ t,o incl~lclc inflrto~cc thc ofurnll cnrvnturc, t.l~is c:nsc: I~cing ofgrr:ct, ~)r.;~c~t.ic::~,l in~l)orl.n~lt.t.. ' l ' o l l t ~ ~ i c ~ ~ ' ~ for flat \v:tIls u~11it:It sl,~~.l.cs l,l~(:ercn~ I,II:LI~ i 11 I,IIC Iin~il~ing t::t,st: of t8t*t.y l;lrgc, I~.cynoltls nlttnl)or vrloci1,y I~rofilcs\ \ ~ i l . I ~n c~l~ritlgc: sigt~of rI211/tl!/~~,ct-ot~~c: in IIIISI,:I~IC, St-r. S V I I ) , I ~ I I : : ~ , IIC n~otlifit:cll)y s l . : ~ l i t ~ g IL t*I~:tt~gt! l , l ~ t * s ~ o I,II:II, ill sip) IIS t,l~c* oxltrc>ssiotr

I'ip. 17.21. 'I'ho rritirnl Ilrytioltls r l ~ t n ~ l ~ ~ r Tor I:bn~itlnr velocity profilrs \tit11 ~ ~ ~ r t i o t i , and wit11 a prpsnurc gradirttl 1)loLtrcl :m n f~~t)ctiot~ sllnpc fartor I / , , - rf,/O, of thr

rntlsrs frict,iot~lcss inst.:lltilil.y in t.hc mso of cllrvrtl ~vnlls.1lrt.r 11' tlt~t1o1.c.s nltlius 111t. of nrlrvnl.nre of t,llo wall wit,l~I > (1 tlcr~ot,itrg c:onvrx :rtltl II < 0 tlt:nolit~g:I, c*ot~c.:~vc. / :I, rc*gion of l.l~c \v:tII. Ac:c.ortlitlg 1.0 l.l~isc:l.il,criotl, I,llc. t \ v o - ~ l i t ~ ~ c ~ i ~ slii oIt.~ ~ ~~lI ) : t . t ~ t ~ ( ' ~ t s ~:t I)oc-olnc!~lt~sl.n.l~lcconvcx \\r:clls n sllort, tlist.:~noc on :rltr:ul of l.ltc ~rrcssurc.~ I I ~ I I ~ I I I I I ~ I ~ . \vhcrcns or1 co11c:~vewalls Ll~isoccnrs :i s l ~ o r t clisI.:rnrc l ) c l ~ i t ~it.. IIo\\~cvt:r,0 1 1 1.l1t: (l wl~olr,t . 1 1 ~it~flucnreof wall ourvnt,~rrc very srn:~.Ilif t . 1 1 ~rat.io of I)or~trtl:~r,v-I:~ycr is t.lric:kncss, d, to t.hc rxtlills of crrrvnt,rrre, 12, s:~tisfirst.l~c ror~tlil,ior~sl ~ : ~ t Ill t. ()/I 1. \fTitlt roltc::rvr \v:~lls n tlilrt-rent. Itit~tlof' itlst.:rl~ilil.y, l~:tn~c.ly t.llnL wil.l~~ ( ' S ~ K Y - I1.0 , (*t:rt:~itl l~l~rt:t:-tIit~~rt~siot~:~l tlist,~~rO:~~~(:(*s,tlis(:~~sst%tl Set:. f of I.11is t,l1;111I,c,r. t,t> l)c it1

<

A 1t:11~:r 1p.v 11. l<r~rcgcr I l l ] cont,:tins ca.lcrlInt.ions of t,lle cril,ic:~l lteyl~olds [ nnrnltcr l i ~ r scvr:r:r 1 rxarnplns involving ~ n i ) ~s g c l i o ?\Y.~ \\'r~t?st 1247, 2481 ~)rovctl .~ ~ . nt~nlyI~ic~:tlly I,hr st~nbilizitigr!Tt~ctlt of scvcrxl sit~glcslits ~)lncrtl 1,It:rt. one I)c.llitltl (,II(ot.llc.r is ~nnrl<tnlly srn:tllcr t,l~:t~t l,ltnl. ~)rotlnrccll)y nnifnrrn slrt.l,ior~.
I

cl. ICITrrt of hotly forces

OI\

trnrtaitiot~

1. l \ o ~ ~ ~ t c l n r y on cottr-ex \s,nlls (cel~trif~lgnl lnycr forcrs). 'I'hrrr nro rnsrs when t,mnkil.iot~ froln Intnin:~r1.0 l . r r r b ~ ~ l cIlow is nint.win.lly nff(~ctrt1 rst,c,rnn.l forcas r~t I)? i~n~trvsst~tl 1 . h ~ 011 1)01111t1:1r)~ Inyt:r. 'l'llc: flow in t11c ~ I I I I I I I I I S I)(:l.\\r(!~ti I,WO r o I . t r t . i ~ ~ ~ c-ot~~.cv~l.ric: c:ylintlrrs nl1i)rcls rill rx:rtnplt: of snnll n r:lsr. \\'II~?II l,ltc inner cylintlrr

Couette flow: Tllc st.n~l)ilit.y Inlllinnr 1 1 0 ~ of I)(:~.wccII I,WO c o t \ ~ r n l . ~ ~ i ~ , ~.oti~.I.ing cylinders (Couet,to flow) is governed t.o a Ia,rgc ext.ent I)y t,Ilc cc-llt,rifclg:rlforecs. 'l'l~t: velocit,y dist,riblrt.ions wlriclr occur in t,l~is cast, \rerc% givtw in Fig. 5.4on t11(, I~nsis of exact, solut,ions of t l ~ r Na.vier-St,oltrs oclrlat,iot~s; t.l~cby rovc:rctl variot~sv:ll~tc~s IIlc of ratio of radii n = rl/rz, and c,oncornctl two 1)n.sir cnsrs: ( I ) innrr c.ylintlcl. l-ot.n(.c:s, outer cylincler a t rest,; (11) outm cylintlcr rot,nt,rs, inner c:yliritler at. rrst.. 111 (:nsc, I (inncr oylintlcr rot,:tt.illg), 1 . 1 1 ~Inycrs :&I, t-llc5 rot,at.it~gl t l l c . ~u,t~.ll i nxl)c~ic,nc:c-: I I . ~ ( ~ I . t-rt11.t.iI frlgal forces tlinll tl~osc!rlcnr l.11e out,t*rwnll. I'or l.l~is i.c~nsot1, t,llr ~)rc*sc.~ll I I I I . I I S t::tsco u t t o be highly ~ ~ n s t , a \ ) it was invcstigntctl vrry cnrly by (:. 1. Taylor IVIIII :~ss~lrr~ctl le; the exist.ance of tttrrre-tlin~enniot~al dist.nrl):~ncrs. (:.I. 'l':tylor c1isc:ovrrctl (.It(* t.xistt.t~c.t: of s secondary flou. in t.11~ form of ring-sl~nl)rtl vort,ircs in cxccllrr,l, a~~.c.c*lr~c~nt I)(:tween tllenry nncl exprrirncnt, scc Scc. XVII f nntl Icig~.17.:%2-17.34. I I I (I:IsI: 11 (outer cylinder rot.ating) the larger c e ~ l t r i f r l ~forces ocrur in t.hr fluid 1nyr.r.s at the al oat,cr mnll, \vtlicll has n 11igl1ly st,abilij.,ingeffrct.011 t,he flow. 'I'hc stpn.l)ilit,y snc.11 flo~vs of a.it,ll rcspcc.t, t,o t,wo-clin~c:r~sionn.l tlisl.~~rl~annc~s l ~ o r o ~ ~ gil~vt'st.ig~~((~(l W:LH t l~ly I.l~(.or('l.icn,lly l)y I?. S ( : I I I I I I ~ ~ . ( ~ ~ ~ I I I I Oi ~-V 1204cJ; l t urtts :IIII(* l,o ~ I ~ ~ I I I O I I S I , I ~LIIC:, i t ~ l ~ r t ~ r t ~ l III ~~ sl~:~l~ilily

512

XVII. Origin of turbulence I1

d. Effect of body forcea on transitiol~

513

of (.his arra~~grrncnf,. I<x[1erimcnt,a1 i~lv~st.ipatiolls trhe same aut,hor 1204 b] conby firrnrd this t~on(:I~~siotl;also t.he more rcoerlt papers 11y 17. Schultz-Grunow 1204dI. sec
2. TIIC Ilow of noti-homoge~leo~~s (stratification). Tllc ir~flncncc vertical lluicls of

t,hc stability of flow pzst a flat horizontal wall is in a sense rt~l:~.l.rtl t,hc rase of ccntrifugd forces occurring in a homogcncons fluitl flowing L o ;rlong a crlrvctl wall. When the clcnsity dccreases upwards, the arwngcrncnt is stal)le, and it, I)c:comcs unstable wllcn the tlensity variation is reversed. I n the latter t:itsc t,hcrc: is inst.al)ilit,y, even wit,Ilollt flow, when the fluid is hoat,etl from 1)clow. 'I'hc flr~itl t.11rr11,ccorncs I I I I ~ +,able in t h a t t.11~ I~orizor~tal layers of flrlitl 1)ecomc Iloncyconll~rdinto rrg~llarllcxagonal ctltly patterns 15, 97, 1001. 111 t l ~ r case of flow with stal)lc tlc:nsit.y st,mtificat,iorl, t.nrbulcnt mixing i n t.he vcrtical dircction is impcdccl I~ot~nr~sr heavier particles must bc lifted and lighter part,icles must be depressed : ~ g n i r ~ t~ytlrost,at.icforces. T ~ ~ r b u l e n ccan even be completely suppressed if the st e rlt>nsit.y gradient is strong enough, t h c phenomenon being of some importance in c*c.rt.ninmt?l.corologic:~l proccsscs. I t is, for exainple, possil~lctlo 01)scrvc l,l~al, cool on stlnliner cvcriings (lamp meadows are blsnkctcd in sharply ouLlinctl mists with a gc-iltlc: wintl t~lowing.This is a sign t h a t thc wind ceased t o be turbulent so tllat 1ayc.r~of air slitlc over each other in laminar motlion and without turbulcnt mixing. Thc cntrsc of this ~ ~ l ~ c r ~ o r n licsoin~t,lro prono~innetltompcr:atjtlrc gmrlient which is cn r formccl in t.hc air ns t h e carth cools in tho evening ant1 prcvents mixing of thc warmer, and tllcrcforc lighter, upper layers of tlre atmosphere wit,ll.the coltler antl heavier layers near the ground. The "falling off" of tho wintl which can ~omet~irncs observed be towartls t.hc rvcning is duo t o the sa.nlc effect,. The wir~clprcvails in all its force a t I~igllor ;~.ll.it,~~tlrsLlto s l ~ p p r n ~ ~ iof rl,url~rllc~ic:c: the g r o ~ ~ non cooling grcat,ly 11111. o l noar tl rm111t*tw s 1 1 , ~ ~ t IIP11rl~l1t~r11iorr, stIr(~a.tiii~lg ills . 1.11~ of swc~clj ovcr s:l.lt. wat.rr wllic-11occurs, c . g . , i t 1 1 1 1 ~ < ~ ~ i . t t , g ~ ~ t . 11s t , l ~ c *r ~ ~ 1 1 i : 1 r l ~ : 1 1 1 l ~ ~of' a b i I i t ~ l 11s \vt.ll s t I3jt~rl<nc~s's polar f r o ~ ~ t s , wl~c~rl c:olcl itlasses of air fijrrn a wcclge r~rldorthe warm air, 11clong t,o t,llis group 1,Itt: of ~ ) l l t ~ n o ~ l ~ c i l a . I,. 1'randt.l 11731 ar~:~lyzetl ptrcnomcna conncct.ecl with clensit,y gradients t.hc a.s wcll a s with t,hc previously disc~rsscclflows ovcr curvet1 s~irfacesinvolving the inllt~cnc:eof cerlt.rif~~gnl forces wit,l~thc aitl of an cncrgy mct.hotl. Ilc has sllown t h a t the st,nl~ilit,y ofstr:~t.ificcI flows depcnds oil the slratification parameter

tlrvsil!/ i:rr.ritrLiot,.9 oil

and a linear velocit,y profile in a n infinite fluid they forlntl the limit of s!,;tbilil.y to be a t R( = 1 . Tlte irlfiucrlcc of viscosity ant1 of c r ~ r v a t ~ inr c voloc:it,y 11rofilo II:LVC ~ t,l~c ht:cn nrglcct,c(l in this conncxion. 11. S(:l~li(:l~l.i~~g ~ I vt:sl~ig:tl,t:tl t , I ~ t ? st,:~l)i [l!)!)l I lil.y of flows wit-11dcnsitJy stratification with l,hc aid of 'l'ollmicn's t,hoory. 'L'l~o c::rlr:~tl;~t.iorl was I~asrdon t,lle ,zss~impt.iorlof a J3lasius profile for a f l t ~ t ~~l:l,t.o \r.it.h a. t l o t ~ s i ( , ~ ~ gr:~.tlicnt,i n the l)o~~rldary layer and C O I I S ~ : L I I ~ tIei~sit,y 011t.sit1~ It, W:LS ~ O I I I I < It.l~:tt, it.. tl~c critical Itcynolds ~ l n m b e incrcascd mpitlly as t l ~ o r Jtit:li;~rtlsor~ 1111r11l)c:r inc:ro:tsc:t[, R g . 17.22, changing its value from RCri, = 645 for R, :-0 (I~ornogc:r~co~as Ilow) t.0 R,,, - c m li)r R, --= 1/24 = 0.042. Tl11is 1i)r

tl~c:flow rc~nains sl,:~blt: cvcrywl~nrc t . l l o f l : L ~ pI:ttc. I L is sc.c.t~t,l~:rI.!,11(? III.,.S~,II(. l i t t t i t . on ot' st,nbility is considerably smallcr t l ~ a r l h a t given t ~ y r c v i o ~ ~ s t p t.hcorics.

A comparison I)ct.wccn theory nr~tl I,II~: oxl)ori~nc:~~l,:~I s ~ ~I lI Il~,: ~ 1 1 . I(.,-irc~ ( (.(I <41:1r(lt, [I741 is givv~t i11 lpig. 17.22; I ~ I ~ ~ : ~ S I I ~ C : I ~ I C\vt-rtu ~ ) ~ - V I ~ I I~ . II II:II ~ * ~ I :II~~S :<l~ts,.i:tI

Fig. 17.22. Critical lteyr~olds number for tho boundary layer on a flat plak a t zero incidence in flow with density gradicrlt ns a function of the Richardson number R,

am

nor

naz

a03

nos
R;

or
-J dv

az klw

+ lur&~lenl

0 laminar

=g2

(d

kitow~t;LS t,l~c Iticl~artlsor~ nnmbcr, in adtlit,ion t o t,hc r~srlal dcpcndcnoc on Itcynolds r1111n11c:r. 1Icrc q tl(:not,t?st,hc acceleration due 1.0 gravit,y, Q bile density, and 1,11cpositive tlirt,c*l,io~~ ?I is n~t:a.s~~rc(I of' vertically ~ipwards.'J'hc s~~bst:ripL r.cfcls 1.0 t.11~ a l ~ ~ c lo v ~. 01' t.llc vcllot.it,y gr:uliont, a t t.hc wall, ant1 R, == 0 corrcspontls to n hornogcncous fluid, R, > 0 tlcnot.ing stable, ant1 R, < 0 nnst,ahle st,rat,ification. The energy mct,hotl used by I,. 17. Ricllartlson [I921 and I,. Prandtl Ilas show% t , i ~ : turbulcncc niay be expected ~t to disa.ppn:tr a t R, > 2. G . I. Taylor [240] refincd Pmndtl's reasorling and obtained R, 2 I a s Lhc limit, of stal)ilit,y. 11. Ertcl [56] s~rpplicd thermodynamic justification a for l.his t:ril,t-riorr. C. 1. 1':lylor [210] and S. Goltlstri~l[69] wrrc tho flrst ones t.o apply the ~ ~ l c t h o t i of s ~ n a l l dist.11r1)anrc.st o t,t~is problem. Assr~miriga ~orlt~inr~oris clensit,y distribution

rcctangn1a.r channel in Gocttinger~.Thc air was passctl throrzgl~t l ~ c cl~:~n~lc.l whosc upper wall was heated with the aid of stcam, the bottom wall I)rir~g coolrtl u,it,l~ water. It is sccn thnt all observed laminar flows fall within tllc sbablc rcgion, whereas all turbulcnt flows fall within the urlstablc region. Agrccmcnt is, thercforc, excellent. G. I . Taylor I2391 observed turbulent flow i n ocean currents a t considerably l~ighervalues of t h e Richardson number a n d i t appears t h a t this phenomenon is tgllc-orotbir:~lly due t o tho abscnco of walls. Rcccntly, J . 'P. Stt~~art[227nlinvost,ignt,rtl tthc elre-t of a magi~ct~ic on tmnsil,ion. I t turned o~iLI,hel, 1,110 c:rit,icnl lk-,yr~oltls field nr1ml)rr ir~crcasesconsidcmbly for thc cnsc of liimir~arIlow I)ctwcc:n two 11:~mllcl flat walls when t h c lines of tho magnetic field arc parallel t o the walls.

514

X V I I . Origin of turbulence 11

e. Effectu due: to hcnt trnnofer nrld compreusihilityt

< 0 . Since t.11~ vclocit,y grn(1ient is l ~ o s i t i v c t t,Ilc wnll i t follows from ~ c l l l .(17.15) n tl1st.

1. l ~ ~ ~ r o t l t l c rctllnrk. 'I'll(: t.ltrorc:t,icnl nntl ~xl)rritn(:nt,nlrns~llt,sc o t i c c r t l i ~ ~ g tor~ tr:~.tlsil.ionclcscril)ctl itt t,llc prc>c-otlingsc:c:t,iotls a r e valitl only for flows a t m o d c m t c s l ~ : c t l s(itic~otl~~)rc~ssil~ln 'l'lln c~ll'cc:l.o f t,hn compressibilit,y of t,lrc? firlit1 on t m n Ilow). sit.iori II:IS rc?c-ntll,lyI,c~crlrxl~nrtsl,ivclyin\:nstignt,etl i~rltlcrt h e ~ t ~ i t i i r ~ i u s nerofrom rt:~.t~lic*nl c:t~gittrc:ring. I I I t.lle c::l.sc of'cornprc~ssil)le Ilows, apart, from t.ho Rlnc:h n r t ~ n l ) r r , it, is t ~ c r c s s : ~ rt,o l.;iltr it1t.o :~cc:onnt,ono ntltlileional, i t r ~ p o r t ~ n n tn r ~ ~ n c t wlrioll is y p ~rr r o ~ ~ ~ ~ c , r \vil.llt l t . c ~ t,l~o ~:rt,c,of Ilrnt, t.rnt~sl'c:rrc:tl I~ctwccnt,llc: l l ~ ~ iant1 t h e wall. \ Y l ~ c n tl I,II(% I111itl is i ~ ~ ( ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ lt(a:~t, s i l )IN:( :( , X ( ~ I ; I , I I ~ ( :l)(:I,\v(:rt~I.ll(: \v:i,ll :I.II(II,II(! l l ~ t i ( l t . ( * sV:III l ~ (I i ( 1 11(, ( , ( ~ t ~ ~ ~ o)f tt ,~~~:\v:~ll ist I~iglt(:r~r :Iowrr ~,II:%II t,h:~t, t,he f111i(I fio\vitlg l ( ~ : ~ , ~ ~ ~o of IKISI. it.. 111 1.11(: c:n.sc: of' :L (:otn~)~~(~ssil)l(: t1.l1cl ~ ( ~ icvoIvc(1 in 1.I1r I)ont~(l:~.ry Il~~i l, l, l:iy(\r I)ro(l~~c*t*s:i.tItlit,ion:~l,itnl)orl,:~trf, :III inflnonce, ns nlrontly sltown in (:II:L~. X I 1 1. 111 rit l1c.r (.:IS(: :I t~Itcrtnnll ~ o t t t ~ , l I:~yrr~ I ~ : v e I o I ~ s ;~~~y in a(l(lil,iotl 1,o t,llc v(:Io(:it,y I)oun(l:~ry 1a.y~-r plnys it,^ p n r t in t h e dctcr~nitt:~t,ion tllc inst.nl)ilit.yof n smnll dist,urbnnoe. ant1 of r Lltr t ~ l ~ r o r c t . i ~ a I cxl)crirnc~nt,al arrtl rotisitlcrnt~iot~s wl~ic:l~ a r e a b o r ~ t (liscuss will wr t.o show t.11nt.for t.he s ~ ~ I ) s o tf~li e of n g:~s, ll(-nt. trnnsfer from t,lle I~o~tntln.ry o ~ Inyer 1.0 t,hr wnll exrrt-q n st.n.l~ilizing influcnc-c, wltilr Irrat transf'rr from t,Ite \\lnll to t.Ilr pas 11ns t h e op1)osit.c cfT(~:t,.13ot.li of t.l~csc r r reversed for t h e fiow of a liquid. For srlprrn sonic flow. n new t,ype r,f unstal)lc rlist,r~rbnnce 1)ossil)lr ~ J l i c responds t o t,11e transis h f r r of 11ca.t.in nn ent.ircly tliffcrcnt rnnt1nc.r.
1

Tlirts for a 11cnt.rd wall the rnrvnt,trrc of t.11~: vcloc:ity profile at, tllr w:~ll is ~)osit,i\rc%, a n d it..follows imrnctliatcly t,Jtnt a point of inflcxiorl ((1'(//(1~/2 = 0 ) 1n11stcxist, wit,l~itl t11c bor~ntlsry Inyrr bccntrsr t,llc c n r v a t t ~ t , is vnt~isllinglystnnll but. II('~:I.I a t -- 00 c ivt: ( c / . I'ig. 7.4). rl'l~isIncans t,IlaL t , l ~ l.rnnsfrr of Ilcbnt, ft.otn f l ~ c r wall t,o n g ; ~ s Ilo\\~itig1)nst. i t rrntlcrs l.ltr I)o~rndnry111yc.r t~nst.nl)l(: (.It(: c:l.it.c.~.iotl I)y givc.11 i t 1 (:It:il). S \ r 1 ~ I I ' : L Irtatltlcl ritlnlogot~s a l ) r o s s ~ ~itrcrc:asc in t.ho tlo\vnsI.~.c::ltn t.o r~c tlirrc:l.ion. 0 1 1 I.II(* rorll I.:LI.Y, cooling tlte wirll rcndrrs 1.11~ 1)onntlat.y Ixyor Inore, st.nl,lc*by incrc.r~sit~g ( b ~ ~ ~ . ~ : ~ t , t.11(. of t.l~ovclocity prolilc n t l.lle wn.ll nntl ao1.s liltc r i Ikvortr.nl)lc: I)rrssllrc: g~<I,(I.l ( ~ l l l ~ .

A nnmcrirnl cnlc~tl:tt.ionl)y '1'. Crl)c,c:i nntl A . M . O . Stnit11 [221 fi)r air c~onfir~nrtl t*ltc(l(:(!rc:nsc: in I,IIc crit.ic!nI I Z ~ ~ y ~ ~ t ~ l ~ l for I,lt(: ons(*t,of i~~sl~al)ilil,y IIV;~I,C;{I 1111tn0t:r s 01' :I flnt plntr, nntl n sinlilnr tlrcrrnsc in t,ltc: I.ru.tlsilion I<.c-j:~loltls t1111nl1c1 \\,;IS ol)srrvrtl in l,11(: ~ X ~ C : I ~ ~ I I I <ofI I11. W . I , ~ V ~ ) I I ~ I I . I(!. III , l'i111 1 l2!11 O I I IL vtv.l,i(:t~lI I I I , I)IIII.(- 111, ~, :III(I ~ I I zcaro inc:itlrrlcr.

2. Tllr effcct of llent frnllsfcr it1 il~colnpressibleflow. Sornr of t h e main frat,urrs of t,l~c l k c t o f f.ltc t,r:~tlsfilrof 11c:n.t h o t n t , l ~ c r w:ill t.o t,llr fluitl on t.he st.al)ilit,y of n Inn1inn.r I)ot~tttln.ry 11iytv.r r ~ nI t ( % ~.r:t(lilyr(*rognizrd rven in t,llc! rrrsc: whrn t,llc flow is incotn))rt~ssil,Ic.Wc s l ~ n l l . t,llcrcli)rr, c x l ~ l a it. first. in t,llis simplifircl form. T h e first i~~ exl)rrirnrntnl in\.rst,ig:~t.iottson t . l ~ e inflltener of 11rn.t t,ransfer on t.ransit.ion were perli)rrr~rd some t.imc ago by W. 1,inlte [ 13 I 1. \\'. I,inltc measrtred t,hr c1ra.g of n vcrt,icnl hraf,rd ~ j 1 a . tplncrtl in a I~orizontnlstrratn in a rnngc of length Rcylloltls nlllllbrr ~ R = 105 t o 106, nntl o l ~ s r r v r dt.li:rt. Ilc~nlingrar~sc:tl it. to incrrase by n Inrgc ntnor~nt,. 11e conollttlc:tl ft.o~n t,llis incrca.sc, clrlilr rot,rrrt.ly. t,llnt, t.11~~ c a t ~ i n g t h e plnt,r cntlfictl l of t,he t~rntisit.ionItc-ytioltls n u m l ~ c rt,o dc%rrrase.

Since l.hc v i ~ c o s i t ~o f n liclnitl tlc~c~~~c~nsc~s t~c~til,rrnl.rtrr inc.~.c:lsrtl,I.llo y a s 1.I1r is clTc:ctfl of 11onl.ing a n d cooling slloultl IN: r c v r r s ( ~ In~:ot.(litlg (*(111.( 1 7. I f , ) . ~ \ ninvest.ignt.ion by t\.It. Waxznn, 7'. Oltntnr~rnntltl A . M . 0 . Stnib11 1249, 250. 251 1 f o ~ . wa1.c.r confi~~rnrtl l,l~is cxpcct.nt,ion. 'J'ltc c.t.iticnl Itrynoltls nltrnl~c?rli)t. otisc,t, of itist,nl)ilit~y sllown in Pip. 17.23 for I~c-nl,rtl c,oolc-cl wnlls along wit,lt ( I t ( . t ~ l : i s i t r l t ~ t ~ ~ is n.t~tl c I i t ~ ~ ( ~ ~ ~ s i:ttn~)Iificnt,ion ot~l(~ss flt.ct,or (/?, i ~ l / l l m ) fnncl ~I I V ~.:t,t,io t . 1 1 ~ l i ~ ~ ~ ( ~ t ~ s i o ~ ~ s ,l~ I of' t clisplacernent I,llickness dl I/f/,/x v, t o it.s vnlr~e 1.721 for t.11~~ t ~ l t c i r t\vnll. ~ ecl
t . I ~ ( b

\Iritll t,llc nit1 of t h e l ~ o i n t , - o f - i n f l ( ~ ~ i o ~ i c:t.it,r~.ioti \\rl~ichwns tliscussc~d in CI~npt,rr XVI it is (tnsy t o sllo\\r that, t l ~ r r ris ;L stnl~ilizitigo r tlrst,abilizing c,ll!ct tlttc t o t h e trxllsr(.r of llr:l(, \vllrll 7',, + '1'11is rn'c~:l,is :L consequence of t l ~ c dc1)cwtlt:rlce of t,llr \risc.osit,y ,( 11(. llltitl 011 111(* t ( , n ~ l ) r ~ n t u7'.r \\!l~cnt,hc tcmprrnt.urc-cIrp(:~i(lr~icc of' r OF (,Ile viscosi0y is tnltrn info ac,c.onnt, thc! c9~trvnt,rr~.et h e profile I / ( ! / ) of t.llc ~ n a i n of' flow nt, {,lie w:lll is givrn for tI1r (::IS(: of n 1I:~t ~)lxt.c zero incidencr, nccot.tlinp t o at. (~(111. (l:!.f;), lly
'I. /,

'~11ct.cis n st.rong st,zl)ilizing effrrt. a s t.llr wall t,rtnl)c,rnt.t~~oint:~,r:~sc,tl' t ~ ) t r t i t s is f initrial v n l l ~ cof 15.0"C (GO01'), I)ut 1I1r1i frtrlltrr Itrating is tlc-st,nl~ilizing. /Ill.l~or~gll t h e t l i t n c r ~ s i o ~ ~ l:~mplific:~tion ess f'nct.or is const.nrit. for 7',, > (;On(:, I.llc tlitrit~nsiot~:~l ir~c:rc-nscs invc:rsc, prol)ol.t.iot~ d l . 'I'll(* rcsrtlls for :I. coolctl \vr~lIs l ~ o ~ v it1 1.0 tilt! cxpccLod tlc-sl.nbilizirig cll'cct li)r liclr~i(ls.In t.llc t.ltc:o~.yof' A . It. Wrizz:~.~~, only int.11c. flr~erlcc Ilmt, transfer, ot,llcr t,hnn on t,l~o of rncnn vrlooil,y j)r.olile, is tfltrot~gll t,crnt.llc~ peraturn rlcperlilence o f t h e viscosity. A more cotn~,lrt.c(11c:or.y h y I t . I,. I,o\vell a n d

Now. if t.l)c. \\all is IloI.trr t h a n Ihc. llllitl i l l tllr f'~,cn t r m n i , we have TI,, > T, ant1 s ~ I I Vt.t-n~l)cr:itr~t.c* gt.n.tlirnt. n.t Iltc. wnll is nc*)mti\.c: (t17'/tl?/)w< 0. Since for a gas t h e \:is(.osily ittc.r(~asc-s \vill~ c ~ I ) ~ ~ ) I ~ I :ic.(~ot~(Iing ccln. ( l 3 . 3 ) , we mnst. have ((l/l/dy)fi; ~ ~ : I ~ I I I ~ ( ~o t -~ f 'I'll is ~ , I ~ I I S ) l ~ r l ~ : ~ rI (I)!.t l I,. 31. h1:lt.k o f 1 . 1 1 ~~ P I l'ro~~t~lniot~ I, l I ~ ~ , I,r~l)nrnt~nry f Ilr (7~~lifnv!~i~~ of I ~ ~ s l i l t t of ~' I ' ( Y . I I I I I I111 ~ ~ lt I o 1'r1s:t~1(~11;1, (::~liforrlin.
sf.,,~

wntor boundary laycr on Smil.l~ [2RO)

:L

flnt platc, .aflcr

A. It. Ww~znt~, Okilr~~r~rn A. M. 0 . '' l. atlrl

516

XVII. Origin of turbulcnco XI

r.

15ffrols drtc to hcnt tmnefvr nnd cornprrsnibili1.y

,517

E. ltrsliot,lto 11461 inclutletl t,he t,cnipcrnt.nrc a n d ~ I c n s i t Ilnct.unt,ions, but. led t o ,~ almost iclcr~ticnl rintncrical r c s u l t , ~A st,nhilit,y expcritnent. . by A . St,razisar, .I. M. I'rnl~la n d 15. Itcsl~ot.lro 12271 vorilirtl t,ltr prrdic:I,rtl sllifl. o f l , l ~ r n i n i r n ~ ~ t n c crit.ir.al ltcynoltls tir~tnbcrwith n srnnll nmour~t, Ilet~ting. ol'
I'rce e o ~ ~ v e c t i o n : Tratisit,ion of R frrc-cot~vcct,ior~ boundary layer on n vertical ~ I I L I ( ! wns fit.sl, rc.Ii~t.ctlt.o t,ltcs :~tnl)IiIicnt~iot~ ofstn:~.ll tlisI.~~t~l)nnoc~s 1%. I)y 15. (:. IC(:k(.rt ant1 15. S(ic11rigcn 157, 5I)I. 'J'lic rrntlrr is referrcct t n articles b y 13. C e b h a r d t [79, 80, 811 for n comprchcnsive review of t,11is field in which m r ~ c hprogress has been rnatlc in cxplnining ot)sorvrtl t.ratlsil,ion phenornona by rncnns of nccurate ~ ~ t t t n r t ~ i cnlculnt,ions I)nsc(i o n t h c I I I C ( ~ I I Oof sriinll dist,arbances. cal ~ Wltcrc;~s t,lie vert.ical 1icnt.cd plst,r the insf.abilit,y originat,es from progressing for waves of t,hc 'I'olln~icrl-Scl~IiaIit,it~g o n t h e irtolincd heatled plate standing unt,ypr, st,nl)lc vortic!rs wit,li a x e s along tlic dircct,ion of flow h a v c been observed; t,hese a r e of t h r 'l'nylor-(:oort,Irr t,ype, see 1147, 228, 811.
I t c ~ : l . ~ . tII:rt. ~l

Fig. 17. 24. I3ffcct of Mach nrlti~ber pllnsc vclocion

tic8 or two-dirncn~ionnl ~ u l r adintt~rbatrrc~ dinn l ntltl plxrcntcr~t. t,l~ickllrss atlinhntic Ilxt-glalc bor~rrtlary of lnycrs

..

'l'llo st.n.l)ili(yof a ft.cc>c.onvrc:t.ivc st,rc,nln or^ n hvnl,rd vcrt.icnl plr~f,c. wc~sinvc-sti. g:~t.cvlI,y 1'. I t . N n c l ~ t n l i c ~ i rl(i7 1 who rrril~loyc:cl (,l\rtnc~t.hoclof ~rrri~.ll ( ~~ clist.~~rl)n.ncvs. I 11c vc,loc:it.y : ~ t t c l t,oml)c:rat.nrc tlisl.ribtrl.ior~swere those of Figs. 12.23 ant1 12.24, t.cspct:t.ivc:ly. Vcloc:ity prolilvs wil,h a st,rong point of inflcxion, such a s t l ~ o s ein Fig. 12.24, arc intrinsically characterized Oy x Inw litnit. of stability. T h e inclusion of t,rtnporal t,rrnpc~rnt,urc fluctnnt.ions o n tol) of t h e ve1ocit.y f l u c t ~ a t ~ i o n s produces a n ndtlit,ionnl st,t,ong tlcsl.al)ilizing c f i c t of t,hr n ~ a i n flows, because this mechanism t,ransl i ~ c-tlrrgy from the rnnin rnot,iori 1.0 t . l ~ t * s tlisl.nrbnticc. T h e cnlculat.ion leads t o t w o c:o~lplcdclilTc-rcnt.inl eclrlnI.ions which now rc,pla.c:c: t , l ~Orr-Sonirncrf(.ltl ecluat,ion (16.14). r O n r o f t.11rtn t,c,f(~s o vc.loc*il,ynntl t.lto otltct. t o t,crnprrat.urc. These t w o equations t c o t ~ t n11 t . l ~ eI't.at~tlt.l n u ~ r ~ l ) ant1 t , l ~ c i cr (:r:i~sl~ofnumber in additpion t o t h e Reynolds n n m b r r . In this connexiori t , l ~ c 1.cncler sholtl(l consrtlt t,he papers by E. E d r e r t c t al. )S!)I, A . Snc.\vc:zyli 122!)1 nntl '1'. I<rnj:~tnin1151 whicll cont,airt nlso cxperimcntal r c s u l b .
3. Tllc rlfcct of cornpreseiblity. Of I,he nurrierorls t.ransition phenomena which have I~ctenetlconnt,cred in supersonic nntl hypersonic boundary layers, we shall focus on t h r nlfi.c:t,sof Mach n u m b e r a n d h e a t t,ransfer on t h e zero pressure gradient bounil:~.ry1a.ycrs \vl~ic*l~ e formed on llat plat,cs or o n cones a t zero angle of incidence. ar \\'r procrrcl first,t,o n s u m m a r y of t.he principal results which have been obt,ait~ed with t.l~c rnet.hod of slnall dist.urhances, ant1 will t,hcn show how t,he t,heory c a n account for some of t , l ~ c cxprrimrnt.nl observations. Many of t h e theoretical result* t o be prcsrnt,etl arc, t.nlrc:n from a dct,:tilcd st,udy by 1A.M. Mack (1531 of compressible st.al)ilit,y t . l ~ r o r ya n d in t , l ~ e , absence of n specific reference this worlr is t,o be under-

provided t h a t U ( y , ) > Urn - a,. This t,hcorem is tire cxtcnsioti t o cotul,rcssiblc flow of 'l'lrcorcm 1 of Scc. XVI b, a n d ys is t h e compressible counterpart of t h e inflexion point in incomprcssiblc flow. It can conveniently be referred t o a s t,hc gcncmlizcd inllcxion point,. Wit,l~ g(*nt\r:~lizn ed inflexion point, there is a neutral snl)sonio tlist,nrl)nncc wi(.ll c, - cs . I\(!/,) nntl nlao a neutral sonic tlist~urbnncc when M, > 1 wit,l~ ) l ~ n vvloc:il,y c , ~ nc c:" --- (I,, m, antl n = 0. Ncn1,ral snpcrsonie tlist,urb:~.nccs n1.c: p o s ~ i l ) l ci ~ (*(-rt.:~it~W S , I ) I I ( 110 ll ~IO genernl conditions for their existence h a v c bccn given. Figur-c 17.24 s11ou.s 1,11c:clirncnsionlrss phnsr vclocitics c,/Umantl co/U, of t.11~ r~cllt.rnl sr~l)sonir sonic: tlisl.ttl~l):inc~r and as f~~ttct.ions Mm for n fnrnily of ntli:rb:~t.ic flnt.-l)ln.t,cI)ortntlnt~y of I:ryc:t.s. 1 I t ( % III(\:III bor~ntlnrylnycr prof lcs which were usrtl in t.hc cnl(:rllat.ion of c,*, ant1 \vill bt: usc:tl t l i r o ~ ~ g l r othis Section, a r e accurat.c numerical soluLions of I,hc co~nl~rcssiblc: ~tt In.tninn.l. bountlary layer equateions for air with bot,h t,he viscosit.y cocflicient, rind I'rnntlt~l n~tmlwr fr~nct~ions t.emperature, a n d with a frcc-sf.rcatn stngnntion t,ctnpcrnl,t~ro of of 3 1 11< up t o M = 5.1 where T m = 50 K. A t higher Mach numbcrs, Tmrelnninsa t 50 I<. , These tenipcrabltrc conditions a r c cl~nract,crist,ic R I I I ) C ~ S O I ~ ~a(n d Ityprr~sonicwintl of : tunnels. Since c, > c > 0 in Fig. 17.24, all of the b o r ~ n d k ~ y o 1nyct.s of t,his family sat.isfy t h e conditions of t h e extendetl theorem a n d a r e u ~ ~ s t . a l )tto frictioulcss ({islc turbnnces. T h e movement of t h e generalized inflexion poinL 1.0 larger y/S wit.ll i l l creasing M is similar t o t.he movement of t , l ~ inflexion point \vil.l~ , c increasing at1~r.t.s~. pressure gratlicnt. in incompressible flow. l'igure 17.24 also givc,s t , l ~ c tlitnct~siortlt.ss tlisplnccmcnt thicltncss dl vl/,/x v, ns a fl~not~iotr M, for Ll~rfntnily of ntli:~I,;,.t,ic: of bountlnry Inycrs. I,. 1,ees and C.C. 1,in were gljlt! 1.0 prove t,I1:1.t. 1.ltcwnvo r~~rrnl)c~t. . I I ( . o~'I neut,rrtl s ~ ~ b s o t idisturbance is unique a s in inco~n~)rcssil)lr ic flow, provitlccl t,l~nt. t,Itc mean flow relative t o t h e pllase velocity is everywheresubsonic, i. e. h < I t,h~.or~gh2 o u t t.lle boundary layer, where M = ( I J - c,)/a is t , l ~ c local rrlnt.ivc~M:tch I I I I I I I ~ ) ~ ~ I . . Alt,hougli t-ltcir proof t,ltat cqn. (17.17) is a s~~fficionl, cont1il.ion for 1,l1c:inst.:ll)lit,y l1:stl 1,hesame restrict,ion, i t nppcnrs from rxlensive nntnrrical rirlc.~~lr~t.ions rtltt. ( 1 7.17) I.l~:rl, is a true snff cient condition even when M2> 1.011t h e contrary, L.M. Mack [ 1521sllow-

--

..

' r l ~ efirs6 atii\lysis o r t.hc st,n\)ilit,y of ro~npressiblclaminar b o ~ ~ t l d a rlnycrs w a s y givc.11 t,y 1). I<:tc.cl~c.tr~nnn 121 on t.hc Ibnsis of t.hc ncgleotof viscosit,y o n t.l~c 11 motion tlist,nt~l)ar~c~c. t,cmpcrnt,nre grntlicnt a n d cllrvat,urc of t,hc velocit,y profile 'l'hc of t . 1 ~ wrrr, first. inc,lutl(~din t8he frict~ionlcssanalysis by T 1,ees a n d C. C. Lin 11221. T h e y . ! rlassifirtl t,ltc, tlist.~~rbnnces, whiclt were nssumcd of t h e s a m e periodic form a s in e q n . (l(i.10) int,o t,l~rcc cat,egorien callcd s~tbsonic,sonic, a n d supersonic, depending o n whc~thert.11~ 1,ltnsr vc1ocit.y c, is great'cr t h a n , e q i ~ a l o r less t , l ~ a n - a m , where to, Urn n is tllr spcrtl of sound. I n p a r t i c ~ ~ l a 1,., T,ces a n d C.C. 1,in proved t,Iis.t a sufficient r rontlition for t h r r s i s t r n c e of a n ~ ~ n s t ~ ssrlbsonic disturbnnce is blr

518

XVI I. Origin of tr~rhr~lcncc 11

c. Effects duc to Itcat transfer ancl cornprcsnihilil.y

510

rtl 11y n~lrncrirnlrnlr~rlnt~ions n t \r.it,ll n region in t h o horlntlary layer whcrc h > 1 th 2 tI1rr.c- nrc- :In inlinitc nrlmbcr of n a u l m l wnvc numbers, o r modes, witch t,he sarnc plrasc vrloc:ity c,. 'l'hr rnrllt,iplc ~ n o d c s r c n rcsult. of t.11~ a change in t h e govcrning tlilTcrc:trt.inl rquation for, s a y , thc: ~wcssurcoscillnt,ictn from rl1ipt.i~whon M < 1 t o hyperbolic Z \VII~IIM " I. 'l'l~ofirst rnotlr is t.11~ snmc a s in incomprrssil~lc flow, nntl was first r o n l l ~ ~ t c . I'I~I.~ o t l l ~ w ( - s s iflow~ l ~ yr . I,c'(~s anO 1':. Itc:sllot.ko 11421. T h c ntltlit.ior~nl, tl c l~l I o r Ilighrt.. rnotl(~s Ilnvo n o inrornprc~ssil~lc r.onnt,crpxrts. c, = c,, MZ, first, reaches 11nit.y a t M, 2.2, nntl t h e rlppcr I~or~rltlary t,hc rcgion of supersonic relativo flow of is nt ?I/(> 0.16, 0.43, 0.50, Lor &f -=- 3, 5, 10, rcsprctivcly.

Vig. 17. 25.

011

l<~lli!(*l. of M:tol~ IIIIIIII)CI.

..h c tnrtltipl(: ~ ~ t : r ~ t .~nl iI~ t ~ i l r l ~ nwit,lrs 1)hnsc v(>locit,yc8 a r e n o t t h o only otles l r nro

I I I ~ X ~ ~ I I ~ tI~~~ ~ lI) I i ( i ( . ~ t lI;t(:I,or I i .iot~

possiblo wllc~nME, > 1. Tllcrc n r r also rn~llt.il)lcnc~rt,rnl dist,urbances wit.h U , < c, I l , - t a,. Tllrse dist,nrbnnccs (lo not. tlcpond on t h e boundary layer having a gc.nrrnlizc-tl inllrxiorr point,. I~urt.llrrmorc,t#llcre nre always adjacent amplified tlist,rlrl,:~nrrs f t It(. .vn~rte o t?/pr il~ith, plrass 11e1ocitie.s < I/,. Co~tacquentl?/, co~rr.prossil)le c, the Ooi~?tdnr?/ /fl?/rr i s isnslable lo frictioltlsss dislicrba~~ces rrgardloss of any other f ~ a t u r e n o/ tlrc i~rloci/?/ rrlrtl Irl,rg~cr(rlrtrrprofi1r.v (1,s lonq n.v th,rre i n a rrfliola v!ltrre M2 > 1.

<

of 1i1.nL-I L I I ~ e c o n d - ~ i ~ diut,urbu o~I~ nrlccn nu givcn I>y frict,ionl~ns t.l~cory for nrliril,itt.ic Hal.-ltlntc 1)onntlnry1;ryera. nft,cr I,. hI. M:~clc
[I531

A litnit,ing fn.rt,or in t,he amplifim.tion of first,-motln tlisturbnnccs is t.hnt c, rnrls' lir I~c:t.\vc~rn n.11tlr,. Any l.lling t,llnb incrcnsrs t,llc diffcrrnoo cr -co nlso incrc-asps t.hc ro nml>lilic:nt,ion f:l.c:Iol. /?,. As shown Iiy Iqig. 17.24, t,llis tlifkroncc ciin 1)e cl11it.c stnnll. T h o co~lst.rn.int itnposrtl I)y co, which tlnlilrc c, is rrnrclnkcl to t h e boundary-layer profile, call only 1)o rrnlovctl 11y consirlering n moro general fornl of disturbancc t h a n h a s I)crri rtsrtl rtp 1.0 t.llis point,. With ill(.r, ?I, 1 ) = /(?I) z,
(%XI)

l i (a x -1- y z - b t)]

I,. I,c$c.s n.t~cl(l.(!. I , ~ I I ( 1221 r ~ l c ~ ( - cv c ~ l c ~ l ~ r , l I\ t I i c . < t ~ . ) r 01'\ . ~ H I ~ I~ I I H ~ . I I I . ~:, ) II III ~( .I ~ > S l , l I ~N ~ I~ t h c snrnc*grlicrnl Iincs : ~ s i~~comprcssiI)lc t,llc nsytlll~tol.ic t11ror.y ~)~.c*srt~t,otl it1 (:llnl)t.cr XVI. This tlreory was lat,cr cxt,endcd h y I,. Lccs [12:)], 1). W. T)ttnn aird C.C. Tin 1431, 1,. I,CCR ant1 IC. Itcsl~ot,ko [142]. IIowevcr, whcn i t b c c : ~ n ~ c possil,lc t o obtain t h e c!igrrlvalucs of t l ~ comprcssiblc stabilit,y cclr~;cI,ions e wiLh great, aocurncy o n a cligitnl computer, a s was done first b y W. 13. Brown [I41 ant1 tlrcn by I>. M. Mack [151], it was found t h a t t h e nsyrnpt.~,t.ict,hcory is only virlitl "1' t,o sliglttly st~l~t.l.sot~ia hI:rc.I~ 1111111l,rrs. Ipor this rr:lsoti, only t.lrosc r c s u l t ~ which Iln\~c 1~cc.11 ol)t:li~lc*tl ntr~t~c~~.ic-n.1 Iry int.c.gt,a.t.iotl of tile rotnplctc viscous st.al)ilit.y rt1nnl.ions \\.ill I)c ~rlcwt.ionrtl11r1.r. As t,Ilc Mach n u m h c r incrcsscs, tllrrc Mac11 111tn1I)cr. ~.rgionswit,]) tliflb~.cbnt. l l i st.nbili1.y cl~n.mrt,crist~ics bc tlist,ingr~isllc~tl t,Irr :~tli:~t)nt,ic can for fln1.-l,lntc I ~ o l ~ n t I : ~ r ~ Iayrrs. In Vig. 17.2fi th(: rat.io (/I,) ,,,,. r/(/?l)l,,,,z,,, :I(. R - 11, . I . / I ~ , , =.- 2.25 Y 100, : ~ h ( ~ (/?r)nlnl,rnr -= 0.00432 7lm/rS1 is ~ . I I ( *:~~nl)liIir:it h(.t.ot. :if. tht- S : I I I I ( ~ l<,,.yt101(1~ rc ion n u m b e r for incompressil)lc flow, is givcn a s a fi~nct.ion M for two- ant1 t8hrce:tlirncnof , sional tlistnrbnnccs. I n t h e first rogion, u p t.o nl)out M = 2.5, ollly first,-~notlc , tlistfurt~nnccs r c of import.:~ncc. T h o m n x i ~ n u l natnplilicnliotl fact.or of t\\,o-clin~ena sional dist,nrbnnccs deorcases sharply, b u t for M > I , three-tli~ncnsionnldisLrrr, batlees a r c t8hc most unstable. I n t h e sccond region, from M = 2.5 t o 5.0, t h e in, creasing frictior~less instability shown in Pig. 17.25 begins t o rnake i t s influence felt at lower Reynolds trumbers.

in 1)l:tc:c. ol'c~111. 6. I%),t.llr wnvr t l o r ~ n a is inclinatl at, tJlc :~nglo = t a n 1 ( y l n ) t o t h e (1 l ty T-tlircc:t,ion. It. Ilrls Ijocn shown by C . C . 1,in 11441 t,hat if t h e coordinnt,c syst,crn is rot.atcd a l ~ o u \.\lo y-axis rltit,iI 1 . h :I.-axis is coinciclent with t.he wave normal, t h e n t h o t ~ t,l~rrc.-rlitnrnsionxlt'rict,ionlrss cqrlnt,iolts nra itlrnt,irnl t,o 1 . h ~ two-tlirncnsional eqrtat,ions (c-xcapt fi)r a n ntlclit.iont~l~nolncrlt,urn cclnat,ion in 1.hc new z-rlirectiotl \rllich is rlnconl~letlfrorn t,hc ot.hrr eclnat,ions). 'I'llerrforc, t h e precedit~gcon~itlcrnt~ionsr c a still vi~litlfor n t,llrc~r-tli~r~c~~~sio~rd tlist.n1.l)nncc, b r ~ t\vit,ll tire governing Mach n u m b e r , ~ ly, M , M, cos instcntl of Ma. C o ~ ~ s c c ~ l ~ t *trh et ,phnsc velocity of a three-dimenI / & , , ant1 cn decrrasrs a s increases. sionnl nc~lt,rn.l sonic tlis1.11rIrnnce cn/lJm -- 1 is

-;

..

As n rcsult of c, - co increasing u.it,ll {I t.llo ~ n a x i r r l r ~ nmpliBcnt,ion fnot,or o f tn t~l1rre-cli~nct1siot1nl r s t , - ~ ~ ~ o ~ l r fi clistr~rl~a.noo Inrgc:r t h a n for a t,wo-clirnc>r~siol~n.l is tiisl.lll~l):~.nc.c~, sllown in Fig. 17.25. In I his rigurt*, t,l~(!~~laxitntlrlli ~ ~ l r t l s i o ~ t~tliplirls is (l ll~ss fica.t.iotr f:ccI,or (6,dl/llm),l,nz, whcrc tllo rnn.xirnnrn is ivit.11 rcspcc:t, t o n for t,wo-dinlcnsionnl clist.nrl,:tnc:rs ant1 wit(l1 rcspcct. t,o t)ot,h n. a n d 17, for t . l l r c r - t ~ i n ~ o ~ ~ s idiaturllonnl nnc,vs, is plottcvl :LS n f'nnot,ion o f U for t.ho fanlily of n.tlial,:~t,ict)ountlnry Inycrn. , r l h r ~.t.snlt.sfor sccontl-trlotlc two-tlirnrnsionnI tli&t~trlrl)nnc:rs r c also shown in Fig. a 17.25. In cont,rnst, tto ttho first rnodc, t.llc: mosts unst,n.l)lr secctntl-mod(: dist,urbnnccs a r e t,n,o-c.lirncnsiotiaI. 'I'hc sccontl mode dcpc:ntls only o n t,l~o cxt.c:nt in t h e y-tlirrction of t.l~c? sul~rrsol-~ic: rc~lnt.ivcflon. rrgion n.s l l r l c r n ~ i n r t l11y c, nnd t.hr Mnrh rlr~tnl)c-r Mm. I his r(xgi(>nIIXR if.s lnnxinlnm c-xt,rnt for :I t.\vo-tlitnr~~sionnli s t ~ ~ r l ~ n n c : ~ . tl

Fig. 17. 26. I':fli%ct, hf:ic.l~ nr~tnl~or of on ~ ~ i i t x i ~ i an~l~lificntion ~r~tn f:ic:t,or of first,. and nenontl-tnotlr r1int.11rbanam n8 givrn 11y vineon8 t,lirory for ncli:tl~~~.l,it; flat-pl:itc I>o~~rirlary Ia.yrrn, afts.r 1,. M. hlnck 1 IT,:)]
R - - II,.r/v, - : 25 x 10' ! ;",".r - ),,',"I ll,,~l,~I~l" ~ ~ ~ ,,,,:,",~~l 5"
, I V f ~

~ I I I U I ~It) ~

620

KVII. Origin of tr~rbrlloncel i

c:.

IClli-cl,s drto to hen t,rnnsfcr nncl co~nprrssil~ilify

52 1

l l y M - - 3.5, the maxirnntn atnplificat,ion factmr of bot,l~t,llrec- a n d bwo-dimen, siotlnl d i x t ~ n r l ~ n t ~occrtrs at. R = oo. It, is in this second rrgion, whcrc t h e inst,abilit.y ccs nssrtmc:s a n c:sscnt.ially fri(:t,iotllcss ~ i i ~ t . ~ l1,lln.t.nn unst,al)lc bantl of frcclttrncics assoi.(~, ciakcd with thc sccot~tl motlc first appears for R < 2.26 x 100. 111t h e t h i r d region, M - 5, t , l ~ c , : . n~nplilic~rt,ior~ fart.ors tlrwcasc: st.r;~dily pt.oporl.ion to tPllcincrease in in (TI sllowrl i l l I'ig. 17.24. I'or t,lle low snpctl flow of a gas, wc llnvc all.catJy disrllsscd t.hc tlcst,abilizing cffcct, of ,z hcatrtl wall a t ~ t tltc stabilizing effect of a cooled wall. Lccs 1123, I241 call cl~lat.etl i n ~ i l nrlrrcts for cornprcssihlc air I)ol~ntlary s r Inycrs, a n d , in ad(lit,ion, prrdictctl t-he possibilit,y of colnplct,cly st.ahilizing sn1)crsonic bo~lntlarylayers h y cooling. Alt,llo~~glr pretlict.ion anti s~lbscclnentcalcnlntions tllc cooling require(1for complete t,his of st,al~ili~n.t.iot~ iilot~rn[ I I I n l ~ t lE. 12. van 1)ricst [32, 331 were bascd o n tile asympby M. tot.ic t,l~eory t.wo-ditncnsiond d i s t , ~ ~ r l ) a n c e sd toolr no account of tire higher modes, of an tJ~c rnorc rrccxlt, ooml)nt.el calcnIat,ions llavc verified t,l~a.t, suffioient cooling will indeed ~ o m p l r t , ~st,al~ilizc, nrn.rly so, bot,l~two- ant1 t,lircc-dimcllsiond first.-tnotlc tlisly or t,ttrl):ctlc~rs v r r n \vitlc: hlnc:l~ nnt11l)er rnllgc: I'iq 17.27 shows, from t,llc: ft.ic:l.ionlrss o t l ~ r o r y t.llc rat.io of (/Ir),,,, t.o it.s vallro f o ~1.11~ , . adiabnt,ic wa.ll, (/?t),nnz,ad s n ftlnetion a of 7',,./7',a, t . 1 1 ~t,nt,io of t , l ~ c wall teml)cmt,tlrc t,o t11e ndiabat,ir, wall t,ctnpcrat,urc. T h e st,nbilix:it.ion of t,l~rrc-dirnc~nsional first.-motlo d i s t n r l ~ a n c e sis clearly seen, with t1hc st.nt~iliznt,ion tlccrcasing wit11 increasing Mac11 nrrmber for tJlc s a m e t,ernperat,ure ratio. On t,llc cont.rn.ry, sccontl-tnodc dist,urbnncrs, far from bcing st.abilizctl by coolil~g, a r c tlc-st,abilizrtl, T h e rrnson for t,l~is tlin'cr,ent, t~ehnviour is, once again, t,llat t h e gt:t~eralizcdinllcsion ~)oint,, l ~ i c l ~st,rongly ir~flncnectl cooling, h a s n o irnport,ancc w is by f i ~ r ~lnst,nl)lo t.hc Iligl~rrmotlcs. 'J'llc irnportntlt, clltanl,it3y,t . 1 ext,rnt of t h e supersonic ~ 1.c-lal.ivc-flow rogior~,is lil,t.lr il~llucncetlI)y c:ooling. Si1nil:rr rrslrlt,s t,o (,l~osc showlt in I'ig. 17.27 n.rc ol)t.n.inctl from t.lte viscous t.hcory, exc.cl't, t.I~ntfor M > :I Irss cooling is roclrlirrcl for st,abili-l.;~t.ion a n y 1init.c 1Xcy, a(, noitls nntnl~cbrt.l~nnis g i v c r ~by t.11~ frict.ionlt,ss t,l~cory.In t.llis corlrlcxion sec also p a l ~ *113' I<. Itc~slrot,l~o r [3941)].
E ~ ~ r r i l l ~ e ~ ~ t n l ' r l ~ c first cxpcrilrlent t o dernonst.rntc t.he existence of results: 1anlinn.r inst.al)ilily waves in supersonic flow was ~~crforrnccl J . 1,anfcr ant1 T. by VrcJ~alovich[IR!)I. A Int.cr t?xperitncnt, b y , J . M . ICcndall [114] went f'urtl~erant1 provitlctl n, clr~ant.itut,ivcverification of sul~t.rsorlicst,abilit,y tl1co1.y a t Mm= 4.6. T h e sltc-ac~ss . j . M. I<cntlnll's cxl~c!rin~cnt of drrivrtl in part, frolrl t.11~ opcrilt,ion of I ~ i s wind t.ur~ncsl\vit.l~Inlnill:~r borlntlary layers on t . 1 1 ~walls. 'rhe ahsencc of t h e ~ ~ s r l n l large nc:olls(.ic:c l i s t . ~ ~ r l ) n ~t.llnt.~ s ~ c . t origin;rt,c: fro111s~ll~rrsonic. t.rlrbrllcnt, bountlary 1ayct.s n ~ a t l c 11ossi1)lt: il~c~~,c:lsc*tl n.c:c:rrrncy i t 1 t.hc rnrasrlt~cl~lrnt t h e g r o w t l ~ stnnll art.ificial disof of 1ltrb;tnrc.s I)~~o(l~trc-tl glow ( l i s c l ~ ~ r I)rt.wrrn c:Ic~t,r~(Ics Oy n gc cnlbctl~lcclin the sllrfacc o f (,II(\ Ilnl, I)l:~t,t: i~11c1 sIcc:wcd a l nn : ~ n g l c@ t o t h e z-dircctiot~. compnrisotl of t,llcoA rt:t,ica.l ;~.tltl c~xl)c~t.itnc,llt~:tI nmplificat.ion fact.ors is givcrl in 1Fig. 17.28, where t,he ordi~~n.t.c: I I I ~ is clir~lcr~sior~lt~ss sl)nt.inl nmplilic~nt,ion factor rrhc spatial nmplificatio11 f;~t:t.c,ris r.eIn(t:(I t.0 t.l~(: r m s arnplitrrtlo A of a n y oscillating flow variable b y

Fig. 17. 17. 1Sfli.ct ofn-:11l c,oolil~g I I O

11111111

111;1xi.

:~~~~plific:itiol~ of first- 1111cI ftrc'lor srco~~tl-111oclr tlistr~rl~n~~c~rs n n give11 I)y fri(.Iio~~lrss tl~rory for Il:il.l~lntcI~out~clnry 1:tyc.r~

t h e theorct-icalat car1 be obtrairled from witellnr = - Pi/(a/Ir/aa), w l ~ c r c (7/1,/Ra is t,llc group velocity, a s was originally done b y %I. Schlichtil~g[222] (sce also M. Glust,cr [7H]), it is noanmore cc~nkenicr~t. ralculatc to tlircctly by Ic.t.t.ing tllc* \\.nv(. n ~ t ~ l ~ l ) c . ~ . s a and y in ecln. (17.18) bc conl1)lcx nnrnl~ersnntl tllc fl.rcllrtvlcy P it 1 ~ n I ~ I I ~ I I I ) ( ~ I . . 1

Pi

*,

Wo nrr a l ~ l c o turn now t o n consitlrrntion c~ft,Ilc trl1i.c.t.s of h1;1c.11 r111n111c~c t nl~cl c:ooling on t,hr t.rnnsition 12rynoltls nrtml~c:r xrro Ill.c.ssrtrr gr;ttlic.r~tI)o~~tlcl:r~.~vI . s of I;I~(~

I'ip. 17. 28. ( : O I I I J I : I ~ ~ S ~ I Iof c:~l)rri~nent,nl nnrl tlrcsoretic~tl spntinl nnlplilic.ntion fnctorn for Lllo :itlinl~~~l.ic Ilnt-])lnt.o I)oulldnry lnycr at. M, = 4.5, 11, r/lg, 2.4 x 100. ICxpcri~l~ent.nl cintnobLairlct1 fro111l~ot-wirc nnelnonrcter \vit,l~dist,nrbn~~ces producctl artificially by glow-discl~nrge dovice skcwrd n t nn nllglr ij cq11n.lt,o t,l~corrt.icnl

If a. 11ot-wirt: nt,t~molnc~tlf,c~r follo\\~s, l ~ pc:;~lc rnrs clist,rlrbancc nnlplit,lltlc clownst,roa.nl, t r

(.I, L 1 c x I 1 ~ ~ t i t 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1h1l . l < ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 Il l:, tl jI l . .I. ~

t 11,. Ic~~;~l~it.lrrrtic tlrrivn.t~ivc: oft.l~c, sigrlnl arnl~lil.tltlt? n 11c int.tarpl~ct,ctl s --a(. I\lt.horlgh ra a

III~'IIIS. &l:tc.k I,. &I. Il5:IJ

on t.11~ bnsis of t.11~ tl~corct,ical rcs~rlt~s prcscnt.ctl. An import,ant point to keep in just, a mind is t.hnt. alt,l~ongh I~onndarylayer has definite itist,abilit,y properties, its transition Jtcynoltls nrrtn1)cr dnpcnds not only on t,llcse propertics hut also on tllc t.ypc nnd int.c?nsity of the tlist,url)nt~ces prcscr~t t.hc How. 'l'lio only facility in wllicll it is conin vcnicnt, to st,lttlg ntliab:~t.ic:1)oilntlary Inyrrs is {,he s~~personic: wind t,unncl which has its own sl)c:cin.l tlist,itrl)nncc rnvironmcnt. I3t:low M : 3, t,ransitiotr rncasnrcmot~ts , = difli:r witicly for tlillrcnt, tunnels. Il'or M > 3, I~ot,l~ 1,nrtfcr 11351 ant1 1C.R. van , .J. S)rit!st nntl ,J. (:. I$ois1)11 1341 have sl~owtt t,llat t,url)r~lcnce from the supply scct,ion docs not all'cct t.rn,tisit,iorl in t,l~o t,rsl, scc!l.ion. Infitcad, I,hc primary tlist.urbnrlce sollrcc rc~sl)onsil~lc! t.t~:i.~~siI~iot~ :~t:ot~sl,it: ~ ( l i ~ i . l , i o ~ ~ l,t~rl)rtl(:tlt,) o ~ t ~ ~ t l : ~ . r y lijt i~ t.Itt: r~ rrotn !.It(: I Inyt:rs oil t,lte tutlnctl wn.lls. III atltlit,iot~ t,lle rll'c~t:l, trnnsilion tncasurctnerlt.~ tlill'ercncc:~ t,o on of in t,llc dist,urbaric:c cnvit.o~ltnrnt-, t.llcrc? is also t,hc prol)lcrn of defining nntl tncasuring t h e tlransit.iot~ Itcynoltls nnmhcr in n consist,cnt mnnncr. An instruct.ive comparison of five dilrcrrnt rnot.hods of measuring trn.nsit,ion has been given by .J. 1,. Pot,tcr and J. 1). Wl~it,fielcl [172]. 'Ute mot,llod of stni~lldist.urbanccs can properly bc applictl only t o t.11~ calc~ilat.ion n start.-of-t.rnnsition ltcynoltls number. of r Lhc nnlnrrwts wind-tunnrl t.ransit.ion dn,t,a for Mm > 3 accunl~~lat~ctl S. It. hy I'at,r :~ncIC. . J . Sclinclc:r (I831 fi)r fiat plnt,es ant1 by S. R. I'atc 11811 for cones, formed bllc I,n.sis of t,i~cir corrclat.ions bascd solely on parameters of t,hc a c ~ u s t ~ radiat,iotl. ic 'I'hosc data, togct.hcr wit.11 measrlrcnlant,~nt & < 3 by J. T,nufcr and J. R. Martc 11381 on (*ones,I,y I). (:alas 1241 on n fiat plat.(!, a single observation a t M = 1.6 I)y m ,T. M. I<cntlnll of laminar Ilow on n flat. l)lnt,cn,l, R = 4.3 x 105 in tile same tunnel usetl by I). (:olcs, anti tnonsnrc?n~cnts cot1c.s in t,t.ansotlic tunncls by N . S. I)oughcrt,y and on 1'. W. St.cirllc [4!)], srtggcst, t,llc fi)llowing pnt,t,crn for the Mach num1)t:r dependence of tlrc ttrnrlsit.ionReynolds number in a good wind t.unncl: An init.ial irlcrc,we for Mm > 1 wit,h a ~)ealr, ~ c r l l arnt.llcr broad, 1)c:twccn Mm = 1.5 and 2.0, follow~(1by a ~ ~)s st.nrI.ing sonlc\vl~crc I)rLu~:rrlMoo = 3 an(\ 5 , a monotonic increase decline, anti t,I~t:n, wl~icllcont,ir~ucs at. least, Mm = 16 arcortling t,o n ~ e a s l ~ r o n e nin a hclir~mtunnel t.o ts [157j. It is of part.iculnr int,crcst f.llaC t l ~ c s ct,llrec Mach numl,cr regions corrcsl)ontl roltgllly t o t.11~t.llrrc rrgions tlisa~~ssctl prrviorrsly in conncxion with Fig. 17.27. A more tlirnct cont~cxion wit.11 st.ni~i1it.y t,hnory was rnntle by ., M. Mack 11541 by rncans I. of on of a sirnl~lifiedcn.lculn.t~iotl t,lrc st.nrt of trn~lsit~ion a flat plate based solely on a crit,ionl amplit.utlo A , o f t.hc most, amplifiatl single-frequency distnrbitnce, a s given by ec(r1. ( I 7.18 a ) . 'Slllc rcsrilt.~ t,llis celcr~lnt~ion of along with some experirnelltal fiat,-plate d:~t.n124, 451 nrc: shown in l'ig. 17.29. \Yit.h A(l the value of A a t the nnufrnl-st3al)ilit,y point,, Llrc r ~ l ) l )curve r c s u l t ~ t~ from nssrttning t.h:~t. is intlc1)cndcnt of Mac11 nl~ml)cr, A. antl tstle lower curvc rcs11It~ from ,wsulning A. a M& for M > 1.3. It is the lower , curve which corresponds t,o t.m.nsit,ion in a wind tunnel, where J . Laufar 11361 IIRS clc.t.cbrrninrtl t,l~nt froin M -- 1.6 t,o 5.0 t.11~ , frcc-s0rrnm rms tlis1,rtrl)nnca arnplitr~dc vnrivs rssrn1,inlly a s M 'l'llc gc:nc,rnl sitt~iln.t.it,y t,l~is ., : of curve h t,hc tnensurctncnt~s fttllg s u l q ~ o r k viaw t.ha.1,t,rn.t\sit.ionin s ~ ~ ~ ) e r s o n i c t.hc bot~ntlary layers rosnlLs from the nlnl~lilirn.tionof ~ ~ n r t i c l ~ l a r tlistlurl)ancrs in acyordance with the rnetOlod of small flow tlist.ttrl~:i.r~cc:s.
7

Fig. 17. 2!). Co~r~pnrino~~ cllkct of M:i(:l~ o f t.hc nltnll~cr cxprri~ner~tal on start-of-trnt~sitio~~ ILey~loltls11ut111)rrs n(linhnt,ic Rnt-lllnt,o I)ountlnry . of. Inycra n,itlt c:nl~:~tlrrt.iortr II:LRCII OII t.tvc> r l i l j b r ( ~ ~ t t , n1111)lil rrilcrin. (I). (:~II.H 1211, 11.. 15. I)CCIII I I I I ~ I IIIIO .J. 8 . hlttrpl~y l4.51, I,. hl. h1nc:Ic 11.541)

L
3

M. ..

Pig. 17. 30. (In~l~pnrisn~~~ c or t l oxpori~~~rtlt.:il c,ffec:t of unit lL?,yt~oldn~ I I I I I ~ Jon 1,110 stnrt-ofI C~ trntmition IXrynolrls 1111rn1)er a n ndinl~ntic of flat 1)l:lte 1vit.li n t,llrorel.ical rnlrtrlnt.inn hnnetl oil stability t,l~eory nrrd tl~e nlensured pro1)crtics of free-skren~nrlisturbnnces; tt~e.zsrrrrt~ter~ts: I). Coles [24]; cnlc~tletions: M. Mnck [ISli] 1,.
- rnlv~~lnlc~l
~I~PIISII~!~~. Me

I
1.51 ,

2.57 A 3.70 0 4.64

0 1 07

OR'

40 .

6.0 8 0 1 . 0 '

15 20 .

30 .

u,, [cm 'I ,

111 a11 rxpcrirr~t~~it,n~l invr-sl,i#nt.ion of 1.hr ctni.t:t, otl t,ransit,ion of a flow p a r a n ~ c t ~ c r sltnli ns M:lc:lt nlrrt~\)cl., is nccbcssary1.0 Itcol) t,Ilc unit Itcynol(ls number U,/v, conit. st.ntlt,, n.s wit,lr I . I I ~ - t~~c~:~srtrc'~llrt~t.s 1Cig. 17.2!). 'I'llc clcl~rndence thc tm.nsit,ion gi\+t>n in of lbc~.noltls n111n1,t.ron rtnil. I<t.ynoltls t ~ ~ ~ n r l ~ I)(Y:IIr nol,c-tl in vn.riorls 1,yl)esof wind llns t ~ t,l~nnclsl)y scvrr.nl ir~vc~sl.ip~.l,ors 185, 1951 as well as in b:~llist.icranges [181]. (12,

St,abilit.y t<heory onitrs a n explnnat,iotl of t l ~ i serect. in ttllosc ir~st.nnccswhc-ro some has gross tlratisit,ion pnramct.er such a s rorlgllness or leading-ctlgo blr~nt,rlcss not boc~tl overlooltctl. As tliscl~ssctlI ) j r E. Rcsllotlro [1!)4], thc bol~ntiarylayer firqrtrncy rcsponsc antl t.1lr spect,rnrn of' t,l~c flow tlist~ri~.l)ar~rcs rclal;ivo t,o on(: arlot.l~ci. f.lrc sltift n.s unit Reynolds number changes. Bccausc of this sllift., tlln init.ial nml!lit.rttlrs of t.lrc intlivitl~~nl frccluent-y cotnl)onr~lt,s t.110 tlixl.~~rl)r~nc:c! t , l ~ rI ) O I I I I ~ I I I . I ~ ~ of in 1:1~.('1. I I I ~ I S I , eltango ant1 so, t,oo, must 1.11t: tl.nrlsil,ion Itrynol(ls nutnl,ot.. A c:nl(:lrlnt.iol~ I,.M. I)y Maclc [I561 of t.11~ unit Itcynolds clTcct on t,lle start.-of-t,t,a~~si(.ion Itryt~oltlsnrttnl)t~r a t three Mach numbcrs, the results o l \vllicl~arc coml~arrtlin Fig. 17.3i) with t,llr mea~urernent~s J). Coles [24], intlicat,es t,hn.t,I,llis cxl~lnllat.ion cor~,cct a. stnoot,l~ of is for flat, plat,e. The Iat,tcr c:l.lculnt,ion was Inorc rmlist,ic. t,l~ntl orlc Irntling t.o I'ig. 1'7.20 1.111: becnusr it. t,oolc int,o n.crorinl. t.llc power spect.rr~ln t.llr kc,(:-st.rc,n~ntlist,~lrl):~ncc>s of ns mcnsuretl I)y J . J,aufcr [I 371, nntl also t,llc influence of.lrnit. Itt~ynoltls ~ l r ~ ~ l on %,rl ~ c n )c t int,ctisit.y of t.11~ f't.c~c--st.vrnm tlist8l~rl)nncrs. 'I'hc init-in.]tli~f.~rrl,:tt~c.t~ t . l11111t1~1:tr.y it1 0 1 l n j ~ wc.t.c: IISSIIIII~YI ~ ) t . o ~ ) o ~ . t .t.0 t ~ ~ ~ Il. ~ ~ ~ , - s ~ . I . ~ ~ :~I I~I s I . ~ ~ I ~ I ) : I I I ~ ~ s . t~ i o t.llt- ~ ~ I

f. St.ability of a boundary layer in the presence of thrco-dimcnsional disturbancra

525

'I'llc tlrst,al)ilizing c:ITc,ct of hm.t,itig on t.ransit,ion was confirrncd for 8. flat plate at. M , 2.4 I)y I t . M!. I l iggills alitl (:.(!. I'a1,pas 191 1 and for a I)ody of rcvolutiori nt M , 1.6 11). I<. it. (!zn.rncclri anti A . I<,. S~nclair 1251. 'l'hc Iat,tcr cxpcrimcnt also showctl t . l ~~n.c.tlic:tc,tlst,;l.l)ilizingt,flc(;l. of'cooling, as did tile cxperimcnt of J . I t . Jaclr t~ atrtl Pi.S. 1)i:rc.onis (1001 o n f.\r.o botlirs of ~ . c ~ o l u I i o n M =. 3.12. Of t.lie nnmcrons at , Iligllt, c.xl)c.l.i~ilc.nts \vit.ll coolctl 1)trrlntlnry Inycrs in wliirl~ 1alninn.r flow lias \ ~ e c n ol)sc~r\.c.tl I1ig11Irl~gt~ll :it Itrynoltls ~ r ~ l r n l ) t ~ t ~ tnay ci0c t,l~c: wc s , cxpc:rirncnt of' ,J. StcrnI)c-l.g[215] 011 n (:on? at. Me -- 2.7, whrrc: M, is tell(:Mac:lt nnml)cr nt t.hc edgc of t.llc 1)orrntl;iry Inyc.1.. 'l'llc, s11r1':rc.r t,c~npcv.;~t.rll.c 1list.ory tlclinit,cly sllowctl I,llc prcscnco of Innlinnr Ilo\r. a t R =- 4 0 x 10hvit.l1 =- 0.61, as coniparrtl t.o a wintl-t-rinncl t n c a s ~ ~ r o r l r n t of R = 12 x 10Vor tfllcend of transittion a t t J ~ c [:I41 same Mac11 number wit.li 7',,./7',d 0.65.
7-:

Stetson and G . 11. Rushton [226] on a cone a t Me = 5.5; by N.W. Shcc1.z [223] on highly cooled cbrles in a ballistic range from M = 3 t o ! and 11y G. G. Mot,c:cr 11591 , I ; on concs a t Me = 5.0 and 6.6 in a convcntional wind t,rlrlncl. Tlic origin of t.his phenomenon has not been est~ablishcd, altl~ough somewhat, similar ell'cct.~ ]lave I)eeri obt,ained by adding small rougllness elcmcnt,~ [34]. A cornplicat,ing fact.or is t,lrat thc rcvcrsal does not appear in many expcrimerita which cover a n cqnnlly witlc: r:~ngt:of surface tempcraturc 135, 21, 1561.

'1'11~ rcst~lt~s an i~ivestigat~ion 13. R. van llricst and J. C. Boison [34] on a of by conr a t Me = 1 .!I, 2.7 ant1 3.7 arc shown in Fig. 17.31. Thc increase in the transition Itrynoltls nrllnl)or 1vit.h cooling is clcarly scc:n, as is the reduction of t,hc st,;~bilizat,ion ofloot. wit11 increasing Marl1 nr~rnhcr. 'l'lic Int.t,cr trend cont,inncs to llighcr Mach nutnIjrrs, n.s mn,s sllo\vn by t.hc: srnall stal~ilizat~ion cffcct found on flat platcs a t M = 6.0 , ant1 6.5, res[)cct,ivcly, I)y A . M . Gary (211 and 1). V. Maililalon ( 1561. 'L'l~cse effects of c.oc)lilrg a r r in c:olnl)lc*t,c.ac:rortl \r.it.ll t,llr I~cllavioirrof first,-rnotlc tlist,nrl)ances sllown i l l It'ig. 17.27. Ilo\\,t:vcr, in I\vo cx~~c~ritncnt.sN.S. I)i:r.conis, tJ.lt. .Jaclc atitl It..l. by \\'islli(~\vsl<i 147, 101J, at. M = 3.12, cooling I)cyontl tile rc:gion of st,al~ilizat,iori , shown in Fig. 17.31 rrsnlt.crl in a tlecrrosc r a t - I I ~ I an increase in t l ~ c 1.hali t,ransit,ion Reynolds IIIII~II)(~I..This p l ~ e ~ ~ o n ~ hasobccn rallctl "t.ransit,ion reversal" because it is conen ~i t.r:~ry 1.0 l.l~(' cxl)rct,c(I trc1111. I t 11a.s :~lsoI)r(>11 OI)SCI.VC(I in sI~o(:Ictunnrls by I$. E. Itic:ll:~rtls nnd ,J. 1,. Stoilcry 1195, 1961 011 a flat, at. M = 8.2, and by I(. F. ,

111 tllc hypersonic flow regime, tJlrcc wind-tunr~cl cxprrirncnt,s (45, 58, 221 j a t M = 10, t11c first, oric on a flat platc nntl the othcr two or1 concs, sllowctl alrnost, no , cfh:ct of cooling on t,mnsiCion. When cqn. (17.1811,) inl.rgrat.ctl l i ~ r frcclilc.ncicbs is all For wl~icll second-modc disturbances arc unst.ablc, tllc rcs~llt~ing maxi~nurnn~nplit,r~tlc ratio (A/Ao),,,,, a t a fixcd Reynolds nurnbcr is fround t.o bc almost, intlcpontlc~11t, of ~ ' u l / l 'This. result suggests t h a t transition in llypcrsonic wind tunnels may be a ad conscqucnce of 11nst.nb1csccontl-moclc tlist.~~rbanccs, vicw wl~icllhas cxpt:rirnc-lltn.l a st~j)port~. 1'011,cr ant1 ,I. I). WhiCfic:ltl 1187j worc tJlc lir~l, o ol~sorvcwc:ll-tl(.litlc.~l .1 .I4. t rope-lilcc pcriotlic cl isl,urbar~ccsimrnctlinl.cly prcc:ctl ing 1.1.tl.tlxit.ioni l l 11 11.yl,t.l.so~ric: bounclary layer. Similar observations have siricc been matlc by M.C. lqisclicr aritl 1,. M. Wciast,ein [G4, G ] and A . ~)cmctrinclcs[46]. Many of t,itc fcat.urt:s of thcsc no11-lincar G disturbances, in partPicular a wavelcngt,ll of :~l)ouL2 0 arc rcmarltably close t,o t.hc t,l~corct,icalproporl,ics of unstablc sccontl-tnotlc rlist.url)ancow. lPitrally, J . M. I<endall [I151 measured the spectrum of naturally occr~rring disturbances well bcforc tmnsition in t h e boundary layer of a cooletl cone (T,/7',d = 0.6) a t Me = 7.7. I l c found a D r o ~ i o ~ n c maximum at, a frequency witllin 7 per cent, of t,lic t.licorr.t.ic.n,l ed frrclncncy of t,llc: no st, am~)lilicd socontl-rnotlc dist,~rrl~nncc t.llc c:ol~tl)n.rr~l)lc: wl. IIt~l.-pIt~t.t: Ic11gt.11 Reynolds number (= 113 of the colic I t c y ~ ~ o l d s nurnbcr).
Numerous experiments have been performed o n other nspects of la.ansit,iorl in supersonic and hypersonic boundary layers t o whicll the mct.llod of small dist,urbanccs has not yet been npplicd. An extcnsivc rcvicw of tJlis srlbjcct, IIRS bccn 1)rovitlctl by M.V.Morltovin [IGO]. For coverage of spccific t.ransit,ion nni:ct.s, tllc rcatlcr is reli.rl.cd to t.11~ following groups of references: [13, 172, 2261 on tllc effect of lentling-cclge or of nose bluntness; [48, 117, 159, 224, 2261 on the cffect on a body of rcvolr~t.ior~ an angle of incidence; [23, 45, 102, 1821 on thc effcot of swccp anglc; :mcI 148, 65, 158, 2531 on the effcct of ablation.

f. Stability of a bour~dary layer in the prcser~ceof thrce-dimensional d i s l ~ ~ r b a r ~ c e ~

Fig. 17.31? Expcrinrc:ntnl tmtisilion dn1.a ohtnirrcd on a iOo-coneat. zero angle of incidcncc showing ~tnbilizingcffcct of wall cooling nt three Mnrh nunrhers in a sr~personic wind trinnel, nftm 15. I<. van l)riest, ant1 ,I. C. l3oison [341

I. Flow betwcerl concc~~trie rotating cylinders. I n all rxamplrs tliscr~ssrtl far so the Irasir flow under consideration was two-dimensional anti its sLai)ilitty was invc-l,igated on t l ~ e assumption t h a t t h e disturbancc sl~pcrimposcdon i t was also twodirncnsional Moreover the disturbance was assnmcd t o I)c in the fonn of a pl;~ne wave whir11 progresscd in t h e direction of t h e main flow. As far a s flows :dong :I flat platc are concernetl, this srheme leads t o tho lowcst limit of stability bcrause, a s noticed by H.B. Squire (Sec. XVI b 3), throe-dimensional distrrrbances will always lead t o a higher limit of sLa1~ility.
Wlicn flows along cnrvcd walls arc ronsitlcrctl, i t is foitntl t h a t ;L tliff(~rcnl ltintl of instability must be taken into account. T l ~ c case of flow bctwccn two rot.ating

626

XVII. Origin oI t.11r011lcnco I1

conccnt(ric cylintlcrs of wllicll tthc inner cylinder is in motion ant1 the outer cylinder is a t rest n h r d s nn cxnmplo of an ~inst~nhlo strat,ification caused by centrifr~gal forces. r .Lhc fluid pnrt,ic:lcs ncnr the inncr wall cxl>ericncea l~igtter centrifugal force ant1 show n t.rndency t,o I)rring proprllctl outwnrtls. '1'11~ stabilit,y of this type of Row was first ir~vrst.igat.c-cl I,ortl Itzylcigh I If11 I who nssun~cdt,l~:rtthe lluid wa.s 12.on-viscou..~. I)y I l a forrntl t,llnt tJlc flow I)c:cornrs ~ t r ~ s t ~ ;w11o1Lllc j)eripllcral velocity, I L , tlcorcxsrx ~blo with the: ratlirrs, r , more strongly t,llan 1 IT,t,llaL is, whcn
1

?L ( r ) = ----

const
r

--

\vit,l~ n

>1

(~~nst,nl)lc) .

Tl~e case of n V ~ . ~ C . O I Ifhti(1 urns first, invrst.ignt,ctl in detail by G. I. Tnylor [I401 S who used thc? frnmc\\.ork of n lincnr t.hrory for tollispurpose. When n certain ftcynoltls 11rr1111)cr 11rc.n cxcrrtlrtl, t,llrrc nlrl)csnr in t.hc flow vortices, now lrnown a s Taylor llns vort.icrs, whosr a x r s nrc Iocntcd along tlle c.ircr~rnfrrencc ant1 wl~ichrot,n.t.ein altrrnn(,c-lyopposi(c, clircctior~s.I'igrr~.t- 17.32 cont,nins n schemnt,ic represcntnt,iol~of t,llis ~not,ion whic:l~is clrnract,rrizrd 1)y i l ~ I';act t,l~nt. nnnn111.sLet.\vccn t,he two cylintlcrs r t.11~ vort,ices. 'l'llc contlit,ions for tllc flow t.o 1)ccornc is cornplct.cly fillctl by t,hcsc ring-lilic~ nnsta.l)le can I)o exprcssctl with t.hc nit1 o f &cliarnct.crist.ic nttml~er known ns t.he !Z'a?/lor 71.?1w1.bcr, of t.11~ T,, form

17i~. 17.32. ( a ) Tnylor vorl.ic.rs hct.wrrn t.wo cont.r-rllt.iv ~.\.lin#lc~rs. IIIII(-I. ( . \ ~ l i ~ ~ c I.<)IIII . ~ I I Z . lt~~ olll<rrc.).lit~~lt.r:!I rc~nt: ti - width of :tti1llll:lr g:ll): h tlrigllt o f cyli11rlf.r.rclll. (17.21).

(I)) Corrt.lrr vort,icr~n thc 11o11ndnry i lnyor W.IIII ! I ( ! / ) - hnsc flow d - lronnclxrg Inyrr l l ~ i r k t ~ ~ ~ s ~
011 1 C ~ I I C I L V O 1

I Y ~ V P I V I ~ E I Iof I

didttrttnnrc

of ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ Irtptr~ lqig. l7.:P?,t~ fur 1 1 1 ) ~ I)I)\~IVIM)II vt)~~t.t,~rl,ric IGg. 17,:):). I ~ l ~ o t . o ~ ; r'rttylor~ vt)y\,i~,~\s rolnI.irrg (:yli~~tlvrs. IF. R O ~ I I I ~ ~ Z - ~ ~ I I I 11.~ 1lt:in I%O.II. 11) R - !l,4.5; T,, - - 41.3: I ~ L I I I ~ I I I L ~ . ~~(.tr(!r 111111 I I V , : onnnt, of vort,t:x ior~nnt.iotl; 1)) R 322: 1 - - 141: attill I ~ L I I I ~ I I I L ~o) R --- Hf;X; T,, :tH7: ~ I . i l l I I L I I I ~ I I I L ~ : 11) R . :\!)l;l\; T,, 1715: ~ , I I ~ I ) I I I ~ * I I I >

528

XVII. Origin of turbulence I1

f. Stability of a bo~inclary Iayt:r in Ll~o proscnm of tl~rcc-di~ncnniotlrbl elisl,e~rl):i~i~~c~s 52!)

I I I ( : I I ~ , \vit,I~ ~ i c n s ~ ~ r c t r ~ r ~ ~(::III l)c infcrrotl very clearly from the pictures of sclch t 'I'his l ~ s . 'l':~.ylorvorl,icc,s ol)t:ait~otlI J I?. S c h ~ l t ~ z - ( l r n n o w 11. IIein [204], several of whicll ~ and hnvo I1t:t:n rc,protlnrcti it1 I'ig. 17.333. In their experimental arrangement in which the p i p 11:t.tI l.l~c tlitr~c~~siond . 4 mm, and td~cinner ratlins was R, -- 21 m m , the or = vol.t.ic~r.s :1.1)1)(':1~:(1 ;LI> :L ~)t-ril)l~crnl volorit,y, I / ( , which corrcsponcls to n lboynoltls n ~ ~ t n l ~ v r (Ii( / / v : . !)4.5, lcig. 17,:i:I:~. It, is t~ol~c\vorl,l~y t,l~t:flnw rctn:iitit:tI R : t,l~;~l, lihtniit:ir :I(, I.11t' I I I I I ( : ~ I I~igl~t:r Ibt:y~~oI(IsI I I I I I ) C ~ S of R r---322 (T, --= 141) allel R -:= 8(i8 II (T, =- :1,47), I<'igs.17.3:i IJ, c. 'l'urbulcnt flow ditl not bccomc tlevelopctl until a Rcynoltls rl111nl)crR -= :l!)fiO (T, = 1715) had bcct~mncl~ctl,Pig. 17,:lDtl. It, should I)c sl,rcsscd r n ~ l ~ l ~ n ~ . i r : ~ l l tShc first nppcnmncc of nc~ltralvortic:cs n.t the limit of stnl~ility Ll~nt,y in nocortlnr~ccwit,h cqn. (17.20) and t.hc pcrsistcnce of arnpliIict1 vorticos a t higher Tnylor n u r ~ ~ l ) rtlors not in a n y way imply t h a t t h c flow has bccome tr~rbnlcnt. rs On t.llr contrary, cvcrl if the limit of st,ahility is exceeded by a large margin, t h e flow rcmains wt,Il ortlrrcd nntl Inminnr. Turbulent flow does not bccome developed until 'I'nylor, ant1 t.l~rrcfort:, ltryr~oltlsnumbers vastly cxccctling t.he limit of st.al)ilit,y : ~ r r I,nit~c(l. nl

t h e transfcr of energy from tlie base flow t o t,he sccondnry flow ant1 t.11~ viscous energy dissipation in t>hc secotidary flow. The t,ransfcr of energy f r o n ~t.hc Onsc: flow t,o t h c secondary flow causes a Inrgc incrcnsc in tltn torqrtc r c q ~ ~ i r rt.o rol,:~t,c (l t.l~(: inner cylinder. 7'hc tliagmm in Fig. 17.34 cotit,air~sn compnrisor~l)ct,wret~ I,IIC t.l~rorrt.icn.lly dcrivctl :inti t,hr cxpct.irnt.nt.ally ~iicns~trrcl : ~ l ~ ofr 1,11(, t.orcj~tc, v ~ s roc*f'fir i c t ~ l , , , . '1'11t- 1:1l.tt.r is clt:finc:tl as C

.I. '1'. S l . ~ ~ n r l , 12181 sitc:t:t.rtlccj i t 1 con~putingthe flow pattern of the 11nstal)lc Intl~it~:tr Ilo\r in I.Itt: prcscnrc of 'raylor vortices ant1 with thc non-linear terms in (.llr wl11at.iot1 111o1,ion of' rotnineel. Ilc disrovnretl the sxist,once of equilibrium bctwcctl

111 :rcl(lit.ioi~ t.o l.ltc? t:ttrvt? wltic:l~(:orrt~spotttl~ Irliis lit~t.:t.rt.lt(:oi~.y,:III(I wlli(41 I!-:i.(l~ 1,o lo :L Ior(11tc t;ot:ffit~it:~~l, . - 047/T,, Sor ~ / I I ' , O.OW, I , l t t * ( 1 i 1 1 ~ r ; ~: t nI ~ , ; I ~ I I : +t , l i t : (,'M ( ~I c:ltrvc ~)rovitlc:dIry .J. '1'. St,~~nrt,'s rtotl-lint::~rtl~(:or.yas w(:ll 11sot~t: givt:tt l),y ;L l.I~tbory lor turl)ulcnt flow; t.hc Intber leads t,o tho formltl;~ 1,lial.Cnr T,,-".2. 111 all, \vt: m:ly t1isc:crn t,hrcc rcgirncs of Ilow, cncl~circ:umscril)c:tl I)y l.ht: 'l':~ylor r ~ ~ ~ t n l tin r t.lto t: li)llowit~gway:

41.3

T, < 41.3: < T, < 400 : T, > 400 :

laminar Coucttc flow, lntninar llow wit11 'I'nylor vorl,ic:os, lurl~tllor~t Ilow.

Agrccmcnt bctwccn theory and cxl)c.rimrr~tis cxrcllrt~tin the first I.wo rangost. An extension of Taylor's theory can bc fount1 in a stutly 1)y I i . Iiircl~garssner[IOG]. A detailed experimental investigatioi~of Couettc fio\r, particularly in transition, was carrird o u t in 1965 by 1) Colcs [291

E k c t of an axinl velocity: The preceding stability calculations have been eatended by I-I. Ludwieg [I 32, 1331 t o includc the case whrn the two ryl~r~tlct s arc also axially displaced with respect t o each other. Let u ( r ) denote the tangential denotc t h e axial velocity. If we now introduce the dimensionless velocity, a n d let ~ ( r ) velocity gradients r dzl r dw u=-a n d G=--, u dr u dr

form wc can writc t h e staljility criterion for n non-viscous fl~tidirt t,l~c

liig. 17.34. I'lonf hot\rsc:cnt.wo conornt,ricrylir~tlrr.q: torqno cocflicicnt for inner cylit~dcr t,rrms in of t.hr 'I'nglor t~ntnl)cr, T,,. Inr~c:rc.ylit~clc.r rnt.atnw,oi~tcr nylinclrr at rest,. Ilol:rlivo gap .size: d / J l r -.- 0.028 ~ I ~ : : L Y I ~ ~ c I (In(:~ I I ~G. I. 'l'aylor 12411. II( -~ I.inv:ir I.l~c*c~r.y n i ~cqn. (17.22). Non-linear thnory due t,o .J. T. Str~art frr [.2IRJ

l'lic cxperirner~tnl msulkq displnycd in Fig. 17.34 dernonstrntc furtl~orthat an increase in the Taylor nomber, that is, that an increase in tho ltoynolrls ntimber a t a constant value of d/.R,, cansen n trflnnition fron~cellular to tnrhlrlcnt flow. R'hcn thcr flnw is tc~rl)rtlct~t ,> 400), ( 1 wo ltavc CM Td-0.2. and I~cr~cc, constnnt d / R t a l ~ o nt (YM w ( ( I , d l v ) - o . Z R (1 2. 'l'llc sartlo ~(:RIIIL wa.9 discov(:red IIY { I . It~i~:I~nrtlI, i n (:l~np.XI X ) WII(:II 110 ~t.n(li(:(I I.II(I I:ILH(: o r I ~ I I I : : ~ ~ ((201 Couette flow between flat parallol walls. I t is romarknblc t,lint l l ~ c same depen(lcnce of the torq~te coefficient on Iteynolds number exists for a disk rotating in a llrrid at rcst, eqn. (21.36).

630

XVII. 0rigi11ot t.~~rhr~lrncc Jl

1. S1.nltilit.y of n I,oc~~lrlnry lnyrr in b l ~ nprrurncc 01 t . l ~ r r ~ - t l i ~ ~ ~ r r ~ s i o t ~ n l (li~t.t~rI>:~~~rt~u 53 1

(8)

la1111nnrflow
11.3

(11) laiilll~nrIlo\v \vIlh 'l'nglor rrrl-ticrrr (c) I I I I I I I ~ I ~ . I I 110w wIl11 V O ~ I I ~ . P R I ( d ) t t ~ r b l ~ l flow t e~~

200

LO O
~iyt~rn~tnt+,:

600

This inequality cont,nins Rayleigh's criterion from eqn. (17.19) a s a special case ant1 r c s ~ ~ l t . s wherl 7o = 0 is n s ~ n m c d here; we then find t h a t 1 5 > 0. The stability calnnlntioti which led t o eqn. (17.23) took into account disturbances which were axially symmetric; the In.t,ter turned out, t o be the "moat dangerocla" not ~icccssnrily ones nntl dotrcrminct1 (,Ire litnit of st.:~l)ilil.y in~plicd t h c ineqrlnlity (17.23). l'ignro by 17.36 shows a n example of a n unstable flow which contains vortices in the shape of spirals. I f . Llldwieg's tllcory has bccn compared withexpcrirnent.nl resulk [134] in Fig. 17.36. Every bnse flow invcstigated experimentally is represented by a point in t,Ilc I;, 271 plane. The open anti full circles cllaracterize stable and unstable flow, respe~t~ivcly, being riotcd t h a t vortliccs were observed for t h e latter. It is seen it t.11n.t~ T . I,utlwiog's st.:~l)ilil.y crit,criorl from rqn. (17.23) is fully confirmed hy exI l~t~rit~~(~nI,s.

<-:d

I F

Fig. 17.37. R.nngen of In~ninnr nlld l,rrrl)~tlet~t, it1 n11tii1111uI ~ C ~ I Y C ~t\vo concctitric. cyliutlc.r8; flow II inrlrr cylinric~. rotntrs. o11t~:r cylitldrr nt. 1.081, it1 prmRltro of nxi:tl I l o ~ v :plot. i l l t.crr~~n' l ' r ~ ~ l oI rI I ~ I I . of I I,t.rT,, 1111rl IIIIIIII#('). R.,; t l l l ~ l l ~ 1 1 1 . 1 ~ l l l l ' l l 1))' # I . I < I I ~ I $I I I I ~1':. ~ (H 151gt1rI I I!)J 14' = axial velocity
(I.

-1

- 1 1 1

1 - r - - - - l

Tllc flow t,l~rough h e annulus bct,wcen two concentric cylinders, mit,l~ t thc inner cylinder rotnting and the outter cylinder a t rest, on which nn axinl vclocit,y component is superimposcd is of great, practicnl import,nnce. Such flow patterns occur in the hydrodynamic l ~ ~ b r i c a t ~ of n i o journal Ilearing ns well ns in 1 . 1 1 ~ rooling of c$lec.tric air gcnernl.ors. A Itnowlctlgc of I,ltc Ilow l)~tt.(,(:1.11 is rcclr~ii,c*tl 1 . 1 1 c~rlrl~lrtl.io~loI'l . o I . I ~ I I ( * for ~ lit. ~ of the bearing a s well ns of thc cooling cfTcctivencss of t,l~c gcncmbor. 'l'llc cling~.ntn in Fig. 17.37, drawn on the basis of mcasc~rcrnentspcrfortnccl by J. Kayc nntl E.C. Rlgar [I 191, nllows us t o d ~ t ~ e r m i t,hc prevailing flow rcgimc - Iarninnr or f.~~rbrilcnt nr - for nn nnnultrs wit.lr n givcn nxinl sl,rcarn. 'l'llis is tlet.rrrninctl by two cl~nr:~.t:t,cristic nrirnl~crs,l . 1 1 ~ l'itylor 11t1rr1l)c.c. T, tlrfitic*tl in ~ C ~(17.20) nntl by n Ilcyrloltls ti11111I)t'r II. forlnctl with t,hc nxinl vc1ocit.y If' nrltl tlic witlth, (1, of l.llc nnnultis, viz.

E x p e r i n ~ m t o i n t . ~ tllc cxistcnrc of four zones: p to nllnrl)cr \villi T, ( a ) xL low ltryr~oltls

(I)) Tnylor nrtnll)cr in the rnngr 41.3

lnrnrr!rrcl polnls will1 slnl,lr flow olmsttrrcl pnitrls w i l l & I ~ I ~ s I . I I I v llcbw I~~

< 41.3; Innirnnr, st~~c*:ln~lirlcflow; < T, < 300 will1 low t o tnotlr~.ntclic~yr~oltls

numbers R,; laminar flow with n syste~ii Taylor vortices; of

ll,,!,tnI,l#~ fr0,,1 If<#,"

l l ~ .Ii.:l5

((1)

~iiotI(~~.:~l,t~ r i ~ t t t t l TI,~ <~ 150 n.1111 'I':tylor ~t ~ I:~.rgt. < . c ~ y ~ ~t1t1n111t.r.~ I o l ~ l s R, ortlot,ly", t'11lly tlcvc~lol)c.tl ti~rbtilrnl. Ilow.

100; "tIis-

I':,yl,vrit~tr~~t,:ll ~rritiraI.i~rl l,l~c 01 sI:~l,ilil,y t,l~oory flow I,oLlver~lbwo for I . 7 r n l : i , l , i ~ ~ l~ 1 1 1 1w i~ ,rl u ~~ i ~l ~ mxinl t~~oI,ior~ ~ > t ~ r i t i&lI,cr s ~ * ~ l , [l:%4] s~~ i ~ ~ o l,~~dtvicg 11. v~f R - - (.Itl, J ~ , ) 2 ~--- fi50 / ~ ~
14'1111 t3~trv~?: ~ i t , l i ~ ~ ~~f's~:~ltilil.~y, 1 0 t ~ l r (17.23) :tvtwrdit~x ~. S11:1clt~l :trr.:t: c:,yl,rri~~~r?nl.nlly tlrt~rt~~itlrvl i t .01 ~ t ~ ~ b i l i t y lill~

concerlt,ric,

Sphere: 0. Snwn(zlti nntl .I. Zirrc.1) 12:)01 ~)erro~~rnc~tl sitrlilnt i t ~ v c ~ s ( i ~ : ~ tto t ~ s io those tlcpit:(c(l in Pig. 17.34; (,llc>yt~sctl (.WO c:o~~cctltrica sl)llc~rcswill1 #:I(, t.:t(icis

632

XVII. Origin of t~~rbr~lencc 11

f.

Stability of n boundary layor in the prcacncc of three-din~rnsionnl tlisturbnncc.~

533

rl/N1 < 0.2. 'l'llc. o~tt~ctr spllcrc was a t rest, whereas the inner sphere rottat.etl. 'l'lle c11aract.t-r o f the Ilow in ~cleha sp1tcrit:al annulus is also tlct.crn~incdby tho Taylor nurn11c.r fro111rqn. ( 1 7.20) ant1 t,hc Iteynoltls rlurnber formed with the annulus witlt.11, d , and I.hc ~)t:riplt~raIc l o c i t ~ y , t.hat is by ~ (II,

vortices) which arc known a s Taylor-Gocrtlcr ~ o r t ~ i a c s . 'rhay arc of the sarrro Itind a s t h e Taylor vortices fiom Fig. 17.320. The crtlculatiorl of the amplificat,iotl of tllcsc thrrc-dirnensionnl vort.iccs wit11 time bawd on t h e method of small disturl~anccs leads t,o a n cigcnvalue 1)rol)lctn in a manner similar t o t h a t discussed in conriexion wit.h t.wo-tlimensionnl tlistnrbances (Chap. XVI). The influence of viscosity was t,nlren into arconnt in t.hc ir~vcsligat,ior~ under discussion. The first, approximate, solution of U ~ i svcry tlifficnlt cigcr~vnlue prohlern was publishcil in 1940 by 11. Gocrt.lcr (721. I,nt.cr, in 1973, 1'. Svl11111,zGrunow [204a] formrllnt.ccl a tnorc nocnrnt.c: t,hcory in t.hnt, he troolt in1.o :~.c:c:ct~lnt. :ill Lcrrns of first ortlor of s~nc~llrtcss. tlingrri~rlin Fig. 17.:18 c~c,nl.:si~~x r I I I I ~ I I : , I . ~ ~ . I I . ~ 'l'ltc l~ir rcsults. It is seen that, the minimum of lrhc limit, of stnl~ilil.y c c - ~ ~I)c:t.\vt*t.n R, o rs U o fi/v = 4 to 6 when thc rclr~tivccurvat,rtrc in ()/It! := 0.02 1.0 0.10.

111 t.11~ range of validit,y of linrar theory, t h a t is bcforc t,hc appearanoc of Taylor vort,ices of t.11~ lzintl sl~ownin Wig. 17.32, tile torque not.ing on t,he inner sphere is

S ~ , ~ C I L Iinvolving ~S

with

rlenoting t.11~ torque, ant1 R r the inner radius.

Whereas in t.hc 11rcrcxlingt:asc wit.11 rot,at>ingconccnt,ric cylinders t.hc entire flow fit-ltl is either latninar or t.l~rl)~llcnl,, dcprntling on t.hc valucs of t,he Taylor and Rcync~ltls nr~mI)ers, case of l.l~ct,l~c: sphere is more colnplcx, bccause different flow regimes cat1 occllr s i r r l ~ ~ l l , a t ~ e o ~ ~ s11y sidc. AS t . h ~ sidc l y Reynolds number is increasctl, Taylor vortices. ant1 hence also t<rrrnsition contli(,ions, appear first near t h e plane of t h e ec111at.or whereas t.hc How near the polcs rcrnains laminar. Scc also rcfcrcnces (101, 162, 1031.
2. lln~tticlnryl n y r r ~ corncove wnlls. A similar kind of in~t~ability on with rcspect, t,o i,l~rcc-tlirnr~~sio~~:il tlist,url):~nccs occurs in flows along concave walls. I n a bountlary layer fornlctl o n :i convex wall the ccntrifirgal forccs exert a stabilizing efTect whose rna.gniL~ttlc howcver, is numqrically small, as was already shown in Scc. XVS ttl. In contrast with that, the tle-stabilizing effect of ccntrifi~galforces on concav.: w:~llsIc:tds t o a ttype of instability which resembles the patkern of Taylor vorticcs shown in Fig. 17.323. The existence of the latter effect was first demonsbrntctl by 11. Cocrtlcr 1.741. Cansidering a basic flow in the x-direction given by 11(a:) (11-tlisf.:rr~ccfrom t,l~owall, x-measured a t right anglcs t o flow direction in t.ltc pln.11~ t,l~(!wall, Fig. 17.321)) iL is a s s ~ ~ m c t la t t,llcrc is s~~perimposctl it of th on n i,hrcc~-tlinic:nsio~~:~I tlist~rrl~ancc t h c form of

The phenomenon of transition in boundary layers on bodirs l~lacctlin cxt,ct.nnl 11ot.11(!onvex anti c:onc:~~vc wcdlx W I I H i t ~ v t ~ ~ l O ~ ~ :~xl I. It ~ : I ~ ~ I I I ~ - I I I ~ J I ~( by 1P.Clallser (171 nntl 11. W. J,icpmnnr~ 1127, 1281. Sotnc: of l.11t: rcs~~ll.n ~~l.ovitic.tl try 1I.W. Lieprnann are illnstrated in Fig. 17.39. 'rhc 1)lot in Fig. 17.3!):1 conlit.tns l.l~c the~ret~ical prcdictiorl t h a t the effect of c ~ ~ r v a t u on t.ho critical Itcynol(ls number rc in the case of convex walls is vcry slight and t h a t it is s~nallor concave, tl1a11for for convex walls. Figure 17.39b shows a plot or the pammc:t.cr

against, cSzt,/ R. This pa~.n~nctcr describe-s t,hc r k c t of c ~ ~ r v n t ~ on ct,l.ctnsit.ionin t.ltc ur boundary Inyer; it corrcspon(lsto t.llc 'I'ny lor n u r n l ~ t of cclr~. :~ (17.20) liw flows I~t:t.wcc.t~ rotating cylinders illrtst.ri~tcd Fig. 17.34. The graph of Vig. 17.:i!)b shows t.hat.I,~.:insiin tion occurs for

This numerical value is considcrnbly larger t.han t l ~ c corr.c*spontlinglitnit, of st:~l)ilit.y which places itself at. 0.4, a s seen from Pig. 17.38. In t.11isconncxion it is ncsccss:~ry t o note t h a t the bourltlnry Inyer tdrirlrncss B must t,ltrrc be clirninntccl in fi~vorl~. of the momentum thicltncss Bz = 0.047 8t. According t o k1.1,. Ilryden 1381, Ulc nunlerical valuc in (17.25) tlt*l)c,ntls, in addition, on the intensity of t,urbulence; its vnluc is cont.ainctl I)ct,wccn (i !I, \vl~c\rc n.ntl the lower limit correspontls t o a n rxt-crnal int,cnsit.y of t~urlr~~lcncc 0.003, t.l~v T higher value correspontling t,o R considerably lowrr interlsiLy.
I =

u = u,, (y) {cos (az))c f l , '

11'

vl (y) {cos (az)) eO1,

ui1 ( y)

ui'

=-

{sin (m)) . ef"

#'

I1c.rc- /I is rr:rl nntl tlrnol,c:s l,llc arnplificntion f;~ct.or,whcrens 1 1 2 rr/a reprcscnt,~ 12h(i\~:ivt~lcr~gt.l~ t l i s l ~ ~ r l ~ : i n.t criglll, anglrs t,o I.hc princ.il):il Ilow tlircot,ion. of 1.11~ l~ c I I I ~ : vort,it,es It:lvt* t.l~t: SII:II)C sho~vnin 1 1 . i ~ . I7.:i21), l.l~(:ir:txr,s I)cing ~):ir:lll(:lt,o I,~I(: It:~sic:flow rlirc~c~t 'I'lrc- prc.sc.111,~ ) r o l ~ l r ~ rconc:c!~.lletlwill1 sl.:ln(ling waves (ccII111:1r ion. is n

llere it is tleccssnry t,o b c ~ irn ~nirldtl~ibt,l ~ c t Ioontiotl of Lhc LOIIO of I,rtir~sil.iot~ I)r cxllr(.t.rcl IIIIIRI, t,o lic ronsitler~lbly filrtiler downstrenln thrill l.hc tilllit of ~L~biiity. is thlc t.o t.i~r This fm.1. l.tl:lti ~nlst,nble dist.~~rbnncen. \vl~ctl~er conj)lod wit,h st:~t,iol~:~ry or wiI.11 progrcsnir~g waves \vn\.t.s o f llle T o l l ~ ~ ~ i e t ~ - S ~ l ~typol ~ t ~ i ~ ~ g l i c (See. XVlh), tnllut llnvc thnc to ntllpliry or, i n otllcr \vortls. (Inti1 t,iic nlnplificnt.ion f:lct.or has had n chance t,o ~Ltnil~ approprinlc vnhrc. 0 1 1 thc olhor I I ~ I I I ~ ~ , ik in the case of a Corlette experinlent wit11the inner rylitltler rotntilig nnd t l ~ r orltcr st~:~linn:iry, Fig. 17.33. \rre 1r111st rxpcct that the cxpcritnent,nlly obncrvc:tl. criticill I<rgllolcln I I I I I I I ~ ) ( ' ~:%t 1vI1ir11 Taylor vorl,irrs first, :Ipprnr o11g111, 11:ivt: $1 v1i111t~ 1~0 \vl1i141 is vwy 190st- 1 1 1 t11:aI L : ~ V ( * I I 11y I.l~c?nry. iri ~ I I I ~1.0 111r Snt.1, 1,11111 I I I.~IIHI,ILIII, rr~I:t(,iot~ IIVOI.(.HH IPS I \ I I I ~ I I ~ I ~ I . ~ I I ~ I I I I 'l'l~iri : 111, ~ I L I A :OF OII? of tlint~lrl):lnct:nooclrrri : ~ :I connlnnt I<o,ynoltln n ~ ~ t t ~ l ~'I'IIIIH. (.III: ~ ~ r t ~ l ~ l i ( i t : : l L i o ~ ~ : I I I . : I ~ I I H t r!r. ~~L(.I.CII. its nl)proprinl,e vnluc 11roviclc:d Lhnt I.l~rrxprrilr~ont11,nt.s long c-tlol~gl~; Ilc~rc! I8'ix. 17.:1:1. Rrn

XVII. Origin of t.urh~tlcncc TI

535 f. Stability of n holtntlnry layer in t.llo ~roncnrc t,hrcc-tlitnct~uic~t~nl of clist~~rl)n~~c~~.n

A very t,horor~gl~ cxprt.itnc.nt,al invrstigntion or t.rnt~sitiiru nloug n ~.OIIV:IV(\. c.~~~,vc.tl wnll was rrccnt,ly mt.ric!tl or~t. 11. I3ilq)c.s 1 161 wllo c*tnl)loyrtl tnotlrls tll.nggc.tl n . l o t ~ ~ I)y a wnt.rr r1in11nc.l. 'I'llrsc. c ~ x l t c ~ t ~ i t ~ ~ c ~ t ~ ( s 01, t,hc origin of lonKitlttlit1:11 \.ot.t i t c j l,l~t.o\v ligI1L liltc those in I'ig 17.32 1). 111 t.llis ront~rsiorlstsr tl~c:I):rl)cLl.s I". X . 1Vol.tttlnttn I N(;(iJ I)y and 11. (:oert.lcr RIICI 11. Ilnsslcr 1H:tJ.
1tecent.ly 11. Cot!rlIc:r clrcw nt.l,cnt.ion t.o Ill(: fact, t.l~:rL t.hc s:rlnc 13'1~:of illstn11ilit.y cat1 occur tlcnr the for\vnrtl st.:~jinnl.iot~o i t ~ toi n l ) l t ~ l T p I~otlyi r t ;I sl,rc::~.rn. Tha nerrssnry rontlitinll t,llnt tAr. sI.rrnlnlinrs m ~ l s t ronrnva i t 1 I,l~c I)(: tlirt*rl,iot1of i ~ ~ c r r n s i voloc.it..y is 11rrc 1)rrsct1t,. f:tr, t , 1 1 ~t ; : ~ l ~ v ~ l n t ,~ o ~r~ s r t n 1t.y ~ I (:ot~rt.l~r t~g So i )r fo ~ ~ 11. 7 t i . I l i t i ~ r lX ~ I i I I I to-Iitttttsio11111 t : ~ t : i tlIo\v s reprcscr~t,ctlit1 I'ig. 5.9 I ~ n v c sllowt~t,l~c c?xisf.ct~rn i~t~st.nl~l(: of tlist.ttrI):~r~c~c:s, I ~ r ~ o IPI , litnit, of st:~.l)ilit,yi l l l,l~c*< I I . ~ IoI f r~ l < , ~ ~ . ~ ~ t ~I o~lI(I l s * C:I.II I B V g i v t ~ r ~ . ; S ~ I I ~ I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ I I I S ~ II I IN ~ I~ j>crSorttircl by N . A . 1 l'iercy iit1c1 I<.(:. l~,ic~l~nrclsot~ I7 I 1 sitggc>sl t,11;1t t l fIo\v : . 1 170, ~ ~ in l,l~c ~~cighbonrhood tJ~c,forwnrtl s(,:~.gnn.t,iot~ of point 011 n rirc:liln.r ryli~lclrrtlors indortl I)cromo unst.:~l)lc.Itcvicws of t~l~rrc-tlir~l~~t~siot~:~.l t . 1 ) ~t81l(~t)rY (:ll'~c:t~ ill 01' sl,abilit.ywere given by I t . (:ncrt,lor [74J. Sfc :tlso t,Il(: nlorr rc~crtlt. 1)nlwt.sI)y .I. I<c.st,itl cst, nl. [ 1 181 n111l 11'. Sntlrll c t t nl. (232, 2331. . I l ~ ecotisitlrrnt.iot~scollt.nit~cdit1 t , l ~ c prcsctlt src:t,ior~togc?t.llrr wit.11 t l ~ o s ci l l

Fig. 17.38. 1.it11it. ntnl)ility ( P = I)) for t,ho of I)ol~tltlnry layer 011 n <:or~cnvr, cltrvc~i\r.nll it1 t,ormn of ratio ()/I< of I,ort~~tlr~ry-lnyc~r t,l~ickncnnt.o rndius of crtrvnt,urr, after F.

,.

Chap. XVI ant1 Sees. X V l l a, 11 lent1 t.o the follomit~gpivtctro of' t.m~~sit,ion tllc irt bour~tlarylnyrr of n solid body (c. g. nrl n.r:rofoil); tm.n.si18ioti011 flat, anel convex walls is gover~lctl I)y t l ~ oitlst,i~l)ilityof l,ra.vclli~lg,t,\vo-tli~ncttsiot~n.l 'I'olllnienScl~lirl~l.irlg waves w l ~ c r c ~ s t.llat on c:ono:ivc w:ills is povc:rnctl by t J ~ cst.:il.ionnry Taylor-Gocrt.lcr vort,iccs.

3. Stal~ilityof t l ~ r c e - c l i ~ ~ ~ cbot~ndnryInyrrs. 'l'ltt! clc:t,n.ils ol' t,lt(: I)TOc3(?SR ~~~io~~nl of t.rnnsit.iotl in n t , h r c c - ~ l i m e ~ ~ s i o m l I)o~tn<lnry Ir~gcr:LI)J)c:I.r1.0 Ijc r~~f.iroly (lilrcrent,
from tl~ose assooint.rcl wit.11 tllc t,wo-tIilnc~rtsiot1:11 flows c:ot~sitlrrc.tlmrlicr. Onc csnrnplo of this t,yl)c of t.r.;trlsit,ior~ nfTortlctl Iry t.11~c:xsc of n tlislc rot.nt.itig i t 1 n lllritl nh rrst, is

Fig. 17.40. 1'llot.ogrnl)ll illttntrnt,itlg t.mt~nit,ion t.ho bountlnry layer on ill a disk rotnting in n Illlid at rest after N. Crrgory, .T. 'r. St.ltnrL ntld \V. S. Wrilltrr (771. I)irrct.io~~ rotnt.ion iu of ro~~r~tnr-clocka~iue; n = 3200rpm ul)accl radius of disk = 15 o m I .7 h l r : ~ s ~ ~ r c ~ mfe t ~ t pni~~l. I.v:~tlsition ; ~slighbly ronrnvr ~ v n l l n . nftrr I{. \V. o tltr of o
IJm 421,
1 '

I,it.1)1!1n.1tn 127. 12Hl; ( n ) cril ir:d lZ.r.yt~ol~l~I I I I > ~ T 1 IIII

.
~

vrrslts

62 z: (b) t.hc oharactcriut,ic

q~~ar~t,it.y r1wf21r
b, -

vcr.wu f:f

1nctt81~11I.1ltn I I ~ t ( . k ~ ~ ( . s It: s

- rndills OF rltrvn1.11rrOF wnll

Stnlionnry vor1irr.r nrc rf!rn forming in an nnnlllnr rcgion or innrr radius lli = 8-7 cm End ouLer r n < l l l ~ I<, = 10.1. T ~ I lttnrr r n d l l ~ s n P conrlilulcs Llw l i ~ t t i l01 s t ~ h i l i t y ,wiltx R i " Iti w'/w = 1 - 9 x 10'. Tra~tril.lonnrrllrs n l 1 1 ~ .ntllvr rntllllr wttrre R" - - 1, < I ) ' / * - 2 R X t o s 1)

536

X V l J . Origin of t,urhr~lcnce 11

for which tJic tlrt,:~ils t~hclaminar laycr arc known from See. V b. A pliot,ograph of iIl~~st,r:~t~itigprot:css of tIransition on a rot-,nt,irtgtlislr ant1 t8nkcn by N. Gregory, the .J. '1'. Sttiart. tint1 W. S. Walker [77] is rcprotlucctl in lpig. 17.40. 7 ' 1 1 ~ photograph shows t.hat. in an nrtnnlar rcgion tttierc n p p y r st,at.ioriary vort,iccs which assutnc t,lrc shape of log:trit,limic spirals. 'l'ht: intier ratllns of t.l~is region tnarks t,l~c? onset, of inst.nbilit,y : t ~ i t l t.rrlt~sit~ioti oc:c:urs :el. I,IIc oltt,c:r mtlilrs. 'I'll(! i11nt.r r:~(Iius (:orr~s~)oti(ls :L Itcyti~ItIs 1.0 ntrtitl)rr of R, l t t 2(L)/v = I.!) x 1O5atltl ;et tlic o r ~ t cradius we havc R, -- RO2 r (01, = = 2.8 x 10". ,J. 1 S t r ~ a r t . ' . complcn~cntc:tl t,hc cxpcrimcntal work witpl~ n analytic a st,rrtly of thc stahilit,y of sr~clia rnot?ion. I n it,, IIC assrlmctl t.11~ existence of t l ~ r c e tlimrrisiorial, pcriotlic dist~lrbanccswhose forms incl~ldcda.s special cases the progrrssirrg 'I'olltnirn-Sclilicfitirlg waves a s well as thc ~ t a t ~ i o n a r y , t,l~rec-dirnensiol~d 'I'aglor-Goertlcr vor1irc.s 'I'hc results of his calculations sliowcd qrtalitntivc agreement with I,lic cxpcrin~c~nt~:tl rcsrllts of Fig. 17 40.
1

ant1 A. Vt~gcarid .I. II. I'rcston [62], assnmcd 1,ltat t l ~ cp o i t ~ t of t,ratisit.iori wns loc:rt,ctl a t t . 1 ~ posit,ioti of roughncss elcmcnt,~, wl~cn,tlicy wcrc Inrge, or t.li:~L t.lic*ir prrsolico 11;ltl !to itlll~t~ticq,!~II.ylit:r~ 3 1 f.Irry W O ~ Csrnall. Ilowovnr, A. I ? ; L ~ o h:is SIIO\I.II l,ll:~t,tlic point of t,ratisit,ion moves cotltirt~~o~lsly upst.rcam a s t h e height, of ~,II(, r n i r g l ~ n c sc l o ~ n c t ~ t ~ siricrc:~~sc~I ~ is 11tit.il i t ~llt.imnt.clyrcnches t h o posit,in~i of t , 1 1 ~ ro~tgliric~ss c-lt:tr~c!ttt.s t,liotrisclvc.r.Cotisccl~re~it.ly, (lisc~~ssing infl~~(:rt(:(: ~ O I I ~ ~ I I I ( ! S S in t,l~c of o~i l,r:~r~sit,iori, is r1cc:ossary to provitlc arlswcrs t o tlic following t.hrcc cl~lc:s(.io~ts: it* 1. What is thc maxitnt~mhcigl~tof roughncss elcmcnts bclow wliic:h n o iriflrrc.nc~c~ on ttrnnsit.ioii exists? (Critical t ~ c i g h tor ro~lghncssclcmcnts in I:ctni11:1r llow,) 2. What, is the (larger) limiting height of a ronghncss clcmcr~t which carlscs t,rn.r~sii.ion t,o occur a t thc rlcmcnt itself? 3. llow is it possil~lct o tlcscribe tlic position of t h e point of transition in tl)c rang(, int.crmrdi:~tc bctwccn these two limits ?
2. Sit~glc,eyli~~tlricnl ro11g1111ess I ~ I ~ I C I I A Rsinglt!, (:,ylin(lri~::cl(or t.wo-tli~iivti. ~ ~ . sion:i.l) ro11g1111t:~s (!It~nit:t~t,r s t l ~ ~t.~ik(-s ~ l l y (.It(: (i)r~ti H I LIL wire wliit:h is II.I.I.>L~.III.II of, ~, t o t11c wall a t right ;~nglcs o thc stream direction. For (.his type of roughr~cssnlot mertt,, S. Goldstcin docll~cctl from ol(lcr mcasurcments, t h a t thc critical hci~/?tl, i . c. the height wliicl~just does not alTcct transition, can be reprcscnl.ctl 1)y

Anot,lier case of t,l~is Itincl occurs on a yawecl flat, plate in supersonic flow when the :~ssoria.t,cti lantinar lw~rntlnrylayer t)rcoinrs ~rnst.at~le. ~ l i o w ncxpcrirncnt~nlly As \)y .J. ,I. (:inorlx 1841, t,i\c \1o1111tIary I;~yrr tirvvtops ~ollgit.61tlinal vort.ic:rs wl,ich ~)rotl~lcc: transit ion. g. Ttle i ~ ~ f l u e r ~ c erougl~rlesson transition of

I. Introtl~~ctory remark. Tlic prol,lcrn which we arc a1)out t o examine in this sec.t.ion,rlamcly the qnest<ioti how t.hc process of tran~it~ioti of tle~)entls tllie rorlghncss on of t,l~c solitl walls, is one of consitlcral~lcpmct,ioal import,ance; so-far, however, it has not. I)cen possiblc t o analyze it t.ltc.orct,icnIly, Tllc prol)l(:m ~tntlcrcotrsidcmtion Itas g:i.inctl in irni~ort.atic:cin tflre rcccnt 1)astZ, ) a r t i c ~ ~ l a rs i ~ i c c adventl of laminar l l y thc arrofoils in acrotiaubic;~l applic:ations. 7'hc vcry cxtcnsive cxpcritncntal material nollt:ct,cd i ~ ] 1.0 d:'.t,c incltrtlrs information on thc cfrcct of cylindrical (two-tlirncnsional ) rougl~nosselcmc~it~s), point-like (t,hrec-dirncnsional, single roughness c l c n ~ c r ~ t and s) clislri1)rrt~ecl ror~gl~ncss clcmcr~t~s. Many of the invc~tigat~ions inclucle addit,ionnl d a t a on t,ltc: infltrcrtcc of pressure gratlicnts, t , ~ ~ r b ~ ~ lir~tcnsityor Mach number. cncc (:cncrally spearking, t,he prcscncc of rougllncss favonrs transition in t l ~ csense . t,liat, utrtlcr oblicrwisc itlcnt,ical cor~c~it~ions transition occurs a t a lower lteynolds rrt~nibc:ron a ro~rgllwall Llian on n smooth wall. l ' l ~ a t t,liis shoul(l bc so follows clearly from t,lic I,llcory of stal)ility: t i ~ ~ _ e ~ i ? t eof c c n roughncss elements gives rise t o arldit,ioi~al tlistur\)anccs in tho laminar stream which tiavc t o bc atltlcd to those gcncratG4 I)y ~ ~ I I ~ I ) I ~ I R I ~ ( Y ~ ant1 alrcady present, in the boundary layer. I f the distrlrbanccs creatctl by roughncss arc bigger tiiar~t,hosc due t.o ti~rbttlcrlcc,we ijiiistckji+ !,h<it.a1 s g tivgroc of a.nlpIiIicat,ion iiiH IiE%iifii6iEri~t.o eff'cct transition. On the othcr harlcl, if t.hr rongliricss clt~lncntaare vcry small, the resulting dist11r1)ariccsslrorrltl Iic bclow t.hc 'I,lircsltoltl' which is chitmnt.cristic of t.liosc gcncmtc:cl I)y tlic t.nrbulcnce of I.llc frcc: sl,rc::i In. In this case, t h e presence of ronghncss woi~ltlbe expoctccl - t o h a v e n o rKt:ol, on transit.ioti. 'rhc preceding consitlarations s l k w complete agreement with ox~)crirncnt.. \Vl~c:ti t,he roogtincss clcrncnts are vcfy large, bransit.ion will occtlr a t t,hr point.s wl~crc l.llcy arc present thcmselvcs, as is, for cxa.mple, t h e case with t h e t,ril)ping wirc on the sphere .shown in Fig. 2.25. I n this connexion t h e reader m a y wish .to consult the paper b y ,I. Stuepcr [220]. l'hc earlier papers which nddrcsscd t~hcrnsclvcsto this problern, 11amcly those by 1,. Scliillcr 12021, 1. l'ani, R. l l a m a anti S. Mitaisi [235], S. Golcl~t~rin [67],

I I r r r u: .= dcnot.r,s t,lic friction ~ r l o c i t ~ y T, is t,hc s l ~ r a r i n g an(\ strrss at. t lit. wall in t,hc laminar borlritlary laycr a t t~hc position of thc roughncss clc~ricnl.. Ac:c:ortling to I. Tani nricl his co-workers [236] the m i n i m ~ ~ n i Iloigltt for which t,r:~nsit.ioli occl~rs t the c!lcmcnt, it,st:If can be f o ~ l n dfrom tlic relat.ion 71,: k,,,,/v = 15, whcrr:~s a A. Fagc ancl J . 11. 1'rest.on 1621 quote

1/GDiiC,

T 1

l h c prcceclirlg rlinmctrrist~ic valucs apply t o cirenlar wirrs. Tn thc casc of fl;~t ~ 1 1 ( 1 : errj)~)cd cross-sections or for grooves the valucs arc cor~siclcrnbly larger, whcrcns for sharp rlcmcnts they become smaller. 11. 1,. Dryden I391 provided a n argument of a ditncnsional nature wl~iclilcatls t o a n empirical law for t h e determination of the position of the point of transition, r,,, in tcmm of thc Iteight, k of the roughness clement and its position, r,. 1)rytirn discovered t h a t in incompressiblc flow all experimental p o i n b for the c:asr wlirn tran~it~iori not occnr a t tlic roughricss clement it,sclf, i. c. when z ,: arr:trijic does , r,, t~hcnisclvcson n single curve in a plot of tlic ltcyrioltls nurnbcr R,, ( I R,,,/v fornlc:tl with t l ~ c clisplaccment thickncss dl,, of t11c boundary layer a t the point, of tra11sif,ion against the ratio k/O1,, where dl, dcnotcs the di~placemcnl~ tl~ickness t t h e position a of the roughness clement, Pig. 17.41. The diagram in Fig. 17.41 cont:airis a n i~rrxiliary scale of R,,, = U xtr/vt.
7.7

.. .

. - .-. The two lteynold~ numbera on the axis of ordinates nrc rclahtl Lliro~tgli h : cclllntior~ bc

638

XVII. Origin of t ~ ~ ~ r b n lIcI ~ ~ r r

As t,llc Ilrigllt k is incrc:rsctl, t,llc posiI.ion of Lhe point of t,rarlsit,iorlztrmoves closer t o tllc ronglincss clcn~cnt,which nicnns t,llat t l ~ c curves in Fig. 17.41 arc trnversctl froni left t o right. 'l'he expcritncnl,nl points begirl to tlcvint,e from this curve upwnrds a s soon ns the poirtt of tmnsit.iorl has rcncllctl tho rougllness element, i. e. when x,, - x,. . 'I'llcy t.11~11 nlorlg tlla fnrnily of st*rnigl~t lie lines wllicl~contain r,/k a s a parameter ant1 is given 11y

i t is nlso RIIOWII in Fig. 17.41. According t,n ,Jnp:tricse inonsuremcnls [2:17), t l ~ c llypcrbole-like branch of the curves in Fig. 17.41 possesses 11nivers:~lvnlitlity, both for flows wit11 cliKcrent, weak pressure gmtlicnt,~, nnd with different intensities of turbulence. Ir~creasecltlrrhnlence eauscs merely nrl enrlicr deviation of the cnrve t,o the left,, in the direction of the t~irb~rlcrlcc-tlepet~(letlt crit,ionl IEeynoltls n111nl)crof R flat. plat,c, (R,,,),.., = Rrtro . 1\11 ann.lysis c-ot~plrtlwil.l~ntltlil,ionnl I I I ( ' : I U I ~ I . ( . I I I ( - I I ~ ~ X , IIRVC I(vl I < , I < ~ : L ( ~ I I (11091 l,o (:oIIc-III(I~~ I,II:L~, IL ~virc:JI,I, n,ll ~~u.ljil,r~~,ty is I'111ly :~ 1>osil,io11 efi:ct.ivc if Ut 2 !)OO (17.29)

Tllo graph of this cq11nt.ion has brcn innltltlntl in 1Pig. 17.41 ; I,llc cqrlnt.inll ngrc-rs well wil,l~cxpcri~nents. t sllortltl be not.c:tl, Ilowcvrr, f.llnl; oven in l,l~c I cnso of :L "f~rlly effective" hipping wire, there retnnins n ccrtnin inininll~n~ distance bctwccn tlic posiI.ion, T,,, of 1 . 1 1 ~ l.m.nsil.ioll ~)oinl. itntl t l ~ c ~)osiI.ion, k , of I1l1owire iI.srlf. A(:(:or~lit~l: x t,o I<. I<rxc:nlc:r, t.llis tlisl,:~llccis given by

nr~lnbrr l:~.tninnr for I,on~~cltiry nn 8 fi~nc:Lion t,llr mlio Iayrr of Pig. 17.41. 'I'l~rrri1,ic:nl I~.rynolcln of t~riglil, ofn)npl~nrfln k elc~nc!nL t,l~r 14, dioplnrct~~cnl, I I~i[:knracr I l ~1)onnclr~ry ~ ynl.rI.l~r of r l~ c 11oniI.ion of f . 1 1 ~ rongl~nms rlrt~~cnt,, for singlr, t \ v o - d i ~ ~ ~ r . ~ ro~~glinrss dl,. ~ s i o ~ l d rlr111(.11t,s i n r ~ n ~ ~ ~ r r ~ ~ ~ i l ) I ~ in
fl0\\.
'I%P ~ s t r : ~ ~ t ~ xrv t~~ t~ i~ C :~ ~ ll~s~t r~ l y r ~ ~ ~ ~1,s rlq ~ tx l(17.28) r r : l ~~ ~v i l r ln a .

localion of wire.

7-.~~-J

")t

Fig. 17.42. DisI.:~nro I~ctwrrnpoint of trn~rnil.ion, f , , nntl 1 . 1 1 ~posil.ion of I.llr t.ril11,ing~virr. r

rk.

for " f ~ ~ lrll~c:cl.iro"opcrat.ion, plot.lsd f r o ~ n ly c~lrl. (17.:10), nll.rr I<. I<rnc:~~~rr I IO!))

g. The influence of roughness on transition

54 1

'I'ltc rorrrspontling curve is rcprcscntcd in Fig. 17.42. According t,o TI. 1,. 1)rydcn [30, 401, i t is possible t o take into account t h e ~ n r i n t ~ i oin tjllc t,nrl~rllcncc n intensity by plotting t h e ratio of the critical Reynolds n l ~ t n l ~ for n rorlgh wall t,o t,hat for n smooth wall, namely (R,t,),o,,h/(R,tr),mOolh, rr :I.S n. fnnct.ion of k/OIk, Tl'ig. 17.43. When j~lottcdin t,his sgstfcm of coorclinatcs, the r(\s111l,s tnc:rls~~rcrncnt,s of wit,ll difforont it~tcnsit~ics t,rlrl)tllcncc fall on a single of cnrvc whic:l~ nlca.ns that, tfhcratio (R,t,)ro,,,/(R,l,),monlh is a function of tho single paranlct.cr k/R1,. 1'11t: t,llrcc questions posctl a t t,hc cnd of t~hclast section can now be easily nnswcrctl wit,lt t,lre nit1 of t,l~c t.hrrc graphs of Pigs. 17.41, 17.42 and 17.43. concerning the influence of n two-dimensional, discrete Very tlcl.n.ilrd cxperimcnt,~ rorlglnlcss elcmo1t (wirc) on transition wcre perforn~edreccnt,ly by P.S. IClebanoff ant1 I<. 1). 'I'iclsl.rorn [107n]; t,hcsc were conccivcd as n continuat,ion of earlier work [1071)]. 111 pnrt.icrllar, measurements were made in t,he disturbed boundary layer close I)cllintl t.lir roltgllnrss c.lorncnt. l'licsc mrasnrcrncnt,s Iced t.o tho conclnsit~n t.hat, t,l~c. I)cllnvio~lr f t,llo tlist.llrl)c:tl I~ortntlaryInyt:r c:in I~cst, undcrsl.ootl if 1 . 1 1 ~ o I)(: c:lli:c:l, of rortghllcss is c.onccivrt1 ns t.hnt of n, strong, wavcliltc tlistrtrbancc which vigorously tirst.n.bilizrs t.llt*11o11ntln.ry Inyrr and t.hus has tlhc same effect a s nn incre.we in the t l ~ r l ) ~ ~ l c lint,vtlsit.y of t,llc: free stream. lcc 'L'hc! irlfl~loncoof rongllr~ess transition is considernl)ly smsllcr in compressiblc on t.han in inconiprcssiblc flow. 'l'llis fact can bc d c t l ~ ~ c c d from Fig. 17.44 whictl refers t o s flat, plat,c a t zero incidence and which, a s far as t,hc rcsr~ltsfor compressiblc flow arc concerned, is bnscd on the rncnsl~rcrnerlBporformcd by P.F.Brinicii [12]. Tho mensnrcrncrlts wore pcrformctl with the aitl of cylintlrical roughness clemcnts of circl~lnr cross-scct.ion nt R nractl number M = 3-1; whcn plottot1 in t h e coordinates of l'ig. 17.44, they arrange thcmsclves in a family of cllrvcs which cover tlic shadetl n.rc:I, in t f l ~diagram, butf whicli still st.rongly clepcnd on tho position xk of t.11~ e ronghnoss clcmnnt.. 'I'llc cllrvc lor incom~)rcssil~lc shown in Pig. 17.44 for t,hc purpose flow, t,hc of cornpnrisoti, i l l ~ ~ s t r a t e s fact t,llnL at, high Mach numbers the boundary layer c:n.n 't,olcmt,c' a cor~sitlcrnblylarger rongllncss clcmcnC t,hnn in irlcomprcssiblc flow. Aorortling t o t,hc gr:~ph,t,lle critical height of a roughness elcmont is somc 3 t o 7 t.irnc,s lnrgcr t,ll:~nin incomprcssi1)lc flow. ISxperimcnts performod by R. 11. Korlregi [10RI :kt t.11~ ovc~t~ I~igllcrMn.c:h numbor of M = 5.8 showed t,llnt a t such lnrgc Mach n~llrlI)rrs:L t,ril~pirtgwiro protlnccs no t,~lrl)rllcncca t all. On tho oChcr hnrltl, tltc hlowirlg of air into t,lto honrltla.ry layer seems t o bc efft:ctive in promoting transit,iorl c:vrrl in con~l)rcssil~lr flow. rct:c>nt.t.irnrs, 15. I t . van 1)rirst. ant1 C.B. I%lurnc:r [R7] unclcrt,oolr a series of \vit.ll i1.s axis p:~.rall(:I t,hc stren,m at, n Mach nr~rnbcr , t,o M 2.7; t,his w:~s :i ronlintl;~l.ionof cnrlic,r worli I:lfi]. In atlclition 1.0 varying t.he dintnrln~rof l . I ~ t , c.irr11l;l.rt,ril~l)ing wirr, l.llc cxperiment.crs also variod its position on t.hc aonc. n,s wc.11 a s t.11(- 1.al.c: of lirxt. t , r n ~ ~ st,n ~ f t it.
111

Fig. 17.4:). llntio of Llrn orit.icn1 Rcynolds nurnbcr on n flat plate nt incidence with n sir~glerorrghl~ess clen~orltto that of a slnooth plate, nfter Drytien [:J!)]
Rztr -=

(1 xt,Iv

k-l~cigltt

of rouuhnesn element dlk - dlnplaccmen1 tl~lckrress t h e bolrndary layer PI meg11of tlao ncns clclnenl. Mcssllrement dlrc to Tan1 12361

Fig. 17.44. Inflr~onceof singlc, twoditl~rnsiotlalroughncaa clcmonts on the crit,iral llnyrroltls nnrnl~rr a flat plate on ill compresxil~lc? flow, as rncn811rcd by P. 1'. Ilrir~ich[N]
1- llcigl~t ~ i n g l e of rougltness rlemenl; d l t - disl!lnrrlnrnl tlvicknrss of bounclary layer x l roltgl~ness l c ~ r ~ c n t c
k -dlk

I I I C ~ S I I ~ ( ~ I Y I ~ I n ~c:otlr OII ~ . S

3. I)is~ril~~rla.tI rnlighl~c-nn.'I'l~(>r(: oxisl, c1111y sc:atll, rc:snll,s oonccrning ntcnsr~rcn~c~rlt.~ (111 osil it111 i t 1 1,111, ~ I I ~ ~ ~ S ~ 01'I I~ -lV i s ~ ~ r o ~ ~ gll ~ n~ I!)].l A p:Lpt:r~ l)y IC. (:. I ~ r i t ~ ~ l I ~ ~ ~ i 1o s s ~ ~ ~ l ~ II;:! c.oit I:I ills :I 111,ic-I' tlvsc.~.il~l of :HI i~tvc~sl.igi~.f.ic,ri l.I~c: inlll~t~~t(:(: l)rtsssIIrt: 1. ioll i t 1 to of :L gr:~tlicwl. a1111 jir:lin sixr, k,, in l.ho prcsc,llc-c: of sarltl rorlgllncss. 'l'lle rnt:as~tremcr~l.s \ ~ c ~ r v , I . ~ ~ I ~ I I Ii Il l, I :I~ t:on\-t-rgt~nL ~ I :11111 n tlivnrgerlt, clrannt:l of cira~tlnrcross-senl,iot~

Fig. 17.45. It~llt~t?nrr prc:sstlrc of g~ulict~l, :III(I s~~rf:i(,c ro11g1111t:ss on s;intl-rovcrcd \v:ill o n j~osit,ion of 11oi11l~ ltr:insit,i(~i~ ittrc7111or for pressiOl(: flow, as mcns~tred by K. C . I~ri1111t [I;:!]
k,
rwsr 1 ~ nr! 9 ~ io!llt~(.tb(.v

s : t n ~ I - ~ slzv. l ' t~ t ~ ~ n t w l r r ~ t 1 ~ 1 1 r~~ l v 0 1 1 tmtt~ili~an I I V ~ I W l ' , i s I" < J 2 l l

J,

11.

Axinlly xytn~r~ct.ricnl flons

6tR

of 1.lte p i p wittlr respect t o s r ~ c hdist.rtrbnnrcs. 'J'ltis was tlonc. I)y '1'. S:trl)k:tyn. \ v l ~ o perfor~nc~tl mrns~trentcnt~s i t n s r l ll l 9 7 l ) l n t ~ t lw l ~ owrol,c% auinrnclry ~):r~)('r I,IIC l~ n OII scrt),i(~~:I, 11!)7t~Ins \vPII ns otr f . 1 1 ~t9~r(~ot~cl~ic:~~1 vnt~iotiso l ~ l i ~ ~ t ~ : 'I'II(*OI~- l ~ l t ~ i ~ t.t-sr~Il,s (I[ ~~t~ et.irnl mlculnt,ions nlwrnys lent1 t,o t , l ~ tliscovcry o f n litnit, of sl.:tOilit,y mlric.l~c\sc.c,rtls c thci cxperirncrtt,nlIy mensetrc~tlcrit,icnl Itrynoltls ~rctrnl~c:t a witlc nlnrgi~l. 1)y 'I'lrr sl~:~l)ilit.y Ilng(*u-l'oisrl~illr of Ilo\v i t 1 n 1)ip: will1 ~ ~ n , r a l ) o l i e vc-loc:ily tlisl.t.ibrrt,io~r wit11 r r s l ~ r c t ,1.0 infinitcsirnal U~rrr-di?nr~~siol,nl tlist,~trl)nncc.swns lirst str~rlictl I)y M. IArsscn n.ntl P. t l . Singh [12(i:r.l, w l ~ oeo~~sitlet~ctl s l ~ l ~ ~ ~ l ) nol' c~ z is~ r r t ~ l l ~ : t l tli l~: ~e p(*rio(licilt.yr ~ t ~ i t y .o inst,:tl)iIit~y\V:I,S fot111(1 l<,(*~yttol(lst i t t r ~ I ) c . t,:k~rgi~ig N Stjr ~ ~~s 111) l6(?00. '1'11r t.csttIt8 W C I T (:otrIit~tt~(:(l ttro(l(*s01' iitriI,y :LII(I Itigltet. o ~ ~ l :txi~trttlIr:~.l Sot, t*~, prriodic:it,y up t.o Itc:yt~oltlsn~trnt)crs 50,000 I1.y I I . S:~lwetr at111(1. 15. (:~.osc.l~197 (:I of I rrsitig a tlili't~rrtrt~ tncbt,l~otl solttt,ion 01' IIrc rig(:11\~:~111o of ~)t.ol)lc.ir~. 1t:rs l)(-(,trr s ( - ( ~ c ( l (Tlrn(:e, this v:rIttc ~l(:t,c:rrnittcs , l ~ crit,i(:n,l rot~glir~ess n.nswrrs ~l. t r nncl CJrrrsliott 1 r)osc.tl r:rrlic:r. 1l.ottghnrss is scc.r~t.o rxc-rt, n.n ittllrtc~rrcccornpnrn.l)lr: t o t.Ir:~.l. l.lrr prrssttre gr:r.tlirr~ nl, vn.ltrcs rscc~rtl~ r gI,II is limit,. ol' t, i T h e st,abilit,y of t , l ~ c slc!irli?lg 11-akc!tnotlrl for a. trn.iling vort-rx, \vl~c-rrtlic nsinl flow lrns t,hc wnlcr vc,lorit,y tlist,ril)rrlio~~t ~ t lt.lrr swirlit~g n Ilo\v Itns I I t ( , (lc.(':tyiirg V O I (('S dist,t~it)ut.ion, n s ~ t , ~ l t l i c t l M . I,cssctt. I'.J. Sing11 ntrtl 1'. I,. 1';tillc:t 112(il), 12(i(.I li,i. w by n x i l ~ ~ r t t ~ l ~~ ~lc r i o d tlist,errl)nnces of ~)c~riotlicit.y nl y io 11ni1,y ntttl I~iglrer.11, \r8:rs(;)1111(1 l11:1l, n srnnll rirrrottt~tof s\vit.l (:or~I(li.relt~r(~ ~~ti~ritntttrr I.II((-t.il.i(s:tl lt,(~yttoItls t1iit1111(.t. :IS 11). ~nnclra s 60 per cent.. At, larger arnoetnts of s w i ~ , lt311cI~iglrc-I. ~ i r ~ r r ~ t ~ l ~ : t l \vc:rc , x tr~otl(~s Inore drstabilizctl t,Itnn t,lre lower ones nntl at, st.ill Inrgrt. nmottn(.s of swil.l. I l ~ c *flow was st,abilizctl. Oltlcr expcr.in~c!ttw ((l11n.p. X X irr 1631 nntl 1541)ns well n.s III(JI'C r ~ r r o t ~ . c . s t ~ l tof ~t q t h e npplicnt.ioil of st.nbili1.y t,ltcory for n.xi:tl flows wit-11 n swirl c*ornl)onont ( 132. 1 :K1) sttageat thnt, evcn n very srnnll t.nngrtrt.i:rl vclonit.y oonrl)otrctt~t. co~~sitlt:t~itl~ly t.(~ltt(:(.s tho st:bl)ility of Ilngen- ['oisc~~illc flow. For t.llis t,rason, 1'. A. Mnc:krotll, I l fi4, Ifi.51 studied t0te stability of I n ~ n i n a r pipc Ilow wit.11sr~l)crinrposc.rl ricgici rot,nt.iot~t y urny 01' I t~iotlcllitigt.he Ilo~v f rrnl int.ct,cst. f n this cnsr, t,hc tlisf.rrrl)n~rcc o ntovrs itlottg :I sl)il.nl clown t,ltc n.xis of t.11~ pipc. 7'11~c s ~ ~ of . (.Itiscn.lortlnt.io~r tlc,l)ic:l.etl i t 1 lcig. 1 i..l(i. '1'11t. r lt is limit of stni)ility (irt:nt.r:tl clisl,t~rl)n~rccs)sl~o\vn is hrrn it1 l.lte ~,l:wrr R+..R,. \~II(.I.(. R + , (I) l<z/it is t11r l L ( ~ y ~ ~ o l ( l s ~ I I ~ ) (fot.111t~1 IIII ,~ \vil,l~t,Irc: p(*~~il)lr(~r:~l v(~loc~il~y \ V I I ~ . I . I Y I S I(. Rx = (1" 11'/11 rrfc:rs t,o t,hc r r ~ n x i r t t r ~ ~ ~ ~ vc.Itx!it,y

11. Axinlly x y ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ c tflows l ricn

Il~c most i ~ n p o r l ~ x nc:r.sc of :it1 :r.si:rlly s y m n ~ c ~ t , r i r flow is t.Itnt, exist,itrg in l, nl r, t.11~ vc-loc:it,y ~)rolilc l)n,ral)olic. This case \rrns ir~vcst.iis n st,r:r.igltf ~ ~ i p i. c. w11c~1 gntrtl vc-ry early by 'I'll. Snxl 120.51 \\rlto \\,:IS nrln.l)lc t.o discovrr nrry inst.nl)ilit.y; ho wns cclrtnlly r t ~ ~ : ~ l )Irowc?vcr, t.o provo f,hc c x i s t c ~ ~ c c sl.sl)ility for ,711 Rcytrol(ls ln, of nc~nrl)cv.s.Sotnc: t i ~ t t rI:rl.rr, , I . I'rc-l,sc:l~1 177J st~c~cc.c:tlc~tl proving (.hat tlrr nttnlysis in of 181~r sl.:~,l)ilil,yf t.l~c.sc: ~):~r:tl)olic: o vt-loril.,y 1)rofilos can IN? rntlercccl t80 t.lrnt, of l)lnrrc ( ' o t t ~ ~ l flo~v r , pitre slt(%nr ,l,~~ (i. llo\v). Sine(: I,IIV l:il,l.rr is st,:~l)lc :ill l < ~ c ~ ~ n o li(rl~ n i I > r r s , at ~ s I.II(* S:IIII(* is s(>rtt1.0 IIC t . r ~ ~ c :1,l)o111, l):lr:~I)oli(! 1110 vc:lo(~it~y profilrs it1 a, pipe. '1'11r sn,t~rc conclrrsion \\.:IS rc~nel~otl (:. R.1. C'ot~c*ost ~ t l. I . 12. S(-IInra ( I HI, by C. I,. I'c*l<t~t~is I>y n 1 lG!)l a s \vc,II ns 1)). scvr,rnl c*ot~t(.trr~tot.nry i~~vvs(.igntors (;(in, 148, 175 1: it. \vxs Iil~nIIy (5.4. cwnlit~~~rctl '1'11. S r x l n~rtlI<. Spic.ll~c,~y by 12001. '1'11is fact is sctrprising Sor t w o 1,cnsons. It'it.sl, Ilc.e:~itsc~ Ilo~vsi l l 1)il)es(lo r ~ r ~ t l r r g o tt.nnsitio~r. f'nrt, ns t h e ren(11't. \vill I . c ( - ~ I I . In III(. c.nt.lic.st c~sl)rt~irnc,t~lstrntrsilion I I : I ~ ( , Oc-cn pc,i.I'or~nctlby 0. l<.rynoltlso n ~)ilx's. on S , ~ o t ~ t l l iy .is tliflic-tilt t o vistinlizc- the Ii11.t th:rt )~:t~.;tl)olirvclocit~y t profile-sin c.ltntttrc~ln c.:111 ( S t c X\'l (.) - - - I ) t t I ~):rt.:tl)olic vcloc.ily ~)l.olilcs ~)ip('s in c:~nttot.-- Oc nr:rtlc 1111stnl)lc l)y v ( ~ I SIII:III ~ l i s I t t i ~ l ~ : t ~ ~ v r sIlr(~srr(~:rsotis~ t t l , ( ~ ~ n p t , s l ~ c i t ~ g t : ~ ( l e .~ lCoi, . IT ~t to invclst igate this m;tI l r r s i l l ft1t~1111~1~. nn:rlylirnlly nt~tlcxltc~t~imrtttnlly. this f 1101 11 111 C ~ O I I I I O X ~ ; ) I iI t III:IJ, I N > I I O I ( Y I I I I I I I l < . . l . l,vit(, 11251 l':til(%(l t o O ~ ) S ( \ I T Pntty nt~~l~Iili(~:rtiotr o S s t ~ ~ : r Inxi.sytri~rr~~Iric~:rl l. tlisIr~i~l~:i~rc~c~s tt.:ivc4ling tlo\vrtst,rcntn i t r n eircv~lnrpil)t, n t I l ( ~ y o r , l ~nr~tnl)ri.s l~iglra s R -- 11000. '1'11. Scsl .atit1 I<. Spirlbrrg 12001 t~st:tl)lisllls ns c~l IIr:rt i t r ~,rlnliotrt o nsinlly syrr~nrctt~ienl Ilo\vs Sq~tii.c'stlreoron, tnrntionc,tl in Sot.. X\'I I) 3. I I O Ionget. Iroltls. nt~tlt l ~ i t tsyrntnc.t~~icnl planr waves nrr, thrrcforr, n o l o ~ t ~ c r

Fig. l7.4G. St.:lt)ilily l i i ~ i i l of ll;tgr~iI'oisroillc flow i l l n c.irct~l:tr wif.li ~olitlpipr hot1.y rofntion, nllcr P .A. Alnrltrotlt. Il6.t. IC,R]: R,,-,rr = 83 nlt,rrT..T. I'rtllcy rl841; oobsr~.vrcl11nnti111lr Ilon.

544

XVII. Origin of t~~rbulcnco 11 [7] Bradow, A . I,., and Visconti, F.: lnvest,igation of bo1111d;rry Iaycr Itryt~oltls nrrn~l)cr for trar~sitionon an NACA 05(215)- 114 airfoil in tho 1,nt)glcy two-dir11c11nior1111\ r . - t . ~ ~ r b ~ ~ Io Icncc prrsnllre tunnel. NACA T N 1704 (1948). [8) 15rinicil1. P.F.: Ro~tt~dary layer transit,io" a t ~ n c 3.12 \ril.h n n ~ l v i l . l ~ onittRlr ~ O I I ~ ~ I I ~ ~ . S S l ~ \ ~~f elcrncnt. NACA T N 3267 (1954). [9] 1311ssmann. K.,and Miinz,H.: i>io Stsbilitiit der Iarninarrl~Itc~ib~t~~gxnc~hicht ],lit 1\1J4:111 gnng. .Ib. tit.. I,rlftfahrtforsol~r~ng 36 -- 39 (1942). I, [lOl I~llaslrlanrl, I<., lrlld IJlric:l~, I<.: Sysl~:lllnl.isc:ll~: ~~llt.c~rullr~lllll~(.ll iil~(:reIc11 I ' ; i l l l l l l ~ ~ ( 1 ~ 1 . I'rufilforn~ atrf tlic J.ngc d w lJtnnclllng~ttrr~klc!s. l'roprint. .lh. <It,. l . ~ ~ f l f : i l ~ r I ~ f o r s ~ ~ l ~ l t t ~ g I!l,I:! in 'l'cohn. Hcrichtc! 10, ! (1943). I 1111 i{looln, M.: The cffcc:t. of snrfncc roc>ling on lntninnr I I ~ I I I I ( ~ : I ~ )sI:~l)ililj.Ji\S IS., Itiyc*r ~ 635-fi3t; (l!j5l). [I21 I3rinicl1, P. F.: Boundary laycr tmnsit.ion a t Mac11 3.12 \rith :rncl \villtouL nitlglc. r o r ~ g l ~ ~ ~ v n s eletnenb. NAOA 'FN 3287 (1954). [I31 Orirticlt, P. F., and S~rntls. N.: ERecL of blunt.r~cm t,rht~si(,ion n c.otlr :~ncl:\ 11t,111,\\ on for I cylinder nt. Mach 3.1. NACA 'I'N 397!) (1!)5?). [I41 Brown, W.R.: Exact, aol~rtionof the atnhil~ty cqnnt.iotld for Iritninnr I~onnrl;iryI I G ~ O ~in R cotnprcRsil)lc flow. Ilonnrlary 1,nycr anti Flo~v(:onl.rol ((:.\'. I 1 ~ ~ t ~ 1 ~tn ~ .~ .~ n n , . ~ l ) \'()I. 2 10:~:~--1048. Ibrg:rtno~lI ' r ~ m ,NOWYork, l!l(il. [I51 Iirrtoke-ISonjn~r~ir~, Wave! forntrtt,iot~i t 1 lrin~i~~lir I I I I ~ V I 1111 i ~ ~ ~ . l i l ~ IIIIIIIV. ,I l''R1 :. I. ': flow I (.il ! 554 -574 (1!)?7). [ l f i ] Bippes. H.: LxpcrimcnLcllo U I I * ? ~ R I I C ~ I I I I I ~ dcs la~~~ir~:ir-turb~~lot~lnl~ Un~nrl~l:igc.n t:itlc.r :LIB parallel angcotrvmten konkaven Wand. Dim. T . U. Berlin, 1972; Sifz~~ng.bcr. 1iridt.lberger Akademie der Wiss. Math. Natnrw. I<lnsse, 1972, Springer, Berlin, pit. I 0 : I 180; see also: Bippeo, 11.. and GiirtJer, 11.: Acta Mcc:lianicn 14, 251 -267 (1972). [I71 Clanser, L.M.. and Clauscr, I?.: The effect of curvat,r~rc t.hc f.rannitinn fro111 on I:i~nirl:~r lo turbulent boundary Inycr. NACA TN 013 (1937). [IS] Corcos, G.M., and Sellars, J.R.: On the stabi1it.y of fully tlcveloped flow it1 a pipr, , J ~ M 5, 97-112 (1959). [I91 (~zrirnccki, Jt., Itnl)inson, lt. 13.. t111c1 lliIl,on, .Jr., ,I. ti.: lnvc*el,igt~l,io~~ I<. ctf (Iist,ril,1~1~~(1 3tlrface rougl~nws a body of revol~lliona t n Mach nntner of 1.61. NACA T N :12:1(1 (1!)54). on [20] Czarnecki, I L R . , nnd Sinclnir, AIL.: An investigation of t.11~ elYrcts of licat tr:lllsfrr boundary-layer transition on a parabolic body of rcvolntiot~(NACA ItM 10) aL :I Mncll rlurnber of 1.61. NACA Rep. 1240 (1955). [21] Cary, A.M.,Jr.: Turb~ller~t boundary layer heat transfer and taransition Ine:tsllrcrnet~tsfor cold-wall conditions a t Mncli 6. AIAA J. 6 , 958-959 (I!)G8). 1221 Ccbeci, T., and Smith, A.M.O.: Invest,igation of heat trannfcr rind of sltction for t,rilIltirlg laminar borrndnry layem. J. Aircraft 5, 450 (1968). [22a] Cebeci, T., and ICellcr, I-I. B.: Stability calcrtlations for a rot,nt,ing disk. AGAl1.l)-CP-224. 7 -- l t,o 7 -3) (1977). . . [2:)] Ch:t1)1nnn,G . T . : Sornc effcots of lending-cdgc s\verp in bot~tldnry I:iyrr f.r:~nsilioll:it s1ll)c.r. sonic s p c d s . NASA T N D-1075 (1981). r241 Cole~,I).: Me~qr~rcrncnts tttrbltlent friction on a an~ooth of Ilat plat*, in sn)>crsonir* flow. * J A 8 21, 433-448 (1954). [25] Czarnecki, K.It., and Sinclair, A.R.: An itivestigation of the cffect~ heat tr:~t~sfrr II of 011 ~,arabolicbody of revolution (NACA RM-10) a t a Mach nutnber of 1.61. NACA Rrlt. 1240 i1955). [26] Culnk-Atit,ic, P.: Hitzelml~t-Mcssrl~~ge,~ In~ninnr tnrbrtle~ntcn IJn~scl~lngc~s frc.irr dcs 1,c.i l<onvcklion. .11). FVGI, 19Ii4, 171 - 170 (1905). 1271 Colsk-Atll.ic, P.: I)rcitlirnct~~ior~alc SI.:il)ililiit,sc!r~~:I~cit)ll~t~gcr~ dcs I~ttnin$ir~ ~ r l ) t ~ l c [nIlI I.-( ~ ~ ~ t J scl~lagesbci fraier I<onvcktion I#IIRYriner vcrt.iknlcn ~chciz(.cn Plal,Lc. Sif,zrll~gsl~c~ri~~!~!c 1leielcll)crgcr Akatlcrnic: (lor Wiss. .]It. IO(i2/(i4, 315.- 416, 1loitlolltc:rg (1!)(14). 1281 (jro\vOcr. ll.,J., anel I)nll,e)n, C.: Xl,:~l)ilil,y l'oi~t!~tillc of flow i l l :i lti1tc. . I . C:ftr111~1tl,. l'l~ys. . 7, 12-31 (1971). [29] Colcn, I).: l'rannit.ion ill circnl;~rConct,l,c flow. JFM 21, 385- 425 (I9(i5). [2!)al 1)iI'rirna. It. C., nnrl St,ttnrt,, ,J. T.: Nonlocnl c:N'ect8 i t 1 I,hc si,t~l>ilil~y f1t11r I ~ V ~ ~ I ~a t~, - ~ Y ~ I I of t cenl.rir rot.at,ir~gcylintlcrs. JIFM 54, 3!)3 - 415 (1'372). 129hj I)il'rirna, It. C., ant1 Stuart, J . T.: 'I'he nonlinrnr calr~~ltitiot~ of 'l'ttylor-vortrx flow I J ( ~ I I ~ ~ . ~ - I I eccentric rotating cylintlcrs. .JFM 67, 85 - 1l l (1'375).
z

T h e mm.srirctl jmints r e p r e s e n t obscrved n e u t r a l d i s t ~ i r b a n c evortices at t h e I)o~~n(lary bet,wcc~ticlamping ant1 a ~ n p l i f i c a t i o n .T h c a g r e e m e n t bctwccn t h e o r y a n d e x p c r i t i ~ r r i t is vcry g o o d . 'l'hr t,licory confirms t h e supposition t h a t small velocity c~otnl)onrnt.s t.hc t,n,ngrnl,inl tlircct.ions cnrisc Ilagen-l'oiscnille flow t o I ~ e c o m c n in u stal)le.
~ i i t ' r ~ t . 011 t , I ~ o t ~ l . t ~ r ~ t i i t ~ tf:tcI,or yof l i ~ r g ctlisLurbances p r o p n e z t c d d o w n s t r e a m s i ,ct~~ were performod I)y E. It. L i n d i n t . 1 1 ~inlrt, scsc:f,iott of :L pipe. Siliiilar c x p c r i n i c n t , ~ p r r ~ 11.701 w h o rnatlr I,lic tlist,url)ance visihlc b y t h e use of polarizeti light ant1 a I)~-~.c~f~.ii~gctit,, so111tion of bcntoriitc. IC. R . 1,indgrcn w a s aljlc t o s h o w t h a t wcalc cvrrl st.rorig initial d i s t r ~ r b a n c c sclccay in t h e i n l e t l e n g t h w h e n t h e Reynoltls ilurnhcr of t h e flow ( b a s e d on t h e p i p e d i a m e t e r ) is small. A t R e y n o l d s num1)crs f r o m n l ) o i ~ tR = 2600 n p w a r d s t h e process o f t r a n s i t i o n begins. It i s characterized b y a n amplificatiori of t h e initial d i s t u r b a n c e s and by t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f self-snstaining turI)~ilrr~t flashes w h i c h e m a n a t e f r o m fluid l a y e r s n e a r t h e wall a l o n g t h e t u b c .

T h c preceding pcculi:~riticso f l a m i n a r flows tlirongh pipes forcc u s t o re-considcr tlic rclat.ion b e t w e e n t h o t h e o r y o f s m a l l clisturbances a n d txansition a n d , i n p a r t i colar, t o pose tJic question as t o whctlicr t r a n s i t i o n c a n alwmys b e s a i d to b e d u c t o a n nrnplificat,ion of sn~nll disturbances. N o conclusive a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n c a n at 11rt:scnt b e g i v e n witttiont f u r t h e r w o r k o n tlie beliaviour of small, t h r c e - d i m c n sional disturbances. I n t.1iis connexion i t s h o u l d also b e rcmcrnbcrcd that t h e l i m i t , = 5314 as s t a t e d on p. 480, o f s t a b i l i t y f o r plane P o i s e ~ l i l l cflow which lies at R, c:orisidcral)ly exceeds t.hc critical Rcynoltls n u m b e r for t m n s i t i o n o b s c r v c d i n cl~nnncls. !I'his is inconsistent w i t h t l ~ t h e o r y wliicli a s s e r t s t h a t t-he limit o f s t a b i l i t y c m u s t a l w a y s o c c u r at a lower Reynolcls n u m b e r t h a n t r a n s i t h n itself. I t o w e v e r , a t t h e present, s t a g c of knowlcdgc, a n d i n tlie f a c e of t h o p r e s e n t i n t e r e s t i n t h e subject,, j~iclgerncntm u s t b e reserved u n t i l f u r t h e r results bccomc available. T h e stlal)ilitry of a l a m i n a r b o ~ i n d a r yl a y e r o n a b o d y of r e v o l u t i o n w a s also in\rrst.ig.zt~ctl Ity , I . I't~rtscll [17C,J;in t,his c o i ~ n c x i o nc o n s u l t a p a p r r b y 1'. S. Granville 1821. 111 r a s r s wl~c,r~ rat,io of' bonntlat~y-laycrt.hiclrncss t o curvature is v c r y s m a l l t,lir c:o~nl):irwl n.il.11 ~ i n i t , y t,lic rcsult,ing st.n.l)ilit,y cclr~nt~ion t.hr axially s y m m c t r i c a l , for rasr l)rro~ncs ielc~nt,icalwit.li t,l~at. for t h c I)l:~riccase. llcnc:r, all r r s u l t s ol)t.nincd for t,he Iatt.cr mi1 11c cxt,rntlctl t o a p p l y t o t h e f o r m e r witlioi~t, c s r r v a t i o n . r
References

111 Ahbolt. .J.lI., v o t ~l)ornl~oKA.15., ant1 Stivrrs, I,.S.: Sltrnrnary of airfoil daL7. NACA Il.cl). ~ 2 (1954). 4 [2] Alt,l~n~~n. Sl,tlt,tgnrt.crProfilk:it.alog. Inst. Acrodynarnil~ SI,tlttprt Univ. (19721. I>.: of 1:)) All(: Ilk1 24!)!): 'l'r:itlsi t.ion ant1 tlr:ig rnrasnrct11c.nt8on the 1lonll.ot1I'xrtl sn~nple Inn~innr of flow wing c.or~.rt,r~tc:t.ion. Pnrt I: by . J . H . 1'rcst.on nncl N. (ircgory; J'art 11: by K.W. I<i1111tc.r; l':~rt, I I I : .Joint, I>iscnssion. [:!:\I I{r:t81cy. .l. A,: (!:tlc~~l:lt.iorl f Lhc Inrninnr I,or~ntl:+rylayor nnfl f)rctlict.ion of I.rannit,ion o on n sl~rnrctlwing. Alt(! Ibhl 3787 (1!)7(i); ItAI': 'I'R-7:)150 (1!)74). [4) I ~ j n t ~ ~l.i IS.: lI:lTc(:ts of IL flexible 1)c~tntrlary l~ydrotl~r~ntnic '' n , on nt8nbilily. JFM 9, 513.6.!2 1 I!)(; . I \,. .. .- .. . 151 I$cl~:lrd. 11.: 1,cs to~~rbillonfl cell~tlaires a m nnc tnappc liquidc. Rev. (:en. Sci. I'ure Appl. d 11, 12(il 1271 and 130!9- 1328 (1900). I61 Illootn. M.: 'l'hr rlTrrt of ~ ~ t r f n c c roolll~gon Inntit~:~r honnelxry layer st.al1ilit.y. .JAS 18, lit15 Ii:W ( l!)51 ).
L

646
(:1o]
VOII

XVII. Origin of turbulence

\villrl I I I I I I I I . ~

TI

l)ot.l~l~nll', 15.: Illv~,ntigntiol~ Illo I)olltlclnry h y r r nt~out sy~l~nrrt,ric.al ,\. of n nirfoil it1 n of 101v t11rh11lrn(:r. NAf:A \Vnrt.inlc l(r1). 1, 507 (1940). l:!l 1 I)O~-ISVII, L I I I I ~ ~ ~ S I I ~ ~ I1111 I I I ~ I ~ I l'rofilc~~ 11.: I I ri11ige11I Illit gcri11gc111Wiclrrutnncl it11 I k ~ r r i r I ~ l<l<*i~~c*r ~.,,.\\~(*rl.c, 111, ~ , I I I ' I ~ : I I I ~ I ~ ~ O ~ ~ I~ ,~ 54I . I57 (l!)40). JI). II I I~ 1:$21 v:ul I)ric*st. 15. I<.: ::ooling rc~c~nirotl sl:lljilizt: t.I~c?Inlninar bor~ntlnryInyer on n Ilnt. 1,l;itr:. to ,l,\S IS'. (;!Xi I;!)!) (1!)5l). [3:I[ v:t11 1)rirsi. 11;.I<.: ('nIc~ll:~t.ioll t.11~ of st:ll)iIily of t . 1 ln111i1in.r ~ I101111drtry lnyrr in a. c.onlprrs812 (IfM2). sill l ~ I it i I : I I i t I I r :~i ~ ~ s f t 1 . r I , I [:!,I] ~ ; I I II)~.irst, I<., :IIICI 15. 1Iois011..J.(!.: I ~ S ~ ) I . ~ ~ I I I ( 011I ~ IRO I I I I ~ ~ layer tr:~nsit,ion:it, srlpcr*I I :~~~ sollie: sl)c.rcln. .I,\S 2.1. 885 8!)!) (l!)57). [:I51 vat1 I)ric.sl. 15.11.. :ln:l Rlr(!n~tlry, \\'.I). : I1o111itl:lry Inyrr I.rxllsitiotl on n 10 drgrrt: ronc :it. h1;1c.111111111l1~.r2.HI 11s rllkvlrcl I I c.st.rr\tilo rooling. ,lAS 24. 780 7R1 (I!)57). ~ ~iiyc-r lit, s 41)e*1.(1s. (:I(;( ~ ; I I I I)ri~*sI, I<.. ~ I I II %~~ I I I I ~ ( * I '(.1 . I%.: ~~olll11~:l.I'y t.r;ill~if.io~~ t ~ ~ ) r r s r ~ ~ i i ~ : I*:. , , ~ r ~ ~ c ~ - ~ l ir011g1111rss ~ i o(SI)II~!~IY). 29, !)I)!) --!)I(! Il ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~,lI'rc,l,s ~ ~ : ~ l *I ASS (l!)li2). [:I7 1 V:III I)ric.st.. I<. I < . . :ltrcl IIlrtt~ic~r. I%.:Ilol~~~elnry t~rlin~itiotlIir~!c-~I.re~tn~ (!. liiyrr : 1.11rl111le.11rr o~lcllbrrsntlrcs Rrntlic.~~t, r.lli~rln. Al ,\I\ J . I, I:lO:l-- I:lO(i (1963) HI I)rytlcn, H.L.: Itccrtlt nelvn~~crs t.11~ on n~ccllnlricsof boundary layer flow (R. v. Misen, alltl '1'11. v. Iikr111h11, ~(1.). \ ~ I V : I I Ii lC ~ S ~ l Apl~l.hterl~1, 1-40, New York (1048). [:I!)] I)ryclrn. I I . I,.: Iloviru. of ~)rrl~lisl~erlt : ~ t,llc c h c t of ror~ghnesson transitiol~fro111 d n on ln1nirl:rr to Lnrbule~~t Ilo\v. *Ii\S 20, 477---482 (1953). [40] I)ryclrn. 11. I..: I5HrrLq of ~ O I I ~ ~ I I I Cnnrl sllct,ion on transit.ion fro111 Inn~innrto tllrhlllrrlt SR Ilo~v.1'11111.Sc.icnt. c!t, 'Trrl111.(lr Ali~~islhrer I'Air I'nriu (Sl)JCT)40-60 (ll)54). rl [41] I)ryclrn. I I . I,. : 'l'r~lrlnitionfro111Inn~innr t.rlrlllllc~~t, a t nnhsonic and s~~lwrsonir t,o llo\r. s~,errls I'roc.. (hnfc~rrnrr Ilig11-Sl,ee*el~\rrollnntirs.Nrw York, 1955, 41 -74. on [42] 1)rytlnll, I[. I,.: l t ~ c c n ti,~ ~ v r s t ~ i g i ~ t i tllr ~ s 011 o ~ 11roI)lc111 tirnl~sit,ior~. of ZF\Y 4;89 - 95 (I!)5(;). 1431 I)~IIIII, I)., and I,in, (:.(!.: 0 1 1 1.11c:stn11ilit.yof Llln bou~ldnry \by. layer it1 n conipressihlc Il~tiri. ,JAS 22, 455 --477 (I!)55); scc: :11so Jz\S 2 0 , 577 (1!)53) ant1 19, 491 (I!)!?!). 14.11 I)llllllillg. It. \,\I.. ti~ld UIIII:IIIII, I?. : ICfi.cts r~f 1 : . s\vrop nrirl angle?of nt,tack on bonnrlnry layer tr~llnit,iot~ I I ~ I wings at. M:le.l~ n~rlnl~cr 4.04. NACA 'TN 3473 (1!)55). [45l L)~CIII, I<., nncl Murplly. .I. S.: I'l:lt plnt,c. Iion~~rlary 11. layer LrnrlniI.io~~ hyprrsonic spretln. nt All\A I'nl)rrli5 128 (I!lfi5). 141il I)~~lllct.rintlc~s, Ilypr:rsonic: visc.c~~~s, ~over a slcllder cone. Part 111. I,n~ilinnr instnbil12. : III it.y ;111tlt,r~illsil.io~l.l Ai\ I'til~cr74 KI5 (11174). A [471 l$i:ic.ollis, N.S.. .j:rr\z, .I. 11.. alld \Vi~llic\r.~ki, It..).: I~onllelnryhyCr t.ransition a t Mar11 3.12 NI\CA by c.ooli11g nl~tlnose I I I I I I I I ~ ~ I I ~ . 'l.N 3!128 (1957). [48] ~jivrisl~illn. : ' T l ~ r r c - r l i t ~ ~ r ~ ~ ) (i ~ ~ ~ ~ n l I : i rt,rstlsition on n ullarp 8' cone a t Mnrh 10. V. Is c ~~ y-layer AlAA -1. 8. 852-85(i (1!)70). [4!)J I)o~~glinrLy. .lr., N.S., nntl Slri~llcr, .lr., F.\V.: 'l'rnt~nibionR,cyr~olrls nnrnher ronlpnrisons ill ~ r v r m l nlnjor t.r:tllsonic t.ulll~cls.1\1 AI\ I'npcr 74-627 (1!)74). [50[ vnll I)riont., 15. I<.., allel I%IIIIIIC~, I I O I I I I ~ R ~ Y - ltr~nnit~iont R I I ~ R ~ R O I I sperds: C.B.: ayer a ~P I l o r ~ ~ l ~ clli:rts n ~ ~ r s \vil.ll I~cat. t,mrlsfer. ,\II\A .J. 4, 603-007 (1968). [SI] van \)rirst., I$. It.., a1111Mr(:nltlry, \V. I).: 'Tllr rlTrrt, of rontrolletl t,llree-ditnel~sio~inl rorlgl~. nrss or1 I ~ o ~ ~ n c l lnyrr tra.nsit,ioll at, s r ~ j ~ r r s o tspertln. .JASS 27, 261 -271 (1960). ;~ry ~ic In:![ I)IIIIII. \\I., r i t l ~ lI,ill, C.C.: On t.11~ I). nt:rl~ilit of tllo Inniinnr hotlndnry Inycrit~n y co~nprrsnil~lo (I~ticl..lAS 2". 455 177 (I!MR). ( 5 I . I ,1 1 : I ~ . I I s i i ' i s c ~ ~ 1i r ill i I .. I . 2 218 ( I !)(;!I). (!%;I 1Srte.l, 11.: 'I'l~c?r~~~otly~~n~~~is~~l~r I%rgrii~lil~rng Il,ic.l~nrclsor~ncl~er~r b n l e ~ ~ z k r i t e r i ~ ~ r ~ ~ n . rlrs l'r~ hle~trnrcjl.Z, .56. It)!) (l!l:!!l). 7 1 I I .I . I S ~ I ~ ~ I I I : I t I .f ~ r n ~ i rnt.r~divs the ~t.:il,ilit.ynntl tr:111siti011 .~Ir i r on t,o I . I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ I I (of :I ft.rc~-i~otiv(!t:Lie)~~ Y, I1o111#1nry Inycr. I'relc. of Lllc (:crler~~l I)iscussiol~ Ilcet on 'I'r;t~lsli.r, Scl~t.. I!)5l. 1111I)l. 111nt..Meell. 15ng. London nnd ASMLC. I)y I':vI*I.~I:II.I., 1'. la:.. I I I I ~ I l : t n ~ i l t ~ ~ ~ ~ , E x p c r i l i l ~ ~ i ~ ~ v o s l i g n t iof ~hol~llclary layer II.Ji.: fa1 o ~ t,r:i~lsitior~l i n <!e)olc~l ej 7.5" t~r)l,:~l-n~~glr~ A I ~ , ~ I ' NASA 'TN I> 4188 (l!167). e v 1 1 :~t, 10. Is!)[ I~;vl<t~rt,, I<,. (:., S ~ I C ~ I I I<.,~III II ~, St-l~~~c!iilrr, St.ntIirn z11t11 U ~ ~ i s c l ~ In111i11nrI{. I~ : l'..J.: lag t11~1)llle~nl frrit-11 ~io11v~kti011~stri1llll1llg tIc:r all e*ilirr s r ~ ~ k r e e : l iI'lnLtc. Fifty Ycn,rs of h~~ . I3o11nd:lry-lnvw l<c~sr*:~r('li 'l(ollt~~icn If. (:iirt,lcr, ctl.), 407 -412, 196.5. (\I and IOOJ lCli)il~~r. ' I C ~ ~ I - I ~ I I ~ S ~tI-? ~ ~ ~ ( ~ i nI sI:I I~ ~ I~ (~ ItI 'I r~ IT.: g \ VC I ~ I VOII ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ z ~ 11110i1'rolilt.llrorir. rl~ cl~l,. Zb'\\' S, 2.17 2liO (l!l(iO). l l i l 1 lf;1111Ic~. It..: l , : ~ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ :fiir ~ ~ r ~ f~ l s ~ ~ griissrr nlsl ,i.lOfl.:I I~ ~l, . ~ Il. ~;$,?,~ .2:VJ~ 2,111 ~rl ~ o i c ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ I A c. I I ~ ( l!)l;!l).
-

[62] Fnge, A,, :~nrl Prrston, ,I. 11.: 0 1 1 t,ral~sitioll fro111Ia111in:ir t,o t.r~rht~lc~it, i l l t.lie hc~r~l~elnry flolv Inyrr. Pror. Roy. Soc. A 178. 211 - 227 (1!)41). (.Kt\ l~(*in~IL.(2.: L J I I I C ~ ~ I I ~ : I I I I I I ~ C I I clir Al~l~ii~~gigkcit 11;. iihcr clcn IJn~srI~lngrs ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ n r - t ~ ~ r t ) ~ ~ l ln v o ~ i~ l r r ~ l ~ r r l l i i ~ ~ l ~ r ~ ~ r1111clclcr gl~ ~ r i tr l ~ v c r t ~ c i l ~ ~l3rn1111nrl1\vrig ~ n~~l~i ) r ~ ~ 1)isn. ~ ~ g . l!l5li: ,111. 1!)5li Schiffhn~~t.crl~n. (:cscllscl~nft, -50, 180 - 203 (1!)57). [ORnj Frrnlziel, 1'. N., lanrl:rlll, Al. 'r., n11d I,l~rnlny,I,.: St.rnct,nrc of t,t~rl)rllrnrr c11-;1g an0 r~.cluc.tion. lLJ'l'~\hlS ~ I I I I I Wns11illgt.011, I). C.. 7 - 12 .JIIIIC107fi. 'l'llr I'I~,ynirs of I~'llli(ls20, .. No. 10, l':~rl, 11. 11. S I ~ - 2!)2, l!)77; :iIso I$. A. '~'II~IIII i l l l'rciv. 111trr11.' o ~ ~ g r r s1s I < I I I ~ O S ( i 1 logy. Nort,l~ llollnncl, A~nsterdn~n, Src:t. 11, p. 1:I5. [64] liiscllrr, h1.C.: l'url)~~lont, I)ursL~ n11el r i ~ l g ~ n rtirle in 11rlil1111t Aln = 7.6. I\II\A J . 10, 011 a 1387 l:!S!l (l!l72). rli5[ I~iscll~~r. hl.(!.: A I I ~ ! X ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I ~i ~ :~ \I ~ .cI ~ s l i g of IIi I ~ I I I I I I:l.yvr ~ ~ ~ I I II ;t o~~ , ~ : I tr1111si1io11 :I 10- 11:lIr.' ,181 1i11gIe:~ O I I C I I ~h l : ~ , ~ l ~ NI\SI\ l)-57(ili (l!)70). I;.!). [(Xi[ Vifivllc~r, hl.(.:.. nnrl \ V ~ ~ I I R 1,. ~ ~ -(!OIIC ~ hl.: ~ I I ,l,r:~~~sit~ion~~.l l)f>1111(1;1r~~.I:iyrr~ e ~ l/\I,\I\ .I. nl~rr .~~r~-. 10, I;!)!)- -701 (l!)72). I06nJ (inrg. V.K., n11d Rol~loa~l, W.T.: i,inc:lr spntinl stabi1it.y of ~ripoI'oi~c~~illc .II"BI 54, (lo\!'. 113-- 127 (1!)72). [07] Gol(lntcin, S.: A not,e on r o n a h ~ r m .AlK! Jbhl 1763 (1!):16). [(is] (:olelntein, 8.: 'rile stability of ~ i ~ c : o l l s flllitls ~)rlwccllrolnlilig rylinrIc.rs. I're](.. (!:11111)r. Pllil. Soc. 33, 41--61 (1!337). [fl!)] ( ~ c ~ l ~ l s tS.: iOn , , c ~ ~ t.11~ ul~:il~ilil,y n~~p(!rl)osc*~l of slrr~tnls fl~ai~ls c l i l h c * ~~lcv~sitic~x. of nf ~t l>rt)c;. l<e)y. Sot!. A lJ2, V2:I (I!K!!t). 1701 (:olrlstri~~. I,olv-elrag : I I I ~ ~110Lioll 8.: nirfnils. I1t.h \Vrigllt Ilrotllcrn I,crttlrr). .I,\S 15, l8!)-215 (1!)48). [71] Giirtler, H .: uber tin11 Einfl~~ss Wnl~tlkrii~ilnrrlllg clir ICIIISI~~IIIIII~ I I ~ ~ ) I I I ~ I I % . tier nnf rlvr ' ~ zAsrnr 20, I R H - - - (1!)4o). I~~ [72J (;iirt,lrr, 1.1.: [ h e r ei11e c l r e i d i ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ n il~~sl,:tl)ilit.iiL o r ~ : ~ I c I:t111i11:1rrr( ~ r r ~ ) z s c : l ~ i r la11c ! ~ ~ ~ t 1<r)11knvcli \4~A11clcl1. N~rrllr.Wifis. Cks. CiiLLi~lgell. hlnLI1. 1'11yn. I<l:rrine, NCIIC IFolRc. 2, NO. 1 (I!)JO); ser :tlno ZAMM 21, 250-252 (!!!41). [73[ (:iirt.lrr. ti.: I)rricli~~~r~inion& I~~nl.:~l)~l~Lii.t. (lrr cbrnrn S ~ . I I I I ~ I I I I I / < ~ ~ ~ . I ~ ~ ~ I I I I I grg(vl~iI)t%r wirbrlnrtigr~l St.iirrnlgc11. I7ift.y Yrnrn of I%o~lllclnry-I:iyorI<rsmreh (LV. ' l ' o l l ~ ~ ~ i c ~ ~ ~ nncl 11. (;iirt,ler, rtl.). :JO:t-- 314. J<rnn~is(~l~~vcig, l!)55. 1741 (:iirt,lrr, H.: I)rrirlir~~e~~nio~~nIcu zor St.;i\)ilit.iitnt.hrorie I:tn~iiln.rcr(~rr117.sc~l1ic~l1lm. ZAhlhI . 35. 362163 (1955). 1751 Cra.l~villc,. S. : Tllo rnlor~lnt~ion vinc.or~s 1' of rlrng of bodies of rc:vol~~t Navy I ) ~ ~ I : I ~ ~ , I I I ~ I I ~ ion. The 1)nvitl 'L'nylor Moelel 13nni11.H.ep. No. 84!) (l95:I). [7(i] (>rc.gory, N., a1111\4'allccr, S.: The rll5c.l on t~r:111sit.i011 i s o l ~ ~ tR~I tI l~ ~ I I ~-sc.~(.s~.I.III.('.Y of I . ~ ill tlir honn~l:t.ry Itiyor. AIbC 1bM Id, 436 (I!)T,O). [77] (iregory, N., St,un.rt,,.I.T., and Wnlkrr, W. S. : 0 1t,llo st.:il~ilit.y t.l~rer-~li~nc?~~sio~~;~I 1 r)f I,~IIIII~nry lnyrrs wit11 npplirntion to t.he florv t l ~ ~to. it rot;tting flisl<. I'l~irl. 'I'r:lns.Iloy. Soc:. r I,<)II~OII 24S. I55 \!I9 (1955). A [78J Gnslrr. M.: A note or1 t,hr rolntion I)rt.\rtec~~ Irrnporally-i~~c~~~e:~sir~g : i ~ l c l sl,;rI.i:~lly-i~lc.rt~:~si~~g dintnrhancen in I~yelrodynamicubl)iliLy. .lFM 14, 222 - 224 (lOli2). [78:i1 (:;lnl.nr, hl.: 011 t.hc Roar nlong uwol~t,l r n d i n ~ cclgrn. A(*ro. Qr~nrt,.199, Ili5 1x4 (l!Ni7). [7!)( (:<*l,l~rirl, I~~nt.nl~iliLy. II.: t.rn11nil.io11i ~ l c l I . I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~i l: lI II ~I ~ I~ I I , ~ I I I I ~ ~ ~ - ~ I f10rt.s. ~I I\ I I II I I I : I ~ ; I~III~ ~~ I<.cvic\rfof I'lnid Mc~c:li~rnic:~ VILIII)ykr, e.11.) 5, 213 24li (l!)7:I), (M. [HOJ (:ohllnrt, JI.: N:il,~lrnle!onvec*t,ionflows nncl st~:~l)ilit~y.I V : I I I ( Yi l~l ~Ili~:lt' I ' ~ : I I I S ~ I . ~ !I. 273 A< 344 (1!)7:!). [XI] (:c*l)llnrt, 13.: N:~t.urriloonvcoti~~n flow, i~~sl.:rl)ilil.y tr;r.~lsili~~n. nntl 'I'rr111s. hShll5 SIT. ( I 91, 2!):3 -- :!0!) ( l!)ti!)). 1.821 (:ranville, F. S.: 'J'llr pretlicLiotl of tr:lt~sif.io~l fro111In~ni~lnr t\lrhltlrl~tll01v in I I O I I I I , ~ ; ~ ~ ~ to layers on I~otlirs revolut,ion. Itcp. No. :I!)00 of tllc Nnvril Ship Itrsmrrii nrltl I)~-vrlr,pof I I ~ P I I ~ . r ~ ~ t c I3rlh~?s~Ia, C r, Mnryin,nd, 1!)74. [RRl (:iirt.lrr. H., and Hnsnlcr, 1-1.: Einigc I I C I I ~exl~rri~nentnllrJ c ~ o l ) n c . l ~ t .ii1,c.r ~ g ~ ~ ~ ~ I r ~ ~ cl:ln Auftrrt.e11 von I,iit~guwirl,cln in S t . n r ~ p ~ ~ ~ l ~ < t , s L r iSt:l~iffsIc'rlinil( 20. li7 72 (l!l7:I). i~ii~~~~gt!~~. [84] Gino~tx, J . J . : Itrekl,ilit.6 rlc In couolic lilnite sllr nilrn rtl fl(\cllr:. ZIj'\V 15, :!02 :I05 (I!)(;;). . r851 1jii1111nrrli11, i?her ,Ins E i g c ~ ~ ~ v e r t ~ i rrlrr) il lr r c~ ~ l i ~ ~ ~ t ? ~ ~ n i c ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~ ll ~ ~ ~ i~ i i ~ ~ r t r c r (7.: ol ~ ir l~~st,:il~ilil,ii,t~ :~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ z3.11 ~z~ ~ ~ ~ i nW ~ ~ I l (~l)ins.I~ n I c l ~ k c v~ l i~ I ~ r ~ .Iiroi1)11rg r CI l!)54: .I. l<.:~.t,. hlvc41. AII:I~. 27!) I. :V2l; sc-t. IIIHII Z,\AlAl ,L5, :!Ill; 3Ii7 (l!l55).

M8

XVIT. Origin of t.nrhrtlrt~cc II I1131 I<uethe, A.M.: 011 the character of the instahilily of the Intniniir bortntlnry Iayc>rttcrlr t.ltr nose of a 1)111ntbody. J A S 25, 338--:33l) (IIIRU). [I141 Kcntlall, ,J.M.: S~tpcruoni~ bonnctnry lrtycr st,n.hilit.yo x ~ j ) r r i t i ~ ~ ~ ~ I .1301111tli1t.y l>ro(>.~ . ImYrr Transition S t ~ t d y (:ronp Mcctitrg (W. I). h4cC:utlcy, ctl.), II. AC~ORI~IL(.C (!:;I., l!iIi7. or^).. [I 151 Kendall, t J . M.: Wind trnntol cxpcrin~entR relating to s~tporsonio ant1 I~yl)rrstini~ 1)onntlarylayer transit,io~~. A1AA d. 13. 290-2!)!) 11!)75). , [I101 ~ b s c l ~ n ~ i e d e r , 'raylor vortices bcLn.ccn eccentric cylitlclcrs. I'l~yn.of I'lrtirls 19, 1 --4 E.L.: 1197fl\ . ,- ., . .,, [1171 I<rogntat~t~, An expcrimcr~l.al invrstignt,ion of I:i~nin~ir :.'l and L r ~ i ~ ~ s i l ~IiDoL~ .~ ~ i l I I ~ t.r1111sf0r to n sl1ar11slen~ler cone a t Mam = 5, irtcl~~tlir~ clt'ccts of angle of aLt.nc:lc 1111tl cirnt~~~~fi:r(.t~t,i:il he:lh t,ransfcr. 1)iu. I ~ r a a n r h w e i g1975; A ~ A A I'aprr 74 028 (1!)74); s(!(: lkls,, Z I ~ \ I 101 - I15 (l!j77). [I 17e] l<iiche~nnnrt, S t , o r t ~ ~ g s b e v ein ~ ~ n GassLriitnr~ng D.i g ciner tnit (:rct~zs~:I~icl~t. (:iiLbittI)iss. get1 1938. ZAMhl 18. 207---222 (1938). [IIX] I<ml,itt. ,I., and Wootl, R.T.: 0 1 1 l.lto sL:il)ility of t\vo-di~t~(?~~siot~r~.I r .lIo\v. ,J lghl rItig~t~ ti~~~ 44, 461 --479 (1970). [I191 I<nye, J.. and Elgnr, E.C.: Modes of adilibatic nntl dinbntic flrtirl flow in :LII ~ I I I I I I ~ Iwit.11 I~ innrr rot,ating cylintlcr. Trans. ASMIC 80, 753- 765 (IMH). [I201 I , n ~ ~ ~ l r M.T.: 0 1 1 I,IIc nl,nl)iIil,.yof n I:~rnin~ir i c . o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r i : s ~ i l l~r.,yrr w r 11 lit-xil~lv il~l, i~ lio1111t111t.y ~ ~ ~l o fIll~flb('1~. h! I:], l;o!) (!:I2 ( l!llP2), la' [I211 L:~ufcr, J., and Vrc*baloviclt,'1'11.: St,:~.l)iliLy tr:it~niLir)nof IISIJJ)C~HOII~(: I ~ O I I I I < ~ ~intl 1:1111in:ir ary layer on a flat pl:iLe. ,JI'M 9, 2~7-2!i!) (1960). [I221 J,rcn, L., and Lin. C.C.: 1nvmtignt.ion of t l ~ r nt.al)ility of t.110 liin~ittarI)o~tntl;~ry I;ryrr it1 a compressible flnid. NACA TN 1 I15 (1946). [I231 Lees. L.: The st,nbility of tlrc lntnirlnr bo~tndarylayer in a con~prcssible flo~v.NACA TN 1360 (1947) and NACA Rep. 876 (1947). [124] Lees, I..: Co~nmenta n the "Effect of surface cooling on Int~~innr ~ n c i a r y - lsL31)iIityw. o b~ a~~r JAS 18, 844 (1951). r1251 I ~ i t e , J.: AII exl~critnetltaIinvestigation of tile k t a b i ~ i t . ~ I'oinenillc HOW. . I I ? ~ I5, 1%. of 81 --:I6 ( 1959). [I261 Lessen, M., and Gangwani, S.T.: EfTect of wall at~lall amplit~tdc ~vnvinrss t l ~ c OII sl,ability of the Ian~inar bortt~dnrylayer. Phys. Plnids 19, 510-5L3 (1976). [126a] Lessen, M., and Singh, P. J.: The stability of nxisyrntnetric free shmr Iayrrs. .j lghf 60, 433-457 (1973). [12Gb] Lessen, M., Singlt, P.J., and Paillct, 1g.L.: Stabilit,y of n trailing line vorhx. I'art 1: lncisvitl theory. JFhf 65, 753-763 (1974). [126c] Lessen, M., and Paillet, P.L.: Stability of a trailing line vortrx. Part 11: Viscorts ~ I ~ c o r ~ . JFM 65, 769-779 (1974). [I271 Liepmann, H. W.: Investigations on latnitlar boundary layer stabilit,y and trnr~sitior~ 011 curved boundaries. ARC ItM 7802 (1943). [I281 Lieptnann, H.W.: Inveatigatiotl of boundary layer transition on concrive ~r,;~lls. NACA Wartime Rep. W-87 (1945). [I291 Lieptnann, H. W., and Fila, G.H.: Invrst.igations of efl'ect o f n ~ ~ r f a te~nprrnturc> sittglc ce n111l roughness e1ement.s on boundtcry layer transition. NrlCA TN 11!)6 (1947) and NACA It(!p. 890 (1947). [I301 Lindgrcn, 1C.R.: Liquid flow in tubes I, I1 ant1 I l l . Arcl~ivfiir I'ysilc 15, 97 (1!)69); 15, 3 (1!350) and 103 (1959). [I311 Linkc, W.: Ubcr (fen St.riitn~tngs\ridrrstllndcir~crIicl~eiztct~ cl)c~nctt 1'lnt.t.c. l , ~ ~ f ~ , f ; ~ l t r t fors~111111g 157--160 (1942). 19, [132j I,ntlwicg. )I.: St.nl)ililiit (lor Striint~tt~g cin(!tn zylintlriurl~(!t~( , ~ I I ~ ~ I IZI+VI I . 1:)s in J I I I ,ST 140 (l!)(;O). [13:1J Ludwicg, 1-1.: Ergiinzung zu tler Arbcit. "St.nl)ilit,iit tler St,riitnnng in citte~t~ sylinclrisc:l~c!~~ Itingraum". ZFW 9 , 35'3-361 (1961). [I341 Lndwieg. H.: Experi~nentcllc Nachpriifung der Stabilitiibt.l~oorienfiir reibungsfreir Striimungen mit scl~m~~bcnlinienformiger~ St,rotnlinien. ZFW 12, 304-309 (1964). [I351 I,anfcr, ,I.: Factors nffeoctittg transitsinn ltrynolds ~ntntl)crs tnodeln in s ~ ~ l ~ r r s r ) n i ( ~ 011 rvintl tunnels. JAS 21, 497-498 (1964). [I361 I,ar~fcr, J . : Aerodynnntic noise in supersonic wit111 t.nnnrls. JASS 28, 685 l;!)2 (I9til). [I371 Laufer, J.: Some atati~t~ical properties of thc pressure field ratliated by a tnrbrtlcnt bortttctary layer. I'hys. Fl~tidu7, 1191--1197 (1964).
\ -

[ ~ ( II J S I I I I I I P(1.: ~ I I .111stnl)ilit,iit~stl1corir ebenen Sln~~l)unIctst~rii~i~r~ng. ~ ~ ~ Znr drr J'ifty Years of Ilo~~nclnry-lnyrr I1encnrc-11 (\V. l'olln~irn ant1 11. (2iirtler. cd.). 315-327 (1955). I871 tJ:irri~t,15.N.: I\ (liglit ir~vcstignt.io~~Irr~ninnrant1 I , t l r l ) ~ ~ l r ~ ~ t of I)o~~n(lnry In.gcrn pnwing througl~shoc.k wnvrs a' frill-rralc H~y~iol~lu-11u111I)crs. 'l'N :305li (195:)). N:\(:r\ [RR) l l a ~ ~ s n ~ n n\\I.:. FI~~gn.cltr l'echnik. Ziirirh 4 , 17!) (1!)42). nn nncl [$!)I Ilmd. M.11.: 'Tho I)o~~ntl:rry Itiyer wit,l~~listribnlcrlr ~ r r t i o l ~ . t\I<(: 11M 2783 (1955). I!)()\ . llrrtrl, 11.: St,r~tItt.tlr, lportn. llc\vrg~tt~g. Srrirs: 13ir)logi(> IIII(I l'rcl~t~ilc, l<ra~~nskol~f-Ver. lag, M:rinz, I00 1!)5, I!)(;:!. [!)I] Iliggins, IL.\Y., ant1 Pnppnn, C.C.: An cxpc.ri~~~c.~~t;~l itivcsl,igaliot~of thr rfTrc.t. of srtrftice l ~ c ~ t ion 1,ortntlnrv Invrr tr:rnnit.ion on n f1:it plntc? in snprrsonic Ilon.. M;\(:rl 'l'N 2351 t~e " . (l!)51):' [!I21 Ilols1,cin. (1.: hlcnsrtngen zur I , : ~ ~ n i ~ ~ a r l ~ tlor tlZc:il~rt~~gsscl~irl~t,. :~l ~tng I.ilicr~t.hal-llrric.l~t S 10 17- 27 (1!)40). (931 tlrtnng, I,. hl., nnd ('hen, 'l'.S.: St:~l~ility tlrvelol)ing pipe flow snbjrctrtl t,o no11-nxisynlof tnrtricnl rlist~~rl)n~rcc~n. 8.1, IS:! I!):! (1!174), scr also 1'11yn. Iflnicls 17, 245- -247 (1!)74). .I lchl 1!)4] Van Ir~grtt, I,.: A snggrst.ec1scvni-cntl)iric;~l ~ ~ r t lforothe ralcrtlntion of t,l~e J. ~ ~ rl bonndary I;~ver traclsit.iot~ region. 'l'echn. Univ. Uc1). of :\eronnutics. I)elft,. Report V.T. H. 74 (1956). 19.51 Jnrk, .I. Jt., and I)iaror~is,N.S.: \':irintion of bonntlary-lngrr transition ~ v i t heat tmnsl~ frr on l,wo borlier of rovolrttion a t a Mach nntnhcr of :1.12. NACA T N 3562 (IDRR). (901 .Jacobs, 13. N., ru~tlShcrn~rin, A\.: Airfoil nc:ction rl~~~r:rrLrriuLirs rtnbctr.tl I'g vnri~ilionn as of the ILeynoltlnnun~bcr.NACA TJt 5Mi (1!):!7). [97] Jcffrcys, 11.: 'I'hc insLabilit.y of a lager of flnid hentcd below. Phil. Mag. 2 , 83:i-844 (1926); see also I'roc. Jtoy. Scc. A 118, 1!)5-208 (l!Y28). 1081 Jones, 13. hl. : I?ligltt expcritnenLq on the bortndnry Inyer. \\Irigllt Brctl~ers1,ect.ure. J A S .5, 81- 102 (l9:!8); also Aircrnft 1':ng. 10, 135--141 (1938). 1991 Jones, 13. M., nnd Head, M. R.: The red~rc:tiottof drag by distributed suction. Proc. Third Anglo-An~erican Aero. (:onference, llrigl~tott109-2330 (1951). [I001 .Jack, .J. It., and I)iacot~is, S.: Vnrir~Liottof bo~tntlery-layer N. t.ransition \vit.h heat transfer on two hodics of rcvol~~biont a Marh ~n~rnlrcr 8.12. NACA TN 3562 (1955). a of [I011 ,laclc, ,I. It., \Yisnic\vski, Jb. .I., ant1 I)iaconis, N. S. : Effcctn of extrcn~c ~ ~ r f a c e s cooling on I)ortndnry Ingcr t.ransitiott. NACA 'I'N 40!)4 (1!)57). [I021 Jillir, l).Mr., ant1 Ilopltins, E..T.: 15fli~c.t.s hfaelt-n111111)er. of leading-edge blunt,ncss and swrep on hont~ctnr,y-layc:r transil.iotr nn rr. flat. j)lntc. NASA 'I'N 1)-1071 (1M1). [103] .Jor~rs.W. P., llnd I,nu~~tler. I<:.: 'l'lte prcrliction of lantinnrizat~ion 13. with a two-equation n~oclrl t.rtrhulo~rc. t1e;it. and h1:lss 'l'mnsfcr 15, 3301 -314 (1!)72); see also JIpM 5 6 . of .I. 337 - - 351 ( l!)72). [lO4j .I;tlTc. N.A., Okntnrrra. T.'r., and SntiL11, A.M.O.: l)etermination of spatial amplification fachrs : I I I ~ tl~cir applir.ation to ~)rcclicfingt,mnsition. ATAA J. 8, 301 .-308 (1970). /I051 1<11y, J.M.: 13onntlnry layer flow along n flat, plnt.e wit11 uniform suct,ion. ARC Ithf 2628 . ( l!)48). [I()(;] liircl~giisnnrr,K.: I)ir InstabiliLiit rler St,rii~nung zwischen zwei rotierendcn Zylindern gcgrtiiil,rr 'I':rglor\virbcl~~ belicbigo Sl~nlt,breiten. fiir ZAMP 12, 14--30 (1961). [107] I<irrl~~iuunrr, 15inign I%rinl~ir:lc St.nl)ilitiitx+tl~coric St~riitrt~rngert korllcavcn I<.: znr volt an untl cr\viirniIrn \Viintlen. 111g.-Arclt.31, 115-124 (1!)62). 1107n.J K lcl)n.t~olT,. S., and Tidst,rom, I<. I). : Mechanisn~hy which a two-dimet~sionnl 1' roughnew olctnenl. in~lnrm ) o ~ ~ n d a In.yer tmtisit.ion. I'liys. of I'l~titls ,5, 1173- 1188 (1972). I ry [1071)] I<lcbnnoff. 1'. S.,'l'idut.roln,I<. I)., and Sargent,. J.: The threc-di~ncnsiond net~zrc boundof ary 1:~yrrinstxlI)ility. ,I PM 12, 1 -34 (l!)r,2); see qlso JIZS 22, 80:)-804 (1!)55). I1081 I<orkcgi. 1t.lI.: 'rrnnsit.inl~st,ntlics and rlcirt-friction ~ncn.sttre~nct~l.s nn insnlntatl flat, on pinto at. t i M1ic11 ~nttnl)cr 5.8. .JAS 23, !)7-- 102 (1!)5(\). of [IO!)] I<riinlrr, I<.: Ill)c~r Wirknng vort St~olpc~rrlriilttcn den C.ret~z~cl~icl~tutnnr,ltlng. clic! nuf ZI7M' 9, 20- 27 (I!Nil). 11101 I<ranter, M.O.: Ilortntlary I:ryer stnl)ilization by,'distrihnted damping. J. A~ner. Soc. Navnl 15ng. 72. 25-33 (1960). [I 1 I ] Iiriigor. 11.: t)hcr (Inn I':ittl111~~ Abs:i~~gnng die Lage der IJtnscl~lng~Lellc Tragdcr auf an . fliigclp~~olilct~. Ing.-Arcl~. 384--387 (1!)51). 19, [I121 I<iit:l~nnt:rn~~, St.iirr~ngnl~ewrpungen ciner Ganstriitn~rnglnit Orenzscl~irht.ZAMM I).: in IX. 207- 222 (I!):!H): l)iss. (1iittingen I!):!H; sre also note hy H . (:iirtler, ZAhfM 23, 179183 (l!)43).
~

,,*

550

X\'ll. Origin of t,11rh111rnrc TI

Itefcrences

551

(I:18\ I,:~nirr. ,I., nntl Mnrtc, .I. I:.: lksrrltn n ~ ~ n lcriticnl c\isrrrssion of trnnsition-1loy11olclst I I I I I I I ~ I)I(I:~~Y L S I I ~ ~ I I I ~ I I ~ ~ S ~ ~ l i ~ronrs nntl llnt plntrs in st~l~ersonir on i n s trd n.incl tunnrln. Jet, Propnlsion I.:rI)., 1'11sntlc:nn. (:;rlif.. I < ~ o20--!I0 (I!J55). . [I391 I,:~r~fc:r, . . n.nrl Vrrl)nlot,iclr, 'I'.: Stirhili1.y:~nrl J t.rnnnitio~~ n s~~prrsonic: of Inn~innr 11o1111clnry 1nyc.r on :i flirt. plntc!. .l1'1\.1 9 , 257- 2!)!) (I!)tiO). 11401 I,&R, L.: 1'110 nt.:rl,iliLy of t,llc I:In~innr1)01111clnry Inyrr in n con~prwsil)lcflow. NI\C:II TN I:%(iO(1947) and NI\(!I\ I<cp. 87(i (1947). [ I41 1 l,rrn, I,., n11t11,in. C.C.: l ~ ~ v r s t ~ i g : ~ l , ito ~ ~ of . 1 nl.:il~ilil~y t,l~r ~ of 1n.111innr 1101111clnr.v I:ryrr in n ot~n~lircssil~lt~ NACA 'I'N I l l 5 (1!)4(i). Iluitl. 11421 IL: OF r sniI~Ic Inycr. J I'M . . 1r.m. I.., nn11 l<.t~uI~olko. SI.l~.l~ilily t.l~r o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r r 1nnli11n.r0o1111clnry 12, 655.- 6!)0 (I!lli2). [I431 1,irlln1:11111. \V.. :tncl I'il:~. (:.: Invrst ig:tI ions of rn'rrt. of s ~ ~ r f ntrtnl)crat.trrr nntl xinglr I I. rr ~ O I I ~ ~ I I I I . S * I ( * I I I ( * I I I ~ I I 11o1111~111ry-l:i~(.r X ~ ( N,\(!,\. 'l'N I I!lli (1!1.17) rind N.\(!:\ 11.(?11. IS O II.:III ~OII

..,.,.,.
(1451 Linkc. \If.: (Il,cr tlrn Strii1nt111gswitlrr4t;1nfl riner bel~eiztonr b e ~ ~ cI'lnttr. 1,nftfnhrt. n f ~ r s c l ~ ~ ~ n p -- lti0 ( 1!)42). 1.9, 157 [I461 l,r~~vvll, I,., nntl I<rfil~ot.kn, Nr~n~crir-:~l 11.. 15.: nt.1111yof t.11~ utnhilit,y of n I~cntrtl,wntnr k)ortntlary Inyer. 1)iv. I'lnitl. Tlrer~nnlnntl Acre. Sci., (I:~.se \\'rstern lteserve Univ., CleveI ~ I I ~Ol~io,l<.rp. ITl\S-'l'It 7:l---!I:! (l!)74). . [I471 1,loytl. J . It.. nnfl Sl~nrro!~,:. hl.: 0 1 1 t l ~ instn1)ilit.y of nntnrnl ron\.rct,ion flow ~ I inclinetl 1' r I plntn!~. ,I Fhl .12. 4lM-- 470 (1!)70). 11481 L o s s r ~ ~ . Sncllrr, S.. nntl I,in. ''\. M., l.': Sl:~l,ilit,yof pipr I'oiscnillc flo\v. l'hyn. F l ~ ~ i d s 11, I404 l40!) (l!)li8). flon nnrfn,c.cn. I'ror. Roy. Sor. 114!)I. Mrlts\,~~. St:~l)ilit\ visro~~.; ovrr roncnvr rylindri~~nl I).: . A 2fl,?. 253 265 ( I!)kO). ( 1501 hlic,l~rl. It..: ICt.uclr clr 1 t.mnsit.ion S I I ~1 . profilm ~l'nilr;i.t.:lhlissc~~~rnt rrit*re de : r cn d'un tl6bor111in:rt.io11 r)oint tlr Ir:rnsition ct. onlcnl cte la tmin6e dc profil en incompressible. tlrl ONICI<A lt:~lq)(>rt. '1/1578 1 (1951). 4 [I511 Alnck. I,. M.: (!otnpc~tnt,io~~t,llc stnl~ilit,y t,llc In~ninnrrotnpressihle bor~nrlnrylayer. of of hlcll~oclnin ( ! ~ I I I ~ I I I ~ I I ~ ~ (I%.t\ltlrr, cd.) 4. 247--299, Academic Prew, 1985. Pl~ynivs~ I I ~ [I521 hl:rr.lc, 1,. hi.: 'l'l~r st.nl,ilit,y of t l ~ ~.nn~l)rr~sil)lc r 11rrni11nr Ilo~~ndnry according to n direct lnyer ~ ~ ~ ~ t n c r io ln l~ t i o A(:Alll)Ogrnpl~ !)7. l'nrt I, 483 --SO1 (1005). s c~ n. [IR:l] Mnrlz. L.M.: 1~011ndsry lnycr ntnltilit,y t.llrory. .let Prol)nlsion l ~ b . Pnandcnn,Cnlif., Rep. , !)oo - 277 (~!)cin). [I541 hlnrk, 1,. M.: I,inr:~rslnt)ilit.y tl~cory nntl 1 Ilr prohlrnt of nupersonic boundary-lager transilion. i\IAtI .I. I.?, 278---281) (l!l75). ll55j M:tvk. 1,. M.: A I I I I I I I ~ , ~ ~ ( . :tnt-tl~otl t l ~ r I~ for prrclirtion of higl~-nprcd I>o~~ndnry.lnyer tmnsi~\ni l, n ;\tlvnncctl tio~~ 11si11g linr:~r 111i*ory.I'roc.. ('onl. O I I r \ r r o t l y ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~ nc y ~ r H~r111iring ( ' O I I I I ) I I ~ < * ~ S ,N,\S;\ Sli-:!47 (11175). I ITilil hlntltl:~lon. I). V.: 15fl'rvt I I vnrying anll trlnprraturc nntl totnl ternperntrrre on trnnsition ~ Ilry~~olcls r111111brr hlnrl~(i.8. A ~ I \ ~ \ 7, 2:155-2357 (1!)0!J). nt ,I. 11571 M:I(III:II~II. \I., :111rlIlr~~rlrrson, I). T.,\.: llypcrsn~~it: trnnnitio~~ ~1.11dirn n fllrnrlrr ronc on I ~ 1 1 1 1:lllgl~ 1 1 1 t i \ \ . 6 7 - 177 (I!)(i$). I 1581 M:~rvin..I.(:., :1t1t1,\kin, ('.Al.: (:o~nl)inrtl rl1i:c:ts of nlnss n<lrljtior~ nosr I~luntnt~ns nntl on O o ~ ~ ~ ~ ( l i ~ r yI- li : ~ y f t i r ~ ~ . r ~ n s i ~ o AIi\t4 <I. 8 , 857-8ti3 (l!)70). [l5!)l h1ntc.c.r. (2. (:.: lClli!(*t of ~vallrooling nntl nngle of nt,tn.ck on bo~rntlnry-layer tmnsition on s l ~ : ~ rc.o~~c.s~ hl .. - 7.4. N..lS:\ 'I'N 1)-li!)tlX (1!)72). l> : t I lliO] hlorltovin. Al. \'.: (:riIirnI c \ ~ n l r ~ ~ t iofr tr:~nsitionTron~lnnlinar to L~~rbrtlrnt layers o t shenr a-it11 c ~ ~ ~ l ) l ~ ~ t s Ii I ~ y l ) r r s o ~ ~ i ~trnvelling I~otlies, Air Force l'liglit I)gt~nn~it-s :II s :~IIy Lnb., \ Y r i g l ~ t - l ' a t t ~ ~ Air ~ ~ ~ I{:ISP,Ol~io,'rl< 1%- 14:) (l!)09). r s c IT(>rvr IItil] h l t ~ ~ ~ r r ~ t r . nncl .losrlrl~,I). I).: \'inro~~s II.I<., inromr~#rssihlc flow betxveen concenfrio rotnling spl~rrrs.l'nrt I: l{nsic fIo\v. .llchl .I!), 285) - :304 (l!)7l). [lli!I ~ I I I I I S I ~ I I . nntl .Iosrpl~, I).: I'isror~si~~con~prcssihle I,ct.\vrrn con(-rnt,rirrotating I!. I<.. I). flow spl~rrcs.1':trI 11: lly~Iro~lyn:~niic. sInl)ilily. JPhl .I!), 30.5 .:!I8 (1!)71). (Ili:ll ~ I I I I I S O!. I II<., : I I I ~ Ih l c n g ~ ~ l ~ ~ r l zV ~ S ~ Oi I I(R o ~ n p r r ~ s iflowr bet,\vcrn ronrentrir rotnI , M.: , n * l~l Ling s j ~ l ~ r r r s . 1':lrt I l l : I,inrnr stn1)ility and expori~nc.nts. .Jl'M 6.9, 705-71!) (1!)75). (lli4l hln~.kro<lt. I'.,\.: SI:rbilitRt volt llnge~~.l'~,is~~~~illr-S(rii~~~~~~~g~~~~ stnrrrr nit iil~rrl:~grrter Ilot.:Itiot~.hlil I . Rl:~xl'l:~nc.lt. lt~stilI I I'iir Sl,rii1111111gnft)rsc'111111g No. 55, (:iittingr~~ I nntl 1\\.1\ ' (I!)? 1 ): srt- nlso Ztlhl hl 5.3. 'I' 1 1 1 1 I 12 (l!li:%).

I1651 Mackrodb, I'.A.: Stabilit,y of Ilngcn-l'oinouille flow wit11 ~ ~ ~ p o r i n ~ l ~rigid t lrot,nt,ion. onr J J W 73, 153--104 (1970). [l(iG] Michel, It.: I)Btcrrni~~ntion point de trnnaition el. cnlrrll d r In t,rilit~i.cal c ~ cl11 r profiles tl'niles en inconrprcuail~lo. ONISltA l'r~hl. No. 58 (lffi2). (1071 Nncl~tal~ei~n. ll.lb.: St,nbilit.y of Llle free convrct.in~~ ho~lt~dnry lnyrr flow. N,\(:,I 'I'N D 208!l (1003). IIRRJ Nnmsiml~n.It., nntl Srncnivnnnn. I<. R..: R.r:l:rr~~inn.riznLio~~ in 11igl1l-j ncrelrr:rt,ctl t , ~ t r l ) ~ ~ l ( : ~ ~ t Irot~nclnryIc~j~rrs. ,llV~ll i l , 417 447 (1!)7:1). [IC,!)] I'rkcris, (:.I,.: St.nbi1it.y of t.11~ lnnrinnr Ilo\rp through n nl.rnigl~t, pillc in infinit~c.in~:~l dist . ~ ~ r l > n n ~lc~ i r nrr syn~t~~cl.rirnl I I I P nxis of l.l~c u' q l~ 111>011t. pil)c. I'ror. Nnt,. A(.lrtl. Sri. \V~~:il~ington 3.1, 285 (1!348). ll7Oj I'icsr(!y, N. 11. V., : I I I ~ l < ~ i c l ~ t ~ I{.~G.:'1'11~ vnri:tt,iot~ velocity : I I I I ~ I I ~ I ~ I I~ ~I I ~ X V 1.0 I,II; r ln~~~~, of PFIII~I':I~(! ~a,yli~~tk*r of 11. 111ovi11g l,11ro11gl1 V ~ R < . ~ I I S :r I111id.l ' l ~ i l . k l : ~ (i,!I70 !)7li (l!l2S). ~. [I71 I l'irrt.y, N. A. \I., : L I I ~ l < i ~ ~ l ~ ~ r r ~ J ~ o t ~, ,I I ~ I I I I I I * I I l~l ~I!' r c ~ oft :I 1)otIy tnr~vingI I I ~ o I ~ ~ I I I(. (:.: '1'11~ I i ~ :r vinvot~sI111itl.l'l~il. hl:~g.!. 10:lH- Ill41 (l!l:lO). ) (1721 I'otlrr, J . I,., nntl Wl~it~licltl, U. : Enkclo of slight. ~ ~ ol,l11111,11ttss r o ~ ~ g l ~ n r s1)o1111r1J. sc :111t1 011 s ary lngcr brn~tsit~io~t in s~~porsonic flown. JIPhl 12, 601 -5:)R (I!)(?!). 11731 I'ranrltl. I,.: J':i111111na~ ~ ~ l ~ i l i s i c rI<rii.ftcIw~ I (lie ' ~ I ~ I P I I II,rrt,~~rrn : I ( * ~ ( , ( ~ ~ I I I I I I I ~ ( . R s c~r~l I ~ ~ ~ I I Z . 011 nntl rclntcd liel(ls, ~ \ n o l ~1!)2!), ,1- 10: 1lrrli11, I!I:lO: noc ILIHO (:o11. WorIis 11, 778 785. r~~ [I741 I'rnndtl. I,., :in(I ltrirl~:~rrlt,, lCinIl~t.u~ El.: VOII L \ ~ r i r ~ ~ ~ c s c I ~ i c ltlir ~l~C i g ~ ~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ l ~ n11f ~ t ~~~g cincr l.~rrl~ulc~nten Sl.rii~n~lng. 1Porncl11111g 21, 1 10- - 121 (I!):l4): see nlso ('011. \Vorku 1)t. No. I 8 85.1. (1751 1'rn11~II.l. Ilrricl~tiil)rr nrt1rrc ~ I I I ~ ( : ~ S I I C ~ I I I I iil)rrI d : ~ s I,.: I~~: I \'(TII:III~II I : I I I I ~ I I : I ~ ( ~ I I Iki. (lrr b~~r~gs~l~iic~t~,'inshc~qo~~tlcrc i 1 1 n r - t ~ ~ r h ~ ~ l r r ~ t c ~ ~ h1it.t. (11.. i\k:~tl. l ~ ~ f t tlrn I n 1 1 1 (J~nscl~ln.g. I:~l~rtforncl~~cnc (I!)42\. 2. 141

11771 ~ r c t s c l l .J.: Ubrr (lie Strrllilitiit tler I , n r ~ ~ i ~ ~ n r s t r i i ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~g r r n t l c ~l~o l ~ r , in c i n r n ~ l 111if Iireisfiirn~igrn~ Qt~crnrl~nitt,. Zt2hIM 21, 204- 217 (I!l41). [I781 l'rrtx(:l~, <I.: 1)ic Stnbilit.it einrr (:II~IICII~ I I I ~ I I : L ~ S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I11ri~ l)r~~rl<gcfiill~~l)r~~c'ltI, III ~ 111111 anstirg. ,Jh. tlt. Li~fl.fnl~rt.forsch~~~~g (1041). I,58 -75 [17!)] I'rctnc.l~. .I.: I)ic Anfnchnng innt.nl)ilcr S(.riin~ungcn cinrr Inn~innrcnI < r i l ) r ~ ~ ~ ~ s s r l ~ i C . I ~ t . in ,111. dt,. I,r~ft.f:rhrtforscltq 1. 64-7 1 (11142). [IRO] I'rctsch. .J.: Un~scl~lngbrgir~n Al~nnng~~ng. dl. I , r ~ f t . f : ~ l ~ r l I ' o r ~ c ~ lIu ~ 7 ~ g uncl .]I). I. ~ (I!)42). [I811 I'ntc, S.R.: C ~ I I ~ ~ I nntl I I ~ S M I I ~ cnrrcl:~t.ionnof tmnsition lby~iolcln~rr~~nl)crn sll;crl, ,111 slet~tfcrcones a t 11igl1sl)cotls. Ali\i\ .I. !I, 1082--10!30 (1!)71). 11821 Patn, S.lt., and Grot11. IC.IE.: l301111rIi~ry-lnycr tr:rnniLion I I I ~ - : L ~ I I ~ C I0I1 I ~s\vrl)t wings 1 I ~ ~ ~ wit11 supersot~iclentling etlge. A I A I Z .I. 4, 7:17-'!:38 (I!Jfili). [I831 l':~tr, S.It., ancl S r * l ~ ~ ~ c l e r , 1\11invmt,ignt.ion of r:~clintr.tlncro~lynnn~i(: (.!.,I.: noinn ~:llt'tsO I I bo~~nrlnr,y.li~yc.r tr;~nsiI.irn~ R I I I I ( ~ ~ S O I II/I~ : ) ~ ~ R O I I \vi11<1 I I I I I I I ~ I S . in :II ~ I ~ I ~C ,\I:\,\ -1. 7, 450 457 (I%;!)). [I841 Potter, ,I. I..: Olisrrvntionx on lllc i n f l ~ ~ r nof :LIIII)ICII~. prcsnurc 0 1 1 I ) ~ ~ ~ ~ t t I : ~ r yLT:III- c r rr -li~y sit.ion. AI AA .I. 6 . 1!)07 - 1011 (I!)liH). [186] I'ottcr, .l.l,., nntl L\'l~itfic~lrI, I).: ICni~,ts 1111it .I. of I~~cJ'IIoI~IH tr111111)rr. ~ ) I I I I I I . ~ ( . H S : I I I ( ~ IIOS(. ro~~gl~nc!ns I ) O I I I I I ~ : I ~ , V 1:tyt.r lr:t~~siIion. on A(:I\I<J) l<t!l), 250 (l!)(ill). (1871 L'oLlor, J. L., nntl N'l~itlicltl,.J. I).: I%orr~itl:~ry-1nyc.r lr:~r~siIion~ ~ l cI~ypcsrsonic ~ lor c:r~nrliLi~~~s. A(~~\IlI)ogr:tpI~ l'art 3, l --GI (l9ti5). !)7, [I881 l'ctllcy, 'T..l.: 0 1 1 t.11~ in.stnl)ilit,y <of \,isco11s ~ I O W i l l n rnl~i(lly rot:~ting~lipv. ,lI"hl 3:;. !I7 116 (l!l(i!)\. [18!)] I'ntctl, It.(!.. : I . I I ~IIci~(l, hI.R.: I<cvrrsion of l ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l cI:i~~~in:rr ,II:Al 31, :lit :$!I2 to n t flow. (I!)fiS). [19OJ lr)r(I l<nylrigl~: On ronvc(-tio~~ r r c ~ ~ in :I l ~ o r i z o ~ ~lt;:~ y r r I111icl \ ~ I I ( % I I tlrc 11igI11,r cn ts ~ l of t e ~ ~ ~ p c r n t ~ I~t.11~ is ~ I Ir c 1111(lrrsi(1~. bli~g. V2!l ( l!)lfi) or Srirnlifir 1':tpcrs 6. 4X2 --441;. 1'11iI. 32, [I!)I] h r t l Itirylrigll: 011 elyn:tn~ic<s rrvolving f111ids. t11r of l'roc.. I l o Soc. A 9.3, 148 l5,t (l!ll(;); ~ rr~,rintorlin Scirntilic. I'nncrs.. fi.. 4.17 -45:1. ~, !1!)2j I<icl~:~rclson.1'. : 'l'llc s111)l)ly r:nvrgy fro~n I,. of nntl lo :it~nr~sl~l~r*ric~ I'roc.. I < I , ~ .Soc. cvlcli(.g. A 97, 354 - - 3 7 3 ( lIY2li). (I9:Il Iticprln, F.: ]):IS I ~ r ~ ~ s t r i i ~ ~ ~ r ~ ~ ~I)c.is ~i~ r o l i~ ~ l~ ~ c . s s Ii 'l ~ l ~ ~~~I ~ I ~ ; I ~ S I ~ ~ ~ I I I I : I I ~ ! ~ ~ I I . g nbo~ lt )r )~ ~ ~ I 111g.. ,\r,41. If;, :%;:I : m i (l!l.lS) 1111cI 1 7 , !)'I l l l l i (l!).f!)).
~\

552
L-...,

XVII. Origin of tnrhnlonco T I 12141 Nt.ender, W.: Lnminnrprofl-Meauungen des NACA, oino Ausrvert~~t~g G R W ~ I I I I I I ~ I ~ znr allgctneincr Rrltonntni~neiiher Latninnrprofilc. I,rrhfnl~rttcct~nik 218--227 (l!)sfi). 2. [215] Skrnberg, ,I.: A free-flight investignt.ion of the posail)ilit,y of high Itc!y~~oltlu-~~r~~~~hrc. suprrs o ~ ~Irr~ninarbor~ntlarylayera. J A S 19, 721-733 (19R2). ic [216] S b r ~ ~ b e r g , The trnnuition from a tnrbulcnt to n larnir~nrbonndnry Inycr. Il~~llintic J.: Itrscarclr IAnhornt,oricsI b p . 006 (1954). Al)erdccn Proving (:rool~tl, Mnryltrnrl. I J S A . 12171 SL~lnrt,, J.'l'.: On I,II(: nl,~&l~ilit.yvi~t.ol~u IIOLWOOII I I I L ~ I I I I C ! ~ 1 t I l b 1 1 c ~~ I lI , l ~ t ~ I ~ ~ ~ H or *11 ~ c ~ nf llt)\v j , I c o l ~ l ~ r nI ~I ~~rI I ~ : ~liclcl. I'roc:. I{,oy. Soc:. 1,o11clo11A 221, IN!)-- 20(i (1!)64). I I I .~~! 1218J Stuartt, .I.'l'.: On the nonlinear n~echanics hydrodynatnic utability. .JFM 4. 1 -- 21 (I!)58). of [219J S t ~ ~ n r.J.'r.: On tlirec-dimensional non-linonr efTccta in tho stnbilit,y of parallel (lo\va. t, Atlvnnc:c!n in Anro~~nut~icnl Scicnccs ('1'11. v. I<hrrnh~~, 3, 121- - 142. I'crgilt~~e~~) ctl.) I'rc~s; Now York/Lontlon, 1!)02. [220] Stiiper, J.: ljer Einfluss cines SLolperdrnhtes a ~ dcn fUmsclllng dcr Q r c ~ ~ z s r l ~ ia11cincr ~ cl~l. ebenen Platto. ZFW 4, 30-34 (1956). [221] Sanntor, R.J., Dc Carlo, J.P., nnd l'orillo, 1 .3.: Hypcm-~onic ) bo~urrlarylnycr t r a n s i l i o ~ ~ data for a colt1 mall slender cone. AlAA J. 3, 758-760 (1965). [222] Schlichting, H.: Zur Enktchnng dcr Turbulenz hei der I ' l ; l t . t e n n l . r i i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g(:cs. Nnrhr. . win^. Giittingct~.Mnl.11. I'IIYR.JCIILRRO, 182--208 (1033). [22:1] Shcctz, N. W., Jr.: I%o~~n(lary-lt~ycr Lrn~~uition co11c.n ILI, h.yl~crr~ot~it: ( ' ~ ' ~ I H 1'1.0(:. on HI~ . S Y I I I ~ ~ I R ~ VI~ U~ : O I I R lt.ct111c:I.iot1 (:. Sl~n~iglor (1. S. \Vc!llu. .Ir., ttel.). ~ ' I ~ * I I I I I I I 011 I I I ~ I)rttg (S. 1111el i'rczis (l!J00). [223n] Sihnlkin, M.:'l'rnnsit,io~lfrom tt~rbr~lcnt l r ~ n ~ i r pipe flow. l'hys. of IPIuirIs 5 , 280 - 284 t.o ~nr (1962). > , [224] Steinbeck. I'.C.: Effect8 of unit Reynoltls nnmbcr, nouo hlrcnt,ncss, nnglo of stt.;~(.lr, anel roughness on trensitior~on n 5" l ~ i ~ l f - i ~cone l c Mach 8. NASA TN [)-4!)(il (I!)(i!)). ~~gat [226] Sternberg. J . : A free-flight.invcstigal.ion of the posnihility of high ltcy~~olrlu-nr11111,rr sn1)ersonic l n ~ r ~ i n 1)onndayv layers. J A S 19. 721 -73:) (1052). ar [226] Stetson, K.F., ant1 R.unht.on, G . H . : Shock tnnnel invcst~igalionof bonntlnry Inyrr taransition a t M = 5.5. Al Ah J. 5, 8I)D-DO$) (1967). [227] Strnziunr, A., l'r1t111, J . M . , nnd ltcsl~ol.lto. : 12xpcri111e11l.nl 15. ~1.11dy ~.II(Isl,nhilillyof IICII(,CII of lan~innr boundary layer8 in water. 1Z.nporLI"l'AS/TR 75-- 11:3, 1)rpt. of Vlnicl ' l ' l ~ r r ~ rrncln l ~~ Aero. Sci. Crwe Weslcrn Ilescrve I J I I ~ v(1976). . [227a] Stuart, J.'I'.: Hydrodynalnic st,ahilit,y. In: ltoscnltcacl, L. (cd.): I,atr~ir~nr borrndnry layers, pp. 492-579, Clarendon Presn, Oxford, 1963. [228] Sparrow, E.M., nnd H ~ ~ s a1t.B.: Longit,ndinnl vortices in nntrlrnl ronvect.ion flow or1 r, inclined platcu. J F M 37, 251 -253 (I$)(;!)). [229] Szewczyk, A.: Stabilit,y nrrd trar~uitionof the frcc-convact,ion In.ycr along a vert.ic.:il flat plate. Int. J . llcnt and Mnsu Transfcr 5. !)0:3---!I14 (l!)02). [230] Sawatzki. O., and Zicrep, J.: J)as Sl.rort~fcld Spslt zwischr~~ kon7.cntrisol1~11 itn zwei 1<11gclfliichen, von denrn die innere roticrt,. Act,:r. Mrrhnnicn 9, 1 3 - 2 5 (1970); ucc also ZAlllhl 50. 205-208 (1070) nnd Eight,l~ Syn~posilr~n Navnl Itescarch. SH.C-17!),275 287 (1!)70). on [231] Sexl, Th.: Uber dreidimensionnle Slbrnngen der l'oiset~illcscher~ Striin~r~ng. Ann. Phys. 83. 836 f-1927). - - - ---,[232] Sadell, W. S., Sntera, S. P., nntl Maedcr, P. F. : Analysis of vorticily nn~plificationin t,l~e flow approaching a two-dimensional sta.gnat,ion point. ZAMP 21, 609-710 (1!)70). [233] Sadell, W.S., Sutora, S.P.. nnd Mnedcr, P. F.: An in~estignl~ion vorticity a~~~plific.atiot~ of in stagnation flcw. ZAMP 21, 717-742 (1070). [234] Tnni, I., and Mituisi, S.: Contribr~tions the tlcsign of nerofoils anit,nblo for high sl~crcln. 1.0 Aoro. ltes. Inst. Tokyo, Imp. Univ. Rep. 198 (1940). [235] Tani, I., Iiams, R., and Mituisi, 8.: On the permissible roughness in the lnminar boundary . layer. Aero. Reu. I n ~ t Tokyo, Imp. Univ. Rep. 199 (1940). I2301 Tnni, I., nnd I l n n ~ e T.: Some cxpcri~ncnkor1 tho effect,^ 01 n s i ~ ~ g ro11gl111rs11~ ~ I I C : I I I , , lo ~II on boundary layer transition. J A S 20, 28!)-2!)0 (1053). [237] Tani, I., Juchi, M., and Ynmamoto, IC.: Further experiment8 on the effect of a single roughness element on boundary layer transition. Rep. Inst,. Sci. Technol. Tokyo, 1Jniv. 8 ( F g . 1954). [238] TUIII,I.: Boundary layer trnnaition. Ar~nr~nl Rcvicw of Ipluitl Mrch. I , IT,!) -l!)T, (I!)(;!)). [238a] 'J'ntst~n~i, St,nbilil.y of the lo~ninnr T.: it~lct-llow prior 1.0 l,hc f o r ~ ~ ~ a lof I ' o i ~ c ~ ~ i l l ~ ion rvgi~~ir. I'art I : J. Phys. Soc. Japan 7, 480-496 (l!)52). I'nrt. 11: ,J. I'lrys. Soc. Japnn 7, 4!)5-502 (1952).
- - 7

Tin41 Itr*shot,ko. IC.: St.abilit,v I,heorv na a ellido to the evaluatrion ot t.rnnsition data. AJAA J. 7, --.. ~. " 1086-- lO!)l (l!)69). ll94nJ Itesl~otko, I4or111clnry I<.: layer atnbilit,y and trnnuitiot~. Annual Review of l'l~~itl Mechnnica (M. Van Ijykr, etl.) 8, 311 -:14!) (1976). [194b] ltcsl~ot.lto, 13.: Trnnaition rcversal nnd Toll~t~ien-Schlicl~t,ing inatnbility. Phys. of li'luids 6, 335 -342 (191;:)). 1 1!)5) I ~ ~ ( . I I I I ~ < I It. I<.,IIIICI SIs)llory, . I . I..: 'I'rtr~~nil~io~~ o ~ 11. Ilnl, l~lnl,f. I ~ y ~ ~ o r ~ n n i c : H. rcvc~rnr~l r 111. s1)0011u. A<~AItl)ogrt~l~l~ !)7, I'nrt I, 477. ~.48!) (l!)ti5). [I!)(;] Itichnrtln, 1%. and Stollcry, .I. L.: 1"nrLhor cxpcrirnenk on t.ransitior~ I{. rcversal a t I~ypcrsonic spocrls. AIAA J . 4, 2224 -2226 (1966). [1!)7] Sato, FI., nncl 1<11rilci,I<.: 'l'hc ~ncc:haninmof trauaition in the wnka of a l.l~inflnt 1)lnl.c: plnccd pnrnllel to a r~nifor~n flow. JI'M 11, 3321-362 (1961). [197n] Snrpknya, '': A note on t,ho stability of tlcvcloping laminar pipe flow s~lbjected nxisynl. to metric nnd non-axiry111111ctric disturhnnccs. JFM 68, 346 -351 ( 1075). [l07hJ Snrpkeyn, 'l'.: Evolntion of s~tlnll dist.urbances in the luminar tra~lsition region of Hagen~oiseniiloflow. Ann. Rep. Nat. Sci. Fonntlntion. N U Ilydro Rep. No. 027. T S (1966). [l97c] Salwen, H . , nnd Grosch, C.13.: Stability of Poiseuille flow in n pipe of circnlnr crosu Rection. .JPM 54, !)>-I 12 (1972). 11081 Schlicht.ing, 11.: Uber die Stabilitiit cler Couette-St,riirnung. Ann d. PIIYR. IT, !)Or)-936 - (1932). [Inn] Schlirhting, Ft.: l'urbnlenz der Wiirmeschirhtr~~~g. ZAMM 1.5, 313-338 (1935); see also I'roc. I'orlrt.11 Int. Congr. App1. Mcch. 246, Cambridge, 1035. [ZOO] Sclrlicl~ti~~g, and Ulrich, A.: Zrtr Rerechnnng des Umscl~lngeslatninnr-t~~rbnlent. . 11.. Jb dt.. I,r~ft,fnl~rt,fornrI~~tt~~ (1942). Ilchilcd prcscntnt,ion in Iteport of the LilienthalI , 8 35 Gcnrllsc:I~nft. 10, 76 1:35 ( 1940). S [201] Schlicht,ing, tl.: Ilic B c c i n l l r ~ ~ s ~ ~ n g tlcr Grenznchic:ht durch Absnr~gunguntl Arlsblauen. Jb. dt. Akn.d. d. l,nftfal~rl.forscl~rlr~g 108 (1943144). 00r2021 Schillcr, I,.: llantll)r~rh tler 15xperi1nc11t.aI-PI1ysik : P a r t 4, 1-207, I ~ i p z i g , 11' 1932. i203j Srh~rbnncr,: 13.. n ~ ~ S l r n n ~ u k d 11. K : 1,alninnr bonndnry layer ourillations and stabil( . ck , i1.v of Ia~nin:rrIlo\v. Naf.ionnl I<i~renu Standnrds ltruorirri~Paper 1772 (1043); J A S 1 4 , of 6 5 - 78 (1!)17); scat: nluo NACA I b p . !)()!I (1047). [204] S ~ : l ~ r t l l . z . ( ~ r ~IF., ~.c d w , ~ ~ n r , IIcin, FI.: 13ciI.rr1gzrlr Co~lcttc-Sbriin~r~ng. 4, 28---30 (1!)66). ZVW 1204~1 c l ~ ~ ~ l t z - ( I r r ~IF.. o \ v , Bel~bal~ar~i, 13oundnry layer stahilit,y a t longitudinally S ~ ~ RIICI V.: cr~rvcdwa.lls. ZAMI' 24, 4!)!)---RO(i (1978) and ZAMP 26, 493-49.5 (1075). [2041)1 S ~ l ~ r ~ l ( . z . G r n ~ ~ : Zur SLnbililSt der Co~~ettc-Strijrnrnlg. F. o w , ZAMM 39, 101-- 110 (1959). [204r] Sch~~ltz-(:rr~now, 7'11c stnl)ility of Couctte Row wit11 rrspoct to two-din~ensionnl IT.: perI.~~rl)at,ir>ns.W. Ipiwdon (cd.): Pluicl I)ynnn~ics III 'rrunsncl.ion 3, 83-93, Wn.ruznwa, l!)(i7. [204111 So\rult.;~-(:r~l~ro\v, ICxnktc ZngRngo zn I~ydrotlyna~ninrherr I?.: l'rohlcmcn. 18. 1,otlwig Prllntlt,l Mc~uorialI,ccLurc, BVW 23, 176 -183 (1075). [206] Sexl, 1'11.: Z I I St.nhiliG<tnfr;lge tlcr Poiuonilleucl~e~~ der Couette-Striilnung. Ann. J'l~ys. ~ und (4) 83, 835--848 (1027). [200\ Sexl, 'I%., and Spielberg, I<.: Znm Stnbilitiltnproblern dcr Poisenillo-Strii~n~~ng. Acta I'hys. Arlstriil.cn 12, !)---28 ( 1958). 12071 Shnpiro, N.hl.: Effccln of prcasurc grndirnt ant1 heat transfer on the stabilit,~ the cornof prmsihlr I:ln~ino.rI ) o n ~ ~ d liryern. JAS 23, 81-83 (1960). nr~ [20X] Shrn, S.. nucl I'crnh, J . : 'I'he li~nit,ir~g t e ~ ~ ~ p e r n t rotios'reqr~irecl con~plekfltabilwall ~ure for iznfiot~ r 1:1111innr o bonntlnrv lnycrs wit.11 blowing. J A S 23, 280-287 (1950). .. . 120!)1 S i l ~ ~ ~ ~A.,t n ~ ~ I%crlccr,.I. V.: ~ j c ~ e r ~ n i n a t i & houndnry lnycr t,rn~lsiLionon ~ l ~ r c c s . ~ til ~ ~ , of s y ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c t . r i r i in , t.11~ i~irftlils~ l NACA f~lll-smle wind t.un~~el. NACA T l t (i37 (1!)38). [210] S ~ n i t . l A.M.O.: Or1 I.he groa~thot' Taylor-(:iirt,lcr vort.icm along highly concave walls. ~, ()r~nrl.AppI, h411ll1. 1 3 , !t:!:%- 2V2 (1955). ~)rrssr~rc grntlicnt. nnd slnl)ilit.y theory. I'apcr prmcnt,cd a t tho 121 1 Srnit,h, A. hl. 0 . :'I'r;r~~sil.io~~ 1X. i n l r r ~ ( : o r ~ g r r s ~ A11pl. Mcnh. 2:%4-244, I3rr1ssels,1957; see rllso JASS26,220~. oS 245 ( I !IS!)). (2121 Spcitlc~l,I,.: I ~ C P ~ I I ~ ~~ lI rSr S n ~ i rI~ a r c ~ ~ I I n ~ I I ~ Gre~~zucl~icl~l,r hpcriodiscl~cStiirnngc~~ d~tr der B i ~ n t r i i ~ ~ ~21p\V . 270--275 (1!)57). r ~ n p 5. [2l:!l Sl nl(lrr, ,I. I< I l t ~ h t ~ ~M. Mr., n11(1' l ' c ~ ~ ~ l c l 'r. 11.d , A t l c t c r n ~ i ~ion lof I he Intninr~rin, n~~ : ~a t.r:i~~sit.io~~:~la~ul t~~rl~r~lrl~t.-l)o~~~~~Iary-li~yc:r trn~pernt.~tro-recovery factor 011 a lint plilte in s~~~~c-rsonic: KA(:A '1.N 2077 (I!)5O). Ilow. c
31.

~ ~

...

554

XVII. Oripili of t,rlrbrllonec TI

[23Hl1] T ~ I I1.. 1111~1S:~t(i,11.: lloitndnry Inyrr t,ra~inition roupliness elemelrk. J. Phys. Soc. ~, hy J ~ ~ 11, 1284.- 12!)1 (I'JR(i): src also I X r Congrco Il~tertintionnl Mi.canique AppliquCe, I I I de Actcn. 11'. 8 0 - ~ 9 3(1057). 12391 Taylor, O . I.: Internal waves nlid t i ~ r l i l ~ l ~ n c c flnirl of vnrinhle drnsity. Rnpp. Proc. in n Verb. Cons. Jnterliat. your 1'l':xploration dc la Mcr. LXXVJ Copenlingen, 35-42 (1931). 12401 Tnylor, G.I.: Ell'ects of vnrialiori in tlennity 011 tlie stabilit,y of superposed streams of fluid. I'roc. Roy. Soc. A 132, 49!)-523 (19:31). 12411 ?';iglor, (:. I.: Stability of a v i ~ r o n s liqnid c.olit,nined het.wcen two rofnting cylintlers. Pliil. Trans. A 223, 28I)-~~34:3 (1923); scc also l'roc. Roy. Soc. A 1.51, 4!)4-512 (1035) and 157, 540---A64 nntl 565-578 (I 936). [242] l'l~roclorsen.'r.. nntl Garrick, .I.: (2cncrnl pot,cnt,inl t,ticory of ztrhit,rnry \\ring section. NACt\ TI< 4V2 ( I!W!). 12431 tllricl~.A,: 'I'llcorrtinrlic Utit~cr~~lcllilligrrl (lie \Vitlrrwtnntl~crs~inr11in iihcr clllrrh 1,nniitiarIin.lt~tt~g ~ \ b s i ~ i l g l ~ Nrllrift~n(10. Altncl. (1. Li~ft,falirt,forrrcl~~i~~g No. 2 (1!)44). lnit, ~ig. 8 13, 12441 \\'cntlf, L".: 'l'r~rl~nlcntc St,riili~r~l~g z\visc.hc~lzwci rot.iornllclon konxinlc~i% y l i ~ ~ d ~ r r ~ . 1)i48. (:iitt.ingc!i 1!)34. I ng.-<\rc:l~. 577 --5!)5 (10:33). 4. [245] b'ijkrr, 11.: 0 1 1 t.ho clcterniinntion of the t,rnn~ition point from niensurerri~nts tlie ntnt,ic of p r r ~ ~ n nlong n snrfnrc. Holl. l3cr. A 1210 (1051). re [246] Mrijkrr. IT.: Stlrvry of tratinilion point ~neaxilrelner~t~the NLL, lnninly for t\vodin~ennt sionnl flow over n NACA 0018 profile. Iloll. IIcr. A 1269 (1951). [247] Wliesb. W.: NAl~erilngn~veisc Jlcreclinung inid Stnbilitiitsverlinlte~i von laiiiinnren Qronzscliiclit,en niit A ~ I R I I I ~ dnrcl~JSirizolurl~lit,ze. IIII~ 1ng.-Arcli. 21. DO-I03 (1953). [24R] \Vllwt,. W.: St,nl)ilitiibrnit~der~~dc Einlliisuc dcr Absn~tgcgrenzscliichtoli.ZFW 4, 81 -84 (1!)5(i). [24!)] \Vnzznn, A. It., Oltnniirra, T.. nl~tlS n ~ i t l A.M.O.: Tho stabilit.y of nrat.er flow over Itented ~, and coolotl flat, plalcs. J . Hent, T r a n ~ f c r DO, 109- 114 (lQ(i8). [25O] Wnzznn, A.13... Okanii~rn,'S.. nritl SlniLIl, A.M.O.: Tlic utabi1it.y in inconiliresail~lcflat platr I:u~iiiinrboini~lnrylayer in wnt,nr \vit.h ten~peratnrc depcndetit viscosity. Proc. Sixt,l~ Sol~t.limntcrn e n ~ i l ~ n r l'hcr~nalScioncon, Itnleigh, N. C., 184-202 (1!)70). S on [25l] \V:rzznn. A.lt.. Oknniurn, T., arid Sniit.li, A.M.O.: The ni,nbility nnd trnr~sit,ion Iientrd of n n ~ coo1rfI inronil)rr.w.il~)Rlnn~iiinr l I~ouriclnry layers. I'roc. For~rt,llInt. Hent Transfer Conf. ((1. (:rig1111 nntl 15. I-lnllnc. eel.), 2, 1' 1.4, Elsevicr Yubl. Co., Amsterdam, 1970. C 12521 Wnzzan, A.R., Olcalni~ra.'I?.. and Slnitll, A.M.O.: Stability of laminar bountlnry layers n.t scpnrnt,ion. Pl~yn.of Fluids, 10, 2540--2545 (1967). 12531 \Vilkins. M. E., ntiel 'l'anbcr, M. E.: 13onntlnry layer t.rnnsit.ion on ahlnt.ing cones a t npeetk rip t 7 krn/ucc. AIAA J . 4, 1344---1348 (I!)G6). o 12.541 Wicgl~nrdt,.I<.: 'I?licoretische St,riitnungslchre. 'Scnbncr, Sti~ttgnrt,1006. [255] Wortniann, F. X.: 1':xl~crirneiitrllo Utitcrslrcl~ungonlarninnrer C:renzscliicIit.cn boi inst.nl)ilor Scliichtun~.l'roc. Rlevor~tl~ ~ t . I r Con~ressof Appl. Mcoh. Miinchen 11164, 815-825 -(l!)65). 12561 \Vort I I I ~ I ~ I X.: 1,iinps~virI)clin itlst,ahilcn Inminnron Crcn7.scliirl1le11. F. I , Drr Jngcnirrlr R.?, . . 1, 52 - JA60 (197 1). [257] \Vorf.liinnn, 1'. X.: \'i~ilnlizat,ion of t,rnnnitiot~. JFM 38, 473---480 (1069). 12581 \ \ ' o r t ~ i ~ a nP.X.: 'l'I10 i~~cot~~profisiIiIc ttiotion do\~t~nOrcnin two-diniennioiin~ ~~, fluid of Tollmien-Scllliclitit,g waves. AGAlbU Conf. Proc. 224, 12- 1 to 12.- 8 (1977). 125!)] Ximlncrn~nnn. Q.: \%'cclisel\virku~lgenzwinclien turb~iler~tnn \\'andgrt.nzscl~ict~trn nnd flcxihlen \1'8nden. 1lcric:lil. 10/1!174 of t.110 Max-Plnttck-11inLituL(:iitLingcn, 1974.
\ ,

Part D. Turbulent boundary layers

Fundamentals of turbulent flow

n. Introductory

remarks

Most flows which occur in prnctirnl applications are turbulcnt, the tcrm dcnot.ing n motion in w l ~ i c l ~ irrcgrrlnr fluctr~ntion an (mixing, or oil(1ying motion) is stream. Several photographs of turbulent flows in an opcn superimposed on the ~ n a i n water channel are shown in Figs. 18.la, b, c, and d in order to illust,ratc the typc of motion under considcration, the pattern having been made visible by sprinkling the free surface with powder. The velocity of flow was tho same in all pictures, but the camera was moved a t different spccds along the axis of tho channel. I t is easy to deduce from each picture whether thc longitudinal velocity of t h e fluid particles was smaller than or exceeded t h a t of thc camera, and their appcarancc givcs a very impressive idea of the complexity of turbulent flow. The fluctuation which is superimposed on the principal motion is so hopelessly complex in its details t h a t i t seems t o be inaccessible to matllematical treatmcnt, but i t must be realized that the resulting mixing motion is very important for the course of the flow and for the equilibrium of forces. The effects caused by it arc as if the viscosity were increased by factors of one hnndrcd, ten thousand, or even more. A t large Reynolds numbers t11ecr exists a continuous transport of energy from the main flow into the lirrge cddics. IIowcver, cncrgy is clissipat.ctl prcponclcrxr~l.ly by the small eddies, and thc process occurs in a narrow strip insidc thc boundary layer, in the neighbourhood of thc wall, as shown in dctail in ref. [25J. Mixing is responsible for the large resistance experienced by turbulent flow in pipes, for the drag encountered by ships and aeroplanes and for the losscs in turbines and turbocompressors, yet, on the other hand, turbulcnce cnables 11s t o achicvc greater prcssure increases in diffnscrs or along ncroplnnc wings and cornprcssor blades. These devices would all show separation if thc flow wcrc laminar ant1 free of turbulence, and consequently thc dcgrce of encrgy rccovery in a diffuscr wonld be mall, and wings and blades would operate in a n unsatisfactory manner. I n thc succeeding chapter we shall discuss problems involving /ully developed turbuk~ntmdion. I n this connexion we arc forced to restrict oi~rsclvest o t.hc consitloration of time-averagcs of turbi~lcntmotion, bccar~sca complcb tl~rorct,ical formulation has so far provcd impossible, owing t o thc complcxity of tnrl)ulcnt flncbations.

65(i

XVI I I. Pundemcnt~nls turbolent flow of

b. Mean motion nlld Il~~rt,r~ntiot~s

557

Tn following this pat11 it ltas a t lonst ~)rovctlpossil~lct.o c:st,nl)lisl~ r~crt.ait~ tllcoret,icnl principlcs wl~ich a.llow 11st,o int,rocl~~cc n 1nr:lsuro of ortlcr into tJlc ex~)rritncnt,al tnnterinl. Morcovcr i n ninny cnscs it provctl possit)lc t o prctliot, t(11c~sc tnt%:lnv:~lltc.s untlcr t,llc nssnrnpf,ior~ ccrtnin plat~sibloI~gpotllcscsnntl so to ol)t.nin gootl ng1.t.c:of ment wit,ll experin~ctit.T l ~ c following clixpt,c~s will givc a n nncount of sut:h ;L srlniempirical t,licory of tnrbrllent flowt. Tl~c prescnt cl~npt~cr bc tlcvotctl 1.0 t.llc st.lrtly of t.ltc itifl~~cnce Il~tc.t.~tnt.io~ls will of on t,he rncnti flow. Tllc srlcccctling c l ~ a p t ~ \\,ill bc c.oncc:rnctl wit.ll t,Itc?sc~l~i-c!tn~)iric-:~l cr nss~tmptions11sct1in t,hc c::llcl~lntion of t l ~ r l ~ ~ r l o n t ~ ti~ot,ion; nlosl, of t,llc?tn arc: l i t l l i t ~ t l . wit,h 1.11~ concept of ,n,ia:ing lenglh tluc t o I'rn~ltlt,l.'l'llc. r c * ~ i ~ : ~ i ~.II:L~)~,(:I.S \\'ill t . I ~ t * t i ~~illg ctcxl wit,ll specific groups of t , ~ ~ r l ) n l e n t rnnt.ions on t,I~is I)nsis : ~ r l t l will in(:lt~tlt:l . I ~ t : IIOW t.llro~rgl~ l)i~)cs, along ~)lnt,c.s, t , ~ ~ r I ~ n l t1101111(1:~ry in :nt~ l:~yo~.s \vil,lt I)I.(*ssII~(* g ~ . : ~ l l i ( ' ~ ~ l s , and free t11rt)ulcnt flow, i. e . the flow in jets ant1 wn.l<cs\vllcrc no rcst.ricl.il~g ,rvnlls arc prcsct~t.Cont,ril)lrt,ions 1.0 t3ltc t.rent.lncnt of tlct,:~.ilctl~)roble~iis (:an [i)~~ntl in (:or ~fc-rcnocl'roccctlings 1.3, 17, 17n, 181.

Fig. 18.l a. C:&r~lorn voloril.y 12.15 ctn/scc

--

Iiig. I X . I 11. C:~n~or:t vr:lority 25 c~rl/scc

Upon closc ir~vcst,ignt~ion appears t.llnt, t.Ile most, st,riliing f~::~t,~rrc: l , ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l ( * r ~ t , it of rnot.ior~consist,s in tllc fact tlmt tthc vcloc:il.y :lntl prossllrc : ~ n fixt:tl ~ ) o i t ~ t . s1):ic.c t in d o not remain const.ant with tirnc but, pcrforni vcyy irrrgl~lnrfl~~t:t.~t:~t~ions of lliglr frequency (scc Fig. 16.17). T'hc lumps of f l ~ ~ iwl~ic:l~ tl pc:rfnrul srrc:lt fl~tc:Luntions l l t.l~c i tlir~ct~ion flow ant1 nt right a.~lglcs it, d o 1101, co~isist. single 111oIc~c111t:s~ I S S I I I I I ( - ~ I of t.0 of :IS in ttltc: Itincl,ic t,Ilcory of gases; t,l~cy tnnc:roscol)ic I l t t i t l I):LIIs of vil,ryil~g nrc sn1:111 S~XI'. I t nlny be notctl, by way of cxnmplc, t.l~nt~ nlt.l1011g11, I ~ t : vcIocit8y I l ~ l ( . t , ~ ~ : ~i tl, i o ~ l t l ch:annel flow does not exceed scvcrnl per cent.., it, ncvcrt,hclcss llns n drrisivo itlllucnc:c? on t-hc whole colrrse of tlle motmion. Tllc flr~ct,~~:~l.ions co~~sitlrt.:~t.iot~~ IIC rrr~tlcr III:I visrtalizetl by realizing t,llnt, ccrtniri bigger port.ions,of t , l ~ c Hl~itl11:~vc: t,hcir own int.rinsic n)ot,ion wl~ichis s~tpcritnposctl t,llc 1n:li11 on flow. S1tc.11 /hid l~rrllsor 11i111ljs :~r.c! c:learly visihle in t,he pl~ol~ogrnphs, Pigs. 18.1 11,c, (1. 'I'llc: sixc of sr1c.11lllritl I):~lls, wliicll c.ont,in~~nlly ngglornrmt,o :lnd disint,(-gr:~t,(:, (It~t.crn~int*s nr(tle o/ I~o.IJ~(IPIIcP; t.Itc: tht:ir size is tlet,crtn~nccl t,llc cxt,crrl:ll c.ontlit,iotls :~ssoc*i:~.tt:tli t . l ~ 1.I1c: Ilotv, t11:lt is, by \v for csalnplc, by t,llc rncsl~of n scrocrl or Ilot~cgcolnl~ t,l~rortgh\\,hic.ll 1,111: st,rc:~tnl~ntl p:~ssctl.Scvernl qunnt.itnt.ivc nienslrrcniont.~ t.lic n~ngnil,~~tlcs of :~ssoc-i:~t.c~l s ~ t c l ~ wil.ll fl~~c:t,rt:~t.ions Ile givon in Scc. XVl l l (I. will In nnt,ural wincls tSllcsc f l ~ ~ c t , ~ ~ n t ,mn.tlifost t~ltcti~st:lvos ions vcry clt~~.rl.y 1.111: in form of s ~ ~ ~ ~ a l l i nn(I s t i c s oft.c:n :tt,t,ain :I, n~:~gnil,t~tlc:50 1)1:r c : t ~ t ~ t ,of t , I ~ vI I I ~ %\vi11(1 or . :III s ~ ~ c c Tll. ~ size of I.~~rl)~tlt~ncc! ( c clonlc:l~l.sl l t01c: : ~ t . ~ l ~ o s l ~V:I.IIt :I)(.c j~ttlgc~l, ~ ~ I : I I I I I I I ~ * , i l~ r li)r by observing t.lrc ctltlying of n corn f i t ~ l t l .
- ---

. --

t
Fig. 18.1rl. Cntnrr:t volocit.y 27.6 rtn/sen

Scvcral workers, in pnrt.icnlnr J. hl. Ilr~rgvrs,'I'll. ~ o Ji:ir~n;ill n :t11(1(:. I . 'l'nylr>r cl11i1c c.:u.ly dcvclopcd a tllcory wllich nxceetls t.llrsn l i ~ n i knncl wllioh is I)nsrtl on sl.nl.ist,ic:nl~,nl~rt.l~l.s. JIowcvrr, (,his I.llcory 11ns not so far I)cctl nl)lr: 1.0 solvc 1.11t. ~ I I I I ~ ~ : I I I I ~ I I (t:~ l~ ~ ~ l i r ~ ~ ~ t ~ 1)rt11)1t~111 I v cnrlicr. \Vc (lo noL pro1)oso l,n consi~lcrI.llis sl:ttidit~:tlt11t.ory of I , I I ~ I ~ I I I ~ iIt 1 ~t ~111% ~ ( . I I I : I ~ I I I ~ I , ~ I of I , l l i ~I)ool< I ~ I I I Irtsl't;r I,IIc rt*:ttlorlo 1110 ( ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r r(*virw~ ~t i .vI<.: I ~ I I . ~ . ( , I I I . I I1>11. A. A . r - I ~ r t Ivy ~ ( ~ ' ~ < ) \ v ~ I s ~ I ll;2\,.I.(). Ilinzc [ZOJ,6 . (!orrsin 171. t!.(j. l,in [:!5, :$Ill. .J.(!. I{.<)II.JL [4Ii,421, 1'. l < n ~ r l ~ l ~ ~ ~ \ v I~I 121. I).(:. J.c~lie[:%4], M . .ll.osrnhlnttnntl C. Vnn At,(.&[45l. Il. 'l'ct~t~rkvs rl.1,. ISIIIII~I'YI5fil. nnd

558

XVITI. Fundamentals of tr~rbulelit flow

c.

Tt, has alreacly bcrn pointed orlt, in Chap. XVI t h a t in describing a trlrb~llent flow in mathcrnatiml terms i t is convenient t o separate i t into a mean motion a n d into a flududion, or eddying motion,. Denoting t h e time-average of t h e ?L-component of v r l o ~ i t - by 12 and its velocity of fli~ctuat~iorl 7~',we can write clown t h e following y 1)y rrlatior~sfor the vrlority components ant1 pressure

Additional, "appnrent" turbulel~t stresses

Before tlctlrlcing t,he ml:~t,iorl 1)otwccn tlie mean motion :mtl (,It(: np[)arc:rtl, st,rosscs caused by the fuctuat~ionswe shall give a physical cxplarrat,ion which will illustrate: their occurrence. The argument will be based o n t h e rnomcntr~rntheoron. Let 11snow consider a n elementary arca CIAi n a turbrtlcnt strcarn wliose v c l ~ c i t ~ y r t , 10. The normal to tho arca is imaginctf parallel t o the 2-rrxis arid tlic clircctions y aritl z aro in the plan0 of dA. T h e mass of fluicl passing t J ~ r o r ~ g l ~ this area in timc clt is given by CIA. ~u - dl and h011c:c tho flux of ~nomc:nt.~~rn tlic ill z-dircct,iort is (I,/, dA . Q u2 d l ; correspondingly t h e flrtxcs in t,hc ?/ ant1 z-tlirockions arc (1.1, = clA p n 7 . tll ancl ( 1 . 1 ~ tlA p 'I io cll, rc:sl)cc:l.ivc:ly. I l c : m c l r ~ I ~ ~I.lt:~,l, ~ ~ 7 = :ri~ trhc clcrtt;it.y is c o ~ ~ s t , ; ~ ~can C ~ I C I I I : G ~ the following tinlc-:~vcr:~gcs tlic lluxcs of we i t C for lnomcrlturn per unit time:

components are u,

stream (Chap. XXTII), a s inrlirntcd in eqn. (16.2). When the t,~~rl>r~lerrt. is comprrssil~lc i t is necrssnry t o inc:lutlc Il~~ct~r~at,ions tlonsil.y, Q, and in t h e te~nperat~rlrc, in t,hc T and t o put Q z 3 1- Q' ; 7 ' 2' 4- yl' . (18. 10, f) 'rhc tirnc-averages are formed a t a fixccl point in space and are given, e. g., by

By ~ q n (18.1) we find that,, e. g., .

applying t h e rules in eqns. (18.3) and (18.4) wc find t h a t In this connrxiori it, is understootl ishat the mean vnlrtcs arc taken over a sufficiently long int.crval of timc, t l , for them t o be complet,cly inclepenclcnt of time. Thus, by clcfir~iLion,t h e t.imc-avcmgcs of all q~~ant,it.ics tlesaribing the lluctf~iat,ions eqrlal are to zero : u = O . , v' = O ; ' w' = O ; p' = O ; Q' = 0 ; T' = 0 . (18.3) IIence, the exprrssions for t11c m o ~ n c n t ~ l m flnxcs per unit timc become The fcc?n.t~~re which is of f~~rtdarncnt,al import,ancc for tho course of t u r b ~ ~ l o rmotion it consists in the circr~mst.nncc h a t the flrlct~~ations v ' , 1u' inflliencc tile meart motion t u', 7 , fi, 1% in s11c11a way titat the latkcr cxhil)its a n apparent increase in the rcsistarlcc Z to tlcforrn:~tion. 111 otJicr words tltc presence of fluctuations manifests itself in a n aplnrcnt, incrcasc in f.hc viscosity of thc funclamental flow. This it~creasetl rcpp.renl visco.sit?/ of tlic mean st.mnm forms tlic cer~t~ral conccpt of all t,l~eorcticalconsidcra(,ions of f,url~~tlont mottion. We sliall begin, therefore, by endeavouring t o obtain R c:loscr insightf into t,hcse relations.
11, is r~scfrrlL list here scveral rnlcs of operating on m e i n time-averages, a s they o will be rc:qnirctl for rcfi:rcncc. If / and g arc t,wo dependent variables wliosc riteall v:tIurs arc to Ijc li)rrnctl :11i(1 if s c11:110k:s : I I I ~ 0110 o f t,he i ~ i d c ~ ) c r ~ vn.ri:tl~lcs , 11, el~~~tt z z, 1 l,lirn t l ~ c foIlo\ving rules :~ppIy:

tlJ,

CIA. p(Q2+11'2) ,

d.ly = dA . p(7i

6 -1-

7 1 ' ~ '),

d,J, = (1.4 . Q ( ; . 9 7

4-u ) ' .

Tltcsc q ~ ~ a n t ~ i t idcnot,ing I.ho ratc of cl~angc momentum, I~avr: l ~ o cs, of t clirncnsioii of forces on t,he elementary area cfA, and npon clividing by i t we obtnirt forces pcr unit area, i. e. stresses. Since t h e flux of momentum pcr unit timc t h r o ~ ~ g h arca is an always oqnivalcnt, t o a n cqunl artcl opposih fornc oxcrtcd o n tlra a r c s l)y tlie surrountlings, we corlclr~dct h a t t h e arca undcr corrsidcmtion, whiclt is n o r ~ n a lt o the z-axis, is act,cd upon I)y t h e strcsscs - e (iiz p)in the 2-direction, - p (ii 6 -1- u' v ' ) in t . 1 1 ~?/-~list~c:t,ion - p(Q tZ -1 IL' I I J ' ) in ti10 z-(iirec!tiori. 'I'IIo li~,sl, l,ltt! l,l~rc:ois an(1 of I scrn t.ltat t,hc a nornlal s1,ress nnd tJtc I:bt,ter two are sitraring s t r r s s ~ ~ q .t is t.1111~ sr~l)rr~)osit~iori flr~ct,n:bl~ions the mc:~n motion gives rise 1 1 t.hrco atlclit,ional of on 4 st,rrsscs ozr= - Q u ' 2 ; tyzr - Q U' V' ; t,,' = - Q 1 '70' = 1 (18.5)

actiltg or1 f.hc r l e ~ n r n t n r y snrface. T l ~ c y t,crmccI "app:~rc~tt" It?e~7toldv arc or stres~es of t ~ ~ r b u l r flow and nlust be adtlccl t o tltc strcsscs causecl by tho steady flow a s nt explained earlier in conr~cxionwith laminar flow. Corrcsportclir~grxprcssiorts apply in the case of rlcmcntary areas normal to the two ramainirig axcs y aritl z. 'l'ltry

560

XVIII. P~tndanlcnlal~ t~~rbulcnt of flow

(1. 1)crivntion of tho stress tot~sor npllnt.cvtt. I ~ r ~ r l ~ tfrir.l.iotl l . of ~lo~~

56 1

lorrn t,opctllrr a c,omplrt~c~ t r t s s tensor oi l ~ ~ r b u l e /low. Eq~~ationst 8.6) were first nl (1 tlctlncrtl 1)y 0. It(-ynoltls 1431 from the equations of motion of fluid dynamics (see also the next srct ion). zc tllat time-averages of thc mixed products of velocity It, is easy 1.0 v i s ~ ~ a l i-t , l ~ e fl~~ct.~t:sl.ions, ~ I - g. TI,' 11' do, in fact,, diffcr from zero. T l ~ e SII( as C. st,rcss component a,,' T,,' -- - - Q 11' 11' ~ : L I I he int,erprct,cd n.s t.11~ t,ransport, of z-morncntfnm through a srlrfacc 11or11rn.lt,o t l ~ c ?/-axis. Consitlcring. for example, a mean flow given b y IZ == I:(?/), I j --- 221 --- 0 wil.11 t14/(1y > 0, tPig. 18.2, we can see tlrat the Incan prodlick 16' 11' is tlilTcrct~t. I'rom zero: 'l'llc pnrl,iclcs wl~iclr travrl upwards in view of the trrrbulcnt,

a!! + a!! 4-? = 0 a~ ay az

wltcrc V 2 d e ~ ~ o t ~ c s 1,apl:kce's ol)crat,or. \Irc row in trod~lcct.11~ pol.11cscs t.rg:rt.dil~g 11y t.he decomposit.iotl of velocity componcnt,~a n d pressnrc itlt,o tllrir t,irr~c-avcr:lgrs and fl~~ct,~lat.ion t,orrns from cqn. (18.1) ant1 form t,irnc-averagcs in tPhc rc~s~tlt,iltg cq~~nt,ionste r ~ nby tcrrl~,t:llting inLo acc.onnt t11c rult>s frotn cqn. (18.4). Sit1c.c t, a?/az = 0 et,c. t.hc ecluat.ion of contin~litybccomcs

From cqns. (18.7) ant1 (18.6~1) obtain also t.11aL we Fig. 18.2. Transport of momentnm due to torbt~lent velocity flrrctuation I t is seen t h a t t1he time-averaged vclocity co~nponontsand t l ~ cfluct~~:lt.ir~g ,rotnponents each satisfy t l ~ c incompressible cqnat.ion of corlt,irr~~it~y. Tntroducing t3llc?assumpt,ions from cqn. (18.1) int,o tltc rcl~t:~t,ion.s tnot.iolt of (18.0a, b, c) we obtain expressions similar t,o t l ~ o s e givcr~in 1.lln ~)rccctlingscv:t.ion. Upon forming averages ant1 considering the r ~ ~ l inscqn. ( 1 8.4) i t is rlot,icctl t,l~nt. c t.11~ quadmt.ic tcrnrs in the menti values remn.itr unalt.crctl 1)ccausc l , l ~ r y arc :~Irc:t~ly const,ant in t.imc. T11c t,ernls wllich arc lincar in tllc Lrcrb~~lcnt con~ponc:nts suc:lr a s c. g. a~i,'/atand a2tr'/ax2 vanish in view of ccln. (18.3). ' r l ~ osntnc is t,rl~c t.Itt: of nlixetl t,crrns sue11 as c. g. G . IL', I)llt t.l~oclr~n(lr:~t.ic t.c:rtns it1 t . 1 1 ~ llirc:l,n:~l.itt~ c:o~tl-lrone~its remain in t,he eqnat,ions. Upon averaging t,hey assume t,lrc form 1' 71,' v' ctc. . " llrncc, if t.l~e averaging process is carried out on cclns. (18.0), ant1 if silti~)lific~:~(io~ls arising from the continuit,y cqr~at.ion(18.7) arc itrt.rocI~~rc*tl,1 1 ~ follo\~ir~g 1. syslctll of ~ q n a t ~ i o n s rcsi~lt~s

flllc:t,ltatinn (11' > 0 ) nrrivc nt n layer y from a region whorc a smnllcr Incan vclocit,y 1 l)rc:\.:,ils. Si1tc.c- t.llry (lo, otl t,Ilc wl~olo,Iwcsrrvc t,l~rir 7 originnl vcloci1,y 17, t.l~cy givc 1.i~~: :L ~lrg:~t.ivr cotnporlcr~t, in a Iitycr !/. Corrvcrscly, the pnrt.iclcs wl~iclrarrivc 16' frotn al,ovc t.llc I:~,ycr ( 0) givc rise 1.0 :I. posit,ivc IL' in if,. On 1.11~ (11' averngc., t.l~ercforc, a posit,ivn o' is "rrlosl.ly" :~ssoaint,ctl wit,l~ ncjin.tivc TL' and a ncgat,ivc v' isn "mostly" nssoc~i:~.l,(*c\ a p o s i t ~ i ~ n We m:ty t.llus rspec:t, t,l~:tI, the t.ime-avcra,gcTL' n wit,\, TL'. ' is not ottly tlilli:rorI, I'rom 7,(:r0 I)r~t, also nrg:l.l,ivc:. 'l'llc slrcaring st,rcss a,,' = - p 11,' 11' is ~)osit,ivct (,Itis c.:~.sc in nntl llns t,lle snlnc sign as tltc rrlcvnt~tInrninnr sllcarit~gst,rcss T , -- 16 tl~i/tl?y. 'l'llis fact is nlso csprcssctl by sl,a.l,ing t,llat t,llcrc exists a c.o~.rt/nlio?~ I)c*t,wcotl1.l1o longit.n(linal and t~mt~svcrso Iluct.uat,ion of vc~locit,ya t a given point.

I l ; ~ \ , i t ~iIl~~st.r:r(.c(l origin of t,It(, n , ~ I ~ l i t , i ( ~ ~ r : ~ l ca~ts(:(I l>y I ~ I I ~ I ~ I I I ~ I I I ~ g t.lr(>, I'or(:cs Ilt~c-(.~~:~l.ion l,11(: :lit1 o f :t 1 ~ 1 1 ~ s i c : ~ l \ril.lt :trg~trnc>nl. o s11:tll tiow pt.o(:(~>rI tl(*rivo w 1.0 tit(- snlllc rxl)rrssiot~i t 1 :I. tnoro f o ~ n i : ~v ; I . ~ : ~ t 1 ( 1 (iirtc.t.1y frorn t.llr N:~vi(:r-SI,oIzcs \ l c , c l ~ ~ : ~ t i 'i'lt(. ~ sol,j(*cl.of o~ . sl~c:c~c~ctlirtg ~ I I I I I C Iis ~ 1.0 (Icrivc tjhn cql~n.l.iot~s :I~ ~ , of ~noliotl\ v l ~ i c - l tnr~sl, sn.l.is~ircl i.It(: tin~c-avcr%grs t.lle vclocit,y corn[,onct~t.s ~ Ilr 1)y of ii, i;, 171 :111tlof tl)r pr(.ss~rr(\ '1'11~ Nnvi(~r-Sl,ok(~s p. ccl~l:bI.ions (3.:)2) for inco~nl>rcssil)le IIOIV C ; I I I I)(% r~~\vriI~t.vtrl t c , rnr111 in t

(ii

r1.r

a"- + ra?/ .,+= -)

31,
,
02

GP (
a!/

V:c

[.!m
i~>

ili!'2

-I.

i,!,

-I-

JJ!'

1l1'

-il:

( I 8.s I,)

r 7

.I 11e cl~~a(lrnl,in tcrlns in t,nrl,~tlcntveloc:;l,y c o r n p o ~ t r ~ ~ t . s l)ecl~lI,r:~nsri~~.rc*tl It:~vo lo t31~(: r i g l ~ t , - l ~ : ~ ~ t ~ for :I, ~ P I L S O I I\vIti(:l~will soot1 I ) ( \ ( - ~ I I I ( : ; I I ) ~ ) I I I ICeltts.I I(1S.S) si(1o ( l ~~~ ~,.

t,ogc:l.l~rrwit>llt,l~o cclu:~I.iot~ ~ o r t t , i n ~ ~(iYt ~ I y. , (rf ~ I (18.7), ( I ( t l . ~ - t . l t l i t ~ ( :1.110 11r01~1(-111 t11111(.t. cor~sitl(:ralion.'I'hc Icft,-Irnntl sitlcs of ccpls. (18.8) arc l'~~rtn:tlly itlcnt.ic~:~l \\.it11 (111: steady-state Nnvier-Stokes equations (3.92), if 1,llc vc1ocil.y c o n ~ p o n r r ~ l . ~ 111 arc I(,, v,

562

XVlI1. R~nclnmont.nIu t11rI)ulantflow of

d. I~rrivntioti tlie utrrrm ten~or nppnrent L~~rbrrlcnt of of frictiori

,563

replacctl by t,heir time-averages, and the samc is true of t h e pressure n.ntl friction f.erms on ttio rigtit-hand siclc. In a~ltlit~ion e oq~lations th contain terms which tlcpcnd on Llie tSr~rl~nlerit fl~~ct.i~at,io~i slrcarn. of tlie Co~r~paring eclns. (18.8) with cqns. (3.11) i t is secn t h a t tlie addit.ional t,erms on t,lic right-liand side of cqns. (18.8) mtn be i n t ~ r p m t c d s componcnts of n, stress a tcnsor. I3y eqn. (3.lOa) 1.11~rcsr~lf,:rnt si111;7.~e: for(:c per 11nit.:1rt:a d ~ ~t,o:1,tic n.tltlit.ional t I.crnts is s(:t.n lit> I)(:

Crnemlly speaking, the apparent, stresscs far outwrigh tlir v i s r o ~ ~ s romponc~ifs nntl, ronsccl~~rntly, Iattrr rnay 1)c omittrtl in rriany ncbtrlal r:isrs wil!~a gootl clc.g~c.c tlir of apl)roxitnal ion. Boundary-layer eqnations: At tliis stage it may be iiscfr~l1)riefly to o ~ ~ t , l i tlir nc form ctf the boundary-layer equations for turbillent. flow. In the rase of 1711o-di~raertsionczl flows (15= 0) cqns. (18.7) nntl (18.8a, b, c), ~norlifiotlby the: I)r)~~titla~.y-1ayc.r' approximations a s outlined in Chap. VI 1, lead to

Carrying t l ~ c analogy with cqns. (3.11) stmill filrtlior we can rewritc eqns. (18.8) in tho form (two-dimensional, t,r~rbulcrit boundary layer) Due t,o the 1)oundnry-layer simplifications, t h e term

which is generated by the normal st,resscs, can be neglcctcd. A compnrisoii with the equations for the laminar boundary layer, eqns. (7.10) and (7.1I), leads to the following rules : ant1 iipoi1 comp:tririg cqns. (18.9) with (18.8) we can see tliat t h e components of tlic strcsq ktisor t l ~ t c the t,r~rbillcnl to vclocit,y componcnts of t h e flow arc:
(&) The velocity components and t.hc pressure, u, v , nnrl jv, are t o be replaced by their time-averages Z , 8, j5.

(b) T h e inertia terms and the pressure term remain unchangcd, whereas the viscous must be replaced by term v ?72~/?7y2

Illis stresq t.c?nsor is identical with tho one obtninacl in eqn. (18.5) with the nid of thc: ~nornent~r~rii t?q~rat.ion. l'rom tlio preceding argument i t can 1)c conclutfctf tfhat, the cornponenl.~of tllc 1ncn.n vc?lot!it,y of tr1r1)ulcnt flow satisfy t h c samc eqnn.I,ions, i. c. eqns. (18.9), as those sat.isficd by laminar flow, except t h a t tho laminar stresses must be incrensctl by atlclitional sl.rcr3.qos wliicli are givcn by t.lie strms tensor in eqn. (18.10). Tlicse atltlit.iona1 st.rcsses arc Iznown k q o a p p r e n t ,or virtual S ~ ~ C R S P of turhi~lent /low or IF Ile?/tsol*lm stresse.~. 'l'hoy arc due t o tl~rbiilontflucti~atioriand arc givcn by the tiincmean vnlrlcs of tlie qr~adratic terms in tho t , ~ ~ r b n l ecomponents. Since thcsc st~msscs nt are atltic:cl to t l ~ c orclitiary viscoi~s terms in Iyminar flow ant1 liavc a similar inflilencc on t l ~ c conrse of tjlie flow, i t is often said tli& thcy arc caused by edh/ niscosity. Thc t.ol.al strrssc~sarc l.l~c:snms of tlic viscoi~s ~(.rcsscs fro111 cqn. (:%.25a,I)) and of tlrcso :bpp:i,rcnt, sl,rc!ss(:s, so tI~:tt,e. g.,
1

This is equivalent to stating t h a t the laminar viscous force per unit volnme a ~ ~ / a y must be replaced by

- Q TG'?

where t = palllay is thc laminar shearing stress from Newtoti's law, anrl l is the apparent turbulent stress from Reynolds's hypothcsis.

.ct

D o ~ ~ n d n rconditions: The boi~ritlary contlit.ions t o bc satisfictl I)y thc mrriri y vrloeitey r o n ~ l ) o ~ i c n t ~ s cqns. (18.9) arc the Anme a s in ordinary Ianiinar flow, in namely they all vanish a t solid walls (no-slip cotltlit.ion). Moreovrr, all turbuleiit components must vanish a t t h c walls and they are very small in tlirir immediate nrighl~oi~rtiootl.t follows, tl~rrcforc,tlint 1111 components of the trrisor o f :11)l):1,rt~nI, I xt,rcssrs vanish a t Ulc solid walls a n ~ thc only strcsscs which not nriw t,licrn arc t,l~c l viscous stresses of laminar flow a s they, generally speaking, d o not varlish there. F ~ ~ r t h e r i n o i t is secn t h a t in thc irnmcdiatc ncigh1)ourhood of a wnll the apparent re stresses are small compared wit11 thc viscous stresses, and i t follows t h a t in cvrry t n r b ~ i l e n tflow there exists a very thin laycr next t o the wall which, in rssence, behnves lilzc one in laminar motion. It is known a s t h e lnrminrcr svh-loycr nntl its

564

XVIII. I~~~ndnmcr~tals of tr~rbulettt flow

0.13 1 vcry close t o tho wall. It is clearly Recn frotn the clingram th:tt I)ot,l~ 7 I.~~rl)ctlcnt~

vc~lor.iticsarc so sn~:~.lll ~ i ~ . t viscons forces tlolninatc ovcr t,he inertia forces. t, I.l~c I 1111s. t,~lrl~nlrnc:e exist in it. 'r'ltt: I:~.tninar no cnn snb-layer joins a transit,io~ial layer in \ \ . l ~ i c * l the vc~loc:iI(y ~ fl~lcbt,~lntions so 1:lrgc t h a t tlicy give rise to t.urbulent shearing aro sl~rrssc~s wllic:h arc, i l l turn, ro~nparal)lcwith the visc:or~sst,resscs. At still Inrgor tlist.nnros ft.oin t11c: will1 t,l~ct.~~rl)rllri~t, sl,rc!sscs cvcn1.11:~lly completely out,wcigli 1 . 1 1 ~viscotls sl.rc%ssrs.l'llis is t h e act,n:~l t,nrl)~rlcntbountlary layer. The t.hickness of tl~c.In1ni11n.rsltl~-laycris so srnnll, in n ~ o s tcases, trhatSit, is irnpossil~lc,or vcry ~ tliffic:rlll., t.o ol~sc:rvcit, 11llt1crc ~ ~ ~ t ~ r i r ~~on(lit.iotis. l c r ~ l ~ a I NcvcrLI~cIc:ss,it is of tlecisive itnl~)rt,anre for t.l~c: flow ~lntlcrcorisicl~~r:~t,ion I)cca~rse is t<hcscat of p l ~ c n o m c ~ i a it 11.y\r.l~ivltt,l~o sl~raring:t.t, t.hc w:~ll rid II(,II(:C t.11~ visc:o~rst1r:t.g arc tlet.crrninrtl. !\'c sl~nll rc:vc,rl. 1.0 (.Itis point l:~t.(>r t.l~c in I~oolc. 15rj11:if,ions (18.!)) :111(1 (IS.10) c:o~~sI~it.~lt.r 1.110st,arLi~tg point for t,l~c:m:~.l.llrrnat.ic:xl lr(,:11 I I V ~ f~ l~. ~ ~ r l ~ t ~ l c ! ~ ~ t ~- r lo l ~v c r ~ rnorc: prc(:iscly, for trhc caI~:ul:~l,io~tt,l~c I o ~ . l ( ~ \ l or, ~ s , of 1 itnc>-:~vc-rngc*s t . 1 1 ~ of magnil.~ltlcs \rltic:ll t1csc:ribc the Row. 'l'hc time-averagetl va,lrrcx of t,l1(- t.nrl)~llc~nl, vc~loc:iOy rorr~poncrntsci1.11be intcrprct.etl a s t l ~ e cornporlc~tt.s a of st.rc,ss 1.c:nsor 11111. if, n ~ ~ r sI)(, I)ornc in niincl t h a t snc:h IIII intcrprn1,nf~ion tlocs not. t. in ilst~ll'Ic:i.tl v c y 1nnr11.l':(~n:~I.ions 8.9) :incl (18.10) F R I I I I O ~1)e IISC~I for a rat,ional l,o (1 c~v:~l~lnt.ion 1,ltc mr:l.ri flow as long as t . 1 1 ~relation 11et,\veell the mean and tlie of t,rlrl~l~lc*~~t corr~l)onctltn not known. Srlch a relation can only be obtninetl empirically is ant1 Forms 1 . 1 1 ~rsscn0i:il col~t.cnt.s all the I~ypothcscscor~cerning of turbulence which will IIC tlisc~rssctlin t,l~c s~lccccc~ing cl~aptcr.
, 3

components decrease t o zero a t t h e well, as st,atctl earlier. I'igrrrc 18.4 shows a lot. of tile mean value of the product - 7, = which is cq~l.zl o the t,rtrl)~ll,:rtL t sllt*:i.ring stress except for a factor Q. The value of - 76' v' falls to zero in t.l~c! cor~t,rr 1 t,l~c: 0 t,est section for reasons of symmetry, wltcreas it.s maximulrt ocrnrs near t.11~ wall sho\villg t h a t tllrblllcllt friction 118sits largest v a l ~ t c t,l~crc. 'I'hc 1)rokrn line t/o sl~ows the variation of shearing stress which was obtiiinctl froin tllc ~nr:~s~~rc:tl l)rcbssllrc tlist,ribution and independently of tltc measurement of vclocit,y. 'She tewo cllrvrs nrnrly coincide over t h e major port,ion of t.11~ Itrigl~t, t.11~ srct.io~\, t.l~is of t.cst, atitl Irray I)c il~l.arprrt.atl a ~ o o (check on t.l~c n c n s ~ l r c m c ~ ~ t , ~ ; s o ns l r it. ; l sl~ows 1,11:~t n.lt~rost. :tll'of th(?sl~caring stress IS due to t.urbulcrtce. l'11c two nttrvcs ~tntlcr consitlcr:~t,iot~ clivc.rgc: rlpar t,Ile w:Lll,t,)lc cllrvc of -- TI,' I,' tlr(:rcasi~~g zero. Irc.c,:~l~sc-I,III.I~III~*IIL t , t t : ~ t . i o ~ ~ s t,o (I~~c. &c out llear the wall. The tlifirericc bctwecn the two curvcs gives I : L ~ I ~ I I : Lfrict ion. ~ Finally Fig. 18.4 contains values of the correlation coe//icie7rl, V J , I)ct,wccit t,ltc 10npit~11clit~al nntl l.rar~svcrse fl~tcLrr:~l.iot~st , l ~ snrnc point,; il, is tlc\litlc-tl l ) . ~ at c

C.

Son~c mcn~~rrernenta Ill~ctuntingtl~rbulcr~t on vclocitiea

In expcrirnc~nt.alwork on tnrbulcnt, flow it is nsual (,o mcasurc only the mean v a l ~ ~ c s 1)rcssorc and vnloc:it,.y bccansc t,hoy arc the only quantities whicli can be of ~nc::~s~lred convenicrtt~ly. The rncasllrcmcrlt of the tlirbulcnt, fiuctuat.ir~g cornponetits u', v', . t,hcr~isclvos, of their mean val~lcs or urrch a s 7 ~ ' u' ,v', . . . is rather tlifficrilt ~ arid rcclrlircs cl:rl)or.ate crluiprncnt. Itcliablc rnc:isrrmrnent,s of the fluct~rat,ion-velocity r o n ~ l ~ ~ t ( :IIRVO O(:c11 o\~t,:~incd the aid of hot-wire anemometers. T h e measurents wit11 ment, of tho mean values is quite sufficient for most practical appljcat,ions, b u t only tt~rotrghtile actual measurement of tlie fl~tct~tating components is i t possible t o gain n tlcepcr ~~ntlerst~antling of the mechanism of turbulent flow. We now propose t o give al a short account of sonic c ~ p e r i m c n t ~work on the measurement of t h e fluctuatingvc1oc:it.y c o n ~ p o n c n tin~onicr t,o present, a rnore vivid physical picture of t,he plicno, I I I ~ I I I L 1 ~~1I orclcr t o p i v ~ a I sorrle j~lst~ificatiort the preceding rnat,l~cmat,ical lo nrgument,.

..

--

I I. Iteic:lia,rtlt 141J oarricd ant, sueit measuremct~tsin a wind t~lnrtel wit,h a rect~atiglltar test scct,ior~ In wide and 24.4 crn high. The variation of ttlc mean vclocit.y 1 over t,hc height of the tunnel, ii(?y), is seen plotled in Fig. 18.3; rneasuremenl,~ were matlc in t h e ccntml section of the tunnel. It is seen t o be a typical turbulent velocity profile with a steep increaso ncar the wnll a n d a fpirly uniform velocity ncar the ccnt.rc-line. Tlie maxirnurrt vclocit,y was U = 1 0 cmlsec. The same diagram contains also plot.s of t,he root-rt~can-scl~larc values of the longit,r~tlirial and tr:tnsvcrsc components ,1/2ancl 1 1 5 ro~pt:ct,ivcly.The transvcrsc flucLnatio~ttloes riot vary grcat,ly ovcr the hcigllt, of t.he cllanrltrl ant1 its avcragc? valuc is about 4 per cent. of f7, but I.hc longit.~tdinalt.llrI~irlcntcomponent c x l ~ i t ~ i a~ s l pronorrttcctl steep maximum of

Fig. 18.3. Mens~lretnrr~t flunt~lnt.i~~g of tur-

h~~lrnt rorn~~onrtttn n wind tut~nrl, in nt, I I I I I X ~ I I I I I I I Ivrlf,c.il,y 1J -- 100 cll~/n(?(! nltnr Ilriahnrtlb 1.41) no~t.tnrn,,.~t1a~nro or longitu<tlnnl ~ v ~ t : t n n ~ i ~ ~ n trnnsverac llurl.t~nlion 1/;7i, nlrrn ~ c l o c i l ~

Fig. 18.4. B l m n ~ ~ r r tof ~ r ~ ~ t ~ Il~rc-l~~~n.t,itlp rotllponc~~tsl n c.I~~nnrl, 1lrif.ll:u.tll IcI1 I il ~~ft,c:r

TI," r o , l l l , . ~ ;TT, p
rt,~,tt\,,n V S ~ . I I \ , . I V I I L

(I,,. s)tc;tri~tgs l r v w TI,,. I I ~ I1 1 1 wr:L ~

vq

4~ .

566

XVII I. I~~t~~(lntiit~ntnln 01 t,t~rl)rtlrnt flow

Tlte rorrrlnt,ion rorffirir~lt~ ranges ovcr values up to y~ = -0.45. y~ Itlore r x l r ~ ~ s i v e mcasrlrcment~s on t,hr t,~irhltlrnt,fluct~~lat~ions have also been pcrformrtl it1 t,hc I~orintlnrylayer of a flat. ljlat,c n.1, zrro incidence. Figure 18.5 reprntlnocs some of t,llr rc~sultsol)l,ninccl I)y 1'. S. IZlcba.noff 1251 i r l a bountlary layer on a fl:~t.plnt,r n.ssociat,ctl wit11 a st,rmm of t,he very low t,url)l~le~lce t r n s i t , ~ in of 0.02 0/, ( c / . Scrs. XVIcl ant1 XVI I1 f). at, a ltoynoltls nnrnl)cr R, = ( I , z / v = 4.2 x loe. ,.ho prnfileof 1 . 1 1t,en~poral I ~ mc:m of the vrlocity, d,cxltibits ashage w11ic:h is very much lilte t,lint in :I c:l~:crincl, I'ig. 18.3. 'Sllc vari:~t.ionof t,hr l o i ~ ~ i t ~ i ~ t lflltct.r~ntiotr innl wit,h it.s protlortnc.rcl ~nnxitnri~n rlosc proxirnit.y of f . 1 1 ~ w:di -n.s woll n s the? Il:it,t.cr in caortrscb tl~c:crtrvr of t,r:~~rsvrrso of osc:iIlat.ir,~ra t right a~rglcs I.ho w:~Il, LO , rloscly rrsrrnble t,l~ose obtairiod i r l tho c l ~ a n t ~ e l , 18.3. It, is rcmarlcnl~lot.ll:~L tilo I~our~clFig. in nry- 1:iyc.r on :I flat platc, Fig. 18.5, t,he t,rnnsvcrsn osrillatiot~pnr:tncl t o tlro wall. l)y 'l'li(x ~ I I ~ ~ I I I si~ca.ri~)g ~ I I ~ , st,rcss - ut vf/r1L rnc:~st~r(!d (~IOSC to t , l w:LII ~ :Lgrctbs witll 7/,7 11: =0.0015, tho loc::~lv:rlrlr of t.hc skin-fri(:t.iot~ (-oeflj(!irl~t C; i t r the tli:lgram of Fig.2I.lO.A cornparisol~ between Figs. 18.3 ant1 18.4 for t h e channel :~ntlF ~ E18.5 fvr the bouncI;~ryI:~yerreve:~lsthat the turbulent fluctilatinns a r e very . simil:rr in I)oth cases. 'l'liey ~ ~ r o v i d ejrlstifiration for the :~pplic:tt.io~l t.he laws a of of trlrl)rllcnt flow dctluced from the slrlcty of flows tlirorrgh channels and pipes to the tlcsrril)tion of the flow in a boundary layer. We shall make use of this gossiOilitg in Cli:ip. X X I .

v<3

1 / ~

J/? , also al.t,ninsrorrsidrr:~blcv:t.l~~rs,L ~ I I C Swhich, morrovcr, oxcet:<I~,IIOSC att,:tit~etl V: -

l/s.

011

flr~ctr~xting (.nrbr~lcilt vc?locif,ycon~poilcnI.nin t.11~I~ol~ndnry lnyrr Fig. 18.5. Vsrint.ion of t . 1 ~ n flnt p1nt.r at. zero incidnnrc, ns nicnsr~rrtl 1'. S. I<lnl)nnolT[25J by
t ' u r v r (1). t ~ ~ t g i t l ~ t \Oi R C ~ ~ I R ~ ~ O I I : n~I
t:ttrvo (2). L r a t ~ s v c r ~ e narillnllnn

(:.

I<. Sr11111):1.1trr 1'. S. I<lal)atlofP 1.501 prrfornlnd also very mrcf111measurent~tl

1 ' 5

I l ~ r t 1 r ~ ~ t .of r ~ s tarb111rtlLvcbt:ity comlx,tant.s nncl of t1llemrrclation i o t,I~c c:oc-flit-i~nt in :I. Lrirblilrrlt, bountlary layer or1 a flat wall wit,h a frcvoumble ant1 a n trtls-~rsc Itrrssuro grxclient.

I I I ~ I I ~ S t,Ilr of

,I. I,nl~fc.r1x21 prrfortnctl cst.c:l~sivo mmsl~rernrnt.s t,llc flnctuat,ing ooml)oor1 t l c ~ ~ ti sl 11ipr floio. 15nrlirr rnoasitrcrnrt~t~s l ~)crformntl hy 1'. S. IClehal~olT ant1 %. I!'. I)ic,l~l 1241 on arr nrtiIici:rlly t.hirIcc!netl 1)orlntlxry layer on a flat plate rlrmonr;tr:rtr~clth:tt. it, Ot~lrnvcssr~l)st.nnl.inIly a n ort1inar.y 1)olintlary In.yer wit.ll n. corrt?. lilcc? slio~rcli~tgl~~ iirlc:rr:i.sctl i~llt:t Icngt,h. 1)cL:~ilctl rc:sult.s on ttirbulcnt flow t.hrough a (:II:IIIIIP~ I>(: Sor111t1 rill1 dcscri1)etl in n. papcr by J . 1,aufcr [RO]. A s n h s e q ~ ~ cpapcr by ~it * I . ( ' . 1,nrtrcnec: IR:1] ,:ol~t,ninsthe resrllt*soS his i~~vcst.igat.ions t,he int,ensity of turof 1>1111~nrrfrcc jct,s, in
'I'Ir(1 irlvc~slig,rntioi~s t . ~ t r l ~ ~ ~nsrill:i.l.ions in t.11~ ) o ~ t n d a r ~ it1l.o lc?~rt~ I Inycr of a. flat, plnt,e tlrscri1)etl ill rrf. 1-25] l ~ n v c show11, Crtrt,l~cr,t , l ~ a t,hc klrbltlcncc a t the outer t ctlgc? of tho horrntlary 1n.ycr is inttrrmit8tjcntf ant1 rcscmblcs in this respect, 1.11~ flow i r t t.l~(, inlet, lcngt.11of x pipe dcscribcd it1 Src. XVIn. ?nd Figs. 16.2 anti 16.3. Oscillogrnlris of t,llr osc-il1:rfitrg t,~irbulcrlt velocity rornponents dcmonstrate t h a t the posit,ion of t,lto fairly sharp I~orindn.rics hrt.\vcc~rth(: Irighly ,'t#urbulent flow in the bolltltlary

<

Curvo ( ) Iransverne 3. Curvl: (4). Lurbrrlcnl shcnring slrr.;.;: rlcnolrs lncnn valocity

~,srnllt.l wall: 1 lo ' s ~ r i l l n l l n n l rigl,t nnglrs to wall: n n' v' = -

1 / ~

rl/e:

7 .

layer ant1 tile nenrly tnrl~rllence-frco cxt.crnal ~ t ~ r o n ~ n flrtnl,natcil slfrongly wit11 time. .Ll~ovariat,ion of the int.crrnitt.cncy f:~cLory ovcr t f l ~ wit1t.h of t.he 1)onntlnry 1:~ycr c is shown plottetl in Fig. 18.6. The value y = 1 sigl~ifies h a t the flow is turbulent t a t all times a n d y = 0 corresponds t o a [low which remains laminar. I t can he inferred from the diagram t h a t t h c boundary layer is intermittent in that, respect from y = 0.5 h t.o y = 1.2 0 . Turbr~lcr~t, k and wakes brhavc in a sirnilar rnnnnc>r ( c / . jc [25n,26. 28, 631). Apart from t h e dist.rii)ubion of t.110 vclocity llrlc:l.unl.io~~s,is nccossnry t,o provitlc it adclitional d a t a in order t o characterize a turbulcr~t strcnrn. A qliantitativc statcrnerlt regarding tile spatial structllrc of turbulcncc can I)e obtained by simult,aneously observing I,)II? velocity f l u ~ t u x t ~ i o a~ stwo ncighbouring point,s 1 a.ncl 2 in t h e flow rt ficltl. These allow us t,o dctcrmine t h e correlation funcLion

It tii:ly 110 r r ~ ~ ~ n r k r t l in pnssirtg t.hnL t.l~r Iinro nxinlence of art npparrr~t. sllenring strew due to vrlosit,y f l i ~ c L ~ ~ : r t . ial\vnys ilr~plirs ca~rrclnt.io~t t~nn :r I~ct~rvcrr~ Litrhl~let~t t,l~c vr~oc-it.~ con~pc~~~ents in 1.a.o rlifirt-nl. tlirc.c.l.iotts. Sltr.11 oorrrl;~t.ir~t~ cxistx in t,ltc cn4c 1 1 tiltr ( l i n t r ~ r b n t which also 1 ~~r~ tirt\.r I P ~ ~ I . Iirivc.sl.ijintct1 i n cotrtrc.xiot~wit.11 t,l~e I tl~rory o1shbilil.y ofI:rttiinnr r~lotior~; rrf. [5H] see

R=

u'u'

* j

1-1

.j z

first, it~l~rotIr~cc(l C. I. 'I':~.ylor [52], '1'11~ tIi:r.gr:l~ni l l Fig. 18.7 ( l i s l ) l : ~ :I, ~ s by ~ t,y1)it.:~l

568

XVIII. F~~ndamentnls tttrbulcnt flow of

c:orrc.l:~l,iotrfrtnc:I.ion for 1.1~: longit,~rtfin;~l Ilnc:l,r~at,ions tllo cross-scc:tion of a circular in 1)il)t- ol'(li:tmotc:r tl t,i~l<(:n from a p t r I ) l i ~ : ~ t i ~ n t o G. I. 'J'aylor 1-54]. One of the hot duc \r.irrs \V:LS pl:~.cc(lin t.ht: (:(:t~treant1 the oIfllcr : ~ a variable dist:~nncr. At 1. = 0 the t t.\r:o (Itt(~l.ll:lI.ions ant1 ?I,,' :Lro idcntic:ll, ant1 For this reason wc find t h a t R ( 0 ) = I 1.11c.rc..As r is inc:rr:tsoct, t . 1 1 ~ c:orrcl:~l.ion ftinotion tlccreascs i n value very mpitlly, cvcri : r s s t ~ ~ ~ t i irr ~ g , 1):~rl~ic:rllnr l 1.Ilis cxa.mplc, srn:~.llnegative values over a ccrt.:tin r:kngc.

obtain t h e so-called autocorrelalion fundiota. The provision of spacc-t,irnc corrcl R t .IOIIS, ' t h a t is, of observations of two velocity components, oacll mcasurc(l a t a tlilrrrrnt location in space and a t a different inst,ant i n tirnc, allows u s t o gain a gootl tlr:tl of insight. As an example, we reproduce in Fig. 18.8 snch space-time corr~lnt~ions

Disl.anco from wall:

y/d
=

0.24

T5orrrtdary-layer t.I~ickncss: 8 16.8 nini

i I)ou~ttlary lnynr on Fig. 18.8. Space-time correlations of velocity flrtctuatiol~s n Ll~ct!~rl~trlcnl e flat plate, as measured by A. J. Favrc, J. J . Caviglio and 11. .J. 1)nrnas [tfi]

lgig. 18.6. t':~ri:tl,iot~i l , l ~ n ~ ~ l , ( : r ~ ~ ~ i t , t c t ~ ( ! y o i I':~(-l.ori t t :L t,~trl~~~loc~I. I:ryor ott )I I)or~~~clnry :L 1I:tl. j1ln1.c :11. zvro it~ni(innc:r, its trlcas11rc.1111y 1'. S. I( lc!l)n~~olf 1251

I'ig. 18.7. Corrc.lnl.ion frtnc:l.ioti for tllc t,~lrl)l~lcl~t Ilt~ct~~~aI.ion longit~rcli~~al of Clio con~]x)t~c~~t, o f vvlocit.y, u,', nrc~r~rctl it1 Lllc cc?t~trr f tt ])il)(? :b11r1 rc?l:~l,r(l 1 . 1 1 ~ o 1.0 l l ~ t c t ~ ~ : t(-ott~ponrt~t, :tt, clisl,nt~ce ti~~g u2' r. I11c:ts11rct1tr1lts1 1 1 ~ to I,. F. (:. Si1t11no11.9 ( ant1 rcporlnti 11y Q . 1. 'l'aylor I541

, I

1 Itis is oxplnint\d 1)y t h e rec~niremcnt~ cont,in~lit,y of accortlirig t o wl~ich, s we know, a t,l~e r:~,l,c. flow tJlrougl~ n y cross-scct-ion ronains constant in time. T11e integral of ol' a 1.11~ c:orrrl:~t,ion f~rnct:ionIt, t.l~atis, t h e qr~nnt~ity

ol)t.nincd by A. J. Favre and his coworkers (161 in tllc L n r l ~ t ~ l cb o n n t l ~ ~ rInyrr on r~t y a fl:l.t plntc. 'l'l~e1nrnpor:tl tlispl;~cctncl~~l,, t.lln I ~ ; ~ X ~ I I I IoI'(-:~(.ll t,,,, of III~ (:Itrvv is inll)osc(I by t.llo passage of t u r b ~ ~ l o n t ctlrlics; tho odtlics move \vit,ll nn n ~ ) ~ ) t ~ o s i t ~ ~ : ~ l , c : vc*lot.il.y wliich is equal t,o 0.8 U,. 'l'11e tlccrcasc in the maxima is the rcsrxlt of ;L procrss wlticll can be visualized as follows: With t l ~ c 1)assngoof time, tpl~o t,url)ulc111, ntltlirs losr 1,Ilcir i~~tlivirlnalit,y t,hrollgll mixing with the s~lrroutldingI , l r r b ~ ~ l cflt~icl.Concurrc:nt,Iy, ~~t, ncw etltlics c:ont,iritto~~sly spring into being. An albrnativc tlcscript,ion of t,hc str~icturcof turb~llcriccis obt,:~inctlw l l c ~a~ fr~q~~e,zcy analysis of the motion is provided instcad of a correlation fu~irt~ion. 'l'l~is leatls 11st,o t h e concrpt of the speclr~~r,~rr t.rrrl)~tlcnl, of n st,rc::~ni.f,ct I , clonot.r tlrc Src-quency n . 7 ~F ( n ) (171, t.11~ ~tl fr:~ctional con1,rnt of t l ~ r o o t - t ~ ~ r : ~ ~ ~ - sv:I~II(-, : ' ~ , r ( ~ t ~ n r ( of I& t.11~ longi1.1ltlinalIluct,uat,ion w l ~ i c l ~ bclongs t.o 1.l1cfrcqr~cnvy ir~l~c~rvnl 11, t.o 11. I tlrr. fro111 'I'IIO fnnct,ion F ( n ) , whicll rcprcsent,~ - tlcllsi1,y of 1 . 1 1 ~ t,l~c tlisl,ril)r~I.io~~ ol' 1t'"il ? I , is Ic~town ns t,l~c .speclml rli.slrihl~tio,a 71,'" l3y tlcfi~~itiorr, ~nrlst, of \vr: I~nvct

yirlcls :I. c.ll:~~;tc:t.rrist,ic Irngtd~of tJle st,r~~c-l,ltre tht: tturbnlcnce in t.hc flow. 'lll~is of lr11gt.11,\ ~ / ~ iis l:IISO Itt~o\vnn.s t h e s c d e of Iro.b7tleItae, e~t~ablishes men.sllrc of t h e \ c ~ a c s t r t ~ tof the rnnss ~ v l ~ itnovcs ns R t ~ t i i at1(1gives ,in idea of the avern.gc size of t h e . rl~ t l.rtr-l)r~lrttI. tvlrlic-s ("I):IIIs of l.nrl~111cnr.c"). 1.11~cxam1)lc llntlcr tlisctlssion it* \rrnv 111 forltltl ll1:11. 1, v 0.14 d). I S l.lto sc:c.ol~tl vrloc.ilty, 1 1 ~ 'in eclm (14.1:1). is n ~ c : ~ s ~ r rat.d t l ~ t : same 1orn.t.ion c l ) t r l :II. a (Iill'(-rr111, I S ~ . : I I Iof< I,itnn (71~' inst,arlt t l and 11.; a t ir~stnnt 2 = tl -1- 0, wo ~I ~ at, t

(a

ft111cl,io11 ( I Ican bc i l l t,c~,p~~t:t.r(l I It(; IPo~~ricrI ~ ~ I I S ~ O I . I01'I I I)(\ ~ ) as l I ntltoc.o~.t.clnt.ionf'tt~lctiont.'l:l~c: spcc1.r.n tlist)l:lyc.tl in IGg. IS.!) wrrc o l ) l : ~ i ~ l ( IIJ' ~l P. S. 1Zlcl)nnoff 1251 in t,l~c t,urb~rlcr~t bol~ntlnrylnycr Sormc,tl on :I f1:l.t pln.1.c. ICxcc3pt for t , l ~ c mensr~rrmc~it tltc ont,er ctlgc of t,I~(t nl, I)o~t~t(l:rryI ? ; c(?j/O --- 1). 1.llr ItigI~(~sl~ I: ~ vx111(: V(II):tl~vnjrsO ( : ( - I I ~ S;1.1, l , l ~ c ol' lo\v(tsl,I I I ~ Y I S I I ~ ( Y I l'r(~111(~1t(~y. I ' I . I ~ I I I I 1I1 ,~ I I ( ~ ~ , A s I,II(, is r:~is(:cl,1,Itt: fnt~t:l,ion F(II,) 71,-5/:' in ~;ont:or(I:~~~t-c 1111% lIt(-o~.y l ~ * \ ~ ~ ~l),yt ) l ~ ~ ~ wit11 ~ I
[ 11~: SJ)CC~ d r

'lhis \\as first rrrogtiizrtl 1)y (:.I. Taylor [47]

670

XV111. I'nnclntnrt~t~nla tt~rhrrlrr~t, of flow

f. Energy diatril~nbionin tnrl)r~lrnt, st,rcntns

57 1

A. N. I<oln~ogorovr, 1'. von Wcizsncclzer 1641 and W. Ilciscnbcrg. As t,hs frcqrtency C. bcconirs e v e n I:irgrr, F ( i r ) clecrensee u n d e r (,IIc acttion of kilicmnt,ic viscosit,y at, R fa,ot,rr m t c st.ill. Arcortling t o W. 1Icisc~nl)crg'st,hcory [Inn], a t very ltigll v n l t ~ c s of I'reclucncy wr. s11o111de~bserve t.lrat F ( a ) la-'. 'Chc t,wo t.heoret.ica.l in.ws a r c representrtl in Fig. 18.9 hv t . 1 1 ~t.wo st.might lines lnhrllrtl ( I ) a n d ( 2 ) , rns~)cct.ively.

f. Energy distribution in turboletlt streams

Tho snbaidiary, oscillntory motion conI.in~rally drains nwny crlt?rgy frotn L11o Incan, principal n~ol,ion through the inkr~ncdiary the turbr~lcnt of utrosscs. UIlin~nLrly, this energy is ron~plctrly clissipated into 1n:at owing to tho act,ion of viscosity. If wc i ~ ~ t . r o d the c c ~ ~ velocities from rqn. (18.1) into t l ~ c cxprcssion for Lhc dinsipation function fro111 cqn. (12.8), we (::in isolnta a gronp of tnrlns !vIiicl~clcpend solely on thc velocity grnt1it:nk of I.l~o!noan rnot.ior~. 'l'l~ispart is kt~owrlan the direct dissilmlion Irnclion. 7'hc rcn~ninderwhich oorrcnpor~cln t,l~o to olcrgy tlissip:rl.rtl by virttlo of t.hc cxistcnm of flr~ctrrnt.ions known M 1l1clurhirlent cfissiprlion /u.ncliotr. Ac:rortling 1.0 cqn. in I (12.8). the turl~nlcnt dissipation ftrnction is givcn Ijy Ll~c expression

7 ' 1 1 ~direr1 dissipation fnnrt.ion rnakou n non-r~ogligihlc cottlril)~rt.ion !)nly in t.hn nt>igl~l~o~~rhontJ of solid walls. 111 t l ~ rc~nnit~clcr Ll~o r or field, t l ~ c t.nrl,nlcnt tlissipnlio~~ I I I O ~ ~ ; ~ I~I ~ ~ . ~ I O I I I ~ I I R LrCrH ~I I ~v 'Chc exprcnsion in cqn. (18.1G) R R R I I I ~ C R n t ~ ~sin~plcr a r l ~ forrn wllcn tho t t ~ r l j ~ ~ l nin rhornon r gcnco~rs and isotropic. A tnrhulent licld is (,crnrrxlIron~ogcneous when Ll~c slRLint.it:nl clislril)r~bio~~n arc the same a t cvcry point in space; it is tcrrncd i~nt~ropic when tho distribntions rcmain invariant with rcspcct to srhitrary rotnations and rcflcxion of the coordinate axca. Taking into account symmetry propertics and the req~~ircmcnt continnity, it is pessiblr: to rcducc 1110 of ri ht - hnnd side of cqn. (18.16) t o n multiple of a single term, for oxan~plo, o n n~r~ltiplc t of 11s rnublccl (. I. Taylor [53] to simplify eqn. (18.16) to t.hc for111 1

IPig. 18.9. I'rcq~~encyspect.rtrrn of the longitudinal fluct~~ation the in turbnlrnt horrndary layer on n flat platc ~ n e a n ~ ~by d S. Klcbanoff I251 r e 1'. Cnrvo ( I ) : F n-513 Curve (2): F Tl~eoryrlnc to W. EIcisc~~berg [I!)a]

.!.,

(m

J . h1arCel1n.l[:16a] pc:rfortnrtl tlct.n~ilcclrncnsr~rctncnt-7 n tile f r c ~ q ~ t r n r y o spect,runl in flows wit.h l ~ o l n o g m r o n sturbulence. I n ~ ~ n r t i c u l a11c in\~cstigat,ctlt,he effect, of n r, strong t,wo-tlimrtisiond contrnction of the st.rcam.

Strictly upcakirrg. isot.ropic t.r~rbnlcncc docn not, cxisL i n nnt~arc.A ttlrhulont, liold wl~icl~ approxi~ n a k s it8 structurc the hypot,l~cticalcane of iaotro y cnn I)c produced by pasqing a parallel in strcanl t,liro~rgl, wire scrcon a 4 is done in winti tunnc!. n J>opartnrc~q fro111isotropy l~cot~mo U C ~ I ~ I larger in pipe Ilow, bonnclary laycm, ctc. Nevcrtlmlras, the 11ot.io11of isotropic: L11r1111lcncc acq~~ires witlcr applicnhilit.y if i t is rcstrictcd to clislrib~~tion fnr~ctionsof vclocit,~ dilrcrcnccs inatend of to those for~ncdwith rrspect to vclocitics the~nselvrs.Following A. N. Kolmogorovt, wc ronsider correlat.ion fnnctions of the form

I IIC cllaract.cr of t , l ~ c spcctpr:rl dist.ril)~rt~ior~tllc c:rlcrgy of flrrc:t,l~at,ior~ of lcntls u s dirnct,ly ($0 t,lic idcn tltnt s t u r b u l e n t s t r e a m does n o t contaiti etlclies of a clef in it,^! size n111.v. Orr t.11~ c.ontn~.ry, t.llnrc I I I I I S ~ ,exist ot1tlic:s o f v r r y rna.tiy tlilrcrrnt sizes. A t very 1:11,gc: I<c~yt~olsls 11rlrn1,nrs. t.llrsn ctltlic>s 111n.y tlifTc?r by ortlcrs o r ~ n : ~ ~ t ~ i l . onr. c r t t l frorn n l l ~ ~ t , l l c rt.r c o ~ t pnpers tlca,l wit,li tllc effect of turbulence int,ensit,y on t h e ilcvelopI . I ~ I V I I ,t 4 ' a t , ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ll~ ,nn~ i n , l t ~In..ycr 15, I!), 221. It,. I C ~ t ~ ~ n t ~ r I i t ~rnntI(: $1. clt,t,t~,il(~tl t t, ,ry 1151 g i t ~ v r s t , i g ~ ~ t of' 1.110 wall IPI.CSSII~C 1.111.1)11l~tlt ,ioi~ 01' a I)oyntlnry Iayc:r rnc~lzingrtse of a n opticnl tnct,l~otl.I l c t,li~ts i ~ c o v ~ 1 t . t ~ n1 , l ~ e O ~0~ t flow tlcvelops zoncs of high-arnplit3udc prrssItr(! flt~c.t.~ta.t.ions l l i r lO C C I I ~at, irrcgtilnr time .:nt,ervnls. T h e cxtrernn in wall~v ~ 1)rrssItrc fl~~ct,rint,ions t,hcsc zoncs move, nt, nn inst.n.nt-nncor~s it1 convect,ivc velocity of 40 t.o A00/, of n1rn.n st,rc-nni nntl i l l t.hr tlirr.ct,ion of t01c m r n n st.rrnm. Tllc vvnvo form of s ~ t r llu(:t~~l:lt,ions l~ 011angcs s l o \ v I ~ ~ t . 1 1 ~i titnc. See also t h e papers by U'. I<. Rlnbe [ l a ] , M . I<. l31tll [:%a], * I . IZline c t n.1. {ZC,], a n d 1'. .J. M r ~ l h e a r n(38a.1, a s well a s S. t t i r rrvirvvs I)y \I1. W. ~~~~~~~~~~~h 166, 671.
I .

(r/. rqn. (18.13) and Fig. 18.7), ant1 dcsig~~atc t ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l:LVn"locally isolropic" whcn the the c cc correlation fr~nction rrmnins invariant with rcspoct to rotatinnu ancl rcflcxions of the coordinnLo a y s k ~ n n rmf.rir:bd domain, that ia in a rrstrictctl range of distnnccn r hctwcrn poinlrq 1 and 2. in It in rollnil that ultch lorn1 isotropy r.xisln in uny Lr~r\)ulrnt t11,w in a s ~ ~ f i c i c n b ~ y inhrvnt s111:lll r G I,, whcrc 1, has Ijecn tlelincd in cqn. (18.14) on contiition t.l~rrt the ILCYIIOI~R ~ l n b c r r~~

of the tnrbulenco haa bccomc large enongh. I t cxiotn even in shear flown, ~ u r l r llowu in pipes, as bonndary layers, etc., in which there arc preacnt large nl~carillg stresses, but regions in clonc proxirnit,y of ~ ~ 1 and borrndnrirn are exccptcd. The rcgiona of locnlly isotropic trrrbnlcncc cxknd 1 8 ~wcci~cly ranges wl~cre over t,hc grnclionb of tho flectuntions (&&'/ax ctc.) m n t n e large valnrs.

The works of A. N. Kolmogorov are now acccaeiblc in a German as well ns in an English translation [18n, 18I,].

572

XVIIl. F~tndnn~cnt,nls t ~ t r l ) ~ ~ lflow of cnt

For tllis rrnnon, c q ~ ~ n f , i(18.17) errjoys very wide np licnhility. A ditnensional argutnel~t or~ which \rSn8 fir~l, ndvanccil I)y A. N. I<ol~tlogorov ~ l d a Inter, i t 1 epc~ldent,ly, C. F. von Wcizsnecker [li4] I)y an11 I\'. Mrisrl~\,rrg [I!)IIJ,Irncln t.o 1110cstnl)lial~~~~rr~l. tlctnilrr rcg.%rclingLl~e of I'rrrtl~rr for111of the corrrlntior~frtr~t:tiotrsfor srrr:rll tli~lbrnccn or of tl~c!fortt~ol' the ~pcctrnlfurictio~lfor Inrgc frer qnrt~c.ierr.We rnnst., tlowevrr, rcfrnin frotn p~lrsuingthis sul)jcct l~rre, excrpt for refrrring the rendrr once morr to liig. 18.9. ,, rirc~~~risl.n~~ccs arc csscnt,id for the ondcrstanding of t ~ ~ r l ~ r t l carcctllcse: Tlio J Ire wl~iol~ r~ c trtrb~~lc~rl strcnnes nrc c:rentccl predotnit~nrttlyby the lnrgc cdtiictl, that is, by ctldics \r.l~ose size is of order I,. As n c o n s c q ~ ~ eof~ c instnbi1if.yof the flow, there nppenr crltlies of smaller a r ~ d n the stnnller size rtntil, r~ltirnakly, thc grnilicn0s au1/az ctc bccornc so s h e p ill t l ~ c slnnllrat etldics that tltey prodrtcc in t,l~ernn l.ransforrnnt.iot~ tncch:inicnI crtergy into I~cnt. of 'l'l~on~cctrnnicalpower wllicl~ ia t.mnsfrrrct1 fro111 I.llc rnrnn notion to t l ~ c I:irgc edtlies I)y tlrc ncl,ion of I.~~rl)rtlonL st.rcsses is i n d r p e ~ l t l c of ~ t ~ vinrosit,y; i t rnscedcs 8ts.p \by RIGJ) t ever s~nnllcr o cddi(.s ~tnt,ilB ~ i x c rc~cIlccI is \vhctl it is tlissiynt.rtl. This ~r~ecl~:ininn~ is resl)onsil)lc:for the fnc:t t,i1n1,tltc ski11frictiotl as \vcll * q tllo di~t,rib~tt.ion n1cn11velocities depend very little 011 Ll~eIZcy~~olds of nut~~l)cr spite of tlw it1 fact Il~nt, losnrs in energy nrc clrrr to the viscosity. all

'I'l~rrc.l:lI ivr nr:~gnitrltlv of 1.11~: longil.r~tlit~nl I.rr~t~svc*t.sc: nntl Iltit:l,~lnl.iotts vcloci6y of is a vcry iInpc)l~tnnt, v:~rii~\)l(:l witici-t.urlncl tnmsrlrotnrnt.s; it. tlrtcrminrs t h e tlegrce il t,o wliic:l~rnc-nsurctnrt~t~s) c ~ . f o r n ~ c t l lnotlrl can b r ilpplietl t,o t h e full-scale st,rnc~ on a t r ~ r r \\!ell a s IIOIV n~rnsrtrcrnent,s ~ r r f c ) r m ein differc~t~l. RS ~ tl tunrirls can I)c cotnpnred amorlg t.l~~~nscl\rc-s. have: alrtkndy mc~ntioncrlin See. XVIcI t,l~at,,i l l pnrt,icular, \Vet t.rar~sit.ion froni Intninnr 1.0 t~rrrl~ulcnt. st,rot~gIy flow tlcprnds on t h e n~ng;nit,rrde t h e of osrillat,inp vc,loc,ity c.ornl)onrttl,. 'l'hr w l ~ o l r(lrvclopmrnt. of tllr t,ut.l)rll(:nt 1)oundnry Iayc-1 {.\I(: loc*a(ion of t,lrr scl)arnt.ion point,, a s well ns t.hc rat? of brat. t-ransfcr tlc1)t'ncl o n 111r itll.cvwil,y of t.~~t.I)rtlc.ncc t,l~c. c t ~ in h st,ream (ci. Scc. X l l g ) . 'l'lle nlagrlitnllc of t,hr f\tlr(~t:~t.ions w givrn t,tltinr\ is t\ct.enninrtl by t.hr mrsii of i t s screens, in aritls o r I ~ o t ~ ~ ~ r o A1~nl arrtain rlist,anrc f'rotn t,hc srl.c(3t1st.11rrr is isotropic t?~rh?slence n )s. ~vllichtncLnns t 1rn.t. ( h r Inran vrlocit,y Il11r111al.ions i r i t llr t , l ~ r c e eoortlinat.e tlircct,ions a r c rclrtal 1.0 rnrlt o1,llrr:

T h c expcrimc?nt~ally vcrifictl f a c t t h n t t h e critical 1;lcyrloltls ntrnibcr of 8, sl)i~crc: for wllich t,lrc d r a g coeffioit:r~t, tlccronscs st*coply(Fig. 1.R) tl(~l)c:rtcis t;(.ro~lgly ~.II(: t l t s g otr rco of l.ttrl)trlc~~t:c the: witltl trlnncl, is of grcaL pr:tct,ical i111port:cncc. 'L'l~c: \ ~ : t l ~ t r : OF of t h e critic:rl Tteynolds r ~ r ~ m b e ist of t h e order of ( V D/v),,,, -- 1.6 t o 4 x 105 :r.~~tl r tlccrcn.srs ;iviit.ll RII increasing int,ensit,y of t t ~ r b u l c n c c 'rliis f : ~ c t cvitlcttt OII 1111)-sionl . is g;ror~ntls 1)ccnrlsc a. high inl.c?tlsit,y of turl~nlcllcc t.lrr free strcnrn In:ids t o I.r:~usit.iou irl :it low l t c y ~ r o l d snr~tnl)erss o t h a t t l ~ cpoint of scl)nrnt.ion is slriStotl tlowttst,rn;atn ca~lsirigt.11~ wake 1.0 d ~ c r c ~ s nntl t,llis, in t u r n , rctlucrs drag. 0 1t.l~o c, 1 ot.l~c:rh:ltrtl, free-lligl~t rncnsrtroncrrt.s o n a SI)II~TC 1)crSortrlocl l)y (:. 13. Millil<:t.~~ :I,II~I A . I;. IZlritr 1371 g a v e tlte surprising result 1,ll:~t 1.llc frcc nt,lnosl)l~rrc~1 ~ in 1 . 1 c.ril.ic:~lI < . ( ~ y ~ r o l ~ I s rlt~tiibor of tIllc sp11cro is intlc~)c11~Ic111~ l ~ c ~ ~ ~ I I ( : ~ ,oI fI ~I.III~~)II~(:II(:~: v:r.t.i(\s of t B c wl~i(:lt wit8ll t.llo w e a l ~ l ~ c r . I'rrr-lliglit. t n c : ~ s u r r ~ ~ ~ cgnvn n rril,ic.:~l 1tc:ytloltls r r c ~ ~ n l ~ c r nl.s of R,,, = 3.85 x 10" w l ~ i c h is larger t,llati t h a t for m o s t wirltl t,u~lnc~ls, al(,lrorlgli n i m s r ~ r c m e n t s low-t11rb111cnc:ct.rltinrls nppron.cll t,lro, vnlttc- it1 in fligl~t.. 'l'l~i, I;I(.I. l.lr:~l~ t.ltc c:ril,ic:~l I ~ ~ ( ~ y t ~11111111)1~rI ~ : I S I I ~ O ~in 1'r1:0 IligI~(, i t ~ ~ l ( ~ ~ ) ( . t t (,I' . I.II(- . oI~Is II I is ,l, l~( wcS:l.lIlrr is c:sl~lr~.inc:tl 1.11~. ~ I . ( . I ~ ~ I I I.IIII.I,:1.111: I .. ( ~~ I ~ I ~ I (*tl(li~.sl 1 1 1 ~ ( 11.1 I I I O : : ~ I ~ I ~ : I . ( : I)y ~ N~. III I I I ~ ~ I I I ~ il * :t,rc s o 1:irgc l,l~:tt1J1t:y c!:it~t~ot :~lTc:cl,I,II<:p l i r ~ i o n i c t ~it1 I,II(: Irl~iti ~ o t ~ r ~ ~ l : r ~ r , y a I I;tyc-r R ~j)It(:ro. In a n y c::isc, t~llcsr: me:isnrornotlb lratl tlo I,llc cor~rlrtsion1.l1nI.it, is r~c~<c-ss:rr)t o tlcsigri wind tunnols of low t,urbnlencc i l ~ t a n s i t y rnotlrl ~ n c n s l ~ r c n ~ c ~ n t o~bo if :rlv l , npplicnl)lc t o tire tlcsigt~of ftrll-scale nircr:~ft. 'I'ltis is ~)arl,ic:trlnrly irnl)orf.:~rrl, \\,lien rncasrrrcmcnt,~a r c pcrli)rmcd o n low-clmg acrofoils \vl~osc Ooontlnry I:~ycrsrt:m:iitl I : ~ m i r ~ a r e r long st,rct,cl~cs ov (laniiriar ;~crofoils, Scc. X V I I b). 'I'l~r t:1rnmt:l~c~rist~irs of srlclr :~rrofoilsonn bc snccessfrrlly mcnsurctl only in low-I.url)t~lc~~cr. 1.1tt111t-Is. c. it, t,nr~nc.ls i. wltosc: inI,cnsit.y of tttrl)t~lcnccis cxl,rclnt:ly small (T w 0.0005; c / . 1141). Ik-ft:r,,tt(.t: oonI,nir~s sllnlrnary of nrcnsrrromcnt~son t < l ~ c a int.cnsi1.y of (.r~rl.~trlcticc i t Inrgc: of 1111rnl)crof wirltl t.rrnncls.
---.

'I'br (lrCrer o f h ~ r b r ~ l a n r c a ~ v i ~ a l of ~IIIIII(:I orprcssnd a8 en11 in rccl~leetl 1.0 vctlllrs a s low a s 0.1 pnr ccr~t,.,if n suflic.ir~rt 11rlmk)t.rof fine-mesh sorccns o r honeyc.on~l)s ~lsatl, is sc:o [Pig. 16. IClt.

~ ~ / u . .

?i!c;i,,cc - t h e tlirect rnrasr!rcmo~t . o f , t h e yclocity fInc:t~l:~tiot~ l ~ / i ~ (,~tit.o ) is , cliffic~rlt,~~,t~cmj!t* .ivcrc nintlc t o r$rtI Gile critio:iI ItcyrloItla nrrtnitor or1 n sl)~rc*rt: 8 s tltc ~)nr:lmct,crw h i ~ l ! ~ ~ ~ l ~ s c tho cis ~ t c t i s i tof t3nrl)r~lcr~cc x wintl-I.~tl~ttr~I. 1 rib ~ y in 'rllis..oritical ITZyiioltls ! ! u m l ~ s ~ a.sp!h~-~.,cn~l dctoani!l~tl. i ! ~ l ~ c r mc:~srrrit~g . h be ~ by !Ilc !Irag, a s snggcstetl b y 11. 12. 1)rydcn 18, 91, o r by rnc.wr~ritlgt h e prcssrrm tlill'crt*nc:c: - . ~ , ~ g t i - c . ...... . . . - ... 1)etwc:on tllc forwnrc .,. 9, lot? I ) o i ~ ~ lt ~ t lk poi^^^ at t,l~c:ro:w of l , i ~ c a sl)l~c,rc.;IS st~ggcst~ctl S . I[oerner [21] :.";~hcI?t,tcr n~ct~lrocl n s , e ~ t , c n s i v e l ~ b y R. (1. L'lntt, by w ilsdtl 1401. 11. L,.Qrytfen ant1 A. M. K u e t h c 1.81 corrcletcd tlrc cri1,icni 1tcyt~;)"lds rrtrnil)c-r for ? spllcre witfll t h e m e a n longitutlitl?I fluc*tua.Lio~l, 18.10, nntl discovcrctl l.lr:lt2t.l\csr Fig. rc!at.iqrtsl~il,. l v . - clunntitics snt.isfy P ~ ~ ~ i ~ q u ~ . . f u _ t ~ . c l r , i ~ ~ t ~ n 'J'llc v ~ l r l cof 1.l1(:c,rilicnl !6 t . . .- .-Itnyt~olds number, = 3.85 x 10" ~ ~ n a n s ~ l r c t l .sltll&rc:i i i f i Z C fliglii, c~or.r~.rl)o~~tls olr a t o :I vnnis~r;iiglySiii811ilit,ciisiI;j~~iiS l.tiilii~lcnc,c, -+ 0. t . .

,.

&,,

[I. I,. I)rYtlnl~ rincl (:. I<. Srlntl,nrtcr [I01 ~~tltlrrtoolc cxtansivr I I I C : ~ S U ~ ~ I I I C I Ion 1.11~3 cKect ~R of I)lnci~ig lilIc!-~nt~sl~ svrrrrls i t r 11. \r.intl I . I I I I I I ~or1 i t 8 h ~ ~ r b ~ ~ I e t ~ c #l'1:1(! nd(liLion of 81 sirlglr ~ IcvcI. ' nrrcell r c d ~ ~ w s illir011tlil.y J , I ~ ~ ~ ~ I \ C I I C in t,llc rat,io 114I 4- , wllcre c tlcnot~s resistance t.11~ of (: the cc~c~ffi~icnt ncrccn; 11rnc:c: u.11c11 , screctls :rrc used, the rcductiot~in t,urbulence intensity l,lto 1 is it1 t.11~ rnt,io {I/(] - 1 - c ) ) l t l a .(~or~ncquent~ly,n givot~ for prrasurc loss the retlrrctiort in trtrbulcnce irltcr~sil~y grcnl,cr \vllcr~n. I:irgc r~urnl)c%r scrccrls of stnnll renisl.nrlcc is choscl~ill prefercncc is of l,o ;I. 8i11gIt:s(:rcrn of I:trg(: rcsist:~.ncc.Acrortlirlg to ref. [IO], t,lle additiolt of n cotltrnction corrr (,o (.\I(> ~ . I > I I I I P1)rin)in \ v i t , I ~ it. % areal rccll~rt.iorl 1I1c nbsohlte va11te of t110 lo~\~itudit\nI. ~ : of ~si~ill:lI,in~ 1~0111~~0111~11l~. 1 ~ 0 1 1 1 . 1 ol,l~cr 11:rncl. tile t.r:ir~~vrrse co~~~potlcrlkq eit,her rcrnairr constntlt. or I:\Y.II invr(::rtl~.

13otlias of otfhor t,ltarr s~)lrcrit:al sl~:i,pcs nlso cxlri1)il. sot~lc.i~ifl~lrrrc:c, (.I\(: itr(.c.t~of sil,y ol' t , ~ r r l ) ~ ~ l con e n r Ol~cirdrag. 'l'l~is 11ns I)ccr~ tlctno~~st,ral.orI Oltr rnt~:rsrtrc:rllc~,I(.s I)y otr Il:it, plates placrtl a t rigl11. angles 1-0 t.ltc st.rc:~rnwllic.lt 11:ivo 1yt.11 ~)t~rIi)t.tr~(vl by G. D. Scl~rlbnucrant1 11. I,. J > r y ( l ~ t i 1491.
.~ .

t The crit,ical Ilcynoltln nnnil)cr of n upllcro is clcfir~ctlas t,hnt. fi)r al~ic.l~)tllr r~)r.flit:i(:~rt. tlrrtg nsstlnrm the e a ~ ~ v r n t ~ i ovnli~eof ell = 0.:j. t~:~l :To t.lrc rotlvmt.ionnl vn.111~ r , ) O.B thrrc corrc~spor~tls I)rr.sslrrt: cliltcrrllcc brl.\vt:rt~tl~c: or 11
for~vartl st.ngnat.ionpoint, nlltl n point a t Llrc rrnr of t,l~r spl~cre ,I), -- 1.22 rl, wllrrc, (1 (I~IIoLTP of tllc tlynnr~~ic pressure in t l ~ c frcc strcnm.

574

XVIII. 1~undnnlent.alu t r ~ r l ~ ~ ~flow l t . of lc~

Jlct,nilctl invcst.igntions wllic:l~ were rnrrictl o u t by ( . I. T a y l o r [5:1] ancl 11. L. 1 D r y d e n [ I I ] Icxt t,o t h e conclusion t.l~at, t,llc d r a g i n n s t r e a m c a n n o t b e a d e q u a t e l y tlcscril,c!tl- Ijy ,specifying Cl~c . . ~napt,it.lltlc t.llc: l l n ~ : i u : ~ t i oof t f l ~ q y + c i t y ..o p p o r ~ c n t s of !~ c alone, I~ccnlrsci t is n1s0 :~.ITt~c:t.c:!ll ~ y t.11~ st,rricturc o f tllc turb.ulcnt. s t r e a m . O n t h e b ; ~ s i sof a t.llcory of t r t r b r ~ l c n ~ c : tlcvcloy)ntl Ijy himself, G . 1. T a y l o r prr>J)%ecl t h e t t . 1 1 ~c.ri1,irn.l l t c ~ y r ~ o l t tlr1rr11,c:ror :I. sl~llc:rc: tlc:l~c:tltls o n t h e p:~m.tlict~cr ls

whcrc: I, i s t . 1 1 ~ scnlc of t n r l ~ l i l c n c c ,t h ; ~ t ,is, t,lrc irltcgrnl of t h e corrclat.ion f u n c t i o n dclined i n c q n . (18.14), a n d L) is t h o d i n m e t e r of t h e s p h e r e . II. U. Meier e t a.1. [36b] ir~vest,igntctlt,he influence o f t h e scale o f turbulence, L, o n t h e t u r b u l e n t 1)onntlnry 1n.yc.r n t low t ~ ~ r h r i l c n c e inten8it.y. 'rhey obbained n l n x i m u n ~v a l u e s of t,he wall s l ~ e n r st.rcss w l ~ c t lt,llr scale is of t8hc o r d c r of t h o b o n t ~ d n r y - l a y e r t,hiclrness.

Fig. 18.10. re la ti or^ hct.ween the crit,icnl Reynoldn nun~bcrof a ~pllerc!nnrl t11c intensity of t ~ ~ r b l ~ l cofcthe tnnncl, nflrr n c H. L. Drydell and A. hl. IC~tcthe[8, 101

I Ire sc:nlc: of t . r ~ ~ ~ l ~ r ~ l T,.l cin ?n wintl l,r~r~nc:l tlt~l.orminct1 ttlrc n l c s l ~of t,lrc o c , ig by ljl;~(lc;s.f j i t ~ c c snt:hil c ~ ~ ~ ~ i r s IJlrir e1issip:~t~c: t,lll: l,it,(!l~ ~ , I I o tlir~:(;t,io~r:~l sc:r(;t.lls r n c r g y fnstcr t,llan t.11~Iargc ones, t . 1 1 ~m e a n v a l 4 c of t.110 scnlc of t ~ n r b u l c n c c ,I d , iric:roasc~s w a y from t,hc screens. 'l'hcrc e x i s t nrlmcrons tlteoretical ant1 experimental a itlvrgt.ipt,ions ir~t,"tJlc d e v c l o p m c n t o f k n r l ~ l ~ i r n c ) c l ~ i t ~screerls; in t h i s c o n n c x i o r ~ , lc rl tllc.worl<s of (. I t . I3nt.ollcior [ I ] , S. Corrsin 171, (. C h a r n r y [5],I f . 1,. D r y t l e ~ ~11, : : [I (. 1). i l 1 ~ f f ' t r ~ 1221 a n d . I . IC. (;rc(:n ll!ll, 'l'l~. v o n I ~ & C I I I & I I ; nr~ 1231, C. C. 1,in 135, 361, W . 'l'ol11nic.n I(iO. 611, shonltl b e consrilted. (1. 1 . '17:1.yl(,r [5:{1,

,.

[ I ] I%nt.cl~clor, (:.I<.: The t11eory of hoinogenco~rutnrbr~lcncc.Cn~nhridgc,195:). repri~lt1970. [In] Rlnkn. W.K.: 'l'urhnlc~~t ho~rndnryInycr nfnII Ilrcnsrlro Il~rc~frr:rLior~u ~ I I I O O ( . ~ I ILII(I ro11gl1 ot R IVILII. .JIW 44, 637- 6liO (1!)711). (21 13ratlohnw, l'.: An int,roclnctio~~ tr~rbulcncenntl it8 tnenllrc~tlo~t.. to I'crgnmon l ' r m , 1!)71. [3J Ro\vdr~l, 17.. Prcnkicl, Y.N., and 'J'nni, I. ((311.): Ho1111tlnryInyc~xn11c1t,~~rl)nlcnro. 1C. I'roc. JUG(:/IU'l'AM Syrnp. J(yoto I!)($, l'l~ya. J P l ~ ~ iSoppl. (1!167). ds [:!:I] 111111,M.I(.: Wall ~ ~ r e s s ~frir~ ~ o t ~ r n tmsocintnrcl wit.11 R I I I ) R ~ t.11rbnlcr1L1)orlnrlnrv flow. e ior~~ II~C ?JPM 28, 719-754 (1!)67). 141 Bnrgcrs, J. M.: A n~ntl~cmationl n~odcllil111slrnt.ingt,hc tl~coryof I.ur1~11lrnrc. Arlvnt~ccsin Aj1111.Mccl~.\'ol. 1 (1%. van Mirrcs :ind '1'11. V O ~ I l < h r t ) ~ A(XI.), New York, 1!148. ~~, [hl Cllnrt~cy,(I., (31tntc-Acllot, 0 . ,nncl Altrt11ic11,.I.: I)cvoloptnet~tof n t.urbulrt~tl,ontldnry' layer on n llrit plnh in en extcrnnl Ltrrhnlctlt flow. A(:AJtll Cold. Proc. 93, 27.1-27.10 (1!)7l). [61 Cooper. It. I)., nnd Tltlin. M.P.: T t ~ r l ~ u l c ~ ~ c e s ~ r r e iwith ~ b hot-wire n t ~ r c r ~ o ~ ~ ~ e t r r . ~m n e r t.110 A ( ~ A l t l ) o g r n l ~ l ~ 12 (IRGA). No. 171 Corrsit~, T~rrln~loncc, S.: cxperimctltal rnethod~. Flnnclb. l'hyrrik (S. Pliiggr, ctl.), Vol. 1'111/2 Springer-Verlag, Bcrlin/GiitLingen/Heidclbcrg, 1903. [a] I)rydo~, L., ntld Kuctlte, A.M.:Effect of turhnlerlcc in wind-tnt~t~cl H. mcn.unrcmcnta. Nt\(:A 1Ecp. 342 (192!)). [9] I)ryclen, H.L.: Reduction of turbnlence in wind tnnnels. NACA l k p . 392 (19J1). [I01 l)rydcn, F1.L.. Soh~~bartcr, 0.13., Mock, W.C., and Skrnrr~slncl,f1.K.: Mows~~rct~tcntn of infall~ily ntld R ( - ~ I O of \ v i t i d - l . ~ ~ t t ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l ntidn c c rcIn1.io11tt) (.he ~rii.ir111 ~~~ol ~ ! bllcir l<e?y110\11n t l r r ~ ~ ~ ofc R ~ ) ~ I CNACA. 1Ccp. 581 (1!):)7). h r ~CR [I 11 1)rytlen. 11. L.: l'~rrl)~~lcnce it~vcut.ignt.iorirr 1110 nL Nnt,ionnI l l ~ r r c r r ~ ~ h i ~ ~ c l a r tI'roc.. lgift.l~ of S l~. Intern. Congrcsa of Appl. Mcch., p. :302 (l!YJH). 1121 llryden, 11.L.: Turbulence and tlto boundnry Inyer. J A S 6, 8 5 - 100 (19:)9). 1131 J)ryden, H.L., and Scl~ubnrrcr, U.: T l ~ 118oof damping scrccrrs for the rcrl~rc:t,iot~ wirtdG. c of t11t111olti~rhulencc..JAS 14, 221-228 (1!)47). [14] I)rytlcn, 11. I,., nntl Abhot,t,, J.11.: Tlto t l e ~ i g t ~ low Lurbrrlot~cc\vitlcl LIIIIIICIR. of NACA 'SN 1755 11048). . , [I51 131nmerling, It.: Ilic Ino~nc~itane r ~ r k t r ~lrc ~ St r Wat~dclr~~ckca ttrrl~rrlct~te~~ cit~cr Strii~nung. Mithilungcn nus dem Mnx-l'lanck-ltlst,it,~~t. Rtriimung~forschurlg und rlcr Aorodynnfiir 111iorllen Vcmuchannstnlt, No. 50 (1873): nec also: En~~ncrling, Meicr, G. E. A,, and It., Dir~kclncker, A.: lnverttig~t.ion t.he i n r r ~ ~ ~ t n n s t ~ ~~ t : i ,of tthe wall prrnnnrc nndcr n of mlr ~ ~ re turhulr~~t, bonnrlnry lnyer flow. 1\(:Altl) Conf. Proc. No. 131 on Noise Mrc:hnt~in~t~rr, 24.1 24.12 (I!J74). [lli] Pnvrc, .l. (hviglio, J.J., and J)o~nns.11 1.: Space-tirnc tlo~rblc J., corrolnt.ionn arltl ul~ectra in n 1.11rbrtlcnthorrndnry layer. JIPM 2, 313- 342 (I!J57); l'nrt,l~er ~pncc-time c:orrcl:rtio~~s of vclo~ityill a t u r h ~ ~ l c t;oundnry Irrycr. Jl'hl 3. 844--350 (I!)BR). nt [I71 l'avrc. A. J . : 1,n n16cnniqae dc In turl)rrlr~~ce. 1':ditcd by (br1t.r~Nnt,iorlal dc In Jlcal~crc:l~e Srietlt,ifi nr No. 108, Pnris, 1962. rl7.1 I'idler. 11. ( n i . ) : S t r n c t ~ ~ and n ~ n l ~ n i r i s t ~ ~ n rc of turbulence. Vol. 1 nncl 11. I'rocccclings, Berlin, 1077. 1,cctrlre N o b s in Pl~ysica,Vol. 75 nnd 76, Sl~ringcrVcrlng, 1978. [I*] J'rcnkiel, 1r.N.: Ttlrbrlle~lcein Geopllysirs. J'ubl. by t l ~ c Art~erinal~ ~:oopl~ynicnl Ur1io11, Wanhington, I>. C., 1962. [I*:l.] Fricdlnlrcler, S.K., ancl Topper, L. (cd.): ' ~ ~ r r l ~ r ~ l cClnnuir Ijnpcrs oft st,ntist,icnl t.l~cory. nce: ~ l ~ t c r n c i c ~ 11111., New York, 19fil. 1'~ c e [IRIjl Q o c r i ~ ~11. (cd.): Snnr~~~clhn~iclt ~ ~ t . i ~ t . i s c I \ c ~ ~ t l ~ 'I.u~I)IIIoIIz. g, zr~s r 'l'l~wrio r A~t11.cle111io-Vt!r1i~g, 1%t!rIi11, l!)5S. [I!)) (:I.OCII. .I. I':.: 0 1 1 1 . 1 1 ~ir1l111r11~:cfrcc RI.~(.:LIII t.11rl~111c11cc t.t~rl~~rloc~t. of on n I)on~~rlnr,y 111.yt:r.ns il, rc*lnl.c\s1.0 \11i11(l ~,IIIIIIOI. A(iA1LI) 11.01). No. GO2 (11)7:i). [I!)n] IIc:irr~~~l)erg. % l ~sLnLisI.irrc11cn'l'hcoric clcr 'I'r~rl~r~lcnz. I'l~yn. 124, (iJH (i57 (1!)4$). W.: r %. [20J Hi117.e. J . 0 . : T ~ ~ r h ~ l e nMc(:rn\v-llill, Ncw York, 211tl ed. 1!)75. ce. 1211 Hoerner, 8.:Vcruuclte mit Kugcln hct,rcffcnd lCen11zn111, 'I'nrhnlcnz 1rr1r1 Ohrrll'. I l ~ t l l l ~ sf.~ : l l ~ fet~hcit,. I,~~ft,fal~rt.forncl~~~~~g 12, 42 (1934). (221 IIIIKIII~~IIII. Z ~ I I I I I I O ~ I I1).I It.. ~ I I , I1~11ct.t. A,: '1.11~otTc(:t OF f r rrirr:1111 (:. I).. I ~ I 111111 W. ~ tt1r1)11I(-nrc 1cvc.l OII l , n r i ~ r r l ~ ~ ~ ~ L I)o~111(1nry Inycr I)(!l~:tviot~r. A(;AJtl)ogr~il)l~ $!I- I I5 (l!l72). I(i4, [23] von 1Chr111hi1,Th.: I'rogrcrrs in t l ~ c rrtntistirnl I,l~cory L~trhnlot~cc. of I'roc. NnL. Acntl. S<.i. C\'ashir~gtorr.?.I, 530 (1!)4H); ncc crlso Coll. Works 11'. :l(i2---371.
%
7

...

576

XV1 I I. 1'11ntlnment.als of turbulent flow

Iteferences

677

[241 I<lc!lia~~oll'. I'.S., I L I I ~ I I)ic:l~l,%.\!'.: S t > n ~I't::~t.t~rrs nrtifioinlly thirlrct~edf11lly rlcveloped r or t11r1)11lrt1,, 1)01111ditry ln,yrrn \vi(,ll Z C ~ O~ir(!slil~rr ~rndie110. NA(:A Jbcp. 1110 (1952). [25] l<lt~l~1111oI1', ( ! l ~ : ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ - t of i Is, IlI~IiItI I I P I I ( . ~ - a l~out~rlnry l'.S.: ar ~ ~s in lnyer wit,I~zero prf'SSLIrr gratlic~~t,. NA(!A 1h:p. I247 (l!l55). (25n] Kim, J-1.'1'., I<lino, S.,I., t111r1Jl.eY~~olds, W.C.: 'l'lle prodr~rt,ion t,~~rbr~lencc? n sn~ootll of near wnll in n, t ~ ~ r b r ~ l c r i t bor~ntlnryIrbycr. .II'M 60, 133 -1GO (1971). [2G1 Klinr, S.J., Jl.rynolrls, W.C., Srlln1111, l'.A., and Rrl~~stndler, W.: Tile strncll~re tnrP. of b r ~ l r ~bonnt1:~ryInycm. ,I I lt M 30, 741 - 773 (l!)G7). ' 1271 I<ovi~sznny,1d.S. (;.: 'Tnrl)~~lentn c n s ~ ~ r c ~ n See.t s.. of Physicnl Mcns~~rctnents (:as~ c r ~ 1' in ( I ~ I I : I I I I L I(I .~S: I > I I I ~ ~ I lI ligll~Sl)rrd . :~ ( ~ P ~ ~ ~ I I At~rotIyt~a~nli(:s ,JeL I'rop111~io11. IX (\Ir.It. nnrl \'oI. I,:rtlc~111i11rg, I'ri~lccton IJnivrrsit.y I'rrus, 1954. 213--285. rtl.). 1281 I<OVII%LII:I.~, I..S.G., l<il~t;~~n, :III(I l~l~~(~lz\~~cltlt:r,1,nrgcsrnIr rnot,iol~i t 1 1 . 1 1 ~it~t,c%r\I.. It. l'.: I I I ~ ~ . I . ( . I I I rcgi011 OF IL I ~ I ~ v I I I I I ~ I11o1111tl:~r,y . II. l:~y(sr. I M .I], 28:)- 325 (1!)70). ,I Z [2!)J lio\~n.sz~~ny. I,. S.(:. : 'l'lic t ~ r ~ r l ~ r ~ l c t ~ l , bolcntl:rry I~lyrr. Atl1111nlItrvicw of Plt~id hfrrh. 2, !)R1I2 (l!170). [:%01I,;tr~frr. of nnt . . (l!)5l). .I.: I~~vrnl,ig:rt.iot~t l ~ r b ~ ~ lflow in n two-ditnensionnl chnnncl. NACU Ilcp. 105:! [:%I 1,nuTcr. .I.: New trertdu in expcrirnrt~tnlt ~ ~ r l ) t ~ l c rmenrch. Annual Review of Fluid Mech. 1 nce 7, 3 0 7 326 (1975). [:I21 I,nlrfcr, .I.: l'llc strl~c:t.urr t . ~ ~ r l i ~ ~ l c n r e tlcvclopctl pipe flow. NACA Itep. 1174 (1954). of it1 fully (:%3)I,nr~rrnc.r,J.C.: Intensity, uc:nlc, RIICI spr~t,rn t~lrIi~tlen(~e of i l l mixing region of frcc st11>sot~ir jrt. NACA R.cp. 12!)2 (1056). 1341 I.rslir, I).(:.: Dcveltq>~nnnk 1.11~ irl tllcory of t,nrbnlcncr. Clnrendon I'rfiqs, Oxfortl, 1973. [:%5]1 . i ~C.C. : St.nt.ist,icn.lt.l~corira t ~ l r l > ~ ~ l r High Speed Aerodytln~nicu . of nrc. and .Jet I'rop~~lsiotl Vnl. IT, Srr. C, 10G -253 (195:)). I'rit~rrton. [30l I.in. C . C . , nntl Ibc.itl, W. If.: I'l~rl)ulrnt flow, f.l~eoret.irnl nsperts. Hondl~. I'liynik (S.Fliiggr, ccl.) \'ol. 1'111/2, Springer-Vcrlng, Ilrrli~~/(~iit.ti~~gcn/~IritIcII~erg, IR6B. [3G;1] hlnri.cl~nl,.I.: IC1.11tlncxp6ri111e11lnlc In cli.for~rlnt.ionplane cl'rlne tt~rh~tlenc.e tlc 11olnogi.ne. J . Mi.ranint~cI I , 2(i3 -2!l4 (1!)72). I:%lil~] hloi~v.Il. 11.. n l ~ t lI<rc.lilil~,11. I'.: 'l'llr ~ I I I I I I ~ I Iof, ~ . ~ t~~rl)~~lr!nI. v(:lority I I ~ ~ r l . ~ t n t nt10 i~ s t c .io~ t~ l 1 ~ 1 ~~ ( 1.Iic V ~ AlAA ~ I . ; I I Ic.~lgl,l~ s(.111t: 101v s ~ r c t \ v i t ~ < l l . ~ ~ 1 0~ r011 : l I ) O I I I I ( ~ I I ~ ,li~yrr C V P I O ~ ) ~ I I ( ~ I I L . IOI~II~ \ r r n t I y n : ~ t ~ ~ i c 'l't:sI.ing (!t)~~fcrt;~~ct:, Oicgo, (!:11., April 1978. (>ot~f. S:I,II ['roc!. No. 783. 2:,2 - 238 ( 1!)78). [371 h1illilr:l.n. (:. I<.. nntl I<lrit~, A.I,.: 'l'llc cl1'rc.b of t.rlrl~r~lcnt~e. ~\ircroft, 1El1g. 1G9 (1933). [:I81 hlot.zf(!lrl, 11.: I ' r c q ~ l c ~ ~ ~ , : t ~ ~ n l y w t~11r1)111(~11t~cr I \ V ~ ~ I ZAMM I119, 362-366 (I!):IX). SC~ ~ZII ~~~~I. I:!~:Il hl~~ll~c::rrt~. 0 1 1 I.llc* N I . ~ I I C I , I I I C of l)r(%ssllro I'..J.: 1111rL11nt~io11>1I I ~ I ) I I I s l I I , flo~v.JJi.l\l 71, ill ~ PI ~ e ~ r , 801 81:s fl!)75). I:1!!1 Nik~~ri~clsr, I<il~(.~~~i~l,~grn~)l~is(:l~r : L ~ I I I I ~ .I.: AII~II citicr b~~rl)~~lt:nt.crl SLrii~l~t~l~g. ZAhlhI !I, 4!)5 4!)0 ( 1!)2!)). 1401 1'1111.t.. .I<.(!.: 'l'~~rlil~lrncc f:lrt.orn of NACIA \vintl 1.11nnrl tlrt.cr~~~incd ns hy sphcrr tests. NACI\ 1l.Cil. 568 ( I !I:%(;). 1411 Il.cicl~nrcll..11.: hlcnsrl~~grn t.r~rl)~rlcnlarc l ~ \ \ ~ n ~ ~ l t r l l ~ g c ~ ~ . S N;~tr~rwisocnscl~:~fter~ 404 (1!)38): src nlno ZAhlM 1.7. 177 180 (I!?:i:1) nr~dZAMM 18, 358- 361 (1!)39). 1.121 1bot.t.1~. .I.(:.: 'l'~~rli~~lrnl,t.~ ~ I I I I I I I R C I I'.~ ' O I I ~ I I I C ~ , SL~ 11. (:. St,~~t,t.pi~rt,, 1!)72. l,I:%l llryt~~>I(ln. 0 1 1 ~ , I I vtly11:1111ir:11 0.: tI~(;ciry i ~ ~ ~ ~ o t ~ i ~ ~ r t : s s i l ) I111i(ls L I I ~t11c drlrrn~i!~n. of visco~~u ~ : lt l':il~!rs 1, 355. 1io11 Ill(* <,rilt?rio~~. 'I'~:I,IIs. or l'l~il. Itoy. Sol,. /,TI?. i l2:1 lG4 (l8!)5) :111tl-S<:i. \ 144) Ilili~lvr,I1.S.. : L I I ~ I 'l'~lrl<t!r, hl.: S ~ C C ~ . ~ofI I I I I ~,II~I)IIICIICO in n mntrat*t.il~g strcntn. Nl\("A Il,c11. I I I:! (I!)%:%). 1451 I ~ o s t ! ~ ~ l ) l hl.. ~IIIIIIv11.11At,l,:~., ( r ~ l . )St~t~Iist~ir:~S :~t l, (!. : 111ot1~ls L ~ ~ r I ) ~ ~ l r t ~ o c .S ~ I I I ~ ) . nncl ]'roc. U11iv. (';~lifort~i:~, Ilicgo (1.11 ,loll~t),1!)71. 111: I,rctr~rc: Notes i t , I'l~ysics 12, S p r i ~ ~ g o r S:LII \'~rl:lg, l!j72. 4 l o t : ~ I, : ' I ' I I ~ I I I I I I ~l t ~ ~ l n Ir y I i o ~ ~ ~ i r r s s i l l e Progrrns i l l Aerol~n~~tirnl flow. Sc:in~lcvs I 2l!l ( I \ . I'crri, I). I < ~ ~ V ~ I ~ ~ I I ~ : L I I(:. Sl,crt~e. 2, n11(1 11. I I {I,. ed.), I'P~~:LIIIOII l'r(,ss, Oxl'nr~l,I!)li2. 1471 'I':iylor. ( 7 . I.: 'l'l~o ~ I I ~ Y ' ~ . ~ I ofI It.l~rIi~~It-nrr. 1!.ny. Sor. A 164. 470--490 (1938). II l'ror. [47r1l St.l~lirl~t.i~tg, Nol~rrrI l ~ ~ l ( : r s ~ ~ c h n t ~ g (lie ' I ' r ~ r b r ~ l c ~ l z c ~ ~ t sNatllrwinsenncll:~f 11.: iillcr w tellg.
r

[49] Schubauer, G . B., and Dryden, H. L.:The effect of tnrbrllct~ce tlro tlrng of fl~tt, on plates. NACA Rep. 646 (1036). [60] ScI1ubaner, (2. I%., and I<lebanoff, 1'. S. : 1nvcst.igntion of sopnrntiotl of t.11~ ~ l r l ) ~ t l cO I ~ItI ~ ~ t. I, ~ I ary layer. NACA Itep. 1030 (1951). [51] Sin~monn, L.F. G., and Salter, C.: An experirl~ental dekrt~linntion t,l~c of spectrr~tr~ t.~rrof bulence. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 165, 73-89 (1938). [B2] Taylor, G.1.: Statistical theory of turbulence. l'arts 1--4. Proc. Roy. Soc. L o ~ ~ t l o n 161, A 421-478 (1935). [h3] 'maylor, G.I.: Stntiuticnl theory of trrrbulenco. I'nrt, A 13ffrrL of turbulcllcc 011 1 ) o t l r l t l : ~ ~ ~ , layer. Theoretical disc~~ssion rclaLionsl~ipI)ot\r.eor~ of scale of t ~ r r b ~ ~ l e n c o crit.irnl renii. nnd tanoe of ~ p h c r m . Proc. Jtoy. Soc. Imntlon A 151, 307 --:I17 (l9:)G); see also .J AS 4. :I 1 I :I 16 (1!):%7). 1641 'I'nylnr, ( 2 . I.: (Jorrt:lttt,io~~I C ~ : L R I I ~ U I I I iO1I II ~ I~I ~ I I I I I C I I Iilou, t . l t r o ~ t 11lj)il~(*. ~ t ~ , ~ ~ I'rcst*. l<ciy, S,),,. A 157, a37-A4fi (I!):l(i). [SD] Tnylor, (. 1.: 'I'hc ~ p n c t r ~of m : ~ t~rrbnlol~ce. l'ror. ltoy. Sor. 1,o11tlo11 164, 471; 4!10 (l!):!x). A [56] Tentlckcn, 11.. and IJun~ley, J.],.: A first. cor~rscin t ~ ~ r b u l c . ~'I'l~cM1T I'rcns, 1!)7.'. ~rc. [A71 Tollmien, W.: Turbulente Stromungen. Ilanclb. der Exprri~nentalpl~ysik, ,I, l'art, I , Vol. 291 -339 (1!)31). [BR] Tolltnicn. W.: llbor dicl<orrolatio~~ ( ~ e u ~ l ~ r v i ~ ~ t l i ~ l z r i l ~ p(:rit,(li~(,l~~oI I~ V~I I~ I~. ~ ~ t ~ c ~ tlor it1 I ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ \ , I kcntlc~r\ V i r l ~ o l v c r t ~ ~ i l l ~ZAMM ~ . 9(i- - 100 (i!13~). ~ ~ g e ~ 1.5, I591 'I'oll~nicn, W., nncl Sr*l~iift!r, M.: X I I 'l'11t:orio clt:r \ Y ~ I I ~ ~ ~ Z I L I I ~ I IZ:\MRl~ ~:I/,II ~ ~ 17 ~ . ~ ,II~ II II (1!)41). [GO] Tollmien, W.: Fortschrit.k der T ~ l r b r ~ l e n z f o r s c h ~ ~ ~ ~ g .n ~ n ~ l ~ e ~ ~ fIlcricllt..~ %l\hlM % ~ :~sso ltlrr 33, 200-211 (1963). [61] Tollmien, W.: Abtlahme der Windkannlturht~lew.nncl~t l c ~ rFIciscnbcrgscl~c~~ ~ s t . n ~ ~ s c l ~ ~ A~ nnsatz a18 At~fangswertproblem. Wiss. Z. T. H. Dresden 2 , 443---448 (1952/5:!). [li2] Townsentl, A.A.: The utrrlcture of turbulcr~tul~cnrRow. Cnrnl)ridgr Universit,~I'rcss 2nd cd. 1970. [63] Thomas, R.M.: Col~ditionnl sampling and ot,ller nlmsure~nentsin a plane t.t~rb~tle~lt x\,nkc. J F M 57, 649-582 (1973). [64] von Weizsiickcr, C. 17. : I)nn S p e k t r r ~ ~ n T I I ~ I ) I I I O I I ~ tler 1wi grossen I t e y ~ ~ o l d u ~ t ~ l ~ r %. ~ Z:tl11t~11. ~ Phys. 124, 614-627 (1948). [6A] Wiegltqdt, K.: Ober die Wirkung der T~lrbulenz den Un~srl~lngptr~~kt,. 20. .'is-nuf ZAMnl 59 (1940). [G0] Willmarth, W. W.: Prerisure fluct~~ntions beneat11 turbulent boundary layers. Annnnl ltcview of Fluid Moch. 7. 13-38 (1976). [67] Willmart,ll. W.W.: Structure of turhulrnre in boondnry layers. Adranrrs ill 141i11I. Merll. Acndcmic Preus, Now York, 15, 159--254 (1!)7A).

b. Pmndtl'a mixing-length t,llcory

5711

The turbrllent mixing cocfficicnt, A,, corresponds t o thc viscosity, p, in laminar flow and is, theroforc, often cnll(?cl "appnrcnt" or "virtjclnl" (nlso "cd(1ym) viscosity.

C H A P T E R XIX

Theoretical assumptions for the calculation of turbulent ilowe

a. Fundamental equations I t is not very likrly that scicncc will cver achieve a complete understanding of the merhanism of tllrbulence because of its extremely complicated nature. The main variablcs which are of practical intcrest are tho mean velocities, b u t s o f n r no rational theory which would enable us to determine them b y calculation-has-been formulated. For titis reason many attempts have been made-to-create-a mathematical basis for-the investigation of turbulent motion with the aid of semi-empiricalhypotheses. The empirical assumptions advanced in t h e past have been developed into more-or-less complete theories, but none of them succeeded in fully analyzing even a single cnse of turbulent flow. It is necessary t o supplement the original hypothesis with additional hypothcscs which vary from case to case, a n d the form of certain f~inctions, a t least certain numerical values, must be derived experimenor tally. The aim which underlies such empirical theories of turbulence is to deduce the still missing f~indamcntal physical idens from results of expcrimenta;l measurements. The-turl~ulentmixing motion - rcsponsib!e not only for Fn exchange_@ momen- is tom, hut, i t rili6 GnhRnces thG transrer of heat an? mass in fields of .flow ~ ~ c & @ d with non-uniform dist,ributions of temprrature or concentration. The methods for the mlculation of turbulent flow, temperature, and concentration fields developed so far are based on empirical hypothcscs which endcavour to establish a relationship between t h r Reynolds stresses produced by the mixing motion and t h e mean values of the velocity components together with suitable hypot,heses concerning heat and mass trarisfcr. Thc morncntum cquntions for t h e mean motion, eqn. (18.8), as well as the differential eqr~at,ionfor t c n l p e r a t ~ r e(not quoted in Chap. X V I I I ) cannot acquire a form whirl1 is snitablc for being integrated unlcss assumptions of this kind have brcn inlrotl~iccdbcforcharid. .T. IZo~lssir~rsc~ 81 wns t.ltr first, t,o work on toheprol~lrm 17, stnterl in the preceding srrl,ion. 111 an:clogy wil,l~ t,hc cocfficairnt, of viscosity in Stoltos's law for laminar flow
i)u

The as~umpt~ion equation (19.1) has the great clisntlvantagc that the cdtly in riscosity, A x ,is not a property of the fluid like y r , but clcpends itself on tlic mean vclocity Q. This can be rccognizetl if i t is rrotcd that viscous forces i l l ttlrbulcnt flow arc of approximately proportiorial to the s q l ~ a r c the mean vclocity rather than t o its first power RR in laminar flow. According to ccl~~ation (l9.1), this would imply tllnt A,. is ap~)rnximntcly proportional t o t l ~ c first powcr of the mran ~ c l o c i t ~ y . Often, use is made of the apparent ( v i t t ~ ~or lctldy) kinrrnatic viscosit,y E , - A , / @ a which is analogous to the kinematic viscosity v = p/p. If this is done, t.hc cquatiorls for t , l ~ shcaring stress are rcwritt.cn e

and

It is now possible to i n t r o d ~ ~ c e thc Navicr-Stokes equations for thc mran flow, into eqns. (18.9), the bountlary-layer simplificat~iorls.I n the casc of thc velocity I)o~rntlary layer these will be similar t o the considerations discussrd in Scc. V I I a in conr~rxion with laminar boundary layers. I n the casc of two-di~~~cnsior~:rI, inrolnprcssil)lr, t,r~rbulcnt Bow, with due regard being given to equation (19.1), wc obtain the: following system of tliflcrcntinl r q ~ ~ a t i o n s :

which ~ h o n l d bc romparetl with ecjns. (18.12) ntitl (18.13). The preceding sct of equations corresponds to equations (7.10) ancl (7.1 1) for Iarninnr flow, and tlrc boundary conditions for the velocity components are identical with tllosc in the lamirlar case, rqn. (7.12).
h. F m ~ ~ d t l '~nixing-lengtl~ s theory

Tl=/L

ay

--,

11e introdricctl a miring cnr//icienl, A , , for i h c Reynolds stress in t-urbrllent flow by prltbitlg , v , = A , dS (19.1) t -=-pn , cly .

'1'11~ Ilyl)ot,hrsos in eqns. (19.1) ant1 (19.2) C ~ I I I I OIIC IISC(I for 1 . 1 1 ~c:~Iv~ll:~(.iol~ ~ of a c t ~ t a l cxrcrnples if 11othin2. known nhor~tthe dcprrrtlcncc of A , on vrlocifSy. is I n order t,o tlcvclop t l ~ c prccctlitlg rncthotl (irritiatccl by I~oussincscl)it is I I '( :(:ss:~ry ~. t o find empirical relations bctwceri the cocfficicnt.s antl the mean vclocil,y. Jn tliscussing these, we shall confine ourselves in the prcscnt scchion to the vclocit,.y field in incomprcssiblc Row because the latter is then intlcpendcnt of the tempnmt,~~rc field. The calculat,ion of comprcssiblc-flow Grltls antl OF t,ernperatfrlre fmltls, a11(1,in particuln.r, of the rates of host transfer in trlrl)~~lcnt ~ l ~ i o n , bo taltcri 111) in rn will detail in Chap. XXIII.

580

XIX. 'I'lrmrclic~l~ y s ~ ~ n ~ p tfor nls~ e i o t calrulat.iot~ t,nrhrtlrnt,lio\vn or Ilerc a' < 0. The valocit,y tliKerenccs ea11scc1 1)y t-11e t~r:etisvrrst: motion cnn I)(. mg:irclctl as t,llc Lrtrbtllcnt velocity componnnt.s a t ?I,.1Iotic:c wc: can c:i.lc~~l:~t,c t.ltt5 t.ime-average of t,lie nl)solitttcv n l t ~ c t l ~ i s l l ~ c t ~ t n t i o t ~ , t\\,e obt.:~.itt of I :~t~ l

I n 1925 L. I'rantltl 121j made a n import,ant aclvanoc in tfhis tlircction. In tlcveloping Itis I~ypot~hcsis shall rcfcr t a tttc: simplest cast! of parallel flow in whicli the we velocity varic:s only from st,rearnlinc to st,rcarnlir~e.'I'hc principn.1 clircct,ion of flow pnrnllrl t o the x-axis arttl wo havc is ihss~~n~otl IL=E(?/) ; 5=0; 5=0.
r

I It(: pmc:otlir~gt,ypc: of flow is rc.:~lixc.tl i t t :L r~c:t~at~gctl:~r c11nr1nc.lfor wliic:lt 1,11(: rcsrllta of rt~t:asirretnc:ttt, t ~ o t,lrrl)olc!ot, vnloc:il,y c:ornl)o~~c:rtl.s givt:tr in I'igs. 18.3 : t t ~ c l 18.4. wc:rc? In t.11~ ~trt:so~t. c:rsc o t ~ l y slrc~:crit~g r e s ~ tlrt: st <IT (19.4) tryf t t = - C) I' 2' = A ---= L )
7

dy

rrtn:iins clifforrtit, from zero. Wit.11 I,. 1'ra.rttltl we cat1 now visttalixc t,l~efollowir~g sitnplifiotl mecl~anism of t l ~ o inot,ioti: as t.llr f l ~ ~ ipasses a101ig t.I~c> tl w:ell it1 t,~tr\)~~lc:nt. 111ot.io11, flt~itlparticles conlnscc ittt,o Iltml)s wltic:lt rnovc 1)otlily attcl w11ic:h cling t,ogc:t,l~crfor a given Lravorsc-cl Iengt.lt, I)ot.lt in t . 1 1 ~ lot~git.~~tIit~.zIi t 1 t,11e tmrtsvcrso ctircction, mtn.init~gthcir ant1 n~on~cwt.r~tn 1):rr:~llnlt,o r . It, will iiow \to ass11ti1ccl t , l ~ as ~ ~ ac Inmp of flnirl, which t l ~ c~)tt~c-s, from :I, I:~jfc:r: ~ t , s:a.y. -- I ) :LIICI 11:~s vcIot:it.y I?(!/~ - 1 ) , a is (lis~)Iac:c~I over a clisI.at~oc i t t t l ~ c I. t.r:ansvorsc dircc:t.ion, Wig. I!). I . 'l'l~istlist.at~cc is known ns Prm~trill's 1 ?n.irivg lcnglltt. As thr: It~tnl) f fllti(1 r c I . ~ i t ~ s origitlal momr?t~t~tm, velocity in o it8 its the new Iatnina :ct. ?I, is srnalIor t,Itnn t.ltc vclocit,y pri?v:ailing tft~crc. 'l'l~c difference i t 1 vc:loc:it,ic:s is t,ltori

Equatiot~ (19.5) lrntls to t,l~o following p11ysic::~lir~l.c:rl)rrl.:~.l~ion mixing Ic:rtgt.l~ of t.11~ I. 'I'hc: ti~ixingIc.11gtI1is I.II:L~, tlist.~lr~c:c: t.l~c: t,r:it~svc:rsc:tlit.tv:f.iott wliic4t t t l r l s ( . Ito t:ovt.rc~~l it1 l ~ y a ~ g l o n ~ c ~ r : a tof t lI11i(1p:~rt,i(:lost,ravc:Ilittg wit,It it,s origitt:t.I I I I ~ Y I I I vc~lc~c:il~.v :tn .i ~~~ in ortlcr t.o 111:ilrc~ f.hc tlilli~rcttc:~ bet,wct:t~ it.s velocit.y : a t t J L t ~ c ? vc1ocait:y i l l t.Itc> tlo\r lamina oqu:rl 1.0 t , l ~ c rnc:Lrl t,ransvcrsc: Il~~ct.r~:at.ion t8i~rl~lrloitt. 'l'ltc: cli~c~st.iort itt flow. as t o w l ~ c t ~ l tltcr lump of lluitl cornplekly retains tltc vcloc:it,y of it.s original I x t t ~ i i ~ : ~ ~e as i t moves in a t,ransvcrse tlirection, or whcttl~cr t pnrt,ly assltmrs t11a vc:loc.itj~ i of t.ltc erossetl lan~ittaxintl cont,it~~tc.s 1tc:yottcl it, i t t :r ( I r : ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ is : l t ( , r ~ clit.c:(:t.iott, c lc:l't, (:ttt,ir~:l.y ~ C Il'r:~t~clt~l's O I. eot~crpt, :L titixiitg lt-t~gl,l~:~tt:~Iogo~ts, t,o :I c.c*rl,:~i~r of is IIIP poir~t,,wit.11 l,hc: lncntr free IP:LLII it\ Lho Itinctio t,ltcory of gi~scs,t J ~ o nt:~in tlill;*rc~itc.v being tt~nt.1 . 1 1 ~I:at.t.er concerns it.sc:lf wit,l~t,lte microsco[)io rnotiot~ of tt~ol~:c:ult~s. whereas tltc present concept c1cnl.s wit,h 1 . 1 1 ~ ntacroscor)ic: rrtotiort ol 1:trgc. :~gglott~c.rat,ior~sof flr~iclp:crt,iclcst.

I t may bc itnaginctl trl1at tile transvcrsc vcloc:it,y Il~lntuatiot~ origin, L1,:5 i t 1 t , I l ( , < ( followirtg way: Considor t.wo lnmps of f l l l i r l meeting in :I In.rnirtn at. a tlist,:ai~c:c !jl, t.hc slower orla front (?yl -I) prc<:e(ling t,l~of:i.st.c.r one from (TI, I). 111 t.11c.sc. -1t:irelttnst.nrtccs (.It(: lltrrlps will c:ollitlo wit.11 :I vc~loc.ity2 11.' : L I I ~ Iwill (livc:rg(: si(lc\\v:~ys. 'I'ltis is cquivalrt~tLo t,l~ccxisteticc of a t,ra~isvrrscvoloait,y cornponetit, it1 I)nt.lr tlircct,ior~swith respect t o t,hc layer a t yl. If t l ~ c two I ~ t t r ~ p s appcnr in tfltc rcvcrrse order they will move n.part a t a ve1ocit.y 2 TL' nntl t,ltc: olnpt.y spaco I)c:twccrt~t , l t c t ~ ~ will 1)c fillet1 from the slrrroitr~dingflnitl, ngn.in giving risc t.o n tmt~svcrsevc:lot:it.y c:otnponet~t in tJtc two tlirccLions :at, ?I[. 'l'ltis a r g u ~ n c t ~ t ~ itnltlics t.tt:l.tt t . 1 1 ~t.r:~ttsvc~t.sc: rotnpor~cnt, is of t,llc sx111cortler of ~ti:~gnil.~tclc.I&' :lr~tlwc: pttL 11' as

I . I . I.

lGxplanat,iot~ t.11~ of n~ixing-lrngtltconcept

111 orc1c-r t.o find att ox~)rcssiot~ t,ltc s1ic:arirtg stress i'rotn ccln. (1!).1) i t is ncocssnry for t o irtvcst,igat.c the tne:l.tl vnlrlc u'v' :L lit,t.lo closer. I t li)llows from t,ltc ~)rr!ectlit~~
-

--

.I .

In atralogy with tsqtl. ( I 9.5) wc can wrik tly ' for LIlc variation of t,lle longil~tclinnl, t~trbulrnt cotnj1onrnt ~ c 'wit.11 t,itr~r. llorcl' tlcnol*>s:t. Ic~t~glh wlticlr varies with titne and wl~icti rltay asclttmo bot.11positive ntrci ri~~gat~ivc valurs. 11ct1(~r, rrot11 eqn. (19.2) we ohtnin -d ; I r = - e v ' l ' . - .-= e., :( (19.51))
cly cly '

l t c a I:~st, exprossiott is oltt,:~ittc~tl tlovcloping the frrnc:t,ior~u(?ll --1) in a 'raylor I)y scrirs ant1 rtcgloc:l,ing :~.llltigttor-order t;cxrrns. In (.his t,mnsvcrsc tnotion wc havc 11' > 0. Sirnil:irly :L Ilttnp of flltitl w l ~ i o ltrrrivcs a$ ?I, frorn trltc I:~mitia a t ~ -I- 1 I)OSS~SSCS :a v r l o ~ i ( , \vltic:11 oxccccls that, arourttl it,, the tlifircnce bcing y

t; i u = I' . '

and the virtual kinematic viscosity becomes

( 'I'lir term inirlurr length l~ns also her11rtsrd.
El=

- ~- ' '1

682

XIX. Tlicoroticnl wsltmptionu for the calcltlntion of t~trbrtlel~t Rowa

c. Fnrtlirr nas~~tnptione the t,tlrhnlent eltenring strc~s for

583

representation t h a t t.he lumps which arrivc a t layer y1 with n positivc value of V' (upwards from below i n Fig. 19.1) givc rise "mostly" t o a negntivc c so t h a t their ' product 7 ~ 'v' is negative. T h e lilmps with e negative value of v' (downwards from nbove in Fig. 19.1) are "mostly" associntetl wit,h a positivc u' and the protluct IL' v' is ngsin negative. The qualifying word "mostly" in t,he above cor~t~cxt. expresses tho fact t , l ~ a t the npponr:trtc:c of p:\rl.ic:los for wlticli %' II:LR Llie op[~osit,csiglt t80tho nljovo is not completely exclt~dcct I)ut is, ncvertl~elcss,much less freqnct~t. r l ~ ~ s , ' t,ho t,ornl)ornl avcmgc 14' v' is tlircrcnt frorn zero, nntl r ~ c ~ t i v lIcncc, we assume, c.

ing Icngtl~is ~ ~ u r n todbe indcpentlcnt of t h e rnngnitt~doof velocit,y. The mixing e length, ~rnlikeviscosity in Stokes's Inw, is still not, n property of the fluid, l)ttt i t is, a t least,, a purely local function. I n numeroils cases it, is possible lo csl.nblish a simple r ~ l n t ~ i o l ) c t . ~ c c r ~ n t,l~c mixing lengtl~, ant1 n cl~nm.ctcristic I, length of tJrc rcspcct.ivc flow. F o r exntnplc, in flows n.lor~g srnoof,lt w:~lls tti~lsl. b v:lttisll :lt, l.hc w:~.llil.scll', Ilt.c:ltls~ I ~ ~ : L I I R V C ~ S O tno(.io~ts arc inhibitetl by its prcscncc. I n flows alotrg rough walls t,hc mixing Ic:rigtflt ricar t,l~r w:~11 must, t.crt~l n vnlrtc of l,hc same ortlrr of ~nagt~it~tttlc t.o ns t.11~ solitl ~ ) r o I . r ~ ~ s i o t ~ s . Pr:l.t~tI~.I's cq~tnt,ior~9.7) II:IS I ~ C C I I I ~ C C ~ S S ~ I n.l)plic:tI t o t,I~c I . I I ( I ~01. iur1t7I1c;rt (I S III~ R vbolio~t, nlo~tq~ r ~ n l((pipc, clrxtit~cl,pl:~t,t:, 1)or~rltlnry l.~ Inyc*r),nntl to t,ltc t)roblctn of socalled /rre lurOztle?~t6111. Iatt,rr trrtn r.~fc!rs flow wit,l~ont, / 'L'l~c to solid ~vnlls, s11c1ins t(.I~c mixing of s jet wit.11 t,hc snrrountling still air. Exntnplcs of sue11 npf)lic:at,ions will he given in Chaps. XX, XXI, and XXIV. It. A. M. Ualbrnit,l~c t nl. [13a] provitled good cxprrimcnt.nl s n l q ~ o r for the ut,ilit,y of the tliixing-lrngt.lr cot~cc.l)t,. t c. Further flssumplions for tho trrrbl~lcntslleflrit~g elresa

U.V.

: -

cm.m.

(19.611)

with 0 < c < 1 (c f 0). Not,lring is ktiowtr about thc numerical factor c I ~ u t ,in csscnce, i t appears t o be idcnt.icnl wit,h tltc correlation factor defined in eqn. (18.12). Ttrc experimental resultts plotted in Fig. 18.4 give some idea ns to its bchaviour. Combining cqns. (19.5) ant1 (19.6) we now obtain

It, slto~~lcl iiot,ctl t h a t t,llc const.a.tlt it1 t,lrc almvc ~ ~ 1 1 a t i ois 1 1,c 1 diffcrcnt from that, in eqn. (l9.6), RS the former also contnins t,ltc factor r, from cqn. ( 1 9.6a). 'l'hc c o n ~ t ~ n n t , can now bc irlclr~tlctlwith the still llnltnown mixing length, ant1 wc lnny write

Cor~scqr~cnt.ly, shearing sLrcss from cc111. (19.1) can bc writkt1 as the

l'r:tt~clt~l'scqtt;~t,ioti(19.7) for sIt(!:tritlg sttt-css i t t t.~trl)rtl(~t~L is st,ill 1111s:~tisllo\v liit:l,ory i t 1 t,lt:~l.. 1 1 ~:l.pp:~rt:ttt~, t Icittt:n~:tl,it:vist:osit.y r , t-(111.(l!).7l~), v:~ttisl~(;s poitlk :\I, wl)crc cl?Z/tl?/is cqilitl t,o zcro, i. o. at, poiltl.s o f n ~ n x i t n t l tor ~ n i t ~ i t n t t ~ ~ l ~ t vclociI,y. 'L'his is ccrtnir~lynot t.hc cnsc bccn~rsct ~ ~ r b r t l t ~ r t , mixing ttlocs not. vnnielt : ~ t 1)ni11k ol' maxin~utnvc.1ocit.y ( r c t ~ t ~of clrnt~nrl). rc 'l'lir I:~t.t.ttr via\\? is c:onlir~nc~el I~r~ic:lr:~.rtlt,'s l)y t~rc:~~srtrc-~nc~~t.s on l.ttrb~tlt:~lt~ Il~t(:Lu:bt.io~~s, 18.:), ivlticl~ Iiig. sliow l,l~:ll.t 1 tlic (:c:l~trco(. i t.hc (:l~a.t~n(-I lortgit,rttlit~nl:itit1 t.rnt~svrrsrIll~c:t.r~nt.iot~s clilli:r fro111 xrro. t,l~c: bol.11

l'aking i t ~ t ~ o r o ~ t t.hntt t h e sign of ar ~~ t,l~:tt~ is tnoro correct t,c) writc iL

7,

tn~~st, change with t h a t of tlii,/tl!/, it is fout~tl

'J'lris is I'rrrnrlll'a ~~tdsi,~q-lr.trylh.~ l h c . ~ i . q . will be SIIOWII lnt,cr Llrnt it. is very l~sefrll hly It, ir~ the calc:~tlnt,iot~ L u r l ) ~ ~ l oI~(I\\~s. of ~tt Cor~ll)at.itrg cclr~. (19.7) wit,l~ the Bo~tssincsqhypothesis in c q r ~ ( l 9 . l ) , wc find the . follo\ririg oxl,rcssiot~s tlrc virl,rtnl viscosit.~ for

I n orclcr t,o count,cr thcsc diffici~lt,ics 1'rnntlt.l [2:1) rst,nl)lishcd n t:onsitlt.mbly Id. sirnplcr cqrlxtior~for tltc nppnrcnt kir~cmntic vi~cosit~y. is vnlitl only in t.11~ case It, of frec tPurbulcnt flow nttd was tlcrivctl from cxt,ct~sivccxpcrirnct~t,nltl:tt,:r or1 frec turbulent flow duo t o TI. Itcicltnrtlt [24]. 111~ c t . t i r ~ g t,his ttrw I~ypclt,l~csis Prntrtlt,l I I ~ I,. nss~tmetlt h a t the tlitnct~sior~s t.11~ of Ittml)s of llrlitl wllicli tnove in :I t,rnnsvcrsc tlirccLion t l r ~ r i t ~ g turl,rtlcr~t mixing arc of tllc s:mc ortlcr of m:rgtiit~tttlc:IS t,hc witlLI1 of t,ltc mixing zone. I t will I)c rccitllcd t l ~ : ~I.ltc prcviotts I~yl)ot,ltc;sis t, itnl)lic:tl t,l~al. t,ltc?,y wcrc small compnrcd wit,h t,lic t.ransvcrsc clin~cnsior~s btto rc%giot~ flow. T l ~ cvirttlnl of of kinematic viscosity, s, is now formcd by m~tltiplying t11c tnaxirnctn~tlifTcrcncc in tttc time-mcnn flow velocity with n lo~gt,lrwl~ic:l~ nssrrrnctl to be proportion:~l to the is widt,l~,I), of t.hc mixing zone. Thus,

sntl for t,ltr v irt,ttnl kinrmnt,ic viscosit,y from cqn. (1!).2)

Ilcro, x , tlcnottcs a ditnct~sio~ilcss t~~ttiiber I)(: d ~ t ~ c r r t r i t(:x~)t:ritt~r~~ti~Ily. t,o r~~l 11. I;)IIows fro~n ccp. (19.9) LII:LI~ F: rc~nnins coiistxt~t, ovcr tOic wl~nlt: witlt01 of every c:ross-sc:t.l.iott, whcrcxs t,hc prcviotts Ilyl)oLl~csis(1!).71)) implice1 tl~nLit, v:~rictlkvcn il' t.Ir(: t ~ t i x i t ~ g Icngt,lt were nssun~cd o bc consttn.nt,. lprom cqr~s.(l!).9) :~ttd(1!).1) we o h t , : ~ i ~ ~ t.ho t

t
I t is known from rxprrimrtrt.nl cvitlrnrr t,l~nt, t,rlrbrllent drag is roctglrly prol)ort.iorlnl t,o t,hc squsrc, of ve1ocit.y and thc same r e s ~ l l is obtained from eqn. (19.7) if the mixt

On comparing t-hiscqtlation wit.lt cqn. (19.5~). is sccn tl1:~t. it nccorcli~rg Llrr prrsrl~t, 1.0 I~yl~otI~c~iu t.hc transverse fiuctuntion v' is proporlio~talto 17,,,,, -1T,,(,, alttl I.ll:~tt3hott~ixingloltgth I' is proportional to thc witlth h. 1\11nltcrttntive h)pof.lrcxis ~rltiolr rc!lntc:n 1.0 bllc np[):rrc.ltt kincniatic vinronity F , nlld is vcry sir~~ilar tl~id. cqn. (I!).$)) fortrrulittcd by 11. 1trirlt:~rdl. to ill \\.a8 [24].

tl. Von Klrrn~hn's sir11i1:~rity 11ypot.11nsis

585

t,llrl~c~lr~tI~ sllc.arirtg st8rcss is given by

identical laws. This is in esselltial ngrccmcrlt wit11 cxpcrirnenta, ntlcl t,hc cx11larlat,ion
turns on tllc fact t,l~at here tllc axcs of tllc vortices nrrango tl~otnsclvcsl)rirlcip:~lly a t right nnglcs to tfhe main stream and to Cl~ocliroct,ion of Lllc vc1oc:it.y gr:ttlitrt~t.. By contrast, in a flow field in the proximity of a solitl wall there prctlorninat,~ vort.iccs whose axes arc pnrallcl tjo tho flow tlircct,iorl. Vor tllis rnason, t l ~ o tcmpcml~tlrcIioltl 1)ccolrlcs similar to tJlc vclociLy lieltl tlircc1,ly.
d. Von K i r r n i t ~ 'sit~iilarityhypothesis ~

ISxnnll~lrsof I.l~c: :~l)l)lieiil~ion this l ~ y ~ ) o l . I ~ ;tro salso given of csi

!ckl)(svi

it1

C111a0. S X IV.

A(x~ot~(1i11~ ( 1.0 'I7. :III(I 11.hl. 0. S t ~ ~ i 1l I, l ~ l , a, ( ~ : ~ ~ l c ~ ~ I a .~ Il~ i o It I~ I l)a,st>(l Ia ~I ( ,(Y I .~> on :I c o ~ r ~ l ~ i n : o f~t.l~c.~nixing-I~~ngt.ll ~ ~iot~ rnc~thotlcxprrsst,tl I)y ccln. (1!).7) nnd an a.sslltnptiorl of' 1.11(! Itintl rrl~rcsc~nt.ctl ccln. (1!).10) 11:l.s\\.it,l~st,ootl t,rst, of titno. The I)y t.ho illnor 1):irt of t.11(* I ) O I I I I ( I R I . ~ (0 ( ?/ < yk) is tIc.s(:til)vtl I)y t l ~ o l:~.y(*r van 1)rirst. 1121 mixing-1rt1gt.ll l i ~ ~ ~ t n r t l n

I t wo~llclbc vcr.y corlvcnicnt to possc:ss : rule w11ic:ll :~llowctl to clctcrlr~itlc L us t,l~c: dependence of mixing lengt,l~on space coordinates. T h . van Krirm&n 1171 tnadc a n a t t e m p t t,o t:st,al)lisl~s~rcll rrrlc a s s ~ ~ l n i t h a t trrrl)ltlcnt fl~~c:t.nat~iot~s a r~g :tro sin1il:~r a t all point of the field of llow (simihri/?y WLLP.), i. e. t.Ilat tllcy (IiIPcr from ~ ) o i r t~ t o point only by time nnd lcngth scale factors. A velocity wllicb ;s charnct.erist.tc of t l ~ e turbulent,, fluct~lat.ing motion nnn bc forrnotl wit,l~ t,llc nit1 of' 1.11~I , I I I ~ ~ ) I I ~ (sIl(~:l~~illg ~III. st.rcss by tl(:lining it., wil,ll I,llr n.itl of c . r l l l . (I!). I ), r1.s li~llo\r,s :

'She cl~inr~t,it.y is cnllcd the /tiction veloci!?/ ancl is a rnc:asrtrc of 1.111: i ~ ~ t . ( : r ~of t . ~ v, si turbulent, eddying and of the correlation which exists 0et.wcen the Ilr~ct.llnt.incr corn? ponents in the z and y direct,ions. For the si~nilarit~y under considcrnt.~on rule we imagine a two-dimcnsionnl tncnn flow in l,lir .r tlirccl,ioll, RIICII t.llntl ?j - N ( y ) 11.1ld 5 = 0 (parnllcl flow), and an auxiliary n~ot,iot~ wl~icllis also two-t1irncnsion;II. 111 t,lris case it is possible t o show t,llnt the rnle t h a t

const,itutes a necessary c~ntlit~ion secure co~npatibilit~y to I)ctwcrn the sitnil:r.ril.y hypothesis and the vorticit.y trnnsport equat,ion (4.10). Introducing a n empirical dimensiorlless constant x , von IChrtnjn matlr tllc assumption t h a t t,he mixing length sat,isfics t,he equntion:

S(,r :tlso ref. I!)11 1. A ~ ( ~ S I I I I , sitniI:ir t,o l , l ~ c , OII(: (;ont.;~it~(~(l ~ I I .( I 9.71, 11:~s in ( X I)CCII ol~t~:rint~~l 11y (:. 1 . 'I':~.ylo~ (:{21 O I I t.llc: l):~sis llis vorl,ic:it,yI . ~ ~ ; i t ~ s ~ ) o r l , I r l I'r:rl~tltl's t.llcory, of I,hcory. (.llc* :~ss~ltnl)t,iol~ is ~~l:ltlc t.l1:1.1. t.l~(:rnr:\n vc,locit:y 17 rc~tnnins rotrsl.a11t. tl11r.ing1.111: t.r:~nsvcxt.sntnol.io~tof :i Ir~mp I111id;'V:~yIor's theory sl~l)sl.il,l~t.cs t l ~ i st,hc Ilyl)ot.11csis of' for 111:1t LII(: roi:~tion,t,l1;1,1, is t,l~nt, (lC/cl?y r(:tn:iit~s<;o~~st.nnl,. y i ~ ~ l t~l ~ (s- (*q~t:ition T11is , l

clill'(-rsI'ro~n (~111. (l!).7) tnt:r(.ly l).y I,IIc f:i(:l,or.112. 'l'l~isnlc:tlls l,l~:it, tnixing I,IIP l(~11gt11 (:. 1. '1';rylor's vorl,i~~it,~~-t.r:it~sS~:r is 1nrgf:r l ~ y f:tct,or 115 ~II:LII l , l ~ : ~ t , ol' tl~(;or.y a i l l I,: I'~~:~~~clt.l's~ I ~ ~ I ~ ~ . I I I I I - ~ . II' . l ~I(I ~ ~ '1'1111s lu - : 112 1.. 0 1 1 III(? I~nsisof his III~I :I~ S o~r~~ . ~ o t ~ s i l r : ~ i o .~ ~I s 1 ' 1 l o r o t 1 1 1 1 1 1 I : I I . , I 1 i l s i o of t r t i v r n l ~ i r c tlilkt.c:ncc:s :IIIOvor1ic.iI.y in t . l ~ ( ,111isil1::xonc 1)c~hintl c-ylit~tlric:nI :r rot1 oi.ct~rin c.onformity \vit.l~
\vl~i(.ll

111 accordance with the above hypothesis, tllc mixing Icngt.11,I, is intlcpnntlrnt, of the: magnitude of velocity, being a f~inctionof t.hc vclority clist.riblrt.iorl only. 'l'11o r~lixing Icngth bccorncs n prlrcly locnl fnnction a s :ilra:l.tly rcrcll~irc:tlc:irlic:r, :i11<1t.l1(: ~ 1 3 1 1 s t a n t x in eqn. (l'J.lS),can only bc clctcrrnirlctl cmpiric:ally. I t is a rrnivcrsni clirncnsionlcss constant which must have the snnic valrlc for all l,~lrbrllcntflows, providrtl t h a t the assrrmptions marlc prcviol~slyarc snt,isfictl (p:~mllclflow).
Introducing, finally, cqn. (19.18) into eqn. (19.Oc), we fintl tllnt t.11~I,~~rl)rllrrlt. ~ h c a r i n gstrcss is

586

XIX. Throretical aaatin~ptiona the calculation of turhl~lcmt for flow8

A . 1lrl.z [4] gave n very Inctd derivation of eqn. (19.18). I n latcr tiines von J<&rm&ti'shyl~otliesishns bc*rn c.striitlrd to inrll~derompressihle tur1)iilent flows : matie by G. IIamel too [20al; sc>rtlir paIwr I)y ( C I,iii r t al and tlie ot~scrvattons [9] anrl 0 13jnigun1 [(il

Bot,li vnii IZ:i.rn~iifi'slibw of' l,~trlnilt!tttfrict,iort, I : ~ I I(19.19), : ~ t i c l l ' r : ~ t ~ ~ l t . l ' ~ . I:L\v, 1:qn. (19.7). arc easily applic?cl1.0 1 . 1 1 ~ prol~lnmof fintlitig ~ I I I : velocity clistrihrttion it1 a mcta~igrilarchanitel. Si1ic.c t.Itis ~inivc-rsal law is of fitntlan~ont,al im1~ortancc t,ltc for consitleratio~ts t h c ~r~cccntlirtg itt chnpt,crs,ant1 since i t is n p ~ ~ l i c s btlo circillnr c l ~ t ~ n t i e l ~ c a s wcll, we s11:~ll dcvotc a litt,lc sl)ncc t o its ~lcrivat~ion. Tlit, c.h:~nnrlwill I)r nssiimrtl t o llevc a widt81i2 h arid the x-axis will be placed along its ccntrc-litic, tlic coortlinntc ?/ bcirig mcaqrlred from t h e latter. Wc shall assume a corist.ntit prrssrlrc grntlient aloilg t h e axis, putting c7jila~= G t . Since (?jj/8a--1 i)~/tl?y 0 , Ill(. slirnring stress is a linrar f~tnctionof t.hc wiclt.11 of the -I-lianrtcl, i 1%

apparent, t,ilrbulcnt,frict.ion. This assumpt,ioti 1)rcnltsdown in t.11~ riciglil~orirl~ood tlic of' wall wlicrc t.hc turb~llctit bountlarylaycr gocsover into t,llc 1:~tninar utib-I:~yt:r. We arc t,lius let1 t o ntlclit.ionnl c:oiisitlcrations w1iic:li will I~cgivcn Intrr. 111wli:it I'ollows wn shnll, t,hcreforc, exci~rtlc from consideration n sin:~11 rcgion 1ic:ir l.lic cctitrc-line atit1 n stni~ll rcgion rtcnr tlic wall. I I, is pnrt,icul:~rly rc:rnnrltal)lc t.li:tt t.lin ttriivcrs:~lvc:locit,y-distril)~rl,ion I:rw in its li)rtn givc:n 11y I ? ~ I I .(1!).21) clocs riot c:oiit.aitt citltc:r t,l~c: ro~tgliti~ss or t,ltc Itcyiioltls iilrtribcr cxplicillyt. 'l'ho velocity-tlisl,ril~uLio,i law in cclri. (1!).21), also Ititown a s t,lio velocity-delec.1 Irzzct, (:an be cxprcssotl in wortls a s follows: '1'11~ vcloc:itjy-tlintri1111t.ion nctrvc?s for n rccl,xrignlsr cl~nnnclC:LII I)c riinclc L coit~c~iclc o if tlic rlilrcrnr~cou,,,,, - u is rnnclo climcnsionlcss wit11 tltc ; k i t 1 of t,lic fricl.iott v e l ~ c i t ~ y ' a t thc wall, I?,,,, ntid ~ ~ l o t t cagnitist, v / h . Tltis rcsult, wliicli turns oiit 1.0 I)(? valitl tl for circular pipes a s woll, will I I ~ coiitl~nrcd wibh cxpc~ritiicnt.nltnc::~s~trnmri~t.s ill Sccr. X X c.

wlicre

to

t1ciiot.c~t l ~ c stmss at, t,lic wnll.

1. Voti Krirm61i's velocity-di~trihutionlaw. Applying von I<;irmi~n's~ i m i l a r i t . ~ rule, cclri. (l!).l9), t o cqti. (10.20), \rfc obtain
IGg. 1!).2. Univcr~nl vcloci1.y diatribtltion law for turbulent channel flow, nfkr von KSrmirn and Prnndtl [17, 211
C l ~ r v c c n r r e e p n t ~ d ~ eqn. (10.28): (1) lo (:ttrvc ( 2 ) cortnpondn to rqn. (10.21). y - ~ i i s l n n r rfrom wall

Intogrnt,ing twice and determining tho coristnnts of integration from tllc coiitlit.ion tltnt u ?I,,, at, ?/ = 0, wc havc
= 1

O1 a JK
04

.A -

-.
Y -

0.2

0.4

06 .

0.8
h

10

Ii~t.roclucingt h e frictiot,:bl vclocity a t tlic wall, v,,, = lafit equation in dimensionlem form

itole ,

we cart rcwrite t.lic

(y --distnncc lionl crtit.rc-lirtc). 'I'ltis is t l i ~ form in wIii(:li t.11~ ~ttiivcr~:~.I vclocit:~-cli~t~ril~ution law was deduced by von Khrm.iri 1171. I t is sllown t curve (2) in Fig. 19.2. T h e w prctlicte~lvclocity-disl.ril)i~tbnc11rvc has a kink ricnr tlie cent.rc-lirte of tlic clianncl wiiioh is dllc t o t h e fact t h a t t h e rcq~uremcntof sjmilarity cannot be satisfied Iicro, l~cc:r~tse, accordance witli cqn. (10.18), tlie mixing Icngt,li becomes cqunl 1.0 zoro nt l.11c in coril.rc. A t the wall, Ibr y = h, ccjn. (1!1.21) Icnds tofan infinit,cly large velocit,y wwliicl~ is cxplainccl 11y tlio faol, tliat molcc~ilar frictlior~ bee11 neglected in comparison with tlie hixi
--.

2. l'randtl's velncity-distribution law. A similar velocity-clist,rib~~tion Inw can elso be tleclured from l'rantlt,l'a hypothesis for the turbulent shearing tress, eqn. (19.7). I n the process of deriving the relevant expression we shall gain more i n s ~ g h t into the conditions which prevail in the itnrnediate neighbonrhood of tllc wall a n d which we wrrc forcrd to cxclridc from tfhc prcccdiiig argnmrlit. We shall constrlcr a turbl~lcritstrcam along a smooth flat wall and we sllall rlcnotc tlie clistnnrc I t oil1 t11c wall by tlic symbol y, with u ( y ) denoting the velocity Jn the ncigl11)onrhood of t h e wall we slm.ll ansumo proport,ionaltt y bctwrcn mixing l c r ~ g t l ~ wnll tlislnnc.c~, Lhnt nntl so
1

x y .

( 19.22)

--t Proni lliin point, onwnrdu wc ~linll omit the hnr abovc the s tnhol 1.0 denote t.imr-nvcragcs as confttniori wit11 lin~o-dcpcnclrrit rjt~nt~titic:~ longcr poesiIlc. i~ no
.

IIerc x dcnotcs a rlinicnsionl~xsco~ist~ant wl~iclimust IIC dctlucctl l'rolri cxpcrimcnt. This as sump ti or^ is rcasonablc, bccsi~scthe t n r b r ~ l o l tslirnring stress a t tlic wall is

1. They arc, of cottrue, contninccl in~plicitlyin the

wnll at.rc~n r,.

At, t,l~is stilgf: I ) ~ : L I I ( I I I i ~ ~ l , r o ( l ~ ~ c , r;~(l(lilio~~:tl, :III ( l f;tr-rc:xc11itrg a s s ~ ~ n r p I ~ in:hr~lcly <~n, t.llc: sl1c;tring strcss r c ~ n n i ~ roltsI:~nt,,i. c. t,11:1tt to,w11crc to tlcr~otcstltt: ls sl~cv~ring s1.rc.s~:it t11r \v:i11. Il~t.rotl~~c.it~g more t.11~ onc:c fric:l.ior~ vclociLy I
t.I1:1t,
.; -.

It*,nay I)c wort11 11ot.ingin pnssitrg Il~nt, is ~)ossil,l(: o ol)l.:li~l it. l 1.l11. sin~l,l,:I.(%SIIII. l.l~:it. 1 . x ?I front tllc: vclocit,y-tlrfi:c:t. I:LW (I!).27), t.ogot.l~c~r wil.11 v o ~< i~i . i ~ t : i i ~ ' s I i (y11:1t,io11 n~ixilig1(:11gt,l1. for 'l'l~is11rn.y It(: c%:~sily vcrili(%(l I II(- rr:1~1(~1.. llj.. i 1 Oy l<i11:1 s l ~ o ~ ~ l tnot,etl t,l~at.. 1 1 ~ I)c l t prccctlit~gn.rgrlrnc~nt, 1)rovc.s l.11:1t. t,l~o c:oc%fliric~~~l,s ( Y I I I ~ . x ill (19.22) ant1 (19.18) :~rc: itlrnI.ic:nl. Wc shall t ~ o w revert l,o t.11~ problrrn of tlrt.c:rrnining t.l~c, c.onsl.:~~~l,~ t f . ( y ~ . : ~ t , i o ~ ~ , ol' i C', i r ~ccln. (1!).27). As nlrently mc:r~t,ionntl,t.lic co~rst~iint, shoi~ltl\)I. t l t ~ l . ( ~ r ~ n ifro111t l ~l(~ i h c ~ontlit~ion l.llc t ~ l r b ~ ~ lvclorit.y clist.ribt~t.ior~ t.l~nt rnt ~nnst, joitt I . I I ( ~ I : l n ~ i ~ ~ ; t r v(%lo(.if.y cIisl,riO~~t~ic~n1 1 ~ in t itntn~(li;~t,c ( - i g l ~ l ) o ~ ~ rof o o ( l \v;III \vl~c\r(t~ l ~ t,I~c t,It(! I;ttrriti:~r :11i(4 t.r~rI)ulr~~ts11r:xring strc,ssrs :lro of t , l ~ c S:IIII(: or(l(:r of I I I : I ~ I I ~ I ~ \\I(* ~ - ( ~ ~ ~ ( * I ~ I~ I. I I~V I I I ~ II(I(I . rorrsttnllt, of int3egrnI.ion C: fro111 t.hc> ror~tlif.ior~ t.l~:~t. - 0 :I{, $1 c*c.rt.:ii~t i s l : t i ~ l . r . ?I,, 7~ tl Iro111 I,II(> \v:~lI. 111 l,l~is III:IIIII{:~

I lorv t,hr c:ot~st,;~,~~t,t.c:gr;rt.iotl, (:, I I I I I S ~I)c tlet~crtnir~ctl of it1 from the condit,ior~ t the a wnll :~tlclsc*rvcs t.o fit, t.11~ t.l~rl)tilrnt vcloc:ity clistrib~lt~ior~Llrat in tllc laminar subto Iaycr. Ilo\vc.vcr, c:vc:n wil,l~ol~t, tlc*t.(:rrnining it is possil)lc t o tlcdr~cc C from eqn. (19.27) : I;l\v a ~ ~ : ~ l o g o l t s L t,o t.I~:llin cclt~. (19.21). 111 spit,c of t,l~c f:lc:t t,l~:rt cc111.(19.27) is v:llid only in t,hc ~ ~ c i g l ~ l ) o ~ ~ r h o o t l w;~ll,I)(-~:RIIsG of t,l~c s s ~ ~ ~ n p tt81~ati -- const., or tlto a i o t ~t we sl~nll at,t,cml~t ~ t s c for thc wl~olcregion, i . I?. I I t,o 11 = h. Since a t y = h we t.o it, ~ : Irnvc u u,,,,,. we ol)t,:~in
-7

- -

il =

v*o

' (I,,

?"." - I,,

p)

u,,,, = "*O In
: ~ t r t l Ilrr1c.c..

li

-tC ,

Ipy forming
7',,,ar

t,Ilc? - 7 11

vclocit,y tlifforcncc, wo c1cduc:c -I

K

In - ;
Y

(y = disb:~nrcfrom wall)

"*o

\\rl~irl~ t l ~ c : tlilncnsioriless, logn.rit.l~n:ic:.~ ~ t t i v r r s avc~loc~it~y-tlisI,ril)~~l,ioti ;III{I is l I:I\~, asserts t.11at. the vrlocity, rcfcrrctl t o t,11(.l'ric:lion vclocail,y f 9 : , , , is ;I, f1111(:tio11 1 . 1 1 ~ of' climc:nsior~!ess \\.rill clistnnce, ?/ 11, ,,/v. 'l'ltc lnt.t,c,r is :L ltintl ol' Itoy~~oltlsI I I I I ~ ) ( ~ III:IS(Y~ II . on t.11~ wall clistnncc, y, nntl on t.11~ f'ric-l.ion vt.loc.il,y at. t.11c: \v:~lI. I':cln:lt,ion (I!).L'!);l) cont,n,it~s J ~ ctwo cl~~piri(>:~,l t (:(;IIs~,:LII~,s, x : ~ t r ( I / . I 111 :1(:ror(l:1,11(:0 wit,l~1 . 1 1 ~ 111v\?io11s rensoning wc may expect, tfl:nt, tllc: collst,nrtt. x is itrtl(~l)c:lltlcrrt ~.II(, ~ : t l , nol' ~ of ~ r c I.llc wall (\vl~et,lrcr snioot,lr or rongh) ant1 t.lr:~t, it is, nlorcovc:r, :L ~ ~ r r i v c ~ ~ . s ; ~ l c~o11st:1111, oC tnrl)l~lcnt. flow. 13xpcrirnrnl.nl rc!sult,s, t.o Ilo tlisc:~~ssrd gr(,:~t.(\r( ~ I , : ~ i in t . l ~ ( 'S I I ( Y . I Y > in (l l (ling clrnpt.cr, give a vnll~cof x 0.4. 11'110 scc:on(l colrst,t~nt,. tl(,l)c*~ltls t,11(, 0, 011 n:tt,nrc of t,hc w:d1 sr~rf:icc;rclov:l~~t,~ ~ r n c ~ . i r n l n v:rlnc>s will I)(! given i l l (!II:I;). X S .

--

,I , his 1111iv(:rs;11 c l c ~ ( ~ i ( . ~ ~ - ( I:LW f c tlrlc* 1.0 I'rnn(lt,l is s l ~ o w tplotlet1 ;ls c:ltrvc ( I ) v l~ (;l, ~ i r ~ITig. ,1!).2. In t . 1 1 ~prc?c:c:tlingargr~rnent sr~cccetlccl deriving a urrivcrsal vclocitywe in

clist.ril,~tt.io~~ from I'r:~~~(lt.l's of frictior~in cornplcbc analogy with t h a t in I:lw law ( ~ 1 1 1 . (1!).21), wl~ic:hwas olll.:lir~ctlfrom von I<ilrmlit~'s sirr~ilnrit~y rrrlc. The only clifferent:(: is in t.l~c: fortn of t.llc: f ~ ~ ~ ~ c tof i oh wl~ich'appear tire r i g h t - h a ~ ~ d of ~ y/ n s on side ~:(]IIs. (1!).21) : L I I ~ (1!).28) r r ~ p c ~ c l ~ i v0r1~ yreflexid11 this will not appear incomprc1 . hc:trsil,lc?, if w : f.altc int,o nccol~ntthe tlifhmr~ccin t*hc assrrmptiotl concerning tllc c sllr:tring st.rcss. Verb 1C:'Lrm;in :~ssnmctl a linear slrcaril~g-stress distriblttion, bltc: mixing Ic::rlgt,l~I)ring 1 u'lu". On t,110 other ]land, PranclI,l assumed a constar~l. sl~csriitg st,ross and 1 ?I. l'ig~~rc 19.2 c o r ~ t a i r ~ s comparison hetwccn t.11csr: two a I:rws. A I~rt.l~c:r c:omp:lrisorl witell cxpcrirncr~tis clcfcrrcd to Cl~ap.XX.

we

I.:LII

sl~ortc-II cv111 (I!).29n) to rrntl

+(I])
7

--

A,

I l l 71

1- I),

wllc~l~c*

5l)O
'I'll(:

XIX. Tl~rorct,irnl nm~rmptions t,hc mlculntion of t,rrrl~i~lrrtt for Ilo\vs

~~nivc:rsnl vc~loc:it~y-elisl.ril~~~t,ior~ (In.:]:,), wl~ic:l~~ n s I:Lw, nqn. l now I)ocr~ dcrivctl for t h : (:tist>of :L fl:~t, wnll (rcc:t.:ingt~l:~r c:l~:~.ntlol) rct.air~.r f u ~ n l a ~ n c n t n l its irn1)orLancc for flows t,llrongl~ circular pipes, :LS will I)c sccn in t,l~c next ehnpt,c:r. We may now st.nt,e, in anticipation, that, it lo:~tIst o gootl agrecmcnt wit11 cxperimcnt. Tn nonclutling t,l~is c:hnpt>rr it may 1)o wort11 ~ t ~ r c s s i n g once again tfhnt t.1ic two nnivcrs:il vclocil,y-clis(.ril)~~t~io~i in cqns. (19.21) ant1 (10.27) were obtained for Inws t,~irl)nlcnt~ flo\v, nntl t.ook i11t.o ac:nor~nt,,ap:lrt from t,hc small sub-layer ncar the wnll, only t,nrhnlont s l ~ m r i n g strosscs, ant1 i t sho11lt11)e realizetl trIrnt3 snch a n assumpt,ion is s:tt,isfi(:(l x,l:~rg!r l~cyn?ltlsn~~rnl)crs.only, o n s c q ~ ~ c rtile~ vclorit,y-tlisl,ri(~ ~t ly I)t~l.ior~ law, ~):~rt.ic:~~la,rly in ccln. (I!).:i:S), must I n rcjinrtlctl a s nn asyml)tlotfio t.l1:11, I:tw a.pl~lic:xi)lc o very 1:~rge ltcynoltls numl)crs. For smallgr-Rcyr~oltls- r i t l n l l ~ c ~ ~ t w11c-1~ .I?n~it!:~r. fi.ict,i(?l~ I:xo~(,s,. somc ~ I I ~ ~ I I C I outside t t ~ ~ v e r y ~ - ,q~ll)-I:~ycr, ~ o IC:~ t l .- - .t .~ ( : x . -~i . riihcnl, Icads t80 a powor law of.. the form ,.. . .

rigorously constant in t.rrrbnlcnt ns wcll ns in laminar flow, xr~clis c q ~ ~ l,ol t,11:1t, :it, a t,hc wall, to. Ltcicl~a.rtlt. 11. 126, 261 carrictl o u t a n oxtcnsive invrst.igat,ion of t.l~is cSasc; solno of 11isrcsulh can bc infcrrctl from Fig. 19.3 which sl~ows several vclorit,y 1)rofilcs observed in Couctt,c flow. 'l'l~c flow rcmzins laminar ns long ns the I ~ O ~ I I ~ I I I R number R < 1600 sncl t l ~ c velocity distribution is t,l~cn linear t o a good tlcgrrc of approximation. When t l ~ e Reynolds r~umbcrR excccds tllc value 1500 the flow is trlrbulcnt. Tllc t r l r t ) ~ ~ l cvelocity profilcs arc very flat near t.l~e nt centre ant1 bccornc very steep ncar the walls. A profilc of this kind is t o be ~xpcct~ccl tnrl)r~lont in flow if it, is rcmcnibcrcd t>l~xL 1 1 ~shearing st.rcss nonsist,~ n l:~.tninnrc:ont.rit)~~t.ion , t. of

nn(I

:i

t , ~ ~ r b u I c n o~ l . r i I ) ~ ~ l , i o ~ ~ ct n

~ I I I Rt o turbulent mixinp. Ilcncc

wllcrr t.11~exponent 21, is approxilna(.cly rrlrlnl t o I l t ~ tvaries somewhat wit.11 the Itrynolrin tlnml)cr. 'l'liis point will also be t,akcn u p agnin in t l ~ succeeding cliaptcr. c 'rllc c:tso of so-cxllod C o ~ ~ c t tflow I)ct.wcen two parallel flat plat,es w l ~ i c lnre ,c ~ tlisplncc:cl rcl:it,ivc t,o circl~o t l ~ c r(Wig. 1 . I ) const.it,ut,rs a ver.y simple cxaniplc of a l sl~c::~ring sl.rc!ss rc:rnnins c:or~st~ant,. 'l'l~n sl~c~aring st.rrss T rrrnains flow i t 1 w l ~ i c lt~ ~ e

:,

wl~crcA , donotes t l ~ e rnixirig cocfficicnt tlcfinctl in rcln. (19.1). 111 t,llis m:atincr t,l~c velocity gradient turns o u t t be proportiotlal t o I / ( p -tA). Since A varies from o zero a t t h e wnll tto its maximnm in the centre of t,hc cl~anncl,t l ~ c velocity profilc must bccomc st*cep tltc wall and flat, a t t,Ilc centre, a s confir~nctl py t,hc plots in 1. Fig. 19.3. The t ~ ~ r b r ~ l mixing cocfficicnt increases wit,t~ n iticrcasing Reynolds cnt a r ~ ~ ~ r n b e r the curvatr~rc t l ~ c anrl of vclocitpyprofile bcco~ncs,correspondingly, more p r o n o ~ ~ n c r tcompare t,l~c l; paper I)y A. A . Szcri [nlnl.

f. Further dcvelopmc~itof theoreticnl hypotheses

Tl~c cnlcrrlation of Lurbrrlcnt flows on 1.111: bn4i~ 1,110 difl'crc~~t n ~ i - c ~ ~ ~ p i r i r n l of s~ I~yl)ot.l~(:s~s discusset1 previously, aritl carried out in rirt,:hil in t l ~ c succoctii~~g cl~npkrs, not sntisfact.ory is in so far as it is still itnpossiblc to analyze t1ifli:rcnt kinds of tirrbulol~t llow \vitl;'d~o of t.11cRntnc nicl l~ypothesis coticcrning trrrbrllcnt frict.ion. Ipor cxatnplc, Prnntltl'a I I ~ ~ O ~ I I C R 1.11~ 011 ~ H lnixing lcng1.11, cqn. (19,7), fnil~ cotnplctely in-tl!? casc of RO-cnll~d isotropic. trrrbulcticc ris it, c?xint,sbcl~i~~cl n scrccrl of $tic ~cs11, bccni~win tliia em< tali(:vciociLy giatlicnL of 1.11~ biuic flow ik D ~ ~ I I I L1.I0 zc:r~ cvcry.wJ~cr~, liyPo~llcscs bhc cilct;lniio~~ clovclol)ccl Lur1)ilIcnt flow, ( ~ ~ H o I I R R ( ' I I i n Sees. Tl~o lor or XIXb and c, have been considerably cxtentlcd by I,. I'ranclt,l 1221 in an at,tc~npt rlcrivo n unito versally valid system of equations (tr~rbr~lnnt ncar wall, frcc turbulent Ilea., isot.ropic 1.urhuflow Icncc). Energy eqemtioa: L.Prnntltl bnsctl I~is ncw on - dcvelopn~clit 1.l1cco~isitlcrntionof t.hc kinotic cncrgy of tnrbtrlcnt flnctuation, R = o ( r ' 2 + 11'2 + nnrl cnlc~rlatctlthc rltangc of t.lrc cncrgy of the suhsirliary motion with tinrc, UR/J)l, for n particle which tiloves with Llic basic stream. This is con~poncd t,l~rec of Lcrn~s: t,hc decrease in cncrgy tltlc to internnl fric.t.ion i n the of motion of tlto 111mps fluid, of thc tmnsfcr of cncrgy from tho hnsic motion Lo tl~o of silt)sidiilry n~ot,ion- this term heing proportiotinl t (dlJ/dy)z - and, linnlly, of t l ~ c o trnnsfer of kinetic energy from the more turbulent to the lem tnrbulcnt zones. T l ~ c cncrgy balnnce I)ct,wren t,lio~e tl~rcc terms leads t,o n differential equation for the cncrgy of the t,urbulent'sr~bsitlinry motion u.hich must be ndded to the systen~ differential equations for the Incan niotion; it l~ns forni of the

z),

Fig. 19.3. Vc10cit~yprofilcs in prallel Coucttm flow betwrcn two parallel plates lnovitig in opposite directions, after H. Rcichardt [25, 261 A t R - I200 Lhc flow Is Inmitlnr; nt R . 2000 nnd 34.000 tllc flow Is L~lrbulcnt

502

XIX. Tl~rorrl.icnl nsaun~ptions the cnlrulntiot~of lnrbr~lent, for flows The length scnle L is nssr~nredt,o be n frlnct,ion of y/J. Thus,

flnre j -- 0 for t.wo-tlitnrnsionnl Incnn Ilo\vn, j =; 1 for nxially symmetric nlenn flows (y-radial clistztnce frorn nxis). 1,. l'rnndtl referred to tlie preceding as to the firot fundn~nent,al eqtlntion. A srooncl equntion rcl:rt,cs tlie tllrhi~lentshearing stress with the velocity gradient of the mean flow nnd is analogous to the oltl n~ixingeqnat.ion (19.2), but also contains the energy of the t ~ ~ r b c ~ lnr~lr~itlinry ent ~notitnr,lhnt is
,

I lrr two rclr~:~lionn (I!).%i) ant1 (19.37) - c-orrt.ninthe tliree frce constnnta c, k , k, alrich inr~nt I)r rlnrivrcl 1)). :L rrferrnec t,o exl)eritilo~rt,nl rrsnltn. 'rho length scnle I, is n locnl funct,ion which rc!l~rrsc*nIn. rss(*nl.i:llly.l.hr nixing Iengtlr OF ~(111. (19.7). The defi~~itioti this qrlntltit,y call, hornof evrr, also I I 1):1sc:tl O I I :tti intcgml o f t 111: rorrr.l:it,ion filnot.ion of t.lie velocity r o ~ n p o ~ ~ cniens~~rorl ~ nls :II l\vo 11oinIs(S(Y. .l.(:. l<oll:~ [2!ll, 1). I77 /I). If 1l1r s l r r ~ c l ~ t of t.r~rl)ulrricctlocs not cl~nrigcnlong ;I sI,rean~line,ns is the cnse with the re logarilh~riic~ of t,lie \vall, nntl i f i t in nssr~~nctl I:~rv that there is no diffnsion of t ~ ~ r b r ~ lenergy, cnt to it is possil~lc vqr~atr1l1r first t,uro t,crlna on the right-hnnd side of eqn. (19.30) and to show tlint

In c.ontrnst to 1'rnndt.l who thor~ght tlic tliil'rrnion of t ~ ~ r l ~ ~ onrrgy nn t.hr nrigrttIit,n o l ' r ~ ~ r r g y of rlcnl fronr regions where its valrre is high t,o tt~ose alrerc it is IOU,, I%rntlsl~aw collabor:~tors:isslttrie nnd that the ft~rxof dill~ision t,ltrh~~lent of e11crg.11~~)rt)l~nrtionnl ( ~ , , , , , ~ ) rt.e lIcre T , , , , , ~ is to ll drllot~n t.lic ~nnxin~rtrri valr~c t.lie sliraring strr!ss i~l'l.l~e of inlrrvnl 0.26 0 G ! < J. 'l'l~cfr~~ic:Iiot~t 1 c.c111. / (7 i (19.42) is dnfinod ns

in vie\\-r)fc'ln. (I!).:l7). I'l~ttingQ E Irt~gth FOVIIIIII~I i.qn. (19.7) wit11 1 of tlcrivr t,l~at.

1 ~ k/c urr recognize thnt. eqn. (10.38) retltlcos to tho iirixing~ 1

1,. l~in~illy,rve equate if
c - &3. .
T,

frorn eqnn. (19.37) nnd (19.7) me (19.39)

,.Iir ~wr~.r(litrg is ~ ~ s rnsl :I rlrli~~itiot~1. :rncl tllis lenves only two ndjnstnble const,nnt~s. 1 rrl:rtiotl c of
nnn~rlyr tind k,. \':lrio~is i n v ~ ~ s l . i a ; l f:tpl)(s:lrs inclic::ltn t,hnL c -= O.l(iR nncl k , i ~ ~ ~ ~ lo nlq)rol)rinlr 11111nrri(~n1 \-:~IIIOR. 'JYIIIS. linallg, c.rlrt;ilio~~u (19.38) nnd (111.38) yield
TI

0.0 arc the

c2I3 g B

0.3 Q

(19.40)

111 the p c s ( ? ~ ~ c rI~nniogct~ror~u r l ~ ~ ~ l r n c r .as Ihnt. fol~nd of tr~ snc11 behind n screen, only tho first of t l l ~ I I O V ~IIlrf.(! I ~ I ~ I I I I ~ V I I ~ R (vlergy trrtns i~ ~ ~ r r s r n t , for (.ilia reason 1.110 tt~rbl~lence t111d behintl tire R(*r(~*n - ( . I I ~ ~ I o \ ~ I I R ~In ~ ~ II C I I . of ~ I I I I I I I ~ 1101v:iIl I.l~reo (I( ~ I : I ('nsc C~ tortnu nre present,, but the tlrirtl term (t.ransTr.r of I<inc.t.ic. c'nrrg,y fro111tnorc 1.0 less tr~rlnllonl, regions) is significn~~t, near the only s.nII \vlrorc~.on.ing t.o t.lm vigorons crcnt.ion of 11c1v t.orOulrnce by \vnll slrenr, tlierc exists n zone of ~~nrticnl:rrly Iiigli 1.1trln1lencr r / . I'ig. 18.3). antl n m r tho rentre, where no turbulence is created ( nt~rl1vlrrrr t.l~r! Ilo\v is. Ll~rrrforc.t n r ~ r l ~ t ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l r.~ r. tC;Ii~nl~ko extrncled the preceding Irss G S ,. 1131 tnrt,liotl to inrlrttlr t.l~r cll'rctn of t.hr I<eynoltls n111nbrrnnd ~ierfor~ned rnlrnlations for t,lle t\~r\)nlcnt I~oltnd:lrg I:~yrron n fI:it. pl:rtc. 'l'l~rc n l c ~ ~ l n corrrrtl t,l~e ~i~~n region of t.rnnsition inlo n visrous s1111111yr'r n.rll :IS I.r:~trsiI frotn l:r~riin:irlo trrr1~111rnt IIH ion 11011.. I. 1; 13eclc\vit.l1 4 . nnd I). M. Rt~sl~nc*ll 161 rrl~*nlrtl s : ~ l ~~ r : l l ~ ~ ~ t l an(li(~xIcII(~c:(I nl)l~lir:il~ility b o r ~ ~ ~ t l lnyrrn wit.11vnri(.II(. i~ :~I o~rn tllrir to ary nblc I)rrssllrc! gr:rclic.nIc. 'I'llop rxn.ri~incclthe rflkct of srlcl~~lrodilicat.ions the ~rrt~ncricala l ~ ~ e s on v of tlrr elnpiric.nl const,nl~t.s. J?radsbnw'c r ~ ~ r ~ lIn n l ~ e ~ t d : nietl~od proposotl I)y T?. Brndshnw, J).II. Ferricm and N.1'. Atnell I ] - n.lricl~is tlrsignetl principally for tlte c:nlcr~lationof trlrln~lent boundary lnyers - the exp r r ~ s i i ofor 1 . 1 1 ~l.r~rl)rllent, ~ nllcnring st,ress fro111eqn. (19.37) is replaced by n linear drpentlcnce

Fig. 19.4. 1':rnpiricnl frlnctiot~s/, nnd lz \vliich ocrrtr i t 1 P. llr:i(t~l~:rn~'n ~irrlhocl [lo] of rnlcr~lnting t,rlrl~~rlrnt. 1)ortntlnry layers; ~ c rqnn. (I 9.42) to ( 19.44) e

Irrrlinle~~t rnrray; t.I~is corrc5sponcl.st.o rqn. (1!).40) with ol 0.15. Thr~nt,he enrrgy equation (I!).:lli) I I ~ R 11rr11 I.ra~isl'ort~rcd IL clifi~rc111~i:tl into cqo:~t.ior~ t,hc t,rrrl)nlent.shearing stress. 111 the or ('IIHC of t . \ v o . d i ~ r ~ r ~ ~ stnralr n l i o ~ ~ 1lon.n. \vr obt.:iin
OII
7

I)iffcrc~~tinl cq~tntiot~ IIIC lcngtl~ for scnlct '1'11~ a])l~Ii~!~il,ion ~ l i l l ' ~ ~ r ~ : ~ ~ l ~ i : t l (l!).:Hi) nr I,IIc c(l~t:iI~io~ts nnd (19.37) for the cnlcrtlnt,ior~of n velocity field wit11 prescribctl initial nnd I)or~r~dary co11dit~i011~ cannot be perfornred t~nless some st,ntement is made concerning t.he Irngth scale IJ in t,lre nnnle wny as in the caae nrit,l~ the mixing lengt,h 1 in cqn. (1!).7). For t,his reason, .J.(:. 1tot.f.a 128, 2!)] co~r~plcmentecl eqns. (10.30) nnd(19.37) with n t,hird cqrrntion u,liiclr serves to calcrllato I,. Nr~tnrrical cn~cll~ntiorla a] have de~nonstrntcdthat the precetling ~y8t0tnof eqrln t,ionn I(~acls sat.is[:I2 t,o factory agreement with experiment without requiring any ncldit,ion~lR R R ~ ~ I ~ ~ ~ Ois Itrue 'I'lris I S . for lilany specific configurations, i11cIuding clinnnol flow. 11ipc flo\v, t \ \ ~ o - d i t ~ i ( : ~ ~ ~ i o ~ ~ ~ ~ l :111dtrxiall,y sy11in1ot.ricjets, frce jet surface and two-tli~ncnsional ~vnlto. In rilodcrt~t . i ~ ~ l tnnny ticI(lil.i~nal rs c.zlculat~ionnrethods hnve been proposed; they are in rssc.nce, sitnilnr 1x1 those clisc:~rssotlI~rrc. &cent devcloprnenta in this field l~nvc been srlmrllnrized hy 1'. I%rsrlshnw [!?&I, 1%. IAllnd~l. 15. ntuI 11.1%. Sl)r~.ltling 1201, ,I.(:. ll,oLt8:i [:)I)], ( 2 . L. hlcllor rintl 11..J. ilcrrit~g 120hl 111rt1 \V.(:. Itcyt~oI~Is /2(;:1.l. Cllrvatr~re of streamlines: The curvature of strearnlincs in t.r~rl)rtlcntflow prodnrrs IIIIexpecl.edly lnrge chnngcs in the structure of the t.r~rbrtlc~~cc.rnost mscs, nnrh rliangeu are In one order of rnegnitnde nlorr i~rrport,nnt, t,hnn in the elt'cct, of t,l~c lirrss~lro grntlirnl, t~ortn:rl lo t.l~o bourrdnry Inycr. 111 the case of ordinnry nrrofoiln, t,hc rficta on I I I O I I I C I I ~ , I I I I Itrnd l~e:~,t, (,rtr~tsfr~. nre conaitler:bble, hecorning ext~rctnelylnrgc in t,lic cnsr of t,r~rl~inr? rornprrssor I)l:~(lrn. :rrrcl 'l'lio present-tfny st>atr~s our knowledge of these c t ~ r v a t ~ rclTerts, ant1 our nhilit,y t,o t~~:rstrr ~ r ~ i r of ~rr tl by cnlculntion, have been disciissed by P. Brndsl~aw[ll].

594

XIX. 'rheorcticnl nssornptions for the cnlculat,ion of t ~ ~ r h u l c tflows tt Reierences [I!)] IColniogorov, A.N.: Equntions of t ~ ~ r b t ~ ln~otionof nn iricon~prcssihlo flniil. Izv. Ak. er~t IYauIz. SSSR. Seria fizichcskaya 11' (1042). No. 1 --2, pp. 56--58 [ill Jtusni.z~t]. [20] Launder, B. E., and Spalding, D. 13.: Mnthonintical ~notlels Lurbulrnre. Acntlr-rnio I'rcsa, of London, 1972. [20al Lin, C.C., and Shcn. S.F.: Str~dics von ICiir~nhn's of sin~ilnrilytheory nnrl its c-xtc~~nion ti) con~pressiltlcflow. SACt\ TN 2642 (l!)Rl). survey of the nlrun tnrl)ulrnl liclcl rlos~trc~notlt-Is. [201,] Mellor, G.L., antl ticrril~g,H. J . : AIXA .I. 11. 590-5!JR (1973). [21] Prnndtl, L.: Uber die ai~sgebildctc Turl)~~lenz. ZAMM 5, 136 -- 139 (1925) nncl I)rno. 211il. Intern. Congr. Appl. Mcch., Ziirich ID20, 62-75; also Coil. Works 11, 736 751. 1221 l'rnncltl, I,.: Uber ein ticlies h~or'ortnclsjut.c~~~ clrr nun c~hiltloter~ 'l'~~rl)t~Ienz. Nnrl~r. rlltnrl. Wins. (:iit,tir~grn 6 - lo (11145); nlso Coll. \Vorlcri I , , 872--888. [231 I'rnnrlt,l, I..: I % k ~ n c r l c ~ ~ t i g Tl~coric zur c ~ ~ ilcr fr(:ic~~ ' I I ~ I ~ I I c - I I ~ . 22. 241 24:) (I!b42); 'I Z,\MM also Coll. Works 11, 86!3- 873. [24] l ~ c i ~ ! l ~ n r (~csctz~~~rissiglccite~~ i t * ~ ~ di, (lcr f r c 'I't~rlj~tlc~i~z. !rl)l-l~'~~rsr~l~~~~~gsl~~~f~. , t l ~ i ,1st *.<I.. 13crli11,1942; 2nd cd., 13crli11,1951. [25] l$ichardL, H.: Uber die GescliwindigkeibverLcilirt~g in ciner gcrndliuigcn turb~~lenten Louette-Striin~ung.ZAhlM-Sondcrhcft 36, 26-2!) (II)R6); src nlso Ilcp. No. !) of the hlnxl'lnnck-Inst. fiir SLromur~gsforscl~u~~g. Ciiltingcn (1!)54). [20] Reirhnrdt, H.: Cesetzrniissigkeit.cn dcr gcrndlinigcn tnrb~rlont,cn Coi~cttc-St.rijtt~urig. Max-Ylanck-inst. Fiir Str6mnngsforscliu11g and Acrodyn. Veraucl~snnstnlt, Giitt,ingen, Rep. No. 22 (1959). 126111 I I I P ~ I I O IW.C.: Con~pi~tntion t.~~rI)nlnnt. ~R. of flo!~.~. Ann. Ilcv. I'ltiid Mcch. (M. vnn Ilyko. - ~ i . 1 18:)-208 (1!)7(;). 8. [271 Ilottn, J.C.: o b e r eine Metliotlc zrtr I%crccl~nnng turhitlcnt~crS r l ~ r r s t r i i ~ n i ~ i ~ g n f r ~ l ~ l n r . %r\MM 50, 1 - - ' 204-T 205 11970). - ,[28] Rottn, J.C.: Recent e t t e t ~ ~ p t a develop a gencrnlly n1,plicnblo cnlcr~lationtnrtliod for to turhulcnt shear flow layers. A G A R 0 CP No. 93 (1972). [29] Rottn, ,J.C.: Turbulrntc Stron~ungrn.B.G. Tcr~hncr,Stnttgnrt,, 1972. [30] liotta, ,l.C.: T ~ ~ r b u l eshenr layer prcdiction on the bnais of the trnnspoi t cqnalionn for nt thc Reynoltls stresses. I'roc. 13th Int. Congr. Theor. L\pl>l.Moth. Moscow 1972. Springer Verlag, 1973, pp. 205-308. 1.711 Schmidt, W.: Der Mnusenanshusch in frcicr 1,nft und vcr\\n~~clte Erscl~einunncn. ~ 1 1 i b r x r ~ . . * - 1 1925. [Dla] Szcri, A t \ . , Yatea. C.C., and IIni, S.M.: Flow devclopn~cntin n pnrallcl plntr channel. J. 1,ubrication Tccl~nology,Trans. r\SMI!! Ser. 1' 88, 145- 156 (197G). [32] Taylor, G.I.: The transport of vorticity and hent tliroi~glr flrtids in trtrbi~lrnt n~otion. Appendix by A. F ~ g and V.M. Fai~lkner. e Proc. Roy. Soc. Ifindon A 135, 085-705 (1932); scc also Pl~il.Trans. A 21.5, 1-20 (1915). [32a] Vollmers, H., and Rotta, J.C.: Similar solutions of the lnenn ve1ocit.y. t ~ ~ r h n l eenrrgy nnd nt length scale equation. AIAA J . 15, 714-720 (1077); see 81.0: Ahnliche Ldaungen der 1)iffcrentiulglcichi~ngen fiir gemitteltc Geocl~rr~incligkeibn, Tnrbrrlenzcnergio ond 'I'ttrbulcnzliinge. IILR- F H 76-24 (1976). [33] von Wrizsiicker, C.F. : D m Spektruni der Tr~rbulcnz grossen R e y n o l t l ~ s r l ~ ~ n boi Bnhlen. Z. P h y ~ .124, 614-027 (1048).
1

[I] I3ntc:l1clor, (!.I<.: Energy decay atid self-prescrvit~g correlnt,ion fi~nct,ionsin isotopic burbt~lonoe. Q ~ ~ n r hppl. Math. 6, 07- llli (1948). t,. [2] Batchelor, (:.I<., and 'ro\r~nscritl, i \ . r \ . : The nature of turbulent motion s t large wave numbers. I'roc. Roy. Soc. I ~ > n d oA~I ) ) 238-255 (1949). r !!, [3] I%at.cl~elor. 1C. : 7'1ie thcory ofho~nogrnc:o~~s (:. tnrbnlrnce. (?nn~hrirlgc University Press, 1953. 14) netz, A.: 1)ic von IC6r111kn.rche Al~r~licl~keitsiiherlcg~~~~~ fiir turbnlenta Vorgiit~gci l l physikalinclier i\r~ffnnnsrlt~g. %r\MhI 11, 397 (19:)l). [R] I3erk\sit,h, 1. IC., ant1 ~lil~hllcll. M.: 1)f:t.nilotldcsrri)~t,iorl 1). and rcsillt.8 of a method for co~llp111.ingnlenn nnd IlurLnat~ingqr~n~~t.it.inn in t.~~rbulcnL I)oul~tlary Inyere. NASA 'I'N 1)-4815 (10fi8). [Gl l%ji1rg11111,: 011 . 1 1 ~st.cnc1y t11rb111t:11t. along nn i11611it,clyO I I ~ sn~oot,I> I I ~ I 11ln11c 0. t Ilt>\v I II wnll. IJnivorsiLrl, i. 1lergt.11,,\rl)olc. N a t ~ t r \ ~ i l c : ~ ~ s l z ~ irclckc i h'n. 7. (I!)RI). ~~i:l g (71 IF~~ssinesq, ICsnni snr In t.1160ric drs C R I I X c o ~ ~ r t ~ n tM6ni. p r k . Amd. Sri. X S I I I . 4(i, .I.: eu. 1 aris (1877). [8] Rol~%qincsq, Tlicorie tlc I'6coirlc1nent t,o~irbillotinnt t t ~ ~ n i i ~ l t r r e r ~ x ,I.: r de. liqilidcs dnns ICR lit* rcctiligncu A grnnde section (1.11yn11x c o n d ~ ~ i e e cnrlnarrx tldcot~vcrta),qnnnd cet ale tt i . c n ~ ~ l c ~ ~ ~ e ri.gr~lnrisd c r ~un r6ginic unifortne, c'cst-h-tlire, I I I O ~ ~ I I I I C I I ~ C Ipnrcil n s'cst ~ ~ t . I~, travers tout.cs lea ~rctionanor~nalcs lit. C o ~ n p k s dit lte1ic111sde I'Acndblnie des Sciences C X X l l , p. 1200-- 1295 (18!)fi). [n] Ilan~r.l,(:.: Strcifen~nethodeund ~lin\icl~keitsl~etracIit~r~~~~cii b ~ ~ l m t12e\vegung. 7.nr t r ~ r en Abhantll. preuw. Alcnd. Wins., Math. Nnt,nrwins. KIn.qse. Nr. 8 (1943). [9nl Ilrarlsl~nw,I'.: 'l'l~e~tnclerst.nt~cling n.nrJ prrtlirtion of t , ~ r r l ~ ~ ~ Ilo\r.. . Acrotin~~t.ic.al 76. lont .J. 40:)-418 (1!)72). [ghl J?rntlsl~nw, I'.: 1\11i~nl~rovrri Van 1)ricnt skin fricl.ion forniuln for cotnpresniblc tnrl)ulent bountlnry layers. A1AA .I. 15, 212--214 (1!)75). [If)] J3redshnw. I'., Igerriss, 1). 11.. and Atucll, N. l'.: Colc~~lntion boundary-layer development of i ~ s i r ~ g tnrbnlont cncrgy eqnntion. J17M 29, 503-616 (1!)67). the [I I ] Jlrntlslin\r~,I'.: 15lTccta of sLre;rtnlinc curvnturc on tnrhr~lcnt. flour. AGAltDogrnph No. IfiD (1973). [lln] Cebcci, T.. and Stnith, A. M.O.: A finite-difTerencc ~olut~ion t,lic incornpreasihlc t n r l ) ~ ~ l c r ~ t of bor~ndarylnyer cqunt.ions by UII eddy-vincosity concopt. 111: Kline, S. J., Morkovitr, M.V., Sovrnn, i:., ntid Cot:krcll, 1).,I. (etls.): Con~pntntion turbnlenL bot~nderyInyen. Val. I: of Mctl~otls,prcdiction, and llow nl.ri~cltlrc. 34(i-- 355 (1973). 112) Van I)rirst., 1':. It.: 0 1 1 t,nrbnl~nt (low nc;w a wall. J A S 2.1. 1007-- 1011 (1956). [I231 Ecltcl~nnnn,H . : 12xpcrinicntrllc U n t e r s ~ ~ c h i ~ n g e einer tr~rl)ulcnten in ~ i Knnnlstriin~ungn ~ i t st.arkcn viskosen Wnntlacl~icl~tan. Mitt.. Max-Plenck-lnst.. Striinlungsforscli. 11. Aerodyn. Ver.ruchsnnst,nlt No. 48 ( 1070). [12b] Eckcln~snn, il., U'nllnce, J.M., nnd Vrorlkny, R.: The wall region in t u r b ~ ~ l cshear flow. nt J FM 5 4 , 39 ---48 (1!)72). [12c] Jbcltcl~nn~in, l'hc st.r~cnt,nre v i ~ c o ~ ~ n H.: of s~rl~layer the adjnccrit wnll region in n t.url)nand lcrtt cl~nnnclflow. JI'M 65, 4:V--4R!1 (1!)74). [13) (:lr~slrko, ( . . l'nrbnlcnt I~oundarylnycr on a llat plate in an i~~cornpreositilc :S: fluid. Izv. Ak. Nn.l~k.SSSIt, Scr. Melch. No. 4, 13 --2:) (1!)65). 1':ngI. 1,rnnsl. in NASA ' I T I T 10, 080. [l:!n] f:nlhrniLI~. It.A.M., nnrl Hc!ntl, h1.lt.: I4;tldy visco8it.y nnd n ~ i x i ~ iIengt,h from ~nensurcd g booncIn.ry lnyer dcvelopn~c~~t.q. Aero. Quart. 26, 133- I54 (1!)75). [14] (:lunl~ko, (:. S.: JIifkrcnt.inl cqr~ation t.~~rbr~lcncescriIo pretlict,ion of turbnlent. I)ot~ntlfor and ary lnycr on n flat plnta. 111: ' I ' i ~ r l ~ ~ ~ l o i t , r ~ y c taclicniyn (M. I). Millionscl~cl~ikov, cd.). Moscow, Nnukn, 1!)70 ]in l t ~ ~ w i n n ] . (151 G'l~lshko,(:.S.: Trnnsition in t.hc t . ~ ~ r h ~ ~ l r n trcgi~nc n bonr~dnrylnyer on n (InL plat0 flow , in for tlihrer~t, t,nrhalcnc:c scnles of free atronn~.Izv. Ak. Nar~k.SSSJt, Mekh. Zhidkosti i gnzn, No. 3, fi8 70 (1!)72). [Icl J t * v l t ~V . M . : ' l ' ~ i r l j ~ ~ lrnot.ion of Ilia11 tmlpcrnt:ire c o n t i ~ ~ r ~ medin. Moscow, Neukn, , rnt ous 1!)75 [in Iti~nnian 1. von I<hrrnbn. 7'11.: h1crhn.nisnhc ~hnlicl~lteit, Turbt~lenr. land Nachr. Gra. Wins. (:iit,t.ingen, . Mnt.h. l'l~ys. l<lnqse, 58 (1930) end Proc. 3rd. Intern. Congress Appl. Mcch., Stockholm, I'nrt. I, $5 (1!130,: NACt\ 'I'M 61 1 (11131); also Coll. Works 11, 337-346. 1 l R J volt 1Chrn1lr11, 'l'h.: I'rogra-s in I,hr sl,zl.isl.icnl t,l~eoryof t~~rhulencc. I'ri,c. Nnt.. /\cad. Sci. \ V : ~ s l ~ i ~ ~ g t , n5:lO- &:%!I (1!)48); also (~oll.Works 11'. :Vi:! - 371. ,?4, ~ ~ ,

a. ICxpcrirr~rntnl rmt111n for un~ootlt pipt~n

597

CIIAPTER X X

tl~r relation bring r q ~ l a l l yvatic1 for lnrninnr nntl Irlrl)~llrnt ~not~ion. tl~c-~)rc-sc.nt. In analysis t tlrnotrs t,l~csum of 1:iminnr nntl tttrl)~~lt-nt sIl(.aring strrss. '1'1111st , I ~ ( s sl1r:lring stress clistril)~lt~ion ovcr n cross-srction iq linc*ar, and its I:trgc.st vnlue, r,, orcurs a t tlic wall, wllcrc
to=

P, ;Pa I,

'

(20.2)

Turbulent flow through pipee

n. Experirnentnl results for smootli pipes

I t is sc:rn t l ~ a t . the sl~ceringst,rcss : ~ t,hc wall, T,,, c:Ln I)(? tlct.c?rnlirlctltlirc.c:t.ly 11y t nlc.:tsnring l,l~c: 1tre:sslrrn gr:ulit?nt along t.11~ ~tipc.

'I'llc c:~scof t,nrbnlorit flow t.hro1lg11 1)ipcs wns invcstigat~(1very tl~ororlghly in t.llc-~ ) n , sI)rcsn~lsc i1.s g~.rat. I of 1)rnct.ic;~I i~nport.ancc 31, 48, 40, 69, 01, 02, 71, 721t. 124, Mnrrovrr, t,llr r(:s111(,s arrivcci at, arc i ~ n l ~ o r l . a n t only for pipc Ilow; t.hcy also not (:ot1(.riI)tll,(:1.0 l,lt(: C S I . C I I S ~ ~ I I of our f u n t I : ~ n i ~ ~ I ~ ~~ lo w l r t lof c tSltrbr~lont ~t: ~ g Ilow in gc~nc.r:rl. RIt:l.ltoels o f tIv:ilillg \vil.l~ ol,llt*r t~tirl~111cnt. o ~ s ,SII(:II :LR Llic IIOW along Il :I. 11:~f, l)l:~f,t: or :L st,ro:ilnliltr 1 1 0 t I j r , corlltl IIC clcvisrtl only on the I)asis of t . 1 1 ~ tlct,:~ilctl c~slv~ritnt~nl.nI 1.c.sn1t.s ol)l.:~itlctl wil.lt pipe Ilow. \\'III*II I l t t i ( 1 is :11Io\vr(l 1.0 cnt(:r : (;irt:l~l:~r :i L pipr frorn a large: ronI,:~inrr,tltc vc~loc~i(,y tlis(,ril,r~( in t.llc' rross-scct.ions of t.lio i ? ~ l rlta n ~ ~ vnrios with the tlisCnncc io11 th fro111 t l ~ c : itliti:il crt>ss-s~~:I.ion. sectrions (:IOSC to tallat a t cntrancc the velocity 111 tlisl.ril)~lt.ionis ncarlg tt~iiforrn. Il'11rl~1~cr t1ownstrt:am tlhc vclocity tlistribr~t,ion cltnttgrs, owing 1.0 t,Itt: ir~ll~tr~tcc:frict,ior~, of rrnI.il :I f~llly tlcvc1o~)c:tlvelocity prolilt: is :~l,l.:~i~ic:tl :L givt:n (:loss-sCc:l.ion: L I I ( ~ rctnains co~tst,ant~ :rt, downstream of it,. Tllc vn.ri:ll~ionof t11t: vr1orit.y profile in 1,11(: inlet Icngt<h of a pipe in lam.i?inr flow was tlc~sc.~,ilrc:tl Scc:. XI11 (l'ig. 11.8). 11,s Icrlgt,l~ is approximat~cly 1, = 0.03 rl . R in so I Il:tI, for R := 5,000 l,o 10,000 it, rnngcs front 160 t,o 300 pipe-dintnel,ers. 'rllc inletf IrrlgI,l~i r l I?o./~~i/rt~l is consitlrmltiy sllort.cr t,h:rn in l a n ~ i n a rflow. Accorcling flow 1.0 l.l~t: I I I C : I . S I ~ ~ ~ I I I ~ - I p~(.~ t . f o r n ~by( lI[. I<irst,f:~t[33] itrs Icngtll is n b o t ~ t50 t,o 100 I S ~ dia.rnc~tcl,s, ljr~t.J . Nilinmdsc (461 tlet,crrninctl t,llnt t,he fully formed velocity profile . rxisls n1rc:itly nftrr a n itllrt. Irngt,ll of 25 to 40 tlintnct.ers: the rcadcr may also consult. ref. 1751. In wlt:~l, Sollows wc sh:~,ll conccrn o t ~ r s c l ~ cmainly with fully rlcvclopcd s I . ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l r n tt 11ro11gl1st.migl~l, of circ~rlar Ilo\\r . a pipe cross-~cct~ion. radial coor(lirtatc The nlt.n.sr~rc~el orrt~w:rrtlsfroln t.hc nsis will I)c tlenotetl by y' and we sl~nllconsider a l l t ~ i ( l(,yli~~tltsr lt~ngt,It :III(I r:ltli~~s i l l /?r/Iy ~ l r ~ ~ r l o p r ( ~ t t ~ l ~ ~ ~ l 'l%ct cylinclcr 01' 1, ?I' l~1 flow. c n is 1101, :~(st,(.tl t111ot1l)y :111yi~t(>rli:l, forces, so l,l~:it, in :it:(-or(l:~nc(>i t , l ~c(]n. (1.9) ~vc: \v (,:It1 \\.~.ilc- tlo\v~t I.II(. c~olc(liliol~ c-cll~ilil)rirtttrI)c-t,wc~,n of l.I~rf'orc,n tlrtc 1.0 sl~c*:rritig SII.I*SS T O I I OI(-t ~ i t . ( - l ~ ~ t ~ l i ~ t . t *:III(I ~ ~ . I ) ~ I % S S I I I . ~ \ l l ( . 1.111~ tlilTt~~.ctlt~t: - 11~:1 1 till(: (:t1(1 fnccs pI 0 i l l I I I ~ , I'OI,III

'I'llc rc~lnt.ionship bt:Lwrrn tell(:prcssurc grntlictlt, nntl t.llo raCc of flow Q :-- x 112 7 7 conltl IJC tlol.crrninctl trhcorotsic:~lly t . 1 1 ~cnsc of laminar flow anti t.11~ for rrsllltr ilgr(\c(l wiI.11 c:xprrime:nt. 111 t,l~c case of t ~ ~ r l ) ~ t l flowt .SII(:II 11 r c l ~ I , i o n s l ~rntt 01115' 1 ) ~ r~i il~ obl.:iinrtl clnpiric:1llyt, I)t:cat~sc att,c?lnl]t.s to pcrfortn :L 1t11rclytllcorctic:il :III:I.I.~s~H of t . t ~ r l ) ~ ~ l o n t ~rvt,n for one ~ ) a r I , i c ~ tC::IS(>, IIIL\~O so Iju. I)IY:II cnI~i~.t-lyI I S ~ ~ ( * ( - I ~ S S ~ I ~ ~ . fIo\v, l:~r II 'I'ltis ~.t:I:tlion is nsti:~Il~r given by so-(:t~ll(~tl I(IIV.V / ~ I ' c / ~ < ) I or /<IIII.V 01 ) . , * . ~ i . ~ / ~ r t ~ ~ r 01 I A\,:~il:il)lt! I ) : I I ) ~ (.ottl.nill :i 1:i1.~1* *~s 11111111)t*1. of' (~nll)it.it~:~I t~t~~t:il.iot~s1.111- I:i\\, 0 1 ' Ii~r fl.irt.iotl i t 1 1tipc.x. I~clrl.llrrn~orc, olclvr c:cl~~:~l,ions ofton givcsll in :i fi~rtn\r,ltic:l~ l.l~c wcrc: tlrlx!n(lrtl on t . 1 1 ~rrspcct.ivc syst,crn of' ntlit.s ant1 t l i t l not, sa1,isf.y lItc:y~iol~ls's Ina. of sin~ilif~tltlt?. orrlrr t,o ~ n : ~ k~ t s cof tlirnc~1rsio111~:ss 111 c vn.ri:tl)lt.n it, is now c : o r l l r i l o l l 1.0 nsr t.11~: tlitnrt~sionlossrorl'liric*ntofrt:sisl,nrlrc, A, nntl 1.0 t l c x l i ~ r c ! it, ( s c :LIRO ~ ( 1 1 1 .( 5 . lo)) as ~

1v11rrc rl = 2 1l clcllotts t.11~ tlinmctcr of bl~ecross-sct~liotr.('onlparing rclm (20.2) \vilh (20.3) wc can tlotlncc tile relnt,iori

\vl~icliwill 1)c reqrrircd Inter. I n 191 1 11. Ulnsius [5]~ n a t l ca c:ril.irnl srlrvry of t,hc tllrr~esist,ing and nlrcntljr rltlmcrolls cxprrimcnt1:il rcsttlt,s nntl arrallgc:(I l,l~cvnin tlinirnsionlnss f o r ~ n :~c:c:ot~clnncc in wit.l~Ilc~y~~oltls's ofsinlil:~rit.y.111: \\.:IS :rl)l(: 1.0 I:LW cs0:il)lislr t.lic following cnlpirical cqt~:~.t,ion :

'1'11~ li~lloning tlt~srriplio~~I;irgc.Iy 1,:isc~lon I.lle cx~)rrit~lrt~t.al is rcnults reportsod by J. Nikur;1(13t~ 145. 4lil.
!):IT

~rrl~irh vnlicl for t,llc frict.ion:il rcsisI.n~it*o sr~roolhf ~ i l ~ rofs rirc.t~l:~r . . is of , tvross-sct.(ion I is l os I stis is i / : / ~ I I , / I. / I - R tl(-~~olc.s % I t t * y l ~ ~ ~ l ~ l s Ill( n t ~ ~ ~ i l ) ( : r t ~ ~ ~ l :\~ itt,, (~~ ,lI I c tnt:an Ilo\v ve:lo(*it.y :III(I ( l i : i ~ ~ ~ rof (f3It(: l)i11v. A(.t,orr:il v I~ I? t.l~r l, ,r (ling O t,ltis rrs~tlt, n t.11~l i n ~ t ~ ~ ~ s i oc,oc:ffiricsni, of rc~sisl.:ttlt~c: :i. ~ ) i l ) ( : is :r I ' I I I I ( . ( . ~ ~ I I t nl~ss in of I.II(: Ibc:j.t~ol~ls rlt~n~l,c*r ortly. I t , is li)tlt~(l l.I~:il, l.11(: I5I:1sills l i ) r l l ~ t ~ l : ~ is \x:llifl i t 1 I I t t . mngc of Jtcynoltls n ~ ~ m l ) c Rs= 6, rl/l, r 100,000. C o ~ ~ s a c ~ ~ ~ c n t , prrsslrrc? tlrol) y, t,I~t:l in t,r~rbr~lcnt in t,l~nt, flow mngc is scc.11 L I)c ])rol)ort.iot~nl 1Z71" At. I,llc I inlc \ V I I ( ~ I I o to 13lasins cstnltlisl~cdrclrl. (20.5), tncnst~rcmcnl.sfor 11iglle:r Itcy~ioltlsI I ( I I ~ O ( , ~ \v(>r(: X

: I " ~ . ~ I I I.l~is o~l!v:ir(In \v(* sl~:ill ~ i ~ 1.11(: I 11oi11l. o il,

c.onhrsion
\\

i l l 1 l i r t ~ c ~ - ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~c t t~ : t~ ~ t~ i lLc (:: ~id l 110 l t n . i l~ ,

:tl~o\w s y ~ n l )to I LIIC ~ denote titno-averages bcrn~rnc lotlgcr possible (as wc nlrcatly did on p. 586).

'l'llc mrsn vc1orit.y of flow tl~ronglia pipc, 6, \\,ill 1)c tlclinctl o iL n tllc maximum vclocit,y in tho cross-section.

- Q/nJlz, ant1

IJ U-ill denote

698

X X . 'I'11r1111lrnt flow f,lrro~~gl~ pipen

a. Expc~.in~rnlnl rrsr~llnfor sl~iootl~ piprn

5!)9

n o t av:~il:~ble. Fig. 20.1 t,11c 13lnsi11sf o r n ~ n l a , In cqn. (20.5), is s c r n cornp:~rctl sviL11 c:xpcrirnc:~~t.nl rc-s~~II.s;l mprotluc:cs tllcrii vcry ncc:r~r:rtclg for 1tc:yrlolcls ~ r ~ ~ ~ > i l ~ r i "1) t o R -: IOO,OO0. Ilowevcr, ~)oirll,s ol)l,:~irlccl: ~ R .: 100,000 t1nvi;rt.c ronsitlrr:tl~ly t upwarcls, a s seen from l!'ig. 20.1 in rt?lation t,o cxpcrinlcnt.al values r r l ~ o r t c t l IIJJ .I. Nilrul;~.tlsc: (:18].

.I. Nik~~r:ttlso c::lrrit:cl o u t a vcry t . l ~ o r o ~ o.ul)e~~irncl~t.:~I ~gl~ invcst.ignl,io~~ t . 1 1 ~ int,o law ol' liict,ion ant1 vcloc!it.y prolilos in srnoot,ll 1)iprs in : vcry witlo ~ : L I I ~01. I ~ ~ ~ Y I I O I I I S L O n l ~ m l ) c r s x IO:'( R (3.2 x 10" V~c:locit~y 4 l)rolil(:s For sc:vcrr~l Itcyr~oltlsIIIIIII~I(.I.S ;~r(: scan pIot.t,txl in 1Gg. 20.2. 1'11c;y :&re given in c J i ~ n ~ : t ~ s i o ~ ifor111 in t,l1:11* 1 1 , / / 1 lrss h a s t)ccri plot.t.ctl against ?//It. I t will b c ~ ~ o t ~ i at.h:\.t 1.11~ ccl vc.1oc:it.y profile 1)rc:onirs f r ~ l l ca s t,l~c: r licynol(ls n u n ~ b o r i11c:rcnscs. It, is possi1)lc t,o rc:prcscl~t,it. 11y 1.11c: c%~nl)iric.:~l cq~~stior~

Fig. 20.1.
I lurbulrnl
I V
I

Vrictional rc:sistsancc in
I

ntl~ootl~ pipe

Ilnw:

( 5 . 1 ) o r 1 n 1 - 1 i 1 i 1 1 c Cor l n t ~ ~ i l t r r flow; cllrvr (2) rrwn cqn. (20.5). a f k r DIz?i.il~s (51 Tor cnrvr! (3) r r n ~ n cqn. (20.:10).afl.rr I'ra~ttlll(521 Tor 111rbulrnt flow

where t.11~x p o r ~ c nn.varies slightly wit.11 t.hc Itcynolcls number. 'J'l~cplot,s in ICig. 20.:1 o t sllow t h a t t h c assumption of a simplc: l / n - t h - p o w e r law agrees wcll with cxpc:ri~ncnt, .zs t l ~ e gmplls OF ( u / ( J ) " againsl y / R , fall o n s t r a i g l ~ tlir~cs,wlicn n sr~i(,:~.l~lt: c:lroict: f o r n h a s l ~ c r madc. T h c valuc of t.hc c x p o n c n t 7s is n = 6 at. tllc lowost, ltcyr~oltls r~ n u m b e r R = 4 x 10R; i t increases t o n = 7 a t R = 100 x 10%nnd 1.0 71. = 10 at, the liigllcst h y r l o l t l s n u m l x r , R -- 3240 X ICYR, nt,tn.inotl in t,his invcstig:~t.iorr. W e shall not.(: 1lc:ro for f ~ ~ r t l rn:frrrncc t,l~c: cr (:x~)rrssionfor t.llc r111ioof t.11(: I I I ( ~ : ~ I I

to t . 1 1 ~ ~ n a x i m u mvclooity, i Z / I I , w11ic:ll c::ln 1)c easily clcrivcd from eclti. (20.6). I 1 is

f o u n d Ifhat

I'ig. 20.2. Vnlocif,y diuI.ril~t~t.ior~l l utnoolli i p i p for varying R e y nolds number, after Nikr~rsdao1451

Fig. 20.3. Velocity distribution in arn0ot.h pipes. Vcrificat.ion of tho ruurumption in eqn. (20.6)

600

X X. 'I'~trl)cllrt~l, t.llroc~gI~ flow pipr~

Itnt.in of
IIIC:LII

b. Il.clnt.iot~ bc:Lwrr~~ of friction nntl vc.locit.y Inw

tli~(.l.il)c~(.iot~

60 I

'I'nblr 20.1.

to n ~ a x i n ~ lvelocity in pipe flow in trrrn~ the exponent n of ~~n of t.110 vrlocit.y tlisl.rib~~t.ion, according to eqn. (20.6)

v , / v = 9, which were nlrt:aely r~sctlin cqns. (19.91) :e11(1 (1!).:<2),\vc cat1 I,ri~~t~sli)rtn rcln. (20.10) t.o 4 = 8.74 1"7. (20.11)t
r

b. I t r l n t i n ~Lctwrrt~Inw of frictiol~nncl vrlocity ilistrib~ttinn ~

'1'11~ cv111:~tio11 t,l~c!\.c.loc:it,y tlist,rilte~l,io~~ is rclst,ed. t,o 13lasir1s's law of li)r (20.6) f'ric.t.ion in ccln. (20.5) r i r ~ t l t,l~is rclnt.ion, first eliscovrrc:tl 1)y I,. l'mntlt,l 151 1, is of I'~~ntl:amc~~t.nl ilnltorl.n.nc:c in t.11~ t,t~eory t,~lrbulent of flow; i t allows 11s tlo draw con(-Insions fro111p i l ~ rcxporimrnt.s wl~ichart: valid for t h e flat plate [321; use of t>l~em will I)r marlt: in Cl~np. XXT.
0 1 1 s l ~ h s t i t ~ i ~ t,hc v:~111t: 1 from (~111. ing of (20.5) int,o eqn. (20.4) we ol)t,ain the follo\vitig t > p r c ~ s s i o ~ ~ t.11~ for sl~enring t r ~ s s the wall: s nt

l l ~ r r swc have once more tlctl~~cotl cclm (10.:<5) w l ~ i r lwas first, ol)t,ninctl k o n ~c : o ~ ~ ~ sitlamt,ions of si~nilarit~y, cxcept l , t ~ a tt. 1 1 ~nl~n~oric.:~l v:tir~rs 1.11~ of consl,;~nt.s atlrl T I , C! w l ~ i c lt.l~cnren~:~inccl ~ untlr.rt,c~rmir~c.tl, I I O W Itt~ownI'rom l,l~c: 1:l.w of ~ t i l ) ~hic.l.ioi~. ;~r(: : Rqrlation (20.1 1) l ~ n s been compnrctl wit11 .J. Niltrtrntlsr's rxpc~riinc:nl.sin I'ig. 20.4. c-rlrvc (4). I t is seen tlint t.l~c:+-t,li-powrrI:I.\v :~grc,cswrll \vit,h rsl,c-ri~nc~nt.) to :I III llc~~~~oltls IIIIIIII)(T of : L ~ I O I I ~R - 100,000. NO 11(-1.l.csr ~ . g r ~ * r n ~(.:I.II t , Ot. (:sI)(-(.(,(:(l : rn 11cc::iusc: 13l:~si11s's oclu:ation (20.5) I'i.ot11 wl1ic.11 it w:w tl(~rivc~tl v:tlitl only l o III:II is limit., Fig. 20. I.
111 order t o obt.ain brt,t,er agrconcnt, it \vor~ltl be ncccss:~.ryt.o int,rotlltcr a s n ~ n l l ~ ~ . c>x])onentinten R I a s i ~ ~ scs ] ~ ~ : ~ t . say ,A or { it~sf.('n(l i. I1c-r(i)r~ning~ ~ I ~ I . ( - S I I O I I ( ~ ~ I I ~ '( ion of ( c-:~.l(~~~l;~.l.io~is i l , is f'nl~ntll,l1:~1 CSJ)OII~.III, 4 i l l 1 . 1 1 ~v ( ~ l o ( ~ i I . ~ y - ~ l i s l . I . i l I:I\v \\.OIII(I t,l~(: t~~(.io~~ II:LV~* t,o r c p l : ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~ l , e~tc., t : s ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~~ t I, :igr(v*~n(-~~I. I I I ~ : I , SI I v:e111(>s. 1t-y , r i v ~ ~ l ~ ~ , \vit,l~ I I~,Y '1'11s rclnt.ion 4 (I x rlll"'t~as bccm plot,Lctl as cltrvc (5) in I'ig. 20.4, :~ntlit, is seen t,hnt it docs. i l l f:lct, reproduce 1.11~ cxpcrimrnl:~l v:tlr~c-snt ItigIl(br l<rynol(Is 1111n1l)rrs witpi>a gootl mcasltrc of n g r c c t n c ~ ~1111t t , l ~ : ~ t fit, is ir~l;.rior:I(. Io\vc\r t, (,he Itynoltls n ~ ~ n ~ b c r s .

It~t,rotl~~c.ir~g i ~ c l i ~11' sinstton(l of t,I~e;~1ia111et.cr it is I I C C C S S : L ~ ~tt.o clividc t,hc t.l~(, r ~ d r~~irncric.:~l l;~c.t,orin t.l~c.:~l)ovc r l ~ ~ a t i oI)y 2'14 -- 1.19. ?'lir~s we obtain. c n

(1)

d
In

, In1r1111nr:
l~~llill:lr

( 2 ) t r ~ ~ l s i c i ofrOtt1 u~

: ~ t ~if l \vc clinri~~:~tc: I I I ~ ~ I vr1ocit.y 77, wit,l~t.he aid of t.11~ n a x i ~ n ~vclority IJ t I.II(II ~ rm Iry ~ n i t . t . i ~ ~ g = = 0.8 \vl~ic:li. :ts sc,rll f r o n ~ ii/lJ 'I':~ltle 20.1, corrcspor~tls:~pproxilnatcly 10 ; I I I c ~ x l ) o ~ ~ 11 t: :, i. c. t.o :t Itc:y~~oltls v ~ l 7, 1111m0crR = 10" ~ v c 11ave

111rbttlr~et:

nllrr Ilrivl~nrrll [551

(3) wtn. ( 2 O . l 4 ) , turbuI,!nt,,

nll Rcysolds n l l l n h c r ~ ;
( 4 ) win. (20.1 I ) , 111rbt111,1il.,

, 10';

( 5 ) 4 = 11 5 v l l l g

lcqq-bg--"-

Y v,

Fig. 20.4. Tho ~ ~ ~ ~ i v evelocit,y-diat.ribe~t,io~~ for ~ n ~ o o pi1)t.s rri:~l lnxv t,l~

'I'II(-

l)rt~(;edit~g~ ~ I I I I I C I sl~o\vst,l~;it, t,I~c+ - L ? I , - ~ ) ~ ) I P ~ T ?)eloriL!/-(/i.~/~i~)?~.Lin?& :I I~, Lfl,111 can l)r t1~:t~ivc:cili.o~n I3l:tsil1s's rcsisf.ance forlnr~ln. It 11ns already been shown bcfort: ~ , I I : I ~ . ' s I I ~ ~ Inn. :~grcc-s a. I \vit,l~ rspc~ri~iic~nt n ccrt.niri r:ttign of R ~ c ~ I I o It~ I s~ r n b c r s , over ~~ n.ntl it is scc.11 ~.II:I.~, t,ltcrc c,xisLs :L rclnt.io~~ c t ~ w c o ~ i I~ Ill:tsius's law of friol.ion anel I,hc 71-(,It-power\~cloc~ity-tlist.ril)r~t,io~~ law. Introtll~cingthe al,breviations li,/v* = 4 ant1

t Upon
x

(?It l * / v ) l / n

generalizing for otl~or exponents. \\ r ohtnin, with K. W~rglrnrrlt [82:1]. I I / V * and t h r following nr~nlrricnlvnlnos:

--

C(n) x

602

XX. 'r~rrbirlcntflow thro~tghpipes

r. IJtiivcrsaI vc1nt:iLy-di~trib~~tioti for very large R.ryttnlds rii~t~~l~cru fi09 laws with A , = 11%nntl Dl = - (11%). In ns free constants. W c s h x l l a ~ ) ~ ) l y eqlrnt.ion this without ch:tnge t o pipe flow. Comparing it wiIfh t.11~ rnt:nsirrcmctit.s pcrforniccl I)y ,J. Niknrntlsc!, a s showri by curve (3) in Irig. 20.4, it is scc:n tlinl, cxc:c:llotit ngrernlor~t is obtnincd not only for poirlt,s near t,lic wall but for tllc wliolc r:liigo 111) 1.0 t,he axis of ttlie pipc. The nilrricrical values of the c o n ~ t ~ n n:arc fortritl t o I)(: ts

For fi~t~llre rcfcrcnco we now propose to write down a n cxprcssiori for the friction velocit,~11, from eclii. (20.10). We obtain
v , = 0.150 u

'

A,
'I'liis gives I.llo follo\viny: V:LIII(:S This cnn also be written in tlimr,nsionless form a s

2.5;

I),

= 5.5

of x ntitl f I :

where c; denotes the local skin-friction coefficient. This relation, which is equivalerit t o the one in eqn. (20.5), is known a s 13~~.silis's of skill fcicthn in pipc flow. This Inw relation \r-ill be used later. c. Universal velocity-distribution lawe for very large Reynolds nutnbera
r 1110 fact t h a t the exponent in t.hc law of pipc resistance a s well a s in t h e cxpression for velocity dist.ril)ut.ion clccrcascs with increasing Iteyr~oldsnurnbcrs si~ggcstR t h a t bot,li must tend asymptot.ically t o some expromions which are valid for very high Ibynolcls riirrnbcrs ant1 wliit:h milst ront.ain the logarit.lim of tlic intlcpcndcnt vnrinl)lc, a s i t is the limit of n polynomial for very small values of the exponent. A tlct,ailcrl cxaniination of expcrirncnt,nl resillts for vcry large Reynolcls numbers shows tlint such lt~gnrit~lirnie 1:tws (lo, in fact, exist. I'liysically such asymptotic laws nre chamctcrizcd by t,he fact t.li:rt I:~minar friction becomes completely ncgligihlc c o r n p ~ r e dwith turbnlerit friction. 't'lie great advantage of such logarithmic laws, a s comparrd with the Iln-th-power laws, consists in their being a ~ y m p t o t ~ i c exl)rcssions for very large h y i i o l d s numbers; they may, therefore, be extrapolated t o arbitrarily large values beyond the range coveretl by experiment. On t h e other hand, when t h e I/u-th-power laws arc used the v a l i ~ eof t h e exponent n cllanges, a s the range of Reynolds numbers is ext,cntled. Sucll a n asyn~ptot,ic log.zrit,limic law lins already been givrri in ecln. (19.33) for the rase of flow along a flat plat,c. I t was dcdncecl frorn Prandtl's ecluntion (19.7) for t.ilrl)~rlcnt shearing strcss nntlcr t.lic assi~n~pt,ion the mixing length is proportiorlal taliat t,o 1 . h ~ tlist.:arlc:c frorn t.hc wnll, 1 = x ! / , ~ t l dwas valid for small w:tll (li~taiiccs ?/. l his rquat,ion II:IS 1-l~c: form: (20.13) t 4 == A, In 3 4-Dl
7

llt*tit~: I,lt(- i~tiiv(-rsnIv ~ ~ l o ~ : i l . , v - t l i s l . r i l i tl:tw i tfor ~vcry l:trKt. lLt*y~~t)I,ls~ t ~ t r i l ~ t ~ r ~l~ ~~ ~ has the Ibrmt 4 = 2.5 1113 -k5-5 (slllool.ll) 4 -- 5-75log Y) 1- 6.5 .

I5.y a rcnsonitrg siiriilnr 1.0 I.llc otir givt:n in l.Irc> ~wc:rc:cling wct,ion it, is 1,ossiblt: t,o arrive a t a corrcspontling llnivcrsal nsyrnl)t.ol.ic rcsisl.:rnc.c: forrnitl:~front l,l~c:tl,ovo 1ririvcrsn1 velocit.y-clist~ribiil~i~~ii crllint.ion. 1Scl11nt.ion(20.14), hcir~gone for I.~trl)lrlont Ilow, is v:alitl only ill rcgiolis wlicrc 1.Irt. I:rrninn.r slit:arirrg strcss c:tn I)c ir(~,nl(:c.I.c:tlin c.oinl):lrisori wit.lt l.lic I.rrrl)itlc~tit sbrcss. 111 l.lic irnt~ictlint,~ n i g l ~ I ~ o t ~ r lofo I,llo w:all, wlic:rc: Iflie I,~~rl)trlc:t~l. ~i ~ otl slic:~rilig sl,rc:ss tlc~c:rcnscs1.0 zcro :~ritl I:arr~irt:ar sl.rc,ssc:s prctloinin:atc, tlt:vi:ttiolts from t.llis law most, be expect.ed. 11. Rcicliartlt. [54, 551 rxtcntletl l.l~is Itind of ~nrnsnrcri~c~nt to inclirtlo very small tlist.nnccs from t,llo w:~ll in n Ilow in n cliniincl. Curve (2) iri Fig 20.4 rcprcscnt.s the l.rxnsit.ion ft.0111 t.hc Irrlninar sub-layer ( c / . Scc. X V l l l c ) 1.0 l,lte I.ttrl,rrlotit. I,onntl:~ryInycr. 'l'hc c:~~rvc! tlotto1.c~cl11.y ( I ) in 1 . 1 1 ~:~l)ovt: cli:rgrnin c:orrosporitls t o Inmiiiar llow for wlrit:ll T ~ ,---- 11 11/!/. \\'it,lr T,, = p v * 2 wc. ol)l.:~ii~

..

Irronr (.his it can l)c sccri t.1i:~t \~:rlrlrsy 11,111 < 5 (.lie cont.ribut,ion fro111 t ~ t r h t ~ I t : ~ ~ t , for fric.l,ioit may be complct,cly ncgl~:c:tctl c.or~tp:arntl with 1:rniinar frict,ion. 111 Lhc: r:Ln,ne 5 < ?/17*/11 < 70 botfh cor~f.ril)~~t.ions of t.11~ :ire: snrnc ortlcr of magnittrtlc, wllc-rc~:as for y v*/v > 70 l , l ~ c1nmiri:rr (!on1riI)~tt,io~i t~cgligil~lc: is rotnp:~rc.cI \viI,lr I ~trl)r~It~ril, frit!l,ioii. 'I'lt~rs:

.~

t 11. Ikic:hnr~ll.[fir,] intlirntcd

a refined cxpremiort for thp vclocity distribution. I t covcrs the wliolc ratigc of distances, frotii the wall of the pipe a t ye= 0 to the centre-line a t y = R, i. c., it is also true for thc la~ninnr sub-layer, to ahicll eqti. (20.13) does not apply. I t is also valid in the nciglibortrl~ood bile cc~itrc-line, of wlterc ~ricasurcd velocity-distxibution curves sliow systc~natic: clrvintions fron~ cqn. (20.13). In particrtlur, the transition region shown ua curve (2) in Fig. 20.4 iu wcll rrproduccd by tlrc forrnltln. Thin ~~nivcrsnl velocity-distribrltionfnw wan dcducccl with thc aitl of bl~rorcticnl rubitr~ntinns vrry r:rrrf111riicnsttrc*~ncnlrt t l ~ c aricl of tz~lrb~llr~it mixing coefficient '4 rlrlinrcl 11y cqtt (I!).I). (hmparc also a pnpcr by \V. Sznbicwski (741.

604 Ilenc*c t.l~e t.l~ic*kness of

XX. Tl~rl)r~lcnt t,hroagll pipcs now

t . I ~ t ? laminar

sl~l)-I:~jtrr scvn t.o be cclrral t,o is

We now propose t,o compare the cxl)crimcnt.n.l resnlt,s on vrlocity-rlistril)utior~ mcasr~rrrrlcnts in pipe flow with t.he altcrnntivc ~ ~ n i v e r s n l equation, which was clcdl~rc-tlin Clr:~p. X I X in t.hc form ( I / --u)/v* . / ( l / / R ) . It will be rccalletl t h a t i t followcd hot11 from von I<:i.rm:in's similarily t.l~cory aritl from Pmntltl's nssumpt,ion aI)ol~t, sl1c:iring st.ress, t.ogct,hcr wil.ll t.ho rcl:~tion1 t.hc x for t,he mixing Iongtll. In tlrc first (:%sowe ol)Lninctl cqn. (1!).21) nntl i l l t,Ilc sc~contlcase cqrr. (19.28) w:is ol)t,n.inctl.
-7

of ecp. (20.14n) is applicnl~le. n tlic ,tmnsittion (mixctl Intninnr-t~trbr1lt:11t~) I zonc, t.llc: velocit,y clistribution is represented by Itciclrnrdt'rc Inw, curve (2) in Fix. 20.4. 'rllcsc: tlirce laws t.nlrcn t,ogctlicr nrc now rcfcrrctl t,o ns t l l ~ "hlw of 1,111. wr~ll"; ~ 1 ~ I)rit.st,'s c 1 1 integral represents another form of this law of the wall. Itnport,ant consitlerat,ions on this topic can be found in a summary arl,iclc by F.11. Clausc:r [5n]; see also t,llc p:lpers by 1 j . n . Spalding [G8a] ant1 G . 1ilcinst.ein [33a]. Furt.hcr discussions arc givc:n in refs. [Ba] of Chap. X X I and [46, 471 of Chap. X X I I I . Since tlic simpler assrlmpt.ion o n t.hc lnising lcngt,l~, . x y, tlocs I I O ~ .S(,OIII 1 t.o be sr~it,ablc:for the wl~olcpipc tli:unctcr, it :l,ppc:Lrs ~)rcli:r:~t~le tl(:tl~tc.nI,I;C t,o dcl)cnclencc of mixing Icngth on tlist,nrlcc tlirect,ly fro111 cxl)critncnt, nntl t.l~oi 1.0 apply Prantltl's hypothesis

'I'lle uni\.c~t.s:l.l vc.loc.it.y tlist~t.il)nt.ioll cn.n Oc calcr~lat,otlover 1.hc wholc ralige, t,liat is I'I.OIII l 1 1 ( ~ wall ( y 0 ) lo I.II(- xonc, of' I'r~lly tlrvclopttl t.t~l.l)ulence, t,lre applicat,ion by o f n sr~iI:tl)ly clrost~t~ I't~nc!tion ?/Sot. t.l~c% of rllixing Icngt,ll. Such n reln.tion was tlcvclopetl by 11:. I<,. V : ~ I I I)t.ivst. 112) o n t11c. 11:wis of n.11: ~ , t ~ g ~ ~ t\vIlicll tIvn~ls SIc11~c.s'~ ~icti , on soll~t,ion for :I I1:l.I. ~,l:if,cv l l i c - l l osvi1l;~Ic.s its ~ I \ V I I 1,lnnc (St,ol<c.s'ss c . c . c , ~ ~ t l I I ~ o I I I ( . I ~ I , Set:. V 7 ) ; \ in it, 11:~sl ~ v O I , I I I t ~

we retricve t,lle relaThe, constant, has the vnlnc i = 26. For very litrgc values of l t,ion I = x?l, I,lrt in ~ . I I ( Loverlapping rrgion bctween laminar and t,~~rbulent, frict.io11 tile val~rcs I of
:Ira

s~nall(:r.111 ortlcr t,o ir~tcgrnt.ct,hc eqrtntion

for

:L

rot~st:~nf a l l ~ rof ro we first. solve for c l ? ~ / t l f /ant1 ohtnin v

11

Lhc I t is now possible to calc:~~lnt,c v:triat.ion of nlixing longtll \\,itsll ? / / / I tlirrc*t.ly from cqns. (20.16) n.nd (20.17) togct,l~crnlitl~ t.hc ~ncnsr~rctl vc1ocit.y tlist.ril)r~t.ion ~(y). 'l'hirc calcr~lntion ~ n cnrriotl orlt. 1)y .J. Nil<l~r:itlsn s [45] \vllo ol~t.:litrc:rl ~.II(: rcmnrk:ihle r c s ~ ~shown it1 Fig. 20.5; it, rt*prt,st%~~t,s v:~ri:rt.io~~ 111ixi11z lt t,l~t: of' I(~t1gl~11 over thc dian~ct,cr f tllc pip(: for t,Il<: c::~sc of s~noot~lr o ~)ip('s:t11(1 t S(:CII t.lr:it it. is i intlcpcn(Jcnt of the Itcynoltls rtrrml~c~r, wl~c,t~ vnlltc-s I~c.lo\v 1 0 h n . c c:xcl~~tl(*tl. 'I'l~is fu~lct.ioncan I)c rcprcscnI.c:tl l)y the enrl)iric::tl rc.l:~.t.ion

IL

= 2 v*J-0

(IT]'
1 I 1 1 1- 4 (v* l / s ) Z ] ' / Z
'

Next., wn int.rotlnco t.hc exl)rc~ssionfor 1 from ecln. (20.lfih) and arrive n t a vclority (lisI~.il)l~l~iotl ~ i is i~l lgood ngrecln~ntwit.h t.hc (?xp(:ri~nc~lhnl ~ l t l ~ 1.t:s111t.s tlisplayctl in Icig. 20.4. 'l'hc c-xpression tlnc to 13. R. vnn Ihicst was S I I C C C S S ~ ~:tpl)lictl t,o t,he I~~~ c:;rl(~~tlnlior~tclrl)l~lrnt. of I)ountl:~rylayers a,ith suct,ioti anti I~lowing [58j ns \vcll ns t.o conil~'(~ssi1)lr flowst. Ilnw of t l ~ c wnll: 1701.sl~fficbirntlyIn.rgr tlistanccs from the wall (fr~lly tlevclopctl I , I I ~ I I I I I ~ I:r.y(br), the v(,locit,ay(list,~.il)~~t,ionc p r ( ~ s r ~ ~ t by l the loga~,iI,lr~ni(; ~I~~, is r ,r( law cl~~t,lrrl v(111. (20.14). 111 tllc zonc nrnr t.l~c ill \vaII (Inminar srrblayer), th(>linear law
~ ~ ~

which SIIOWS t.ll:~tl'mrltltl's I~ypoLl~rsis, x ?/, is co~~lir~nc-tl sln:rll (I~S(.:LII(:PR I For from l.llc wn.ll, \vit11 x -- ()-.I (20.I!))
- Z

. .

111 :I rcx?r~it, p~~l,lir:ilio~i, l<(-ynoI(ls, \ I I I I Illcvictv~or 1?I11i(l \S.C. ( I~~ blcc*l>:~~~ics,8, p. 187) Val. rrl~wln l ~ tn Ill(: I I I I I I I ~ ~ v:1111r~l - - 26 of v : ~ n I)ricst.'n collslnnt is s~~il:iI)Ic I I ~for bo~~n(lnr,v t ~ ~ , ; ~i OI I:IJY*I.S ~ r . i l l r :I xrro I)rtsssllrrarnclicst~l;111tl o111g:rlong n n i n i ~ ~ c ~ r ~ ~n.;~ll.I n ~t,llc: [)rc:sc!ic:r of irnl~l : I~lotr.il~g s~~rtiorl of :I I I ~ ( * S R I I ~pr:~(lir~it. I ~ O I I S ~ R IA~ .~ 1 1 1 1~ S S I I I I I Cc:o~~sitlrr:il)lp or (11. P t IIV I clilfcrrnt ~ : I I I I ~ H ,\Vit11 :I I ' : ~ v ~ I I I . : I I , I c ~1,rcssIlrc graclir~~t \vitIi l,lo\vi~)g. vn111vs IIIIIY exc~c(l - 2G or tllc A 11). ti witlr 111nrpin

It can IIC shown, f~~rl,llcr, t,l~:~t, v:l.ri:~t.ionof ntixil~gIt:ngl.l~wiL11 \v:~.lI tlisl.:~ncc. thc givrri in eqn. (20.18) remains valitl for rol~glr nrrtl not only for slnootl~ pipes. I"ig~lrc 20.li rcprcscr~t~s t,hc rcsult.~of .J. Nikrtratlsc's 1461 rnensl~rc~nlrnl.s pipt:s :~.rl.ifiri:tlly on ro~rght.nc?tlwil.h sn.ntl of tliK(trc.rlt grain size, :ln(l t.111:l ) r ( ~ ~ ( ~ ( l i ~ t g sI~:~l~cr~ionL 1.0 is S(V*II be c:onlirnlctl. 1~'11rl.llcrn1orc, may now I)(: cxpc:cl,c:tl 1.11:rt 1,11(: vc:loc:itfy tlist.t.il)t~lior~ it cnlc:rllntctl I'rorn 1.hc mixing Iengl,ll from c.cln. (20.18) will I I ~v:tlirl for r o l ~ :IS l wr.ll : ~ ~ as for ~trloot,lrpil)rs.

606

XX. 'l't~rht~lc.rit throl~gltpipes flow

c. IJnivcrsnl vcloqil.y-di~trihitl.io11 laws T r very I:trgo R(:y11oIe1s1111tl1l~crs o

607

For btic. s:ikt, of silnplic*it,yt.11~ cx~)rrssion tlic tnixirtg lctrgtlt can bt: writ,tcn a s for

wlicrc / ( ? / ) / I { )- > I for ?//It + 0. I~it,rocl~tcitig = v* :LII~Icon~I)initig cqti. (20.17) wit.11 rcltr. (20.IC,) we? ol~t.niri t,ltc following tliffcrcntinl equation for l.lio vcilocity (Iist.ril)~~t~ion
-.

iT"/b

;
whrricc:, hy irit~:grat.ioti

-- z -

"*

+ ! .

4;)

"I R

1 hus wc? hxvc :xgi~inI)c(?ti10c1 to t.110 ~lriiv(:rsaI \~cI~(-ity-elisI.l'il)tt(.iO~t ('(111. ( 19.2 l ) lilw. cqn. (lCl.28). 'l'lie: csscnt,i:~I g~~trcr:~Iiz:~t~iot~l t : ~now 1)c:oti :~t*lti(>v(-~l wliic~lt (!ot~sist.s in t,lir fnc:l, t,li;lt t-ltr ~~riivc:rsnl in ccln. (20.22) is vnlitl for ro~rgli wt,ll ;IS li)t.snioot.lt law :IS ljipcs, tt.licf~t~t(:t.ion ( ? j / H )1x:irig t . 1 1 ~ : I I ~ I : i l l I)ot.Ii oases. I':(III:I~ ion (20.22):tssc:t.(.s I ltp~. k7 S c.11rvc-s ol' vc>loc.il.ytlisl~rilntl,io~t ~jlot~l.c:el ovvr 1 . 1 1 ~~)ip(: rntlitts c~ot~l~r:tc~I, o:1, si~tgltr it~l (:ttrv(! for ~ l v:~.ltt(-s I t ~ ~ y t i o lritttiiI)(~r for a l l (10gr~:c:s r o t t g l ~ ~ t ( ~ s(s ~ - - - ~ I , ) / I J * l ()I' ~ls a,tt(I of il' ( , is plol~t8~!(l t4(,r~ris /I! II', lTig.20.7. I t , t r i : ~ j f 1 ~ :ttoI~~:tl ill or ~JI:LI, :I l)ovt. lijrt~tol' I It(! l.lte vclocil,y-tlist~iiI)i~t~ioti was lirsL tletl~tc:c:tl I)y '' 15. St,nnt,ol~ 1:lw l. 1721. At1 c:xl)lic.it csx~)rcssionfor F ( ? / / R ) cor~ltlIpc ol)t.nitic:cl I)y ovnlttnl.irig tlic itil.cgr:~l ill (:c111. (20.21): it is, Iiowev~~r, n ~ ~ ~ l c r si 1.0 ~ii:ikrIISO of t.lto :tlro:uly Itnowti Ihrtri or tlio vc:loc:il.y-~lisI.~~il~ttti011 Inw for smoolli pil)thsns give-11 iii c:(111. (20.14). Ilonc:c>,i t 1 :t wn.y sirnil:lr 1.0 c.clris. (20.9) nntl (2O.I0), wo Iinvc
;iti(l

r 7

IJ

?L

-- 2-5 v*

Iri I '

=- 5.75 v, log

R
Y

r. -.

I1

"*

= 5,75 log

R -.
Y

(20.23)

'l'ltis (~111:~tiott is sc:(:n ~11ot~I~~:tl 20.7 11s(:ttrvc ( I ) :t~i(l~ I I I I I ~ ) : L ~\vil.lt t:sl~~*ritti~:ttl~:il in Fig. I (X~ rc~s~tltsforsriiool~lt roltgli pipes. I t c-o~it,:litlst.It(: onil~iric.:tl r o ~ i s t . : ~ tK , t ,wl~osc~ nncl ~

Iiig. 20.5. Vnrinl.iot~ n~ixing11:iigt.h ovcr of p i p clintnctr:r for ~tnootlipipes nt cliffcrcti~ Rcynolcls titiin1)crs
t:nrvr ( 1 ) from
rqll.

Wig. 2O.(i. V:lri$Jion of rllixiltp \c.ltgldl ovcr pipc tlinnlckr for rough pipea Cntrvc (1) ~ ~ O I rqn. (20.18) I I

(20.lR)

IJerc Iflie lowor litnil, of in1.e-grnt.io11:1t. yo, wlrorc t.11(: vc:locit.y is cclll:~l Lo zero, is ol' tlic orcler of l,lic tltic:krlc~sof tlic I:t.miriar s r ~ l ~ - l n yand, tlicrcforr, proport.ional 10 cr 3.s seen from cqri. (20.15a). 'l'li~~s yO/II = F , (n* R / v ) .Tlro ~naxirnllmve1ocit.y 11 in t,hn mnt.rc: of t l ~ c pip(! c : ~ nI)c: ( I c ~ I I ~ from cqtj. (20.21 ) and. I~coo~ncs M~
rj/n,

Pig. 20.7. IJttivcm;rl vcloci1.y-11isl.ril~trlioi1 Inw for smooth nnd ro~tgl~ pipe8
O l ~ r v ( 1 ) from r q n . (20.23). I'ra~ldtl; c

rllrve (2) from cqn. (20.24). vnn KlrtnLn:

eurvc (3)from eqn. (20.25). 1)arcy

tl. Universal rrsint,ancr Inw for s ~ ~ l o r piprs~rrt vcry Inrgr Itry~~olclnI I I I I ~ I P ~ S ~t,l II tllllncrirnlvnl~ro := 0.4 u:lrr :tlrc-:ttly givnn in cqn. (20.1!)). '1'11~agrcctnont. ~ ) r t w c r ! ~ x tl~rory arlcl rxl)c*rimc~nt v r r y gootl. is

60'3

'I'ltr ~tnivc-rs:rlvoloci(,y-tlisl.ril~~tt.iot~ r;ul I)c tlctlr~ccclalso from vo11 K:i.r~ndn's Inw sirnil:~ril.y I;L\v, ccln. (1!).21), \\,ltot~nr: ol)t.:tin we

\rit,ll ?/ r1t:noiing l.l~o tlixt.nnc:c frorn t.11~ w;tll. 'l'llis rq~~;ti,ioll, sllo\\.11 R S ( : I I ~ V ( > (2) in Il'ig. 20.7, also n.grc:cs woll wit.11 I.llo c:xl)c~rimrr~t:rl v:~l~~c:s, x - : if 0.30 is c:l~oscl~. ld'ig~~ro o o t ~ i , : ~ iILII s 20.7 t ~ :t~ltlit,innal curve (3)whir11 is l)nsctl (111 f1, I)nr(;y7sI<)] (:tnpirit::~I C * ( ~ I I : L1):trr-j I tlorlr~vctlii. in 1455 fro111his vcry t::tr(xf~ll ~ ~ ~ r * : l s r l r t ~ ~o n cvc:iclcil.y ~.~~ I. r~ .t~is tlisll.il,rll,io~l:~nclin ollr ~)rosc-nt noi.ni.ioll iL can bo writ.t,on ns

I):~r(,y'sl i ) r n l ~ t l :g i v w goo(1 : i g r ( * ~ r n ( - t ~ t ;ti1 poit11.s c:xc:cpt I.llose t1c::tr i.ltc: \v:~ll ~ at. wit 11 !I/ It <* 0.25. 11, is worI,l~pnint,ittg olri, ltrr(: t.l~:tt~ IIoI,~I 111iivors:~1 ~ l o ~ i t ~ y - ~ l i s l ~ r i l:t\vs, t . i o ~ ~ v l~t~ (;(1ns. (20.23) arttl (20.24), 11;~vc: I)ccll obt.ninotl, a s soon from t l ~ c arg~rnlenl,in the Ir(:cc(ling c.llal,l.c~r. t , \ \ ~ o - t l i m r t ~ s i o ~ ~ : ~ l n cl~;ttlt~rJ. fact f.)~nt, . h novorfor flow in 'rho 1 ~ ~ (,llt:lcss ngrro \rvll wil,l~ t.11~ t:xl)c~rirnrt~inl rt*s~lll.s i.11~ for (:as(:of pipe flow mit,h axial s y tnlnot.ry rntr I,c t.;~ltcllns proof t.l~nl, t.l~nrcis a far-rcnclling silni1arii.y I)ntwcen t,llo \:c.lo(.i~.~ tlist,ril,~tlioni t , t,llt: two-tlitnc~nsionalnntl axially sy~nlnct,ric:~l cnsns. Tt will I,(, I.(Y~:IIIV(I i.lt:~,l, i t ) l:~tnin:~,r llo~vlit(, v(*Io(~it.y i s l , ~ ~ i l ) ~ ~par:tl)oli(: in 1)ot,l1(:nscs. (l is t ~ i o ~ ~ S l ; ~ r l . i ~ ~ g (;. I. ' l ' : ~ ~ ~ l o tv ost ~ l ~ i ~ ~ i t y - iI,llrory~ it, f is ~~ ~ 1 s1)ossil)lt: t o \vil.l~ ~' ,~~~ s ~ r t) t l c ~ l l t c . c . :I ttt~ivc~rs:~l vc.1oc~iI.y-tlisl riI)t~l I:IW of I,Ilc form of crltl. (20.22) brri., ovitlt:nbly, intt wit 11 :I 1.11I V I io11 If7(!//I<) \vltivlt (1iITt:rs I'rotn l~ltosonppe:tring in l'r:tt~tll,l's o r VOII I t<:it~r~l:irl's c~:tl~~ltl:lI.iolts.c~on~p:trisoll A I,t.i.wc~c~~~rcs111t~s 1.11~~ ol)t.ninrtl frorn G . I. 'ra.vlol.'s vori.ic:il.y-t,r:tttsli:r t.l~c.olyant1 rrotn 1,. I'rat~tll,l's ~ r t o r l ~ o r ~ t ~ ~ ~ m - I , r1,llror.y :is nt~sf~ r t,ot~t:iittc.tl i l l ~ ) : ~ l ~1,y sS. (:oltlst,c:irl [20] :~rltl (:. 1. 'I';rylor [76]. No ~rnaqnivoc~:~l -r (l(-~:isiorll l Iirvo~lrof c-itl~chr t,lto i,wo i,ltc:oric.s coultl, I~owcvcr,I)(: ol)t.nir~ctl. i of (:not1 i ~ l s i g l ~it1t.o i . 1 1 ~ i, ~)ltysic:al :~sl)(:(:t,s flow t,l~rottgl~ pipe r:Ln I)(, g:titlod of ;r \)y vot~sitlt.rit~ t h r vn.rint.ioli of t.he a p p a r e n t lcinematic viscosity, F , , over t h e crossr b : s(y:tiott o f ~ . I I ( , 1 ~ rvltit.l~is ~ 1 ~ scrn ~)lol,lrcl n Il'ig. 20.8 011 t.11~ i 1):tsis of . I . Nil~~tr:~tlso's c ~ x l ~ . ~ ~ i t n c ~ ~ ~ t St.n.t.i,ing wit.11 T =- Q ~ , ( d l ~ / dfrom oqn. (19.2) \vc c:~n inscrt ~.c.sltlt.s.: ~ l ~/) I l l ( . v:lltl(*of T f't.0111 (*(,ti.(20.17), t111(1I~rtic-e c a n ol>i.nin t,llr vnrintrion of c , from \trc ( l I c . ~r~t.:,sllrt.(l vc.Ioc.iI,y tlis(riJ,~lt,iolt. 'I'l)(: :~1)1):tr(~ni, 1tinotnnt.ic viscosit.y is intl(:l)nndcnt, of I,II(. I~.c~ytioltls 111111111(~r. s t:IS \vns (.II(: cb:~so j~t wit.11 i,11o mixing lotlgi.11. llowovc!r. t.llr l.g1,o of vnrinl.ion of c , is nl~lcllInor(, complex t , l l ~ nt,llat of I, I'ig. 20.5. T l ~ c t ~ ~ n s i l l l ~ ~ktlls~ l ~ Il:~lf-\v:~y I)rt,\vt:c~l \\tall ant1 i.111. t.11~ axis. and on t h e axis F, becomcs tr(>t.ystt~:~llI I ~ . t1oc.s not, r(vl~t(:(: zorn. (!onsitlt:fil~g 1,110 tlin.gr:trn in I'ig. 20.8 il, I, 1.0 I I I I I S ~ I,(! ~ ~ O I ~ ~ - I,II;I,I,I it,~ \VOIIIII I)(; in11(:11~ n o r o l i l ' ~ i c ~ ~ \tii~~ d:t p\n~~si\)lt: ~:~ I ~I ( to t \\yl)ot,llrsis t I ~ s ~ ~ . i l ) llc~vari:~.i.ion F , t.hn,n was t,llo case wit01 the mixing IcngU~, This 1it g in I. c.irt-~tiltsl:ltlc:('\VRS :itIv;l.r~t:t~l l x l i ~ ~ (V (SCO.X I X 1)) a s a, rc,ason it1 f:tvorlr o f intrrod~tc:ing I . l t v tttixing l(.t~gl.l~ it~l,o t,Ilc c!(]~t;~l~ionsl , l ~ r r ra l,lt:tt~I,IIc a p p ; ~ r c : ~vis(:osil,y, an(I l*ltis ~t vic,\v is s ( ~ l 1o I,(- I,or~lct 011l. 1)" (:x~~(~rit~~t:rli.:tl rt:s~~II.s. ortlrr t.o cornpnro I;~rninar In

I'ig. 30.8. I)it~~cnsiot~lrss virlual liittr~~~atic viscosit.y for sn~oot,l~ piprs plot Lrtl fro111 N i k ~ ~ r : ~ d s ~ ' s [45] rxlic~rit~~c~r(.:~l ~.c.st~lls

ti. Ilttivcrsal rrsistarlcr law lor snlootll pipes a t vcry lnrgc I{cyt~oltlst l l ~ ~ t t l ) ~ ~ r s 1tc:trnc:ing t.11~ si.cl)s i l l t l ~ c:~rgrlmc,tlt of Soc:. S S O , wllic.lt II;IS lctl 11s Iron1 f3lnsirrs's rrsist,ancc?for~lluln i , l ~ c -iSI1-l>owcr 1.0 4 vrloc:it,y-tlist,ril~r~t,iot~ \,c: c.:tt~ 11ow Inw, tlcrivo iL IICW ~ ) ~ ~ ) ( : - ~ c s ~ s ~ ,f'orln~llnfrom 1.11~~ n i v c % r s : ~ l RIIcc ~ log:~.rii.lltn vc.loc:il,y-clisl.ril,~tit: l,iotr I:I\v. 'l'l~c. log:tril,l~nlic:vc:loril~~~-tlisi.ril~r~l~io~tc(111.(20.2:j) w:l.s tlt:ri\~c:(lI I I I ( I ( . ~ I:rw i t t t.lto n.ss~l~r~l,liott l i ~ t ~ t i t lKri(:t.iott W:IS tt('gligil)l(: (.o1111):1r(%(I I . ~ ~ r l , ~ ~ I.l.i(*i,io~t 1.11:11. i~r \\,il.lt lt:~tl. whit41 III(~:I.III~ l,ltnt i t rorrltl I)(: c~sI.r:~l)ol;tr,c:(l n . r l ~ i ( , ~ . : ~ ~ . i l ~ l t ~ y t ~ o l t 111t111I)t~rs. 1.0 I:tt.gt: I ls ,1Ilc s : ~ . m 1n:k-j now I)(: rx1>ont1atl 1112t . r ~ ~ r *tlrc r(:sisl.:~.t~c,c* : ~ l ) o ~ t l I,(: ( l t b t l t t t . t . t l . r i.o of I;lw 1.0 ~ ,I , li)llo\ving rc:nsortittg will I)(: l)nsc-tl o11 ;L p:tl)t'r I)y I,. I't.;rt~tll.l 1521. llo

IJpon itlt.c!gr:ri.ittg (:tin. (20.23) ovc.r 1.11~: c,ross-scc:l.iot~:~~l wo ol)tnilt :I~(.:I vclooiijy of flow fi, := (1 - 3.75 v* ,

t.11t:

111(~:111

(20.21;)

GI0

X X . Turbulent flow t,lirongh p i p

d. Univcmal rcsint,nnceInw for stnooth pipes nt vory lnrgc Rcynolrln nilnil)crs

61 1

and from tlic: i~niversal~clocit~y-dist,ril)~~t.ion ccln. (20.14), we have law,

many authors have been plotbcl. The nnmerical coefficients for tho avcr:tgctl cnrve passing through the experimental results cliffcr only vcry little from the preceding, clerivcd values. The straight line (1) passing thrortgl~ the cnpcrimcntal points in Fig. (20.9) can be representetl by t h e eqriet~ion

which coml~iricclwit.11 aqn. (20.20) gives This is Prandll's w.niversn1 1n1o of friclioiz for smodh pipcs. I t hns been vcrifiecl by ,I. Nik~~radsc's 1451 expcrimcnts u p to a Reytiolcls riumbcr of 3.4 x 1 0 ~ s r i t l tlio ngrcemcnt is seer1 to be cxccllcnt. l'rorn its derivation i t is clear that it may bv extrapolated t o arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers, a n d i t may be stated t h a t measuremcnfa with higher Rcynoltls nnrnl)crs arc, t,licrcforc, not rcq~~irctl. V:tl~trs compatcd from cqn. (20.30) are given in Tahlc 20.2. The ~iniversallaw of friction is represcntcd by curve (3) in Fig. 20.1.
1

We can introdr~ce the Rcynoltls number from

so that we obtain front cqns. (20.28) and (20.29)

1= -or

- ;

--

(2,5 In

(u,~

f A) - 2.5 In 4 )I2
-

+ 1.75)'

.;------

2-035 log u (:

fa) -0 D l )'

------ -

Teblc 20.2. Coefficient nf rcsint.nncc for smooth pip8 in tcrmn of the 1L:ynolcls nr~rnhnr; rrlnn nee I'ig. 20.!l

l'a

= 2-035log

(bp ) / I ) -0 0 1 .

According t o this resr~lt the univerml law of friction for a smooth pipe should give a straigl~t line if 1 / d j is plotted against log (R d a ) . This feature agrees extremely well with experiment, as seen from Fig. 20.9, whcrc the results of measurements of

Cervc ( I )

Fig. 20.9. Univernal I:rw of friction for a n~noothp i p rrom eqtl. (20.3n). I'mwlll: cttrvc (2) rrota rqn. (20.5). Illnslsl

l'lie ~ ~ n i v c r s a lq ~ ~ a t ~ i o n e agrees well with Rln.siris's rqcl:~l,ior~ (20.5) up to R .= los, hnt, a,tf liiglier V I I , I I I ~ S l3lasi11s'~q t ~ n t ~ i cIc:vil~,t,c!sprogrt:ssivrl.y tiioro fro~ri rt:sttIl.s c o~i t,111! of n ~ e ; ~ s r ~ r e m r ~ ~ L , c q ~ l .(20.00) rnait~t~ains wlicrras good ngrccrncrit. 'rho flow of gnscs tlirongli srnool.li pipes : ~ vcry liigli volocit.ins was irlvcsl.igzl.ctl t 11y LV. l ~ r o ~ ~ s(lU]. '1'11e vltri~~tion l)rctsstirc 11,1otig pi111: 1'1)r 1lifTc!r1:114, scl in ;L I~I:I.SS llow mtcs is rcprcsei~tnxlin Fig. 20.10. Tlic n1irnl)ers shown agninst t.11~ curves iticlic::t\a the fraction of maximnrn mass flow tlirougl~a nozzle of cc~naldinmctcr and with cq11a1 stagnation pressure. The curves which fall off to the right refer to srtbsonic flow, whereas the increasing curvcs apply to sr~pcrsonicflow. 'Che l a t h r curves include jumps to higher pressures and subsonic flow cFTectcd by a shock. The cocfficic~itsof resistance are not markedly diflercnt from t.l~ose incompressible flow, in

Lvvl
<Ih.[ll:JlUI!N .I.).JJIf -!.I,) '110!1:1O~-~iIO.h)JU[II~LIU [l:J~')l:~!llb,~ JO 'l1ll:'Ih.l~"~~ J"

3![tl1:.1[~~i'l~ k)11,+ JO 3+(t3dllWd 311c+ JO L.)!l!l1~.)![lIdl!

3l[,I,

'llO!')~)dS-SSC)J2 ~ ; ) l l l ) 3 l r ) JO 3(1,Ct[s

3d!d

1 JOJ :

Kq!;)o(
t

(CP] 3I[)V.lflY!N
%"1!11 1 1

"11') J q J V '110!7;)3I-66013 ) l l l l l S l l O . ~JO sJ.\.Ul:) ~ ~ 1 1 1 8 ~ q ~ x a ~ 'Cl.()g

110 I),).)IIIYJJ

lad:)^)
M I: ) I JVlll2J!:)

s u o ! ~ j U ! A 3 l ) 01[,[,

'3AJ11d 31%1l!s V 110 IIVf ,.)0U

01'

'J,Y).~UIV!~J

;)!~11%.11~~1~ 311) 111

"%"\."I;)

.2)!;)019.\

'fj!21 .

' W ) V ~ ) II:~~)II~uI!.I~~x~ JOf Ail![ 01fl

311,) ' J ; ) A ~ A \ o ~ [ 'LIO!~JJ [II!: : II J

.z <I,\.IIIJ

's;)d!d

A"I

~ 3 ' & 1 1 3 ~ d J ( l i ) J l 3 M 3 J V V)(IIS.)J I

311') A\O[J ')ll.)1l1~~.lt'.) [>!z ; I . I . ) ; I1I 0~

. s a t l u ~ l slI3110!~)3aS-SSO.I3 JO

sagos

JOJ

~SII!,U~V

Y JO

Jo,I1

s)o111 SII!U'+IIOJ

:V

~ J .u~au,~)ltpI I L V . L ] J3/ 1 ~ 4 ~! ~ ~ 0,)

[ x ) ~ ~ b! ~J!IA\ ~ a I a
I('J!M

MI O J

(Y)

~:JIII?)S!S.).I

jo

~II.)!.)~,J\IO~) :, I

sdd!d JV1113J!3 J0.J Sl! llJM S1! '110!'):)~~-~80.l.) I ~ l ) ! O i % ) l l V q \ ) l l V '.lV~ll~l19!.V) '.ll![ll~UV~+da.l JO ~3d!(I ( q IIO!')1L(\!J)S!\) J i<,)!.)0ph JI(') 1)IIU UO!,)3!JJ JO Mu[ 311,) 1 Y J U ! U l J ~ 3 [ ) "A811 O I I M '[++I aS["L!."l>[!N '(' 1)112. 1091 .13[[!lI;)S ''1 A([
3,)11~)0J)Il!

01 )U3!U3AUO" '

S! $ 1 .6.d113')0tl

1)3)k!kf!,)S3AIl!

SBM

110!~)30S-SSOW J2'[~13.l~)-11011 JO

8.Jd!ll

t l ~ l l O ~ l [ ' )A\O[J

,)lla[ll(l.lII,l,

XX. T~lrl)rrlcnt flow tl~rorrgh pipcs

pcrfornlctl by E. R. G. J3cltcrt ant1 T. E. Irvinc [13]. At a Itcyrloltls nilnil)cr of R == 1000, t,hc flow remains Inrniriar ovcr 40 per t:ont. of [.he hcight of t,11(: t,rianglc:, t.lic rcgiorl of lamirlar flow dccrcnsing :is t.11~ Itcynoltls ri~trrtl)cr iric:rc::lsc:tl. is

Fig. 20.15. Srconclnry flows in piprs of triangrtlnr R I I ~T C C ~ I I ~ I Irrons-wctioll (urllcnratic) ~ R ~

13. Meycr 1381 invcst.ignt,ctl t.hc prcssilrc ant1 vclocitjy tlist,ril~irtior~i a Ilow ir t.hrough a stmight cliannrl witell :i cross-sc:ct.ion whose sllal)o varictl I)lrt whosc crossscc:t.ional nrca rcmainctl const.nnt,. IIc 11sc:tl a cllnrtr~cl in wllic:li ;I (:ir~illi~r (:rossscvtion was gmc11l:illy t.rxnsf'ornict1 int,o n roc:t.n.rlglc! wil,li ills sitlos in t.lrc r:it,io 1 : 2. 'I'rn.rtsit,ion was clli:ctctl in I)ot,l~tlirt:c:t.ions over two rlilTc:rcritf I~:rlgt.hs,:rtitl it, w:is tlisc:ovort:el I,hnl.I,l~c prcssnrc: loss i l l t s l ~ t :~)ort,ioii wit,l~ t,t.:tnsit,ionfrorn c:irc:lc: to rc:c:l.:lriglc: colisit1cr:lI)ly cxc:cctlctl t.ll:lt in (.he ol)ltosito tlirc:c:t.iori.

Fig. 20.16. (:lervcu of constant vrlocit,y for n. rcrtnelg~~lor opcn rliannol, nfkr Niktlratlsc (431

tli;lgrams of sccontln.ry flows in t,riangul:ir and roct.angular pipcs arc shown inXFig. 20.15. I t is s w n (,hat, t,he sccondnry flow in t.he rectangular cross-section wlliclr proccetls from t.ho wall inwnrtls in Clic r~eigllbonrhoodof the cnds of t h e larger sidcs ant1 of t.lic mitltlle of t.hc s h o r b r sitlcs creates zoncs of low velocity. They appcar vcry clcnrly in t . 1 1 ~pic:t,urc o f curvcs of const,ant velocity in Pig. 20.13. Such secondary flows romc int,o play also in opcn cl~anncls, s cviclcnccd by the pottcrn of curves a velocit,y docs not occur near 1 . h ~ of const,ant, vrlooit.y in I'ig. 20.16. Y'hc m a x i m ~ m free srlrfiicc I,nt, at. al)oiiL one fift,li of the: elcpt.li tlowri, and the flow iri t.hc frcc sr~rfaco is not a t n.ll two-clirnensionnl a.s might have been expected. When t h e cross-section of OIic cllannol cont.ains a narrow region, transition docs not occur simulbancously ovrr t.licr wholo or t h e Ilow. For cxnin~)lc, the rrgior~within a n ocutc anglc of a in tfrinngrllnr cross-scct,ion, t,hc flow remains laminar t o very large Reynolds numk)crs, w h c r c . ~ tlic I)ulk i l 1i:t.d tnrrlctl turl~lrlcnt in long ago. Such a state of affairs is seen i l l ~ ~ s t , r n twil,li t.hc nit1 of Pig, 20.17 w l ~ i c l ~ e~l represents t h c results of mcasuremenLq

Fig. 20.17. Bollndnry betwrrn Innrinar nl tl t.lcrl~~tlrnt flow i l l nlr R ( : I I ( t.rintr~, 1 gular clrnnnel, dat~rniir~rd vinrtnlly by tho use of smoke injection, aftor E. lt. G. Eckcrt nnd l . Irvinc [13] ' E. R, - h,drrulir. rndills = dh/2 ,

Most, pipcs llsctl i l l ctlgir~coringsl.r~tc:t,irrt:sc:arlllot, I)(: rc:g:lrtlctl :w hoilig I ~ ~ t l r : i r ~ lic:n.lly s n ~ o o t ~ ;it, Ic:lstf :lL Itiglle:r Itc:ytloltls rll~nil)crs. h, 'I'll(: rc:sisL;~l~c:c:0 Ilow olli:rc:tl 1. I)y rongh walls is larger than t.lt:~t irny)lictl I)y t.11~ prc:c:t:tling oclllnliotls for xn~oot.l~ pipes. Conscq~icr~t~ly, laws of fric:t,iot~in rolrgh pipes ;rrc: of grc:;lt pr:ic:t.ic::rl i t i t the port,nncc, ant1 cxp(:rimcnlnI worlc on t,hcrn I)c:gar~vory c?;irly. 'l'llc tl(+sirt: L c:xl~lorc: o t l ~ laws of frictionof rollgh pipcs in a systc:tnatjic way is frr~str;lt~(d c . - . . .. l&.t.llc: fttrltl;~rnc:nt.~~.l . c l i f f i ~ ~ ~ t , . ~ ~ . t hnumbcr .of parn.nict,cr~tlcscribirig roilgllr~cssi s cxtfr:iortliri;lrily tlic a t large owing to tllc grcnt tlivcrsit,y of gcornc:t~ic forrns. I f wo c:onsicl(:r, for c:xnrnl)lc, a \1,:1Il with itl~nt~ical ..~. prot.r~~siorls ~ ~ ~ ~ n t : i ~ ~ ~ t ~ I l c c o r itsctlr:tg~clt:l)t:ritls ~ . b I ~ ~~ ~ lr siv~ on t,hc tlc~lsit~y :-.-. .. .. . - -. - of tIist.riOnt,iat~ siic:li ror~gl!nrsscs, i. c. on t,llcir rlllrnl)t:r IFr tlnil, :Lra:L . .. . of a s we n.s on tllclr shapc nntll~nightnr~tl, firl:llly, also on t.l)c way in whtt:l~t.hcy :lrc tiist,rib~it,&l-. . .is surface, I t t,ook, ~I~croforo, i o r t.irnc to fortnn\at,c: oIn:~rant] over ! ;a ~ ~ - sirni)lc 1 : ~ ~ s wllich tIcscriI)e trhc flow of flnitls t l ~ r o ~ g rolrgh 1)il)cs. I,. 1lol)f [25] ll rii:~tlo :i comy)rol~cnsivcrrvicw of 1.110 rllrliic~roilscnrlic:r cxocrirl~otit,:ll rtwrtlt.~:~ntl fol~ntlt.n~o l.yl)cs of ro~lgllr~css rt~l:~t,iori 1,llc: rcsist~in(:(: in t.o fi)rlnul:l for rougI1 pipes ant1 opt:n c:ltnnncls. 'l'hc first, l t i l l t l of rongllrloss c::ll~sc:s :,. rcsisl,:irlc:~~ wllic:ll is proj)orlSion:llto t.ljc.~clunrc t.llc vclocit.y,; ! , l ~ i s ~ ~ l ~LII;LL ~ s c:ocfficiorrt of rc:sist,:~.~ic-c: .of c. a r t,ll(! . . Is itlt~n[)t:ntlcrlt~ 1,hc ltcynoltls n11rnhc:r aritl corrosl)orltls t o rcIat,ively coarse n.tltl of tightly sp:icccl rollghncss clcrncrlb st~e:li for cxninplc c:o:srsc s:lrlel gr:tins gl~lctl trll(: as 011 si~rf:lcc,c:erncrll, or ro11g11cast iron. In st~nltcxscs t,llc: nalirrc of Lllc ro~lglltlt:ss~:;III bc cxprcssccl with tlic nit1 of n sitlglc rorlgllnc~ss~):~r:imc:l.er k/l<,tllc so-c*:lllc:~l rrlrrliim rnvyh~tess,wl~c,rck is Llrc Iinigllt, of' n protr~lsion:irltl H tlt.r~ot,cvt,llc ~ : L ~ I ~ Ior t,l~(: Is Iiytlraillio mtlins of trhc cross-scct.ioti. I'rorn c:onsitlor:il,im o f sirnilit.lldc: we rrl:ty conc.ll~tIc: t.Il:it i t 1 l,llis (::IS(: t.llc rosisl,n.t~c:c: voc~f'fic:ic:rit, tlt~l)c:titls t.lio rc~l:~t.ivc: otl ro~~gl~ric-ss only. 'l'hc acllr:ll rcl;itfion c:1,11 . clct.crrninctl oxi)nrimcr~l;~lly pc:rforrning inc.:isllroIic - - ... I)y nlcnls%h Gii'cs or cI~ani~c:s l t1ilk:ring tlyclr:lnlic: r:ttlii I)lrt of t.11~samc: nl)sol~rLc o rollgi~r~oss. Sni:l~rncas~rrc:rnc:rlts wore c.arrioti ~ I I L I<. I~'romrn 1171 :~iwl\Y. I'rit,sc:ll I)y 1161, who fo~rnel Ih;tt Tor gc:On~c(.ric:;~Il~ silniI:~r I ~ O I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ S S O S i)ro~)or~.ion:lI A is t,o
-

(klJ(,)O."?
Thc second type of rc~ist~ance forrn1tl:l occ:urs wl1c:ri tllc ~)rot.rlrsions arc niorc gentle or when a small ~ ~ r l r r ~ of r b c tlictn is (listtril)i~lctl ovcr x relatlivcIy I:lrgc : m a , such a those in wooden or commercial st*ccl pipcs. 111 sl~clicases t.hc rcsist,ar~cc 7 . coefficient dcpcnds boCh on t h c lteynolds numbcr ant1 on t,lic relalive roi~gliiic:ss.

Icror~~ ~ ) l ~ ~ ~ s i c ~ :of Ivicw it t n ~ t s t conclr~tlnd ()I(, ~)oitlf. ~ I)c t.11at t.llc ratio of t,llc height ( I S ~)rot,t.~lsions t,11(, I,ot~~~cl:~ry-lnyc~r t,o t,l~ic~lzt~rss sllo~tltlI)(: t,hc tlct.rrmining factor. In l ) ; ~ ~ . l i ( . ~ ,~~l,:-l)lt(-~~ott~(~ttott i l ~r, is cxi~(~;l.c(l r l r ~ ~ c011~ ~ l l,l~i(-Irr~(~ss 1n.lninar 1.0 t 1,111: or t,l~(: stll~-l:lyc.rO,, so ~.II:II. k/ii, tn~lst, rrg;~~.cl~%tl itnport,a~lt I)c :Is an tlirno~~sionlcss tit~tnbcr \,:lliq~l~ is (*l~:~r:~(*l,c~risli(; of i,hr: Irit1(1 of' ~ ~ ~ I I ~ ~I fI, I I (~h: lsr s121~n~k is . roltg~1tl~:ss caltse \trill 110 ill(*rt*:~s(~ I ' S ~ S I : iI lI (::ISVS \vl~(-r(: it1 ~ l I(~ I.II(\ ~ ) ~ . o f , r ~ ~ s i o tSO s111:~ll 1,111~1)011rl(l:~ry :trc l s (or I:~yc*r so lI~ic:l<) is t.ltnl, l,l~c-y ~ r (:% ~ c-or~t;ritlc.~li l , l ~ i t 1.l1c I:~tr~ic~:rr : II u. ~ scrl~l;~j.er, (:. if i. k < (St, ant1 t . l ~ r wnll may I)c c~onsidcrrtlI~ytlr;irtlic:~lly srnoot,lt. 'l'his is simi1a.r t o t,l~e :~,l)set~(,e t,l~,: ~ I I ~ ~ I I ( ~ I I of ( % or ( * roc~gItt~(~ss r(-sisi:t~~(;(: Iln~g(~ri-l'oisc~till(: ot~ in flow. I<,(:c.:lllir~go ~ t r c~ottsitl(~l:l.t~iol,sS(:c:. S I X (,, wc- l i ~ l t l l,l~:ii, l,l~ic:lzt~rss f , l ~ c : In.tnit1nr ill (,IN: of s~tl,-l:~yc.r gi\~c,11 (1, = cotlst, . I I / V , :l.tltl I.lr:~t. t,he tli~nc~r~xionlcss is l)y ro~tgl~tlc~ss f;~c:t,or is

Fig. 20.18. Rosiatance formuln for rough pipes

The size of t,hc roughllcss is so sm:~llthat, all proitrlrsio~~s conf.nitlc:tl \ v i t , l ~ i ttlic :ire ~ laminar snl)-layer. lta-sis~n~tct. rortt1111:n: 1l'ig111,(- IS ~ ~ r ~ ~ )I.IIv~I:I\v ~ s v t ~ t s l)i11rs o ~ t g l ~ ( ~ r i ( ~ l 20. ~ ~ ol.i't,i(!lio11for r wit11 s : ~ ~ ~111l 11tc- r.c.giorl <)I' I : ~ r ~ l i r r : Ilow :III ror1gl1 pil)(-s I~nvc:t,hr s;itnc rc-sisl.nt~c~r c . ~l as :I s ~ t ~ o o ~l) ill ~x . 'I'lrc- c,rilic,:ll I<.c.yt~ol(ls )( t~rct~ll)cr c.clttn.lly intlrl)c.tltlot~l ro~lglitlrss, is of :III,I i l l ~ I I I *~ , I I I . I ) I Ir(-giot~, I(-~I~ l.lt(!tx; is % r:trtg(*of It,ry~toI(ls i ~ t ~ n lovrr~\vliicl~ : t ~( s pipvs of :I, zi\.c.t~ t.c~l:~l.iv~ ro1tgl11lc.s~ I)c-l~:~.\~oI , l ~ t rs:r.tric: \ray .as stnooi,11l)il)('s. rl'l~c it1 roltgll pipe I I II I I I I 1 / I I I I I / ~ svt~r,o//~. (.Itis rntlgc : l r t t l 1 tl(>l)c.cttls or1 R / / it1 : I ~ O I I C . I h % ~ i ~ ~\ z~l .t ~i :I.(lI g* ( i ~ ~ i Ib(!yt~oI(IsI I I I I I ~ ) ( , t.11r~ ~ i : l g t ~ i t . ~\vl~i(.li \ i l ~ ( lo I ~ of ~ ~ l ( : it1rl.cns1.s :IS I,.,/ I i ~ I ( ~ c ~ ~ ~1c. ~1:~.rsisl,:~tic.c~ li,t.:~ro~tgll i ~ ) (I(~vint,c~s t.hnt for :I smool.l~ 1 ~ st~s. l c;11rvc p c fi.o~n ~ ) i l ) ( :111tl t~c.:r,~l~c.s rvgio~lof 1,110 c l t t : ~ ~ l l - : l t . i c :rrsist.:~ttc:r-l:~wat. solne higl~orvnlr~c . (.II(> of l<c~y~tolils I I I I ) ( ~ I . \vl~(.r(% I~II . I tl(~l)c~t~tls , / R o t ~ l y .Il(:t~ccii, is tirccssa~~y cot~sitirr on k to 1h1.1.t rc!/;t~tf,.~:

Prot.r~~sions extcntl pnrl.ly otit.sitln I.l~c I:rminnr s~tb-l:~ycr 1 . 1 1 ~ ;111(1 atltlit,io~l:~l t.c~sisI:lt~c.c~,
as corn11:irc:d with a srnooi.l~ pipe, is t~~iiitrl~y 00 1.11~ cl11o li)rln tlr:ig c:sl)r.ric.t~c.c-tlp y I

(.II(:

pl'oLrusions in the bol~rltlarylayer.

All l ~ r o i , r ~ ~ s rc:i(>l~ i o t ~ s o~cI.si(lo I;itni~~:~,r l ) - l : ~ :i11(1 l,y I':l,r I,II(- f:~t.g(,st, i,l~i: s~~ y(:r 11:1t.l~ (I[. I I I ( r~sist~nrlcc flow is tlltc t o the form drag wl~ic:li: ~ c t s thctii. I'or 1,llis rc:~son t,ltc: t,o or1 Inw of resistance I~cconresquatlratic.
Vclocity dis~ributiolt: '['he vc.Ioci(.y gr:uliot~t1to:cr :I. r o ~ ~ g\v:1.11 is 1c.s~ lt sl(*cal>~ : r t ~ I.l f.Ila1.nrar a snloot.l~ onc, ns can I)c scc.rl rron~(pig. 20.1!), in \ v l ~ i t : l ~ v(~1oc~il.y I.II(? ~-:~l.io 71/11 llns Gccn plollctl against tllc tlistancc ratio y / l l for a s ~ n o o l ~ l ~ fix scvc,r;11 alltl

618

XX. Turb111cntflow through pipen

rough pipes, all Ilaving heen measurotl wit,hin the range of valiciity of the square resistancc law. Expressing thc velocitly distribution function again by a power formula of t11c type of cqn. (20.6) wc obtain cxponcnts of # to &.The variation of mixing length over the cross-section calculat,ctl from these curves has already been plotted in Fig. 20.6 from which i t is seen t h a t i t is exactly the same for rougl~ artd for smooth pipes. It can be represented by l l ~ c rmpiric:d cquation (20.18). In parliclllar, in the neighhorlrhood of t,hc wall we have 1 = x ?/ = 0.4 y.

where the constant 2.5 = l / x = 1/04, whereas I3 assrlmcs different valurs for tltc tl~rrr rauges of roughness discussed prcvior~sly.I n t l ~ c rango of the contplcl.cly r o ~ r g l ~ regime, we have I3 = 8.5, so that in t,l~is region
u - =5.75 log $ + 8-5 v*
F

(completely rough) .

(20.32a)

The corrcspontling s l m i g l ~ tlitto is scon 1.0 agree well with bhc r c s n l t ~of measuremc~iL,Fig. 20.20. Gcncrt~lly spcalring M is a function of t-11e rongl~ncssltc:yr~oltls nrlmt)c:r v , ks/v. T l ~ cvalrlo which corrr,apor~tlsL I~ytlra~~licnlly o s1nool11 flow liJlows t ~ ol~cc t from dtlrts. (20.32) :~rltl(20.14), ant1 is

R . 20.19. Velocity diatrig bution in rough pipen, afbr Nikrlradse [40]

It. follows, t,l~ercfore,t l ~ a t the logarithmic law for velocity distribution, eqn. , (10.2!)), rcmair~svalitl for r o r ~ g lpipe-s, cxcept that t,l~c o n ~ t ~ a ofl i~~tcgmt.iotl, ~ c n yo, I I I I I S ~ , 11c given R clilTcrct~tr~u~ncricnl vnl~ic.Fnrthormorc, i t is natural to malto i t proport,ional t o the rortgtlncss height k,, i. e. to put y = y k,, so tliat cqn. (19.29) , now becomes 'l'llc vnlrirs of h in tho t.r:lnsit.iotl rrgion fro111I ~ ~ t l r a ~ ~ l i csn~ootli ' ~ r i l l y flow t,o t:t)n~l)lt~t~t~ly r o ~ l g lflow :Ire SIIOIVII ~)lol,trtl ~ against, I - , kS/v i t 1 Fig. 20.21 ; 1.11(: poit~l,s S ~ Y - I I to :IIT arrange 1.hc1nselvcs exc.crtlingly wc:ll on on(: rrlrvt,. Writing cqn. (20.32) for t.hc :&xisof I.hr pipr ! / I I , 16 -- I l tliffcrcncc ~j -- u , we obtnitl the vr,loc:it,y-t\rfi,ct cq~int.ion (20.23):
1

tt~o c.onst,nnt,y still clrprtltlirtg on t,l~n rlat,~lrc t h r pnrt.icrllar roughness. Comparing of this cclrii~tior~ wiLl~J . Nikr~mtlsc'smeast~rcmenk,we fil~(lthat they can, in fact, be rrprrsctttstl by a n cclaation of the form :

; ~ r ~ tSor~i~ilrg l 11117

- --

Uv*

u
-

R R = 2-5 Ill -- = 5.75 log -- ,

Y
Y

(20 23)

620

XX. Tnrbnlcnt flow tlvough pipes

f. Rough pipes and cquivalcnt sand rough~icsa

02 1

9-70

Fig. 20.22. Universal velocity profile for turbulent flows tl~rongli pipcs wliich is valid for sinooth as wcll as for rongli walls, after N. Scholz [65]
(1) amoolh, l n n ~ i n n rrublnyer, q (2) amonlh. t!lrbulcnt. cqn. (20.14) (3) roltgll, t ~ ~ r b a l c n l , eqn. (20.33a) with D , from eqn. (20.33b)

- 3W -1m

- 3 m '@

m01 u1

nm 7 Jm a

Fig. 20.21. Ilonglincss futlction Jl i r ~h r n ~ s of t'llrvc (1): I ~ y d r r ~ t l l r f i l l y stnoolk, e q n . (20.3:l):r u r v e (2):

?I,

II

- 8.5;

k s / v , for Nilturarlsc's sand ronghncna

completely

rongl,

in See. X X d for the case of smooth pipes. The relation is simplest for tile complelely rough regime. We begin by calculating t h e mean velocity from cqn. (20.23) in the same way a s in eqn. (20.26):
13.
L -

I1 - 3.75 v* .

(20.34)

onr:c morc. It 1i:ls hccri for~ntlto :~pply to srnootli pipcs in conncxion wit,h Fig. 20.7. 111ortlcr t.o soc morc c:lcarly the conncxion bctwccti the velocit*y tlistributions for smootli and roiigh pil)cs, it is oscful t.o re-plol tlic results for rough pipcs in the form of a rrlatioti l~ct,wccnt,hc tlirncl~sionlcssvcloc:ity IL/V* = 4 ant1 t>lioRcynolds 1iuni1)cr ! v*/v = 91, as was tloric in ccln. (20.13) ant1 Fig. 20.4 in rolatiori t o smooth / pipes. \Irriting cqn. (20.32%)lor L11c ror~ghpipe in thc form
v*

Substituting C/v, i. e.

= v,

(2.5 In R/ks 1- 8.5) from eqti. (20.32a), we have

= 2.5 .

1n (R/ks)

4-4.75

or

118 = ( ~ , / 6 ) ~ [2.5 In (R/ks) -1- 4,761-2 , =

1= [2 log (Rlk,)

+ 1.G8]-2 ,

= 5.75 log

: + Dl v
ks "*

(cotnplctcly rough) ,

(20.33a)

ant1 comparing it with cclns. (20.33a) ar~cl(20.32a), we olltain

which is the quadratic resistance formula for complclcly rough flow. I t was first derived by Th. von KLLrmiLn (Chap. X I X [17J)from thc simi1arit.y law. A con~parison with J. Nikuradse's experimental results (Fig. 20.23) shows t h a t closer agrrcrncrit, can be obtained, if the constant 1.68 is replaced by 1.74. ITence the resislnnce formula for the completely rough regime becomes

D, = 8.5 - 5.75 log -

(~oniplct~oly rough) .

(20.33b) The experimental results lie very closc to a straight line in a l,lot, of 1/1/1 ; t p i n s t log (Rlk,) and it is worth noting t.lrnt rqn. (20.35) rnay bc ;q)plictl to 1)ilx:s wiI.11 nori--

,.liis vclocily tlisl,ribtition is sect1 plot,tctl in Fig. 20.22, .alter N. Scholz [W]; it l
rc:prcs(:rit,s tlic voloci(.y rlislribuLion for srnoot,l~ pipcs as wcll as t h a t for rough pipes, in acaortlnncc witth cqn. (20.33a). 'L'lic clingram corisists of a family of parallel straight litit:s u,ilih V+ kS/v playing the part of 8. parameter. 'rho value of v, ks/v = 5 correspon(ls 1.0 I~ytlrartlic::~.lly srnooth walls, tlic range bctwcen o, ks/v = 5 t o 70 corresponds t,o I.r:~nsit.ionfrorti t.lic Ilytlr:rt~lically smooth t o tfhc cotnplcLcly rough regime, and as for a, k,/v > 70 1.11t: flow is c:omplcl.ely ro~~g-11,mdntionccl previously. Tn particular, t.ltc: tli:~gr:rmshows cl~::~.rly tlic Ianiitiar sn1)-laycr which reaches a s far a s ?/v*/v = 5 l,ltat in 11y~I1.:111li(::~lly stnoot11 pipes, 11as no itiil)t~rt.a~i(:c c:omplctciy ronglt wnlls. for Ilt.lntic)t~1tc.lwc.c.11 rc.sistnncr: fort~l~rla velocity distribntin~~: type of rclaand 'I'liis I ion (.xist.; for rottgli pipcs nlso :r11t1 ran l w tlrd~lc:cdin the same mnnnrr as was clone

An equation which corrclatos tho wl~ole1r:tnsiLion rcgion from liytlrnnlirally stnootli to completely rougli flow was cstabliulicd by Colchrook aticl Whik [GI:

For ks - + 0 t.his equation trartsiorms into cqn. (20.30),valid for Iiyclranlit::~llynn1oot.11pipes. For R + m, it transforms i n t o cqn. (20.35) for Lllc con~plctclyrough rcgimc. I n t,lic: tr:%nsition region eqn. (20.35a) plok 1 against R in a way wliiclt rrscniblns the curvc labelled "commercially rough" in Figs. 20.18 and 20.25.

622

X X . TttrhttlrrtL Ilotv tltln~ttgl1 pipns

g. Other types of ~ O I I ~ I I I I C S R

623

circt~ln.r cross-sectional nrcas if R is rrplnccd by the hydraulic ratlius R, = 2 A/C ( A -- area; C -= wettcd pcrimetcr). If, is also c:tsy t o tlcrivc t,he relat,ion between thc resistance law ant1 the veloc:ity tlis(ril)ut.ior~t 1 1.110 Irnn..~ilionrrgion,. From cqn. (20.32) we have i

On 1.hc other h:tntl, from cqn. (20.34) we olrt,ain

nntl the precctling eqnation gives

ant1 plol,t.ed in Fig. 20.4. The limit of t,hn I ~ ~ c l m t ~ l i c astnoolth rcgin~e1 1 , k,s/~l : 5 lly givcs t,hc t,hicltness of the laminar sub-layer nntl coir~citl(:s wit.11 1.l1climit ol' Lhc r:iny,c: in which the Ilngen-Poisc~tillc,purcly Intnin:r.r, vrloc:ity-tlisI,ril~~~f.iot~rc.l.:titrs il,s I:lw valitlity. 'l'l~c! litnit, of v, ks/v 70 for 1 . h ~ trxnsit.ion:rl rogiritc: ;~.lso c:oit~c~itlt~s 1.11~: \r il.11 d goes over t;~.ltgrt~l,i:~.IIy 1 . 1 1 ~ i111.o point whrrc 1 . 1 1 ~m c n s ~ ~ r cvclority tlistril)t~t,iot~ 1og:lrit-hinic l'ormi~la (20.14) in fi~llgturbulent frict,ion. S. Goldstein [19J sncreccletl in dctl~lcing litnit. of v, ks/v ==5 for l,lto I ~ y t l ~ i r t t,hc lically smool,l~ regime from the cribcrion t,l~nt t 1.hnd point a von I<:irn~:itivort,cx a st.rct:t is n l r ~ t t t ~ 1)cgin In for171on :tn it~divitl~~:l,I 10' l~rt)l,i.~tsiot~. At:(:ortling 1,o I I I ~ ~ : I S I I ~ V n~entcr on circularcylintlcrs pcrforn~ctl by I?. Ilornnnn 1.l1is oc:ctlrs nl, :I. Itryttoltlx rlr~nrbcr 80 t o 100, whvre tho Itcynolcls numhcr is formet1 with 1.11~tliatnt:l.c~~ of and tllre free-st.renm velocity (Fig. 1.6). I n a more recent invcnt,ignl.ion J . (1. Ito1t.a 1581 l'our~tlt,ltat I,l~o t.l~ickncss the laminar sr~b-layer s~nn.llt:rfor a ror~gh of is \v:rll 1 II:LII for a stiioot.lt one 1.0 which eqn. (20.15n) was founcl to a.11ply.

Fig. 20.23. Reaiatance formul:~ snntlof roughened pipea in completrly rotlglr rcgitnc
Cllrvc: ( I ) from cqn. (20.35)

'I'ltr last c~clnat,ion dt:t,rrminrs tlrr. valr~c t,hc resist.atrcc cocl'licie~rt if t.11~ of 1 cunst,ant I3 is Irnown l'rom t.he vt~loci1.y tlisLribnt.ion. 011t , l ~ c ot.l~cr hn11t1, cqn. (20.36) c:nn be ~tsrtl10 tltbtcrtninc t , l ~ ror~st:i,t~t ns :t f~lnrtionof a, k,/l~ either from t,hc velocit,y r I{ tlist.ril)t~f.ion froin 1,ho rcsist,nncc~ or formrlln. 'l'l~c plot in Fig. 20.21 agrees well with t . I t ( ~ rrsttlLs from eii,l~rr t,l~rso of ~r~ct~ltotls provcq (.hat t.hc calcnlat,ion of t,hc ant1 vc~lo~if~y tlisI,ril)~~l.ion front I,III! rt:sisfs:~nce I'orrnr~lnis prrt11issil)lc for rorlgh pipcs too. 'l'hr 1itnit.sbcl>wc:rnt J ~ c thrcr rogitncs, tiamrly t.11oso of l~)~tlrn~~licn.lly flow, smooth t,hc t.rattsiI.ionn1 rrgitnr, :tntl t.hc con~~)lt~t,cly regime, whiclt 11n.ve I ~ r r r ~ ronph given t::~rlicr,c:tn t ~ o wI)o t.nltcn tlircclly from Fig. 20.21. Wc Iinve

The roughness ohtrsincd by Nilturadso \vit,l~ snr~tl (!;In Irc saitl to 111: ol' I I I : L S ~ I I I ~ I I I I tlcnsity, t~ccar~sc grains of sand were gluctl t o the wall as closc:ly tfot!:tt:It o(,11(!t.:I.* the possil,lc. In many practrical applicat.ions l , l ~ c rougl~t~css tlt~ttsi1.y tS1tt! \v:tlls is c.ot~of sitlcrnbly smaller, and such rougl~ncssescan no longer hc tlcscribctl I)y t l ~ c i~~tlic:il ion I~riglit a prot.r~tsion, or by t,l~c of k, rclat,ivc mrnsrlre k / l l only. I t is c:onvc~nicr~l, 1.0 of 1 . 1 1 ~ :I,rrnngc s11c.11 rortgl~~~csscsn S(:ILIO of ~1t1.1trlr0.d on ~OII!IJJIJ(>S.Y t i 1 1 t 1 1.0 11001)l. i I ~ t t r t ~ ~ l s t ~ ' ~ N santl ronghness for correlation because i t has bcen ir~vcsl.ig;ttrtlin a very I:~rgc~ : L I I ~ C of valr~cs R and ks/l<. The correlat,ion is sitn[rlcst in tho ootnplct.cly r o t ~ g lt~t!gin~o of ~ wl~rn, acrortling to what was said prcviot~sly,t l ~ c rcsist.:~.r~c:e conl'ficicnt is g i v r t ~by ecl11. (20.35). J t is convcnicnt to oorrrln.t,e any given ro~tgl~ncss i1,s cq~citrrlai~l wit,lr sroatl r o ~ c q h ~ant1 ~ , ~ ~ f i to tlefir~e ns t h a t valt~c it, wltirh givcs the :icl.t~:~l cocffi~it:t~l. rt;sist.:~~~ce of when inscr1,ctl int.0 eclrl. (20.35). 11. Scltlichl.ing [63] tlct,crminctl exl)orinictti.ally Iht-st: v:rlucs o f t\tl~~iv:lltvtl sirnd r o ~ ~ g l ~ nfors a large number of ro~igl~nesscs rs :trmt~gctl in n, rrg111:ir fnsltior~. 'I'hc slwc:in.l cxpcritnenbl cl~annclnsed for l.his prlrposr ltntl n rt.c.t:~ng~~lnr cross-srcl ion wit.11 1,11rcc stnooth sitle-walls antl 0110 I ~ n gilii.er(:l~nt~gt::tI)I~~ , sitlc-w:~ll whoso rottglrt~t~ss was varictl 1.0 snit t.11t: cxpcrittl~nt. I5y rnc:~s~~r.ing vc:loc.il.y tlisl,ril)t~t.iot~ ~ I.lrc: ir t,hc cent,ral rross-sr.c:t,ion it is possil)lo to tlctcrtnit~t:t,hc sl~carirtgstress on 1 . 1 1 ~ o t ~ g l ~ r wall wi1.h t.11~ of thc lognrit.hmic: fortnrrl;t ant1 I ~ n t ~ r:t.lso, t.110 ct~t~iva.lrtti, nit1 c, s:~tttl roughness. In ortlcr to d o t.llat, i is only noc:cssnry t,o tlt:t,nrtnir~ct,l~c L ronst.;i.trl. I{ in the universal e q ~ ~ a t i o n/ v * 5.75 log (l//k) -1- I{ for a givon v:~ltteol' k . 0 1 1 cotn~ = paring wit11 cqn. ( 2 0 . 3 2 ~we obt.xin tho cqrtivnlcnt snntl roughness from t,he c:q~~:rl,ior~ ) 5.75 log k,/k = 8.5 - I3 . Sornc resulls of s11c:11 m c a s ~ ~ r c r n c r ~ t s sccn st~~ntnarizotlt Pig. 20.2.4. Si~nil:tr arc it nlen.s~~remctrts wcrc carrictl out, by V. 1,. Strcctcr [73] arrtl 11. M o c l ) i ~ ~ s on 1)il)t:s [39] which hnd I~ccn mntle nr1,ificiallyro11g11 cr~tt,ii~g by threads ol'tlilPcrcnt l'ortns int,o 1.ltcm. Grnerxlly sptaking, pipes wl~ichare rrgnrtlrtl a s smooth i t t vtigitirt~ringJ I I ( ( C ~ ~ C Q cannot be taken to Irc Ir~/rltn~ilicnlly smooth. An cxarnplc of this t l i s ~ ~ t c ~ l ~ agivct~~ is t ~ c ~

624

XX. Torhltlrnt, flow Lhror~gh pipea

g. Otlicr Lypcn of ror~glinms

626

in Fig. 20.18, \vlierc rcsr~lt,sof t.hc mc~s~lrc!rnc:t~f,s c~r~ic:tl ollt, I)y 1%. I$:~IIvI. :1,1111 P.Cnlavics [3] on a "eomrncrcially smoot.ll" stccl lip(: wil.11 n flow of 1101, w:tt,r~;Ire seen plotted together with Niler~mtlsc'svnlrics for pipes rollglionotl wit,lr sn,ntl. Tl~e tliflicl~ltyin applying tho nbovc cnlcr~lnt,ioris o ~)r:~ct.it:n.l L c:lst.s 1it.s i ~ (i . I I ~ . fact t,hnt, the value of rouglincss to 1)c ,zscril)c?d t,o a givct~[ ~ i p c 1101, I<nowl~. is Vcry exter~sivecxpcrimcr~t~al rcslllts on tlic rc:sisLnncc of cornrrit:rc:i:~Ily rollg11 ~ ) i l , r v i ;IIY: rotitfninctl i t r n pnpor 11y 1,. P. Mootly [do]. Fig. 20.25 s I i ~ \ v sl.I1:1.(~ l.11t- gt.:1.1111 2 01. &gains& for tlilrcrotil vr~ltrc:sof k,/tl is i l l cssr:t~c:citlo~~lit::ll R will1 , I . Nilc~l~.:~tIs(~'s~ . ~li: gram in Fig. 20.18. 'rhc intlivitlllal vall~csof ccluivnlcnl, rcl:rl.ivc s:l~ltl ~ . o ~ l g l i ~ ~ t ~ s s ks/d can be obtn.inccl frotn t8hcn~~xilin.ry grn1)li in rig. 20.20 ~vl~ort: 11il)t.s :I,.(: s ~ t - 1.0 r ~ llavc bccn nrrangctl in t,Ilc ortlcr of v:1111csO I I Nil<~~r:ufsc's c:tl~~iv:tlcnt: ~ . ~ ~ t l - r o l ~ g l r r ~ t ~ s s scnlc. This follows fro111 t3hc fact, t.tint the vnlt~csof 1 ill l,c!r~nsor ks/tb ngrt:t- \ v i ( . l ~ Nikuratlse's vnlrlrs from Pig. 20.18 in !.lie co~nplct~clrougl~reginlo. 'l'lio (,l.:l~isil,io~l y from hydmrllicnlly srnoot.li contlitions a t small ltcynoltls rir~ml~ors colnplrlc t.o rouglincss a t large Itcynoltls nurnl)crs occurs mllcli rnorc gr:ul~~nlly srlcl~ ill t:o~ii~norci:l.l pipes than in Nilcnrnclsc's nrl.ificinlly ror~gliorlntlont:s.

regrtlar rougliness pattcrnr after H. Sclilichting [G3]

- nctllsl llcigl~t 01 I!rotrnsinn; k, - cqui\ r i r n l sand rouglanesrs
k

J'ig. 20.26. Auxiliary diagram for Llle evaluation of cqr~ivalent relative sand rortghncsa for cotnniercial pipes, afkr 1,. P.Moody [40]
a) rivclcd steel b) rrinrorcrd concrctr

c)

wc w1

cl) cnal iron a) ~alvanizcd ntccl I) bltl~mcn-ronto~l slcel g) olrllctllrnl nnrl fc>rgeil slrvl 11) clrnwn plpcs

in Fin. 20.26. T l ~ c hrokrn llnc I n c l i r n l n tho hollndnry of tltc complctcly rongk rcpimr w l ~ r r cI.lte qaadrslie law or friction npplfcs

Fig. 20.26. 1tcsist.anccof commercially rortgh p i p after I,. P. Moody [40] k, - eqilivnlcnt rnnd r n i t g h n e r ~ ,to he dctrrminnl i n psrtim~lnrcwcs frnnl tlic suxillnry grnpll

I t is somctimos irnpossil~lct o fit cornrncrc.ially rollgli s ~ ~ r f n c snbisfacLorily into cs tJ~c scale of sand ror~ghness.A peculiar type of roltghncss giving very Inrgc valr~es of tJic rcsist.sncc cocfficicnt was tliscovered in tltc water clr~cti11 t,l~c vnlloy of ~,II(: 15cle(.r 168, 821. Tliis pipe I~ntl tliamctcr of 500 nun and nllcr n long ~ ~ c r i oor tts:igt? a tl it was r~oticctit , l ~ sthc mass flow tfecrcasctl by more t,hari 50 per cent. IJpol~c.xntnit r~nt.ion was forrnd t;lint trhc walls of the tluct, wcrc covcrccl wit11 a rill-like tlcposit, it only 0.5 mm high, the ribs being a t right anglcs t.o thc flow tlircct.ion. Tlills t,hc geometrical rougllness had t h e small value of k / R = 1/500, but the effect,ive sand

626

XX. 'rnrb~rlentflow through pip@

h. Flow in cttrvrtl pipes nntl rliffr~scrs

627

roughness showctl vnlrlrs of k s / R = 1/40 to 1/20, a s calclllated from the resistance coefficient wl~icliwas, in turn, ilctcrmiticd with t h e aid of the mcasnred values of niasn Ilow. It npl)cnrs, therefore, t h a t rib-like corrugations lead t o much higher rcsistnr~ccs thnn saritl rorrghness of thc name nbsolrite dimension. Extcnsivc experiments on tho incrt:asc in the rcsistnnce found in commercial ducts, for example in mine shafts, can be fortnd t1cscril)ed in a paper by E. IIuebner [26]. Purt.licr tlct.nils rot~ccrnirtgt,l~c rrsisl.:~trccoffcrc?ti t o flow by rough wnlls, perticularly t.hosc tlr~ct o single protrrlsions, will be givcn in Chnp. XXt in conncxion with t,hc ( I ~ ~ C I I S S ~ O I I t.hc r~sistnnccof flat plnt,rs. ntl

may be u s d for values of t h e parameter D exceeding about 102-6. TThc rcs~tlts of mcnsuremenB rirc approximatcd with a higher dcgrcc of precision by the following empirical equntion, first given by L. Prnndtl 1531 :

'J'lris cqnnI,ion givcs gootl n.gmcmcnt wit,lr cxporirnc~iLnlrcsr~ltain t.hc? r:l,tlfio

h. Flow in curved pipes nttd d i u u ~ c r ~

Carved pipca: 'l'lir prcc.rtling considcrnt,ions conrcrnirtg pipe flow n.rc vnlitl only t,hc for sl.r:ligittspipes. J I Iclrrvccl pipes there r x i s b a, scrontl:try flow h c r n ~ ~ s n pnrticlcs ncnr t.hc flow axis wllicll 11:tvca 11igl1ervclocil,y arc act.ccl rlpon ljy n lnrgcr ccnt.rifugal force t.hnn t.llc slower pnrticlcs near the walls. This Icntls t o 611e ctncrgcnce of a scc:ontlnry flow which is tlirectctl or~twxrds t.hc rcntrr a n d inwards (i. e. towards in t.11~ ccr~t~re rr~rvat~nrc) tl\c wall, Fig. 20.27. of nrnr r J l ~ irtflr~t?nrc c t ~ r v n t ~ l is strongnr in 1nlni11:~r e of rr than i n t , r ~ r l ) ~ ~ lflow. C. AT. rnt, \Vllitc [RO] :~ntl Atllnr (21 rnrrictl ant. cxprri~nonl~n In.lnirr:~r ]\.I. otl Ilow. '1'110 I , ~ ~ r l ~ t ~ l c r ~ l ~ case was invcsLigntc-cl c!xi)rdrnont.nlly by 11. Nippcrt [47] anti 11. lticl~t~or [5G]. Theoretical cnlculations for the laminar case were carried out, by W.R. Dean [lo] nntl RI. Atllrr 121. '1'11e c~l~n.rac:t.rcistic tlitnrnsionlcss vnrinl)lc, whir11 tlct.crmincs t.ltc inllr~c~rlcc r ~ ~ r v : ~ it1~ /her cn ~ n i ~ l n r of t ~ l cose, is the Ijecot itumber
3

M. WhiI,c [ R I ] has Pol~rlclt , l ~ a lt.11~: rrsisl,nnc:r c o c f l k i r ~ ~ t lr~rhulctrl lloro for rrlrvrd pipc can hc rc~)resentctlby t,hc ccluation
C).

ill

a.

whosc form indicates rlcnrly t i ~ n t ])ran nr~rnbrr no lollgcr srrve a s n ~ l l i t n l ~ l r ttlc can independent variable. In more recent times, JI. G Cuming [R] carried out an irivcsti' g,ztion into the phcnomrnon of scrondarg flow in rurvctl piprs.
I n the laminar cnsc 1 t ~ ) [26a] cxt,crldctl t.hc vslidit,y of eqn. (20.40) 1.0 lower I)can n111n11t-rs, Annor(linu 1,o I I ~ R c t ~ l n ~ ~ l n t~ i, ItI ~ rcsist,:~n(*t!i ~ t ~ f I i t : i t * t r ~ , is givt-tt l ~ , y o ~~x t! 1

in wlricl~JZ -T= 2 D. I f trllc 11t1mcri~1~1 eocffiricl~t, ~ ~ l . ~ i t I c I ) ~ ~ c ? I I I ~ I I c s ~ ~ s rrltl:t~~t1 o tllte is by 0.101, the equation gives good agreement with experirnentnl r e s ~ ~ lin the range t~s of K > 30. t of I n t h e t i ~ r b u l c n case I t o 1271 11nssllown thcoret,ic:nlly t h a t the ~,nt,io I.II(: ~.osintance coefficients, I/Ao, may bc exprcs3ed in tcrrrls of t.hc ditncnsiotilcs-q vnriahle R ( R / r ) z .The experiment.al reslllts of J t o [28J can hc represent,ecl wit11sr~fncirnt ~ICCIIracy by the equations mentioned in tltc footnote.
I 1 flow through a bend or elbow t.herc is not only some loss of enorgy within t,he 1 bend itaelf, bnt n part of the Ions p r o t l ~ ~ c cby tile bent1 t,nkcs place in the st.might. d pipe following it. 15xt.ensive measnremcnts of 1.11~loss cocfficicnts for srnootlr pipe bends and n correlation of result8 wore given by 11. Ito 1291. Thcorctica.l rrs~tlt.s nrc reported by W. M. Collins e t ai. [Sb]. In flow through a radially rotating st,raight pipe, n. secondary flow sirnilnr t,o t h a t found in a curvctl pipc is sct, n p l)y t,lic action of n (hriolis f o r r r ; it. fiirt,s risv 1.0 n Inrgc incrcctsc in resisl,r~ncc.I3xt,c11sivc:~ncnsurrrncnta:r.rtcl t.11corct.ic:~l c:t~l~:l~l;~t.ions oil this subject were carried out by 11. Tt,o and l i . Nanbu 1301.

wl~c~rc ie t311rrntlirts of t,lrr rross-src.tioti nntl r is l,ho rndir~s c~trvnt,crrc. N of

'l'lt(: I I I < - : I S I I ~ ~ I I I ~ - Ir:t~,ritltlorti, 11s Arllcr for the vnluns: r1.R = 50, 100, txntl I~S Rl. 200, tlrn~onstr:~l.c~tl c~xisl.crrc.n n Inr~t:i~lcrcasc the rrsisl,xnrc t.o flow rn~tsetl t.l~c, of in \by lhc* c.rr~\.nt.rlrrfor R 1' A'/, > 10'12. Ac.rortling t o his c:rlt~~~I:tl~ions rrsisbnncc t.hr

rot~l'firit:~tt. liw I;rt~~innr in 1 Ilow

:I.

r ~ ~ r v 1);pr is give11 I)y c~l

H. I t o [27] givcs:
1 ( ~ ) r ' 2 = 0 0 2 8 1 0301
;

ROO >- R ( R/r)*

0 0:) 1

and Fig. 20.27. Flow in Prnntltl [52]

n

c.nrvrtl ~~il'c, aflrr These differ somewhat from, hut are in gonernl nprecmcnt wit,l~, M. IVl~itc'~ C. rqnnt,iot~ RI)OVC.

628

XX. T ~ t r b n l oflow through pipes ~t

i. Noa-shady flow throngh a p i p

029

15xttcnsivc mcasurcrncrlt~s ant1 ljlicorcLical calc~lat~ions frictional losses in on turbulcr~t flow have also bcen carried out. hy R. W. Dctra [ll] who inclridcd curved pipos of nonrircrtler cross-sectlion in his inve~t~igations. is found t,haS the resistranee It offcrctl by a n nllipt,ic pipe is greater when the major axis of the ellipse lies in the plane of C I I ~ V ~ ~ than Cwhen it is pcrpcr~diculnrt o it. I I ~ 11:. l<cclrcr 141 stutlicd secontlnry flows in a rcctatigtllar cltal~nol of constant c ~ ~ r v a t , ~in cwItic:l~ tllo rndial cxt-cnt of t,lte cross-scct,ion is mnch larger t.ltan its rr I~eight. 'l'hc formation of dcad-wal,cr arcns and scparat,ion in a 90 rcctnngular bcritl proviclctl with a sltarp ent,rxncc was invcst,ig;lt,cd by 1). IIaasc [21]. Dinu~ers: .J. Ackcrot [I], IT. Sprcngcr [69, 7 1 a s wcll as S. J . Iclinc and his 0 colla1)orators 116, 34, 411 performed n Iargc number of experimental irivest,ignt,ions in0o t.11~ ci~ar:l.c:t~cristics sl,rnigl~t of ant1 c~trvctltlilT~lscrs.Onc of tllc most iinport~n.nt8 resr~lI,s l.hrsc rcscnrchcs is the ~st~ablisllnlcnt t,llc fact tllat the tllickncss of Lllc ol' of l1nrb~~lcnt bonntlnry laycr aL inlct c x c r b a very large infll~cnccor1 tho cficiency of pmssilrc rccovcry. This is tlefined as

llcrc 71 tlcrlot,rs tllc st,at.ic pressure and ii 1 . 1 1 ~ Incan velocity ovcr tlic cross-soctiorr, w11orr:r.ss~tbsorip(.s and 2 rcfcr t,o contlit,ions a t inlct and cxit, rcspcctivcly. 'l'lic 1

diagram in Fig. 20.28 rcpresenk tlie variation of cffioiency with the mtio 2 r ~ , l / l l l for dilfuscrs with circular cross-sections. The symbol dl, denotes tllc tlisplaccrnon~ tl~ickncssa t inlet, and D l is the corrcsponding d i f f ~ ~ s c r tliamct,cr. For s0might tliffusers q, = 0.9 when the displacement t~hicknessa t inlct, rYll, cnnst,itut.cs O.ljfl/, of the radius 4 D l and falls t o r], = 0.7 wllcn dl, increases t,o 6 % of I),. It, is fnr1,hcr rccognizcd t h a t f.hc cfficicr~cytlccrcnscs sttrongly as t.hc angle: ol' tlollcxion incrcascs. It, 11au been also cst.ablishctl tltat, t J ~ c sltnpc of bl~ccross-scc:l,iot~:it. i~tlct~ plays a n importnnt part whon t l ~ c tliff~lscris crtrvc:tl. For cxntnplc, wllntl I,l~o clrosssccl.ion is circi~lar inlct and clliptic a t cxil, thc cfficicrlc:y q, is corlsic1cr:~l)ly at, low!:r if tlic major axis of t,ltc cllipsc is placctl in thc planc of c~lrval~urc. (,he m:~jorn.xis if is turned t o be a t right angles to t l ~ c plnnc of cnrvaturc, tllc cflirirnry I .,. in(*rc:~srs. ] ,. . Tn t,hc former cxsc there ariscs a much more vigorous sccontlary flow wllicl~lo;~tis t o incrcasccl losses. r J . Ackcrct suct:ootlctl in tllcort:l,icnlly ni~lcc~lr~l~itlgc:f'fic:ic,t~cy ~,III: of a straight tliffuscr whose cross-scotions arc circrllar. 'l'his was dono wil,ll 1.11~ aid of the equations for tnrbulcnt, bonndary lnycrs cont:~inctlin Chap. XXI I. It, is sccn from Fig. 20.28 t h a t t,llis cnlcrllntion agrccs wcll wiI.11 mcasurcmc:nt,s. S,yst,crn:~t.ic calcr~lations bountlary lnycrs in strnigllt cliffusers wcrc also pcrrormcd I)y If. Schlirhon ting and K. Gersten [64]. 'rhcse Iced t o the conclusion tallat thcrc exists a n opti~nrtrrl included angle of divergence, 2 a , for cliffusers of equal nrca mtio (inlet to cxit,) nnd cqnal Rcynoltls nrlml)cr at, cntxy. 'rho c!fficic:ncy, 9 l n , l111:n :~t~l.airls tnaxiln~~rn. a 'l'llt: opt.imum :ttlglc tics I)ctwccn 2 a .-.r :1 rintl 8O :tnt1 tI(~~:rc:is(!s III1t: I t t : ~ t ~ o IItI I I I ~ I is : ~ . :is l~ M increased. I n this conncxion attcntion is tlrawrl C tlic cxpcri~ncrltals(,uclirs on di11'usrrs o performed by 1'. A. 1,. Winternitz ant1 W. J. Ramsay 1831 and by J . S. S o l ~ r y [GSb]. A summary review of the mechanics of flow in diff~tscrswas prcparrtl by I). J. Cockerel1 and E. Markladd 171.

i. Non-steady flow thror~gha pipe

The problem of pulsating flow, i. e. of a steady mean flow on which there is superimposed a periodic pulsation, was investigated by F . Schultz-Grunow [GF]. 'I'he experimental arrangement consisted of a pipc wl~icli was fed with watcr a t a cot~st.nrlt liearl and wl~oseend scction was rhythmically incrcnscd arid dccrcasctl in arca. 7'11~ vclocity profilesfor theperiodsofacceleration and clecelcration, rcspectivcly, differ marltcdly from one nnotthcr. They are very similar t o st~eacly-flow profiles t.hroug11 a gradually convcrgonl pipc or cllnnncl (Illring l,llc 1)eriotls of ncccrlorrtl,ion, tint1 t l ~ t r i ~ t g ( ' I . ~ ~ I I H I) of decelerition they rcsemt)le st,eatiy-state profilcs in a tlivergcnt cllnnncl (tlill'nscr), a s explained i n Chap. X X I I , where such profilcs will bc found plottctl in tlet,nii. I n certain circumstances both reversal of flow and separation near t.11~ wall mny occur during periods of deceleration. The time-averaged vsluc of the coefficient, of resistance does not differ considera1)ly from its steady-state value whcn the pulsations [67] are gradual and slow. I n a further paper, F. Scln~lt~z-Grunow ilescribetl a practical of method for the meas~lrcment the rate of discharge in pulsating flow. Pig. 20.28. DiKuftcr emriency in straight and corved diff~lserswith rirc~~lar cross-sections. Efficiency definctl in cqn. (20.43). Diagram reprcqcnts dependence on rntio of boundary-layer t/ticknr~s rndi~~fi rro~s-sccLi~t~ to of a t ont,ry; after J. Ackcrct [ I , la] and IT. Sprengcr [70]

630

X X . ' I ' I I ~ ~ I I I ~ It*l~ r o.~ ~ a h flow . ~ ~ 11ipc:s

j. Drag reduction by the ndclition of polymers Tn t , u r b ~ ~ l e flow, t.11~ nt prrssnre d r o p in n pipe can be considerably reduced relar tive t o erln. (20.00) by t , l ~ntltlition of snrnll qunntitics of polymer part,icles. I n laminar flow, similnr nrltlilivcs leave t h e pressure d r o p 1)rncticnlly rrncl~angrd. h e e x t e n t of T d r a g r ~ d r t e l ~ tIc~)cnds t h e tnolccrllnr weight of t,he polymcr a n d on its c o r ~ c c n t r a io~~ 011 tion. '131~grnplr of I i i g 20.29 dcucribcs 1.11~ rcsist,ancc cocflicicnt,, 1, a s a function of tho licynoltls n ~ ~ t n b c r = S ' d / v p - where v p is t h e kinematic viscosit,y of t h e soluR t,ion - for dill'crcnt vnlucs of t h e conccntrn1,ioll c of t01e solntiot~. 'rhe measr~rerncnts were perfortnrtl by R.M1. I1nt,ct~sort n d P. 11. ~ \ b c r n n t , l ~ y a [50nJ. As t h e c o n c e n t , r a t i o ~ ~ incrcnscs, t,he rrtlrlcrtl rrsisl,n.nce cocfficirnt tcncls t,o a curve of m a x i m u m redr~ctiotr, c u r v c (3), intlicatetl b y 1'. S . Virlc 1771. 'The diagram of Fig. 20.29 tlisplnys poitits obtnincd a t two measuring stations along t h e pipe. T h e diflkrence in t , l ~ evalues of t.hc resistn~rcncoefficient n t hhosc t w o sections is cxplsinetl by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e polymer tnolecriles ?re t m n npnrt in t h e t u r h u l c n t st,rcarn resulting in a n effective t l e c r e ~ s ein concentration in t h e rlownstrenn~direct,ion. I n spite of intensive rcsearch i n t o this phenomenon (c/. t h e pnpcr I)y M.T. IAnndahl[36]), no satisfactory cxplarlntion for its occurrence h a s y c t been advanced. Nevert-heless, experiment,^ de1n0nst.r~t.er~nmiutnlral)lyt h a t t h c r e t l ~ ~ c t i oin tlrng is linked t o changes in t h c n stxncture of tthc 1,nrl)ulrncc. T h e proccss is bcst illustratetl wit,li t h e aid of t . l ~ e experimcnt,n.lly rlct,erminctl ve1ocit.y-tlisttributsionInws.

(3) 'rile zonr tlcsrril)rrl a s "rlastic~" 'I'l~is zone plnrc,s itsrlf I ) c t n r r n 1h r In n~innt.
sublayer a n d t h e fully tlr\-cloprd t u r l ) r ~ l c n trrgion 1771. l l o r c f l ~ cvrlocity is rrpresrntrtl b y t l ~ c log:~rithtnicInw

..

Illis law is vnlid For nll int,ent,s ~LII(Ipttrposrs ILN fn,t. :LS 1,111: c : c ~ t i t . ~ ~ ~ * the* l)il1<!Sot, of sul'ficirnl.ly high cotlcc.r~ trntions. In itnalogy wit.l~ccln. (20.:%0),we c:nn in tcg~.;~t.c it, to drrive t.11~ rcsistn.rrce formula
ii -I -- on log (_)d IX
-- 19.3 (high l w l y n ~ e r o t ~ ( ~ r t > l r n t i o t ~ s ) .

(20 i.5)

T h e prcrrtlitig rqnnt,ion r a n be rcgartlcd a s nn nsyrnpt,otir Inw for t l ~ c In~,gc,sttl~.:rg rctlr~c:t.ionnt,bninnble. 1Sspcri1nents by I'.S. Virlc 1781 hrivc sllown, f~tt.l.l~c~t., (IIC l.l1:11 cn'cct ofstrrfncc ror~ghncss su~~prcssc*tln Inrge i ~ s t . c t ~ tI .flows of ~ ~ c ~ l y t n c - t is t.o ~ I sol~tl.ions. r . I his ~,t.ol)lrtnnrcn hns recently I)crr~t.rpot.t,ctl (:sl.c*~tsivc~ly un lnt.cr~~:~lionrrl nl SYIIIposiilni [ l f , n ] ; compnrc also t.11~ rrvicw Ijy N. S. l3ckrrnn.n 14.21.

( I] ;rkeret., J . : (:rcnzscl~ichtrn in gcrnclrn r~nrlgekrii~n~nI.cti I)ill'~tsorrn.111'1'~1bl-Sy1nposi11111

nn

- k i l t r n ~ n t i rvisr~oeltyof t,hr rr~lt~tlon

(1) lnn~irrnrflow wit11 1 = 64/R (2) t l ~ r t ~ e l c n t now. Nnwtonlan nllla,

0
A

- ~lnrnsrlril~~ at alntlcrs st.nl.Ioeat

n~rnsrlrin~

214 cl frrrnl lolet 1641 d from irllrt

(3)

elin. (20.6) nryn~ptots rnaxin~nnl for rlrn~rcclrlrlionnlter 1'. S. Virk [77),rqn. (20.46)

Fig. 20 2!). I l r o i s t n ~ ~ c r e o r f f i c i 1,oft ~111ootl1 r~~ , pipes in t~~rbr~letrt of polyn~ersolutio~~a flow ns nfunction of II.P~IIoI(Is I I I I I as~ ~ n r n s ~ ~by d . W. Pntcrson nntl F. H. Ahernathy r60]. Solntionn of I I ~ ~ rr R 1)olye*l I~ylrrlr oxirle of givrn roncentrntions r ; 1 1)1)111 dcsignatcq I g of polyn~rr 106 g of watt-r per

f\r.c:orrling l,o I'.S. Virlc [78, 793, dist.ril)r~Lion zones: (1) 'I'hc Intninnr s n l ~ l n y e r(0

it is necessary t o distinguish t h r e e velocityr

$

< 17 < 10); t h i s corresponds t.o curve ( I )

in Fig. 20.4.

(2) 'IYic frilly tlovrloprtl t.nrl)r~lent zone. TTcrc t h e distribr~t~ion follows t h e law nccortling t.o rcln. (20.1:1) wit,l~A 1 = 2.5 rrgnrdlnss of t,Ii(- physicnl propert,ics of t>hn sol~tt,ion. 'I'll(, c:onsl~:~.nl. 14 vnrics st,rongly wi1,h t l ~ r c:onccntrr~tion.

t(reiburg/Br. 1!)57 (H. Gvrtler, etl.). Ilcrlin, 1958, 22-37, [In] AcLc.rrt, . I . : Asl)coLq of inlarnnl Ilow. lfll~~iiiI ~ C ~ I I ~ I I ~of. Hinf.c.rnnl flo\v ((:. Sovrirn. c.rl.). II ( lCI8cvit*rI'11blin11ingConri~nny,A I I I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I I I'ork,/ ~ , ~ I I I- -~24. ~ I I / N ~ ~ ~ I I I l!)l;7, ~ [2] Atller, hl.: Stroninng in gckriim~ntrtrJlohrcn. ZAMM I d , 257--275 (1!)34). 131 Bauer, B., and (;alnvics. F.: I':xperin~cntallc IIII~J tlioorrtiscl~oUntrrs~trl~r~ngon din iiljrr Rol~rreibungvon H e i z a ~ n s s e r l e i t u r ~ ~ ~ ~d. J"rrnl~rizk,afL~wrkc:~l hlitt. . tl. IC'I'II Ziiriel~I!):l(i; see nlso: F. Galnvics: Scl~\r.cizer Arcl~iv5, 12, :!:I7 (1!)3!)). [4] Becker, E.: Beitrag zur Rcrechnrlng von Srk~~~~tl:irnIrii~~~r~r~ge~~. ZAhlM Jfi. spccinl issur, 3--8 (1956); soc nlso: Mitt,. Max-l'lanck- Inst,. riir SI.rii~r~r~ng~forsrl~~~~~g 13 (1!)5li). [4nj L<er~nnn, . S . : Drag rrcluctir)~~) polytners. AIIII. Ikv. Iilnirl hlc*r,il.(b!. \,:LIl I)~I;,.. N 1 ~ e;rl.) 10, 47-04 (1978k , , [5] Rlasir~s, . : Ilns hnl~cl~kc~tsgcsetz lZcil)~rngsvorgKt~go~~ H bci in Plii~igkeiten.l l o r s r l ~ i\rb. ~. 1ng.-Weu. No. 184, J3crlin (1013). [5a] Clauser, F.H. : The turbulent honndnry layer. Adv. Appl. Mcclr. 4, 1-61 (I!l!ifi). /\c.ntlrrnic Press, New York. [fil)l Collins, 1V.M.. nnd Dcnniu. S.C. 11,.: 'l'l~rnlrndy ~notiol~ n visroun I l ~ ~ i it1 :I cr~rvrrl I I ~ , ~ . of il I Qunrb. J. hiech. AppI Mnbli. 28, !:I (1075). [GI Colebrook, C.F.: Turbulent flow in pipes uritlr pnrt.ic~~lnr rcferc~~co t,he t.rnnsitio~~ to rc!gio~~ between the an~ooth and rough pipe laws. J. Institution Civil 1511gincers,193!3; arc illso: Engineering hydrn~rlics(H. R,ouse, ed.). Cl~np.V1, At.mtly flow in p i ~ r s nntl condnits, by V.1,. Strceter. New Irork, 1950. [7] Cockroll, I.J., and Mnrkladd, l':.: A revicw of inc.o~nprrssillle; ) t1iE11scrflo\v. Aircr:~fl ICII~. 35, 286-292 (1963). [8] Coming. H. G.: The secondnry flow in curvccl piprs. A J t C Jl.hl 2880 (1955). [9] Darcy, 11.: Reclrercl~esexp6riment.alcn rclnI.ivca nnx rnonvc~~~cnta I'r?nr~ rlc el:111sI.II,V:LIIS. Mem. PrPs. h. l'Acnd6111ietlcs Sciences (lo I'Jnst.it~~f. P r n ~ ~ c e 141 (1858). (10 15, [I01 Dean, W.R.: Tlre strea~nline motion of n f111itlin 11cr~rvecl pipe. I'l~il. Mn.g. (7) '1, 208 (1927) and 5, 673 (1928). [I]] I>etra, R.W.: The secondary flow in cnrvnd pipes. Inst.. Acrotlyn. 1I'rII Ziirieh Ilry). No. 20 (1953). [I21 Van l)rie-qt,, E . R . : 0 1t,urhnlcnt flow nrar n mnll. .]AS 23. 1007-~-I011 1 (1956). [Is] ISckcrt, 13. It. G . , nntl Irvine, 'J'. IT. : Iflo\v it1 corners ~vitltnon-circnlxr (:rosn-sc:~~lions. 'rrnnn. ASM IC 70!) --718 (I!IT,(i); uoo n l ~ o Jr\S 22. 65---(Xi (1!)55).

632

XX. T~~rliulcnt throogh pipcs flow

1141 Eckcrt., 15.12. G., nnd Irvine, T.F.: Incon~prcssiblefriction factor, transition nnd hydrodynamic cntrnncc-length studies of drlcts wit11 trinngular n ~ rectnngr~lnrcross sections. ~ d Pnpcr prcsenbd n t Fifth Midwcstcrn Conf. on Flnirl Mecl~.1957. [IS] Pox, H.. W., and Itline, S.J.: I'low rcgitnes in c ~ ~ r v c t l subsor~icdiff~~scrs. J . Basic Rng., Trans. BSMIC $4, Scries I), 303--312 (1962). [15n] I'renkicl, F.N.. I,nndalrl, M.'P.. and I,nmlcy, -1.L. (rd.): St,ructrlrc of tr~rl)~~lcnce drag nnd roci~rctio~~. IU'I'AM S y ~ n p o s i ~ ~ m , Washington 1). C., 7 -- 12 J I I ~ I1!)7fi, 'l'he Physics of I~l~ricts, C 20, No. 10, I'nrt 11, S 1 - S 209 (II177); scc nlso 13.11. ton^ in I'roc. 111tcrr1. Congr. Rheology, North-llollnnd, A~nstcrtlarn,1949, Scc. 11, IB5. [I61 I."ribch, W.: IGinflr~sstler Wandra~~higltcit die t n r h u l c ~ ~ tGcscl~wir~tligkcibvcrtcil~~ng nuf e in Rinncn. ZAMM 6, 109-216 (1928). [I71 Fromm. I<.: Strii~nu~lgs\r.idcr~tnnd rnr1li8n Rohren. ZAMM 3. :339-358 (1923). in [I81 Friiascl, W.: Strii~nr~rig glntten, gcrndc~i t o h r e ~nit Uber- untl Untcrscl~nllgescl~windigin l ~ keit,. FOrs~llg.111g.-Wes. 7, 75-84 (19:iG). [In] (:oldstein, S.: A note or1 roughness. ARC RM 1763 (IW3). 1201 <:oldstein, S.: T l ~ e similarit~ytheory of turbulence, nntf flow Imt\'cen planes and through pipcs. I'roc. Itoy. Sor. A 159, 473-496 (1937). [?I] IInnsc, 1). : Striimung in rincln 90"-I<nie. 1ng.-Arch. 22, 282-292 (1954). [22] For atiditional references see: H. W. Ilahnemnnn: Der StrG~nungswider~tirnd h h r in lcit.ungcn uncl I~it~lngnelcmenten. Forschg. 1ng.- Wea. 16, 113- 119 (1950). [23] Jlnwt,horne, W.lt.: Secolidary circulat~ion fluid flow. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 206, 374 in 11951\. 1241 ilcrn~'nnn,R.: Expcrimentellc U n t e r s ~ ~ c h n n g ~ n Widerstnndsgesetz des ICreisrohrcs bei zurn I~ohen Iteynold~srl~en Zahlen und gromen Anlaufliingcn. Dim. h i p z i a ; Akad. Verlagsnesell- .* schnft, I,cipzig, 1930. [25] Hopf, I*.: I)io Masung dcr Iiydrnulischc~lRauhigkoit.. ZAMM 3. 329--:)3n (1023). 1261 Iliibner, 16.: Oher den J)rnckverlt~st Rohrcr~ nit Einbnuten. Forschg. 1ng.-Wes. 19, 1-16 in 1 l!)53\. [2Ga] ih], I;.: 1,nniinnr flo~vin curvet1 pipcs. ZAMM 40, 653-663 (1969). [27] Ito, J-I.: On t,hc prcworc loss of t,urhuler~tflow through curved pipes. Men). Inst. High Spccd Mcch., Tohoku Univ., Sendai, Japan, 7, 63-76 (1052). [28] I t o . H.: Friot,ion factors for torhulcnt tlo\v in curvcd pipes. Trans. ASME, Scries D. 81 (J. .B~9ic Eng.), 12:)-134 (1950); in more detail: Mom. Inst. High Speed Mech., Tohoku UIIIV.,Senclni. .Iapnn, 14, 137.- 172 (l988/59). 1291 Ito, 11.: I'rcssl~rc losses in sn1oot.h pipe I)cnds. Trans. ASMI&,Series D, 82 (J. Basic ICng.), 131-143 (19601. 1301 Ito, I{., nnd Nnnbr~,I<.: Flow in rotating straight, pipes of circular cross section. Trans. ASME, Srrirs I), 93 (J. Ilnsic ICng.), :18:3--394 (1971). (311 Jnkoli, M , and lerk, S.: Der Druckabfall in glnttcn llnhren und die Dorclifl~~ssziffer von Normnldiiscn. I'orschg. Arb. 1r1g.-Wes. No. 267. Uerlin (1!)24). 1.721 von KArnihn, l'h. : Ubcr laminare und turhulcnte Reihung. ZAMM I, 233 -2R2 (1921): see . . . .. also Coil. Works 11, 70-97. [3:l] I<irststi, $1.: Expc:rimentelle U n t c r s u c h ~ ~ n g c ~ Entwicklung dcr Gescl~wi~~diglteit,~verteidcr ~ lung tler turb~~lcnt,cn Rohrst.romr~ng.Diss. 1,eipzig 1027. [BBn] I<Ieinstc.in, G.: Genernlized law of the wall nntl eddy-viacosit,y n~odclfor wall boundnry layer. AJAA J . 5, 1402-1407 (1967). 1341 Klinc. S. J . , Abbot)t, D.E., and I'ox, I<. W.: Optimum tlcsign cif atmight-wnlled tliffusers. J . 13nnic 151ig., 'I'rans. ASME, Series 1). 8 1 , :105-320 (1989). [35] Koch, R.., rind Frind, 1C.: I)rucltvcrl~~st Wiirmeiibcrgnng in Ringspnlten. Chernic-1ng.und Tcchn. 30, 577 - 884 (1958). [96] Lnl~clnhl,M.T.: Drag rctlrlction by polymer ntldition. In: Proc. 13th Int. Congr. Theor. Appl. Merli., Moscow, Ang. 1972 (13. Scckcr and G.K. Mikhnilov, ed.), Springer-Verlag, 177- In!) (1073). I 1371 I,umlcy, J.L.: Drng reduction by ndditives. Annr~nltRevicwof Pl~ridMcch. 1, 367-384 (1969). I37nl I,oniloy, . l . L . : 1)rng reduction in trrrln~lr~it by polytncr ndditivcs. ,I. Polym. Sci. flow Mscro~nol.Itcv. 7, 263--2!)0 (1978). [38] Mcyor, R.: Eirlflllfl~ der Q,r~crsclinit.triverfor~i~~~ng Ent,wickIong der Gcschwindigkeitsnuf die und l)ruckvcrtciltrng hei t.nrbulcnbti Gcact~wi~~digkeitsverteilungen Rohren. VI)l-Forin srhllrlgshrft : H) (1!)38). 1!

[39] Mobius, If.: IEx ~eri~nentcllc Untrrs~~cl~ungcn \Vitlrrs(n~idmI I I I ~ des (lrr (Irurl~\r.i~~fligIzri(~rerteilutlg in ~ o k r e n rcgeltniiwig nngcort111ctc.nI t n ~ ~ l ~ i ~ l t r i t .t.l~rl~lllclltrr mil, 11ei r ~ i Sll.iilllllll~. I'liys. Z. 41, 202---225 (1!)40). 684 (1!),14). [40] Moody. L.F.: Friction fnctors for pipe florr. Trnns. t\Shll5 66, 671 [41] Moore, C. A., Jr., nndlCline, S. ,J. : Some effectsof vnnrs nntl of turl~r~lenre t . ~ r . o - t l i ~ i ~ r ~ ~ s i o ~ ~ n ill \\,~de-anglc subsonic diffusers. NXCA 'SN 4080 (1958). [42] Nar~n~nnn, Drr~cltverlust in Itohrctr r ~ i r l ~ t l t r c i s f i i r ~ i , ri~ r~r~ ~ l ~ ~ I~ riil t11ol11:11 A.: Q~ ~ s i . ( ~ s (:('schnintliglzcitm. ZAMhI 36, spcciiil issue, 25 (198fi); scc also Allg. \ I ' i i r t ~ ~ c t r ( . l 7.~32i k 41 ~ ~ (1956). [43] Nik~~rntlae, Ut~It:rsr~c~lrn~~gcntlio (:c?~~l~\~i~itli~lt~!itu~rrl,~~il~~~~;~ ~ ISir;).~ I I J.: iibrr in I I I ~ ~ I I I ~ I I ~ ( mungcrl. 1)iu.q. (:vtli~~ 11120; VI)l-I~orsc:l~~l~ignl~clt (I!I!!(i). en 281 [44] Nikuradse, J . : Turhufcnte Striinn~ngin ~~icl~t,lzrrisfiir~t~ige~l 111g.-~\rrl1. :106~Itohren. 1, 332 119301. >, [45] Nikurndse, J . : Gcsetz~niissipkeittler I r ~ r l ~ n l c ~ St.riili~rlngin glntte~iI<olirrn. I'c~rnr.I~g. ~tcn Arb. 1ng.-\Vcs. No. 356 (1032). [4G] Nfkurndse, ,I.: Strii1111111gsgerurt,7.~ in rauhen Itolrrr~i. I'orschg. Arb. Ing.-\\'ca. No. :llil (I!):1:1). 1471 N~ypcrt,, Ubcr den St~rii~n~lngs~vidcratnt~rl TI.: i l l grkriimn~trri I<nniiloi. l'ors(.hg. Arb. IIIR.. Wes. No. 320 (1029). 1481 Nussclt,, \Y.:\Yiirmciil)erga~igin Rol~rIcit,ur~gen. I'orsrhg. Arb. 11ig.-\\'cs. No. H!), Ilrrlin 11910). .. [49] blnb&k. 11.: nr~~ckverlunt strii~ncnder 1,uft. in grrnrlcn z y l i ~ ~ c l r i s ~ lI~ r. n l ~ r l ~ : i t ~ ~ t ~ ~ r ~ l o Forschg. Arb. 1ng.-Wcs. No. 158/159, R c r l i ~ ~ (1914). [50] Os\vnt.itecli, I<.: (:rundl:~ge~~ Gnstlynn~nik. dcr \Vicn. 1076; irlso: Cnnrlynir~nics. ICIIRI. Ir:~nsI. by a. I<ucrt.i, Amtlrn~irI'rcan, 19.56. [boa] linterson, R,. W., nncl Ahcrnathy, 1'. 11.: T ~ ~ r b r ~ lflowt tlrng rc'tluctio~~ tlrgrnrlitI.io~~ cn nncl \rit,h dilr~te poly~nornolutions. J F M 43. (it%!)-710 (11170). [51] I'rnncltl. I,.: Ober dcn licib~~ngnnidcrst.n~~cl atrii~~~cntler ICrgrb~~iusc 1.11ft.. AVA (liil lingcn, 1st. Scries. 136 (1921); see also Coll. Worlcn I I , 620-- 026 [52] Pmndtl, L.: The rncchnnics of visror~u fluids. In: W. P. J)urnncl: Acrotlyl~rin~ir '1'11(.ory, 111, 142 (1935); see also sntnrnnry by 1,. l'rnnrlttl: Ncuerc Ergcli~~issc T ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l c ~ ~ ~ f o r s r l ~ r dcr Z. VDI 77, 105- 114 (1933); see also Coll. M'orks 11, 819- 845. 1.531 Prandtl, L.: Fiihrcr durch die Striim~~ngslel~re. cct., IS!), 13rn11nschweig, 1040. Also: 3rd Essentdnls of fluid dynamics. Engl. t,rnnsl. by W.M. Ddnns. 13liickie. 1952. [54] R.eirhardt. H. : Die M'iirn~eiibcrtrng~~ng ~ ~ r h l ~ l f Rle ieb~ ~ r ~ g s ~ r l i i c I ~ t e t ~ . 297 -in t i t ~~ Z,IhlM 20, 328 (1940). [55] Reichnrdt, H.: Vollstjindige Dnrstellu~~g turbulcnten C.c~chwindigkeitsvcl.tril~~~~g cler in elatten 1-eitungcn. ZAMM 31, 208-210 (1951). 15Gi R.ichter, H.: Der Drr~ckabfnllin gckriinlnlt.cn glnttori I<.~hrlcitungcn. Fnrschg. Arli. 1rig.M'es. NO. 338 (1930). [57] R.otta, J.C.:Das in Wnndnahc giiltige Gescl~~si~~digkeitsgc~cl~z ~ l c n t r r S t , r u ~ ~ ~ u ~ ~ g e n . tnrb~ lug.Arch. 18, 277-280 (1950). rnRl l7ot.t.n. .T.C.: Cont,rol of turbulent boundnrv Inycru bv unifor~ninjection and suct,iou of fluid. . ." " ~ b DGLR, 61-104 (1970). . Snpli, V., and Schoder, E.M.: 1\11 experimental st.udy of thc rcsistnncc to the flo\v of wntcr in pipes. Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng. 51. !)44 (1903). Sr:l~illrr.1,. . von Itolrrcn vc.r~c.l~inclo~rr~~ (~r~rruf:l~nil~ltr1111tl "- - ......., . : illicr dcn St.rij~u~~neuwitlcr~l,nf~(l . 1Znol1igltcitagrntIcR.ZAMM 3 , 2 1:s (I!,P:l). : Srhill~r. Itohr\vidcrst,nnd bci hohcn Itcv~~olclsocl~cr~ I,.: Znlilr~~. I.cct.t~rcsoti ncrorlynn~ni~~s -.- .....- ., - - . and related fields, 69, Berlin, 1930. Schiller, L.:Striin~ung Rohren. Hsndb. Exper. I'hysik, Z V , Part 4, 1-210, Lcipzig, 1!)31. in Schlichting, H.: Experi~nentelleUntersuchungen zuln Ibnt~l~igkcibprol,len~. Trig.-Arch. 7, 1-34 (1936). Engl. transl. in Proc. SOC.Mecli. Eng. USA (1930); sec also: Werft, Rcetlerci, Hnferi 99 (1936);nnd Jb. SchilTbnutechn. Ges. 418 (1036). Schlicl~ting,H., and Gersten, I<.:' Uerechnt~ngder Strii~nr~ng rotnt~ionssytr~r~ictrisclirn in Diffusoren mit Hilfc dor Grcl~zscl~ichttheoric. ZFW 9, 135- 140 (1961). Srhnl~.N.: Stromunesvoreiinee in Grenzschichten. V I ) l - n ~ r 6 , 7-12 (1055). . - - - - - .- , " " durch Rohrc, Porschg. 1ng.-Wrs. 11, 170- - Schultz-Ornnow, F.: Pulsierender Durcl~fluss I87 (1940). [67] Scln~ltz-Grunow, Dtrrchfluas~ncssverfnhrenfiir pulsicrcnde St,rBrnmngen. Forsrl~g.lug.F.: Wes. 12, 117-126 (1941).
~

>

L2

634

XX. Turbnlotit flow tl~rooglrp i p

Seifertlt. R.. ant1 Kriiger, W.: Uherrmcl~ond hohr rtoibangaziffer einer Fernwnaserleitung. Z. VDl $2, IH!) (19.50). Spnlrling, 1). B.: A single fornluln for tlrc "law of the wall". J. Appl. Mech. 28, 456-458 (J90l). [08h] Sobey, J.S.: It~vi~rid ncrondnry tnotionn in n tnbc of slowly varying ellipti~it,~. 73, JFM G2l -039 (1976). [an] Sprmgcr, 11.: Mr~nungrnnn J>iffuooren. VDT-Bcr. 3, 10-110 (1955); see also ZAMP 7, 372--374 (J950). [70] Sprengcr, ti.: 1':xprrimetltelle Untomr~chnngennn gernden und gekriimmtcn Diffusoren. Mitt. J I I R ~ Aerodyn. EII'H Ziiricli No. 27 (1!)59). . I711 Stanton, T. l'lio mccllnnic.nl viacoaity of flnida. Proc, Roy. Soc. London A 85, 360 (1911). R.: 1721 Stnntnn, 'r. I<., nl~tlI'nnncl, J . R . : Similnrity of rnotion in rolntion of tlrc surfnrc frirt.iot1 of flttitls. I'l~il.'l'rnnn. Itoy. Soc. A 214, 1!)9 (1914); see ~ 1 8 0 Proc. Roy. Sor. Lontlon A 91, 40 ll!)lh\. ~, [73] Strectcr, V. I,.: Frirt,iorlnl reniat,nnce in nrtificinlly roughened pipes. Proc. Amer. Sac. Civil Eng. GI, 103-186 (I!)%). [74] Sznhle\vski, \V.: I3erechnnng rlcr t.urbalel~tenSt8r6mrlngitn R.oltr auf der Grundlage der Miscl~~~ngswrgltypotl~csc. 31, 131- 142 (1951). ZAMM [751 Sznble~vski, LV.: Der Einlnnf einor t,rlrbulrnten RoIrrst,rotnung. 1ng.-Arch. 21, 323-330
[, I - ' R. RI I. R- . -

CHAPTER X X I

Turbulent boundary layers at zero pressure gradient; flat plate; rotating disk; roughness

'

[70] Taylor, G. I.: Flow in pipes and bet~veen parallel planes. Proc. H,oy. Soc. London A 159, 496--506 (1!)37). [70a] Tonin, R . A . : Sonlc observations on t,hc flo\v of linear polylncr ~ol~tt.iona t,llrough st.rnigllt tr~bcri large Itoynoltla n~rtnhers. at. I'roc. lot Int. Congr. Itheol. 2, 135--141 (1048), Anistor. dam. North Holland. 1771 Virk, P.S.: An elastic euhlayer inorlel for drng reduction by dilutesolutionsoflinear macromolecnlr~.JFM 45. 417-140 (19711. 1781 Virk, 13.S.:Drnq redr~ctioti ;ougii pipw. J F M 45, 225-240 (1071). in [79] Virlz. I'.S., Mickley, N.S., and Smith, 1C.A.: The ultimnte asymptote nnd mean flow strrtct,~lren Torns'a plirr~oniellott.J. AppI Mecll., Trnns. AS MI^, Seriw IS, 37, 488-403 i (1970). [RO] i ~ ~ ~ C. th!.:, Stretttnlinr f l o ~ v i i t,liro~tgll rrlrvctl pipes. Proc. Roy. Sac. Lorldon A 12.3, F45[81] ~ h i i r ,c.M.: Fhiicl friction and ik relnt,ion to hrat transfer. Trana. Inat. Cliem. Eng. 10, , 0 (1!)32). G I821 l~idderhhd, W.: ITbcr den Ritlflrl~n von Rohrablngerungen auf den Iiydrauliorllcn Drucknbfall. ( I ~ R a. M tut~crfncll 034 (1949). $9, 1 2 1 Wieghnrdt. I(.: T~lrbrtlentc(:rcnzscl~icl~tcn. 811 Gottinger Monoprnphie, Part B 5 (1940). 1 1 1 Wiritrrnitz, l~.zl.l,., 13 nntl Ilai~~any. J 15lforta of inlet boundary layer on preauure re\V : covery rnetgy conversion and lows in conical diFfuscrs. J . l b y . Aero. Soc. 61, 110- 124 (1957).
(io:j ( 1!t2!)).

It might be surrniscd t h a t i t would be possiblc t o pcrfortn calcult~tiot~s tlrc on turbulent boundary layer along a flat plate, or along a n y shape for t h a t mattcr, from eqns. (19.3a) and (19.3b) and by t,he same general mcttrods a s those applied t o laminar boundary layers, having first established a n expression for thc magnitucle of t h e viscous forces with the aid of one of thc hypothcscs wllicl~ llnvc been tliscrlsscti in Cllsp. XIX. S o far, however, this scllcmc has met wit11 no suoccss owing to nothing bcing lcr~own l ~ o u tltc zono of trrrnnit,ion frorn n t insurmountable difficr~ltics, the turbulent bountlary layer to tho laminar sub-layer wliiclr exists in tho immediate neighbourllood of the wall, and the laws of friction in the srl1)laycr arc also unlrnown. From t h i ~ point of vicw contlitions arc more fnvournblc ns far IW prol)lctns of so-c::~llctl free ti~rbi1.1etzffloiu.9 are concerned (Chnp. XXIV). Tllose incluctc turbi~lcnt, motions i n which no solid boundaries cxist, such a s when a jet of flr~iciis mixcd witfll t9he surrounding atmosphere at rest, or when tho waltc 1)cllintl a body diff~tscs into t h e stream. Such cases can be solvccl with tho aid or thc tliffcrcrrfinl ct~uat,ions together with the empirical laws of trlrI)111entfriction. As far ns tfhr!other proltlcms of turbrllcnt flow arc concernctl no succcssfi~l schcmc for t,l~c intt:gration of the cclrc:tlfior~s of motion haa yet bcen advanced. Thc only mctllotls avail:rl)le a t tlrc 11rcsc:nt t,irnc for t h e mathematical trcatmcnt of t u r t ~ u l r n tI,orlnclary Iayc:rs :w: :~l~l)roxirr~:tl.c: methods of the typc 11ser1in lamin:lr t~ortntlnry-layt:r theory. 'l'l~osr: arc I~:~scvl, 11rir1c:ipally, on the rnornt?rltum integral cclu:ltion whicl~has been rlsctl s~rcccssfully thc in stiltly of laminar boandsry laycrs too.
'rhc simplest case of a turbr~lcntI)o~tntl:~r.y 1::byor oc:c:urs on a 11:1t. 1)l:~t.t: n.1, zoro incidcncc; i t is, f ~ ~ r t l ~ e r m o r c , of groat pmctic:1.1 irnporl,:~r~cc. occurs, for c:x:~rnl~lc, It, in t,I~c cnlcr~lntionof tho sltin-friction c1m.g o n ships, on lil't,ing ssrtrf:cc:c~s :r~ltl: ~ c ~ r o l ~ l n t ~ o 1)otlies in aoronar~t,ic:al cngirlccring, ant1 o n I,IIc \ ~ I : ~ of~(,r~~l)int:s1 1 1 ~ cs i ~ 1 rot.:~ry . ~ I I I I ) ~ C S ~ sors. Tho flat pl:ll,c a t zero incidcncc is simpler L consitlcr, I)rc:ausc t J ~ c o prcssnrc grndicnt a l o t ~ g wall is zcro so t,l,;:bt t.11~ the vcloritfy orlt.sitlo t,hc botlr~tl:~ry In.ycr is cor~st~:~.nt. I n sonic of the ahove c?xnmplcs the prcssurc gr:~<li(:n(, may tliffcr from zcSroI~trl., just as was t,hc case wit,)^ laminar flow, t,llc sltin fricl.ion in snah ir~st.:~r~ccs ~n:cl,ori:~lly is not different from t,l~at a Hat platc, provitlcd t h a t t11t:rc is no sc~l):rrtat~iotr. st,~rtly or1 'I'ltc of of ~ I skit~-I'ri(:t.iot~ (in all I)otly n 11r:lg the flat plate is f,lrus t.hc basis for t l ~ c a I ~ ~ i l : ~ t ~ iI ~ C shapes which d o not suffcr appreciably from scl~araf.ior~. naxt ohnpt,cr will ronI,ain 'I'l~c a n extension of this stlctly to the c:lsc of a t,urbulcr~l, I)o~rntlnry I:cycr \viI.lr :L tl(*finil,c pressure gradient. I n many practical cases (ships, acroplancs) Lllc Rcynoltls 11111111)(:rs

636

XXI. Tl~rbnlcnthoundnry layers at zoro promure gredicnt

a.

The smooth flat platc

'

637

R = I / , 1/v (Urn - frcc-strca~n velocity; 1 - length of plate) are so large tIlrat they cannot bc strbjcctcd to mcasurcment in a laboratory. Moreover, even a t motlerate Itcynoltls nn~nhcrsi t is murh morc tlifficr~lt to carry out mcasuremcnts in tlie bounclnry Iaycr on a platc than in that inside a pipe. I t is, therefore, very atlvaritageons that it is possiblc to calcrllatc the skin friction on a plate from the extensive (late availnblc for piprs hy Uic nse of a methocl dne to 1,. Prandtl [40] and TIi. von Icilrmi~n[30J. 'I'his ralcnlation of t,hc skin-friction drag on a plate can he rarrictl ollt. both for smooth nnd for rough walls. A good summary of this work was given by P. R. IEama [23].
a. The smootl~flnt plate

revert once more to this problem (p. 643), when we 'shall discclss some systematic deviations between the velocity profiles in pipes and on plates a t larger Rcynolds numbers. The skin-friction drag D(x) of a flat plato of lenglrt x on onesidcsatisfics the following relation as seen from eqns. (10.1) and (10.2) in Chap. X :

The approximate method to bc applied to this problcm is based on the ~nomentum integral cql~atioriof I)onntlary-laycr tthcory as givcn in eqn. (8.32) of Chap. VIIf, t,lic vclocily prolile ovcr ttic boundary-laycr tl~ickncss bcing approximatccl by a suitable empirical equation. Thc morncntum equation than provitlcs a relation hrtwccn t,hc chr~mderislic prc~melers thc boundary laycr, i. e. bct,wcen displacement of tdlicltness, morncntum thickness and sllcaring stress a t the wall. Tn thc following argllmcnt we shall assume a t first that the bountlary layer is t u r b ~ ~ l ealrcacly a t thc leading edge ( x = 0 ) antl we shall choose a system of co~it ortlinatcs as slrown in Fig. 21.1, h tlcrloting the width of the plate. The boundarylayer tliick~icssO(x) incrca.scs with x antl on translating the tlatn for n pipc into t.hose for a j)lat.e we riot ic:c t.llat the maximum velocity, U, of the former corrrspontls to thr free-stream vt:lr,oity, U,, of tlrc lnttcr, the rntlius, R, of thc pipc corresponding to the boundary-laycr thickness, b. At this stage wc introduce with I,. I'ranrltl the fundamental assumption t h a t the vr-locit.y cdislribntiori in tlic bonriclary lnycr on a plate is idcnticnl with t,liat inside a c.ircrilar pipc. This assrlmption cannot, ccrtainly, be exact, because the velocity rlist,ribnt.ior~ a pipc is formed untlcr the influence of a pressure gradient, wlrcrcas in on a platr t,hc prcssurc gradient is zero. However, small differences in thc velocity clistribnt-ion arc unimportant, b c c a ~ ~ s c drag is calculated from the intrcgral of the morncntum. I~~~rtlierrnorc, cxperimcntal results obtained by M. IIansen [23a] thc ant1 .J. hf nnrgrrs [6] prove that tliis nssr~rnptionis well satisfied a t least in the
Y

IEerc to(%)dcnotes Lhe shcaring stress a t a distnricc x frorn t l ~ cIcading rtlgo, itrid the secor~dintegral is evaluated a t x over the boundary-layer thickness. Introducing the momentum thickness d2, dcfincd Ijy A, 1Jm2 = / eqn. (8.31), we can rewrite eqn. (21. l ) as follows:
d
7l(r!,

TI)

dy ill

From eqns. (21.1) and (21.2) we obtain the local shcaring strcss :

Equation (21.3) is identical with thc monlent,lrn~-int,cgralequation of h o ~ ~ l ~ d n r y layer theory, eqn. (8.32), in thc case of 1111iform potential flow U(x) .= IJ, -- c o ~ ~ s t , . We shall now perform tlrc calculation of the drag on a flat plate on the assumption of a f-th-power law for tho velocity profile which is trrrc for modcrntc Royriolds numbers, and we shall then confinc or~rselves quoting thc rcstllts for tlrc k,garithto mic law which is valid for arbitrarily largc Itcynolds numbers, Fig. 20.4, bccarrsc the complete calculation for this case is fairly tedious.
1. Resistance formula deduced from the 4 -th-power velocity distrib~rtinl~ Inw. 111 accordance with t h e preceding argument and with eqn. (20.6) i t is seen tlint the +-th-power law of velocity distribution in a pipc leads to the following velocity distribution in the boundary layer on a flat plate

whcrc d = B(x) tlcnotcs tlro I)or~ntlnry-layer t.IiicIc~~t:s~ wl~ioli a fu~lct.ion rlist,nnt-r-, is of

x, and is to bc clclcrmir~ctlin thc corlrse of thc cal~ulat~iori. 'l'hc :msunlption in

Fig. 21.1. Tnrb~~lent, boundary lnycr on n flnt plab nt zero iricidcnce

cqn. (21.4) implies that the velocity profiles along a Rat pletc arc similar, i. e. that all velocity profiles plot as one curve of n/U, versus y / d Tllc equation for shcaring stress a t the wall is also taken ovrr tlirrctly froni the circular pipe, cqn. (20.12a) :

mrrgc of rnotlrratcly large Rrynoltls ~rurnbcrs ( I J , l / v < 10" They botlr found tJrat t h r velority profilc in tlrc bor~ntlarylaycr on a plate can be described fairly well hy a powrr formnla of thc form of eqn. (20.6), as found for a pipe We shall

.From eqns. (8.30) and (8.31), togcthcr wilt1 cqn. (21.4) we o:tn ca1culat.c t,l~c tlispl:tcemcnt thickness, dl, and tlrc momcntnm ttliickncss, (1,:

638

XXT. Tnrbnlent, honndnry Inyeru at zero prcmnre gmdirnt.

6 , - g.a; -.
l'ront rqns. (21.3) oncl (21.0) we have

6,=;i,jd.

at

wllicl~is l.hc- tlill'(.rcnl in1 rrjltation for (Y(x). lritrgrntion from t.ltc initial vnll~c:fi = 0 1 = - 0 gives

S (x) = 0.37 z

(y)-"

(21.8)

l'lic l)o~~nclary-layer t.11ickncw is seen to iricreasc with t.lic power 21-f the dist,ancc, wllcreas in I:iminar flow wc had S ~ ' 1 ~ . total skin-friction drag on The a flat, plate of Icngtl~1 and width b wett,ctl on one sicle is, by cqn. (21.2), given by

'l'lle drag on a plate in tt~rl)ttlcntflow is sccn t o hc proportional to iJWR15 and l4I5 compnrctl wit11 11,"2 ancl 1'12, rcspcctivcly, for laminar flow, eqn. (7.33). Introducing tlirnertsionlrss coefficicnta for the local ant1 thc total skin friction by putting
C/'

Fig. 21.2. h i s t a n c e formula for amooth flnt platm at zero incidcnccr; cornpnri~onbrt.wrcn theory and rncnsnremcnt Tl~eorellcnlcarvcn: curvc (1) rrom epn. ( 7 . 3 0 . I n n l l ~ ~ n rIllnrrlnrr; ctlrvc (2) Tm~ttC ~ I I .(21.11).lt~rlta~lt.~$i, . I'r~1ldt.1; curve (3) from eqn. (21.18), lurbnlonl. Prandll-Scl~lirl~llnp; curvo (3n) from r q n . (21.IOn), l a ~ s i ~ ~ n r - l r , - t t ~ r h ~ ~ l r n l tranaibion; curve (4) rrom efin.('L1.10~).111rb11lm(. S e l ~ ~ ~ l t ~ - C t r t ~ n o w

To

leu,' '

or cl = .- D

i e urnZb[ '

laminar, i t is possiblc t o specify tile following mngc of valirlity for cqti. (21.1 1 ): 6 x lo5 < R, < lo7, using round numbers. Int.roducing tllc ~iccessary c~rrect~ions for the numerical coefficients we obtain the following expression for the local corfficiant of skin friction

we ol~tainfrom eqrls. (21.3) and (21.2) tltat Equation (21.11), as already ment,ioned, is valid on the assuml)t.ion t.hat the 1)oitrlciary layer is t,urbulcnt from tthe lending edge onwards. I 1 rcalit.y, t.he borlntlnry layer 1 to one will be laminar t.o IIcgin with, and will c l ~ a t ~ g o :I t,~~rbulent, furtllcr tlowns(,reani. The position of tlic point of transition will clepentl on tllo intIensit,yof t,~trl)~rlcnce in the extternal flow and will bc tlcfinecl by t.11~ value of ttlc oritiral ltoyrlol(ls ri11111I)er which ranges over (TI, x/v),,,, = R,,, = 3 x 10Qo 3 x 10" (sro Sco. XV1 a). Tllc existcnce of t,llc I : ~ n ~ i ~ i n r scc:t.ion cntlscs tho tlrttg t,n tlcc!rcnsc> I I . I I ( ~ . l'ollo\vit~g I,. Prantlt,l, the dccrcasc can be cstimatcd if it is asstttned tallat I)c:hi~~tl poitlt, l,llc of ttransittion tthc turhitlont boundary layer hellavcs as if it* wcrc t.nrb~rlc~tt, from the leading edge. Thus, from t l ~ e drag of a wl~ollyt r ~ r l ~ u l c n t boundary l;~pc?r is it necessary t o subtract tlic tr~rbulent c1ra.g of the lengt,h 111) to t11c I>oihtof t,ransiI,iott a t xcr,, and to add ttlc laminar drag for tho same Icngt,h. 'Sltus, the dccrcnsc I)c~c:olnes AD = - ( ~ 1 2 Urn26 xcrl, (eft -el,), whcre ,! ant1 cf, donote tllc cocfficicnt of ) c turbulent and laminar skin friction, rcspect~vely,for the total drag a t tllc: scct.ion where transitmionoccurs, i. e. a t R,,,,. JTence the corrert.ion for cf is

1ianc.0,fromeqn. (21.9). wecan writccff =0-0876 (U,~/v)-J1~andc,= 0.072 (U,Z/V)-'~~. Tllc last equation is in very good agreement with experimental resulh for plates wlloso k)ot~ntlnry layers are turbtllerit from tlic Icading edge onwards, if the numerical constant 0.072 is changed t o 0.074. Thus

'1'111: rrsist,ar~cc formitla (21.11) is sear1 plott.cd as curve (2) in Fig. 21.2. The range of , of vali~lit~y t.flis formt~lais resttrictod to U 6/v < 105 in accordance with the limitation on Blasius's pipe resistance formula. JJy eqn. (21.8) this corresponds to U , l/v < 6 x IOfi. Since for R, < 5 x 1 0 q l 1 e boundary layer on a plate is fully

. .

In. tho genornl cwo of a power law u / U

(y/d)lln we have:

610

XXI. Ttrrbrrlent bor~ndnry layers s t zero premure gradient

a. The stnooth flnt plntc with

I/*

I'ntft,ing Acj = - AIR,, we fintl t h a t the value of the constant A is determined by t,he position of the point of transition R,,,,, namely

1a -

Conscqaent,ly, the coefficient of tot,al skin fricLion incli~ding eflcct of tlic laminar the initial Iengt,h becomes

tlenoting the characteristic vclocity formctl with the wall shcaring strcss t o . blic 111 case of pipc flow considcretl in Chap. X X , the const:tnt.a wort intlicat,ctl t,o II:LVC t,ho numcrical valrlcs A , ---- 5.75 ant1 - 5.5. Ilowcvcr, cxt.ctisivc ox~~c:ritric?ti(.nl iri vestigations (sec Fig. 21 .3) have clcmoristratcd t h a t ttlc vclocity profilcs in the two cases urrder consideration, in a pipc ant1 or1 e flat platc, arc sorncwll:~t tliffcrcnt and it becomes necessary t o rnoclify tthc numcrical valucs t o

Taking cjt from cqn. (21. I 1) and cj, = 1.328 R,-'I2 eqn. (7.34), we obtain the following values for A :

from the Blasius formula,

,
A

- 1050

1 /

3 x los

x lo6
1700

1 1

lo8 3300

/ /

3 x loa
--

8700

2. nesistance formula deduced from the logarithmic velocity-distribution law. The Itcynolds numbers which occur in practical applications in connexion with flat plate problems consiclerably exccetl the range of validity of eqn. (21.13)t, and it, is, thereforc, necessary t o find a resistance formula which would be valid for m~icliIiiglier Reynolds numbers. I n principle such a formula can be derived in the same way as before, except t h a t the universal logarithmic velocity-profile eq~tat~ion slio~lltl be usetl instead of the f-th-power formula, in analogy with eqtis. (20.13) ant1 (20.14) for pipe flow. Since the universal logarithmic formula, as sliown earlicr, may be cxtrepolatecl t o arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers in the case of pipe flow, wc may expect t o obtain a resistance formula for the plate which worlld also lcr~tlitaself t o cxt,rapolation t o arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers. I n any case, it is again implietl t h a t pipe flow and boundary-layer flow on a flat plate cxlril)it itlentical velocity profiles (see also p. 643). The derivation is not so simplc for the logarithmic law a s i t was for the f - t h power forml~ln. This is mainly tloe t o thc fact t h a t the application of t h e logarithmic law t,o tJic flnt platc does not lcad t o similar profilcs any longer. We shall, thereforc, refrain from reproducing here the details of the calculation, referring the reader t o T,. Prandt,l's original peper [40]. l'hc lognrit.limic: formula for pipc flow was derived in eqn. (20.14) in tho form

'rhc calculat,ion leads t o a fairly cl~mhrrsomc of cqnat,ions for tho local :tritl t-ot,al sct cocfficicnts of sitin friction in tcrms of tltc Icngtli 1k:ynoltls til~riil)cr - : I/, l l ~ . R, I n tlie process, a formula for the dimensionless boundary-l:~ycrtliickriess 11, d / v = r],, is also obtained. The numcrical rcsults arc aliown in ' h l ) l e 21.1 ant1 tlrc grnptt of c, versua R, has bccn plott,ctl in Fig. 21.2 as curvc (3). Since the exact formulae from which the resistance law rcprcscrlt,ctl by 'C'able 21.1 has bccn evaluated is exceedingly inconvcnicnt, IT. ScIilic11t.ing fittcd t h c relation between c, and R, from Tablc 21.1 into a n empirical cqnation of t.11~ fnr11~
0.455 c, = -(log ~,)z.58'

In ortlcr t o makc an allowance for tlic laniinnr initial Icngt.h, it is mquirctl 1.0 makc the same dcdnction a s before, cqn. (21.13). Thus

where the value of the constant A dcpcntls on tllc position of thc point of transition a s specified in tlie Table on p. 601. This is the Prnndtl-Schlichting skin-/ridion /ormula for a smooth flat plate nl zero incidence. It is valid in the whole range of Reynolds numbers u p t o R, = 1 0 h n d i t agrecs with cqn. (21.13) up t o R, = lo7. It is seen a plotted , s curve ( 3 a ) in Fig. 21.2 wltere A = 1700 was choscn, corrcsporlding t o transition a t R, = 6 x 1 0 5 13lasius's curvc for lami~lar flow corrcsporrcling 1.0 cj = 1,328 R,-'I2 is also shown for comparison, curve (I). A very similar theoretical calculation for the skin friction of a flat p1at.c was tlcvised by 1'11. von lcbrmi~n[20]. I<. 15. Sc:llocrrllorr [50] ~nntlo so of' von IZrirmbn'a schcmc and derived from i t the cxpressior~
1
-

4 =Allogr]+Dl
wlierc

1/CI

- -

= 4.13 log (Rl c,)

In largo and fnst aeroplanes the Reynolds numbers of the wing are of the order of RI = 8 x lo7; a large, modern fnst ~tmmer reaches about Rl = 5 x JW; see also Tablc 21.3,
p. GFI.

ltesults of numerous experimental mcas~lremcnts sccrr plott*ecitogcthcr wit.11 arc these theoretical curves in Fig. 21.2. The measurements performed by (1. Wiescls-t The reaulta for the coefficic~~t local akiri friclio~~,. in 'Cable 21.1 can nlso be fitted into of c; an empirical equation ns follows cf ' = (2 log R, -0.65)-~"

642 Tnble 21.1.

XXI. Ttirbulent bonndnry lnycn nt zero prcwtirn gradient

Itrniutnnce forrntiln for flat plnte computcd front the lognritlitnic velocity profile in e q n s (21.14) and (21.15); sec curve (3) in Fig. 21.2 Fig. 21.3. Velocity dintribution in the boundary layer on n flnt plate a t zero incidence, after SchultzGrunow (531 (:Irrvc (1) lognrllhmlc I s w or plpr flow. I n tltc ottbr portion Clre vclocity distribrrCion on a pla1.c is seen lo deviate ~narkrclly from lhnl innirln n cireulnr 111ha. Curvc (2) wan ~lsoclby .Scl~~~llz.~r~~now nu n bnrla lor I I m cnlr~rlnlion l11ebotrntlnry layer or of n pfale nncl lrcl lo c(lns.(21.1Oa)and (21.10b)

3. F u r ~ l ~ rcfincmcnb. As n1rc:ncl.y ~t~nlctl, prccrtli~ig~iic:t.l~otl t!irIt~~~l:rt,iot~ cr l.lio or is IIIWC~J on the o~snmptionthnt thc vc1ocil.y prolilcs in tho bor~ncl:rryI:rycr on n platx: crr~cli~lsicle: 1pipn 1 nre idcnticnl, if thc maxilnum vc1ocit.y I1 nnd Olic rntlius Jl of lhc circular t.11I)n nro rr~~lnoccl Iry the frce-strcnm vclocity Urn ant1 lhc boirndnry-layer thickness d of the pl:rtc. 'I'l~isnnsnn~ption wnn clicckerl by F. S c l i ~ ~ l t z - ( ~ r t ~ [53]von tho bmis of vcry cnrcfril mrmttrcti~rt~ts tlic no\ on boundary lnyor on a plnh. Thc in~crrt~igntior~ rrl~ownel lhnt lhc vclocily prolilc in t.110ollbr ~iortiot~ of t l ~ c borrrldnry lnycr of n plnlm clcviatcn nyntr~nrrticnlly~~pwnrcln froin t.hc Ingnrit.lin~ic: vc:lc,q:it.y tlist.rihl~tion o f n circillnr pipe. '1'110 rcrrnltn or Itin nlensirr~~t~rc!i~In ~rlrrlr!w r givean i t r I i i ~2 I .:I. Inw OII n ee . They m n Iio wcll rcprcocnterl by a velocity-tlefcct Inw

l ~ e r g c [67] o n cloth-covcrctl glazctl p l a t c s lio s o m e w h a t al)ove t,he t ~ ~ r l ) i ~ lceutr~ te. (2), r v which woultl i n d i c a t e that, t h e r e w a s n o su1)stantial l a m i n a r l e n g t h i n h i s e x p c r i m e n b nil t*hat t h e rougliness w a s small. T h e m e a s u r c m e ~ i t ~ s c t o P. G e b e r s [10], w h i c h du rnrigc fro111 R, = 1 0 V t o :1 x lo7, fall o n tlic t r a ~ l s i t ~ i ocnu r v e ( 3 a ) , c q n . (21.1Ga), at t h e lower cnrl of t h e m n g c . A t t h c higher R e y n o l d s n u m b e r s his results lie o n c u r v e (3) from ecln. (21.16). 'l'he m e n s u r e m e n t s r e p o r t e d by K. E. S c h o e n h e r r [50] also ~ I I O W g o o d a g r c e r n o r ~ twit.11 t,licory. 'l'lic highest Rey110It1s n u m b e r s h a v e been achieved l ~ (2. I<c:ml)f [31]t w h o al,t.ninntl valncs of u p to R, = 5 x loR.T h e y s h o w cxccllctlt y a g r c e n i c n t wilJi t,ho tl~c~orcl,ical ciirvc froin cclr~.(21. IGa). Extcrisivc measurcnicr~t.s h a v e hccrl clcscril)c?tl by 1). W. SrniLh ant1 J. II. W a l k e r 1661; t h e y cover I h e r a n g e 106 < R, < 4.6 x lo7 a.nd ngrce wcll w i t h t h o s e d u e t o G. Pempf [31] a n d F. Schult~zG r o n o w 1531, b u t plncc 1.lionsclvcs s o m c w h a t below t h e g r a p h of e q n . (21.17). It is n o t e w o r t h y t,hat I). W.Stnit,h a n t i ,T. II. W a l k e r m e a s i ~ r e ds k i n - f r i c t i o t ~cocfficicnts wit11 t ~ i c aitl of :r Pit.ot, t < ~ l bpIacct1 at t h e surface, a n d that t h i s ~ n e t l i o d a s reccnt.ly c h 1,cnn i ~ s e dl1.v Inn,tly invcst,ignt,ors wit,Il g r c a t s i ~ c c c s s .I n t,his nonnexion t h e w o r k of .l. 11. I'rc~stcon[43],R.A. 1)utton [ll], G . E . G a d d [18], P. B r a d s h a w a n d N. G r e gory :i.s wrll n.s , I . . Nnlritl :iritl [If. J . 'l'hofnl,son ' F [37] m a g lie consulted. O n sirinr~lingu p , i t is possible to statre t h n t t h e precctling results h a v e been confirmed hy n ~ r a s i ~ r c ~ m c n o r I.hc whole r a n g e of Itcynoltls n u r n l ~ e r s . ovt

as nlrcnrly loutid in tho c ~ ~ ofcn p i p , c q t ~ . s (20.23). I t is sccti that t.hc 108s of 1no11icnt.11111n on lotc is ~orncwhat smnller than that given by tho lognrithniic ~ripcfortnula nt~cl,e~onsc~q~~cr~l.ly. t h e drag teust; be smaller thnu that obtnincd by the dircct npplicntion of lriptr formttlirc. 'i'lie depnrti~re the velocity distribution from the universal lognritli~nicvclocity di~trilit~t,io~i of (law of the wall), eqn. (21.14), rcprosonkd by cqn. (21.18) and Fig. 21.0, wnn dctcrtnitird cm~riric::rlly by F. Rchitltz-Grunowt; it rcprcaentm the rro-cnllcd Inw of t,he wnkc inlrorlucetl by 1). Colcs [8j] According to F. Sclinlt,z-G'r~inow, tho law of the wnkc irr ir~depci~tlcnt tlic Ilnynoltls tiut11l)cr of and p o c s s e s , tlicrcforc, in some measure the properties of n r~~tivcrsnl Inw. For 111orcdet:~ils concerning the Inw of the wake the rentlcr should cotisnlt I . Coles's original Irnpcr 18111. ) 1.".Scl~tilt.~,-Gronow rcpPntccl thn dcrivnt.ion of t l ~ c rcnist,ancc forninln fro111t.hr ~ ) r c * r r t l i r ~ ~ rryrrhtn of ntltint,iori.enntl rvill~t,hc nit1 of llic f1111ction (!//I!) tvl~iclihe fo1111e1 I ~ I ~ - : I s I I ~ ( ~ I I I ~ 11s l l ~ c t m ~ l tenti Ire m~rrtacnk:tl Iry l.l~cfollow in^ i~~lrrpeilnlitrti r for~nr~lr~n

..

e,' = 0 370 (log

R%)-'

c, = 0.427 (log R,

- 0.407)-'"

The laql. c q ~ ~ n l i o n bmn plotlctl in Fig. 21.2 1q ccl~rvc ha-q 1 . (4), n.r~cl will I)c, iiot.ire.tl 1.11:it tlic: tlrit, vintion from t.hc I'rnndLI-Schlicliting curve (3) is sn~nll. Tho clifimnt tncl~liotlrrfor the cnlci~l:~t.ioti t.nrlinlot~t~ l t i l ifrirtion 11:ivc I ) C ~ I I (.t.itir:~lly of exnn~iticxiby L. Ifindwcbcr 1331.

In]

On npplying the pipc formuln wc hnvc I1(y/6) = A In (8/y) - 2.5 111 (,)/,I/) which leads to a straight linc in Pig. 21.3. '1'11~ ])oink nm1.r t.ltr rtirll ;rrc nrcw to f:111

Ilo tiir:m~~rrcl only lorn1 hict,ionnl roaflicicrita. 1. Pratidbl ~ V B I I I R t,he ~ I , ~ P corresponrling total vr1111rnby iti((.grat.inn, scc Ilrporb AVA (:ocllitigrn, ~rrrrlI V.

011 t,l~in rrtrnigltt linc; (.he portion of t l ~ c cnrvc w l ~ i r l ~ t~orrrn1ic~1~ls oictrr lrorf.io~~ t.hr Iro~~ntl:iry 1.0 1110 of lnycr dcvintcs ~t.rongIy do\v~i~nrtIrr froill 1 Iic utrniglit. line.

644

XXI. Turhr~lent bor~ndnry laycrs a t zero pressure gradient

a. The smooth flat plate

645

K. Wiegl~artlt[n5] atlvanccd an cxplanntion for the difference between tlic velocity prol file in a pipo a r ~ tlrat on a plate, pointing or11 tllat 1,he influence of t1tr1)ulrnce a t the outer edge of t,lio borlntlary l~iycr tliNcm in t.11~ two enma. In t,ho cane of a platc n low dogrce of turbr~lcnce in the cxt,crt~nl ~1~reti111 risc to vclorily fl~~ct~rlntions gives wl~icharc practically 7,cro a t tlie o u b r odgo of Ll~ohonnclsry Iiycr, wllcrcas in tlrc crntro of tlte pipo they wo~rldhave an apprcciablc rnngnit.r~dobccarrsc of t,lle ir~ll~tcr~cc1110 o t l ~ e rside. 'ro the srnallcr intensity of turbulence of on a plnlo there corrcsl)orirls a s1ec~~c.r incrcnsc in velocity and l~rriro thinner total boundary a Iaytx. lle was itlso nl>lf:t.o ~ l i o w t,hat t h r vclocil.y 1wofilc on a plate bccon~cavcry clone L t,lrat o in pipe flow if tlrr cxtnrtial flow in niatlc Iiiglily t.tlrbtrlcnt.
J . Nilz~~ra~lsc alxo condnctcd a vcry co~nprcl~ennivc [38] scrica of cxpcrimonLq on flat plnlns. Ire fo~tnclthat in thr, range of li~rgc Rnynolcls t~i~tnbcrs R of , 1.7 x 10' to 18 x 106 tho volocity profilcs arc siniilar, if ? i / U ia plot,lcd against y/dl, whcrc 6, tlcnotes the displaccmcnt thickness. 'J'lic ~~r~ivcrxal vclor:ity-clis1.ribrltio11 law w / l l = /(y/~!~) turns out to be indepcndcnt of lhc Iteynolcls n t ~ n ~ h e'l'l~r loca! nncl total cocfficicnls of skin friction have hecn calcr~latedfrom r. ~ protiles wit11 thc aid of t l ~ c ~nolnent,un~ tl~corem. tho nicna~~redr l o o i t ~ y Tlro following intcrl~olnlion forn~rtlnowcrc ol)t,ninctl for tlro velocity distribution, d i s plarcrncnl t,lricknoss, I I I O I ~ ~ ~ I I ~t ~ ~~i IcI ~ k nand, roefficicnt~of nkin friction, rcspcct,ively: lI I c~ 0.1315 .= 0737 ,

The second term in this equation accounta for the rapidly deoaying e r e c t of the lending edge (on this detail the reader nlay also refer to A. A. Townsond [04j). A similar effect a r i m when two platea ali ned with the flow are made to form a concave corner. The interaction bet,ween the two bounfary layers for the caae of a rectan lar corner waa studicd by K. Ceraten [20] who indicates the existence of an additional drag oKnsgnitude

where, according t o K. Geratcn, the interaction contribrrbion is

Ac = I

8.76 -Rl

in l a m i ~ ~ a r flow, in turbulent Row (21.21 a)

and

Acf =

- --

@: . ;

urn
~ ~

( )

The supplementary drag hna turned out to be negative, which means that the drag of two plates which are wettcd only on the inner side of the corner and which arc joined a t riglrb ntlglcs, is smaller than the drag of a flat plate of equal total area. E. Eichelhrenner [12] examined the caae of a corner of arbitrary angle.

L.' !. ?

0.01738 ~ z o ' 8 6 L ,

If,,

. =

6, :
01

- 1.30 .

In conncxion with t,lie calc~tlationof skin frict,ion on a platc, the papor by V. M. Falkner [15] may also be conar~lted. a paper hy D. Colerr [Ea] tlie velocity profiles are reprcselntrd by a In linear con~hir~at,ior~two universal functions, one of mliich is c:allcd the law of the wake, the of other being tlie law of the wall ns already mentioned. Mc,muretnent,s pcrforrnrtl 1)y 11. hlotzfcld [3GI concerncd the~nnclveswith the turb~rlent boundary lrbyer on a wavy wall. II. Schlicl~ting [46] gave sotno eutimatcs concerning trrrbulctit bor~ndiiry layers with srlction and blowing. When homogeneous (that is, continr~ouslyand r~nifornilydist.ribnted) suct.ior~is applied, thc asytnptotio boundary-layer thicltncss remains constant in lho same manner an for a laminar boundary laycr. However, in the trlrI)r~lcntcase thc borrntl:~ry laycr is ~nr~clr inorc scnsitivr, to ciranges in the snction HOW-ratetliaii in the pcrforlr~cclin tr~rbtllcntboundary layers on porous flat laminar. Vcry cxknaivc t ~ ~ e a s ~ ~ r c m c ~ r b walls by A. l'avre, R. D I I I ~ W E. Vorollet [lo] show that the application of sucbion exerts and on motion. a st.rong inll~~cncc t.11~t . ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l c n t
4. Errect 01 finite dimensions; bolrndary Inycrs in corners. WIICIIa flat platc of finite span is pllrcc:d in a olrrn~nwhich l l o w ~ t.ho tlircct,ion of i k Icngt,l~,i l is I;)ontI t.l~nt, in nonr t,lre ~ i d e cdgc 1110 honnclnry layer is no longcr two-din~rnsional, i t is along tho centre-linc of t,he platc. ns Kxperitncr~tri pcrfi~rtnctl by .I. W. 1Tlder [13] dcnionslrated that near tlie edges there arise sccolldary flows wl~icliarc siniilar to'lliosc ol)scrvcd in pipcs of iron-circular cross-xcct.ioti (cf. See. XXc). 'l'l~ix causes a large incrc;mr, in llie loct~lskin-friction cocfficicnt along the edges. I\ccording tn 1':ltlr.r'~ ~ncasuron~cnL~, rcn~nrltnbly cnongh, thin wlditionnl dmg, always ant1 avcra.gcd over t,lic sj,an, Ll~rltsorrt L ho intlcpcndcnt o[ tlrc lcngt,l~Ilcynolds number, Rl, or o the witltl~of the plate. Irowcvcr, 1.11~ region sit,untxcl vcry close to tlic lcscling edge of thc plate forms an cxcrpt,ion, tlic local skin-friction coefficient varying irregularly in tlre flow direction to and gt right a ~ ~ g l c s it. Still according to ISltlcr's mcasurcrnnr~ts,the incrcasc in drag is given hv

5. Boundary layers with suction and blowil~g.Mensurenrent: In this section wc nhnll intaroduce brief remarks concerning turbulent boundary layers on a flat plate with suction ant1 blowing which may serve as an cxtcnoion of tho conaidcrationa of Chap. XIV on laminar horlnclnry lnyora with suction. Thc first t,llcorc~ticcll t ~ ~ d ythis Inpic wan ~nntlo erirly IUI 11142 11y I I . Si.I~lir.l~l.i~~g a of nfl 146, 471. In modern t.imcs experimental as well as theoretical studics have heerr perfortncd by J.C. Rotta [44]. Some of Itotta'a expcrimentol results are shown grapliically in Fig. 21.4. T l ~ i s a dingr~i~n is showing the variation of the momentum thickness dl(%)along a porous flat plate with I~onrogcncoua suction and blowing a t various values of the auction velocity, v,,,, a t the wall. The external velocity was Urn = 20 to 30 m/sec and the normal wall velocity ranged from o,, -= -0.10 n~lsec (auction) to 0.13 m aec (blowing). The volt~mecoefficient varied from ca = v,,,/fJ, = --0.005 to +0.005 and was, t IIIR,vcry smallt. Thcse mcmurements confirmod thc well-krio\vn ft~ot. t.11nt tlio rate of hoentlary-layer thickness growth in the downstream direction increases MI the blo~ring

Fig. 21.4. Turbulent boundary layor on a flat plate with m i form suction or injection: niomentum thickness 62, according to eqn. (7.38), along the plate; measurements by J. C. Rotta [441

S\~ction blowing start.ed a t a short dist.anrc from the lending edge rathcr th-11 a t t,hc leadi~lg and edge itself.

646

XXI.Turbulent houndary layers a t xcro presRuro gradient,

ratc incrcwcn. For CQ = - 0.005 the boundary-lnyer thickneu~reaches a constant val1le downutrcrrni allti c.o~~ntit.~~tca art twyinptc?tic honncl~rrylayer in the sense of Sec. XIVh. The stndy of tnrhnlent boundary layers with suction hns marly applications. Among them t,lint the int,roduction of a foreign gaa i n b the honndnry lnyer t,hrough a porous we may ~ncnt,inn wall or ttllroug11 nloLa ronsLit.i~Lrsa very effcct,ive Incano of film or tranalliration coolin Thin rcduccs the rate of I ~ m trnnnrer from the hot, sbrramirlg gas t,o the solid hody, as is dolie k r gaat Lnrhine blarleu. Si~nil:rrl,y,thin is n Incans of rcrtncing the rate of heat flow from t.he boundary laycr rendcrccl very hot by kitlct,ic heating on a body flying a t a hypersonic velocity to it8swall. Hlowing can also produce a considerable reduction in drag. A very good review of such appliest,iot~n wan pnhlinhcd hy l,.O.P. .Jcromin [28]. Thcory: In order to cnlrnlntc the nsynlptot,ir: tnrln~lent bonntlnry layer on a flat, plate with Iiomogcncor~s~nct~ion, ohservo fro111cqn. (18.13) t.hat the normal vclocit,y v = fa, iu constant we over t,he whole tl1ic:kness of the Inyer. Hcnce, we can integrate the equation of motion in the zdircrtion \vit.li rcnpcct. to t.hc nortnal !I-diroct.ion, and thns ohfnin

Int~rodncingt.he frict.ion velocity 17, = (r,,/e)I12 and taking into account, t.he fact that a t large tlistatirca from t,hc wall ( i . ~ ontrritle the laminar sr~blayer) t is po~sibleto ncglcct the viscons . i ~ h e a rlr(?w/a!/) with reapcct t~ the tnrhulellt stress -?L'v', we derive from eqn. (21.22) t.hat

Pig. 21.6. Tnrhrllcnt boundnry laynr on a flat platc with nnifor~n snction or injet-tion: VCIOcity diutribntion in the honnclary lnyer accordof ing to eqn. (21.26) for different v~rlnes the snclion pnrnnicler v,,,/o, nncr ,J. C. Rotla 1441 0 rxporl~~~r~lt - rnlc~~~lnllon

With l'randtl's mixing-length aaaumpt.ion

Here q = y v,/v is the dimensionleas distance from thc wall from oqn. (18.32). Tho intcgrat.ion of eqn. (21.23) given

from eqn. (19.6~). and putting 1 = x y, we deduce from cqn. (21.23) tliat

Hem x 0.4 dcnoteu von Kkrrnbn's connt,nnt. The preceding equation immediately proves that the velocity tlislribt~tioncan be given the following dimensionk!ea form:

Equation (21.26) can be regarcled aa a goncrnlisnt,ion of tho universal velocity tlistribntion law for imperllleable turhr~lent boundary layers, eqn. (10.33), to the cmc of pervious walls with . ther e~ surtion or blowing. I n order to inclnde in our considerations the existence of a laminar sublayer, i t is pertinent to int,roduce E. R. van Driest's [ 101 dn~npirigterm, eqn. (18.1 I ) . 'rlie result of such a calct~lat~ionshown in 1Pig. 21.5. A co~npnrisoti is with the experinicnts of .J.C. Ilottn is given in Fig. 21.6. The agreement is satisfactory if a suitable vali~o cl~osen 1110ndjnst,:rl)lc is lor constant C. Experimental invcstignlions on turbnlent l~oundnrylayers wit4h injection of t.ho snnlc or another gun through porous wella into a compressible stroan1 at Mach nr~mhcrsup to M = 3.0 have been perfor~uedby L.C. Squire [58]. Calculatior~ashow that the nsaurnption of Pranclt,l1s mixing length here too leads to satisfactory resulb.

b. The rotatir~gdink
1. The "free" disk. The flow in the ncigl~bourhootlof a rot.ating disk is of grnat, practical importance, p.articularly in connexion with rotnry machines. It, l~ccorrrcs turbulent a t larger Reynolds numhcrs, R = U R / v > 3 x lo5,in tho sarnc way as tlrc flow about a plabe. Here R denotes the radius anti U = n) R is ttI1c t,ip vclociLy of the disk. The character of this kind of flow was described in Scc. V I I , w11ic:li contained the complete solution for the laminar cnse when the disk rotat,es in an infinitely extended body of fluid ("free" disk). Owing t o friction, t h o flnid in the immediate neighbourhood of the disk is carried by it and then forced outwards by the centrifugal accelcrat~ion.Thus the velocity in tho boundary laycr has radial anti a tangential component, and the mass of fluid which i,s cirivcn o~it~wnrds c:c~~t,rihy fugal forces is replaccd by an axial flow. Making n simple estimation of t11c balarrcc of viscous and centrifugal forces in laminar flow it was possible to show that tlrc

Pig. 21.5. Tnrhulent honndnry layer on a flat plate with uniform suction or injection: theoretical velocity distribution according to cqn. (21.26) after J. C. Rotta [44]

048

XXI. Turbulent boundary layers at zero preaeure gradient

and hence, independent of boundary-layer thiclrness 6 is proporl.ional to the radius, and t h a t the torque, M , which is proportional to p R3 U/S, must be Q U2 n 3 ( U R/v)-11" The exact solution for given by a n expression of the form M the laminar casc showecl, further, that t,he dikensionless torque coefficient, defined as

1/72;,

and ttllc torquc coefficient tlcfined in cqn. (21.27) bccomcs This equation has been plotted in Pig. 6.14 as curvc (2). I t shows very good agrccmcnt wit,li the experimental rcsults tluc to W. Schmitlt ant1 (Z. ICctnpft for R > 0 x 10" Tho nr~mcrical factor in Ulc cquntiori for ((he 1)our~I:~ry-Iayrr ~ i ~ : l c t i ~ ~ s t.l which was left ~~nclctcrrninctl bccomcs

for a disk wetted on both sidcs, is giver1 by cqn. (5.56), and is equal to

C = 3.87 R-"' ,
where R =
R2m)/i) is

(laminar) ,

(21.28)

and the volume of flow in the axial direction is given by

tlic Roynolds numhcr, Fig. 5.14. as comparcd with cqn. (5.57) for larnirlnr flow.
An approximate calculation based on the logarithmic velocity-dist~ribr~l,iotr Inw u/v* = A, In(?/v,/v) -1- Dl was performed by S. Coldsteirl [21], who fo~lntli . 1 1 ~ following formula for the torque :
1

It is now proposcd to make the same estimation for the turbulent casc basing i t on the same resistance formula for turbulent flow as was used in the case of the flat plate, i. e., in the simplest case, on the +-th-power law for the velocity distribution. A fluid particle which rot.ates in tho boundary layer a t a distance r from the axis is forco per unit volume of magnitude e r w2. The centrifugal acted on by a centrif~igal force on a volume of area d r x ds and height S becomes e r w2 d r x ds. The shearing stress t oforms a n anglc 0 with the tangential direction and ita radial component must balance the centrifitgal force. IIcnce we have t osin 0 d r x d s = e r w V ~ J rx d s or

7"M

= 1.97 log (R

1/c)0.03 (turl)ulcnt) +

On the other hand, the tangential component of shearing stress ran be expressed with the aid of eqn. (21.5) which was used in the case of a flat plate, replacing U , by the Lcngential velocity r o.Thus
to cos

It is n ~ t e w o r t ~ h y this equation has tho same form as t.hc ~~niversnl thnt pipe-rraist~ancc forrnlrln, cqn. (20.00). Tlic nlimcricnl fact,or~ have bccn 'atljlrst,ctl I,o obL1~i11 IwsI~ I,Ii(possible agreement with experimental rcsnlts. This equation is sccn plotted as cnrvc (3) in Pig. 5.14. On this topic see also P. S. Granville [22].
2. The disk in a hoosing. The disk in turbines or 1.0tl~1.y cotnprcssors 111ostIy revolve in very tight housings in which the width of thc gap, a, is small con~pnrod with the radius, R, oC the disk, Pig. 21.7. Consequently, i t was fount1 necessary to investigate the case of a disk rotating in a housing. Laminar flow. The relations become particularly simple when thc flow is laminar, R < lo5, and when t h e gap is very small. If the gap, s, is sirialler than the bonndarylayer thickness the variation of the tnngcntial velocity across tlic gap becomes linear in thc ma.nncr of Co~lctto-flow. lFcncc, tho shcaring strcss a t a dist,:~ncc from r the axis is equal to T = r(up/s and thc torque of the viscous Corccs on onc sitlc of a disk is given by
n

Equating

T,

in thcsc two expressions, we find that

-e -

(or)"' (v/S)ll'

ral' (V/W)~'' .

It is sccn that in the turhnlcrit case tlic bonntlary-lnyer tliickness increases outwards in proportion to r3/5anr~dtfocs not rcmairi cor~stant in the laminar case. Further, as the torque becomes M to R3 N e R W ~ ( V / C O ) ~ B3so t h a t RRI6~ /

Th. von ICiirrnhn [30] investigated the tnrbulcnt boundary layer on a rotating disk with the aid of a n approximate method based on the momentum equation and similar to the one applietl in the preceding section ijb the study of the flat plate. The variation of the tangential velocity component through the boundary layer was assurnctl t40obcy (.he 4-tli-power law. The viscous torque for a disk wetted on both sidcs'wa.. shown t o be equal t o

Consequently for both sides we have

2M = n w R4p/s ,
and tlic torque coefficient from eqn. (21.27) becomes

Soc

refe. [10] and [31] in Chap. V.

650
Bwnday layers

XXI. T~lrhulet~t borlndary lnyers at zero preaaure ~rndicnt

b. The rotating disk

fi6 I

flow both for thc laminar ant( for the t~rrbulcnt caso. Tltc oxpression for t,l~o tforqtrc is of the same form as for thc free disk in eqn. (5.56). only tllc numerical factor has a tliffcrcnt vall~c. 'Che frictional moment of a disk in larninnr flow and wrttctl on both sitlcs I~cromes M = 1.334 ,A I<",, 1/(,qv, ant1 henre tllc cocfficicnt 2

C,,

= 2.67

R-'"

(laminar) .

(2 1 .R6)

This eq~iationis sren plotted as crlrvc (2) in Fig. 21.8. I t agrccs wit11 mrnsnrrtl valrrcs np t,o nl)orrt R = 2 x 10%ntl conr~cct,~ fairly well \\,it11 cqn. (21.34).
T~trhirlort flow. Icor Rcynoltls r111rr11)crs > 3 x 10' t l t c . flow a r o ~ ~ n t(lislc rot :tl,illg R nl in a 11011singbecomcs turbrllcnt as us~lal.7'11is crasc was also solvctl by 1 Sr1111ltz" Gronow who usrtl nn approxitnate mcthod basctl on t.hc sc~llcmcof Fig. 21.7. 7 ' 1 1 ~ tangential vclociLy was assnmctl to obey the 4-th-power law arid i t was sllow~l that the corc rcvolvrs will1 a11o11tIlalf t,llc angnlnr vcloc:it.y in t,ilis rasc t,oo. 'rllc momrnt coeficicnt wcts slrown to be aclual to

C ,
R

= 0.0622

(R)-"'

- RL,
7-

(turbulent) .

(21.36)

Fig. 21.7. Rxplnnatior~ symof bola for problem of a clink rotnt,irig in R l~ortaing

Fig. 21.8. Viaco~tndrag of dink rotating in o houning curve (I), rronl cqn. (21.341, ~ r n l t n n r : rurvo (21, rrorn cqn. (21.35). Iaminnr; crlrvc ( ) rrom eqn. (21.36), tarbulcnt. Theory with no hous8. i n g (Tree disk) sce Pig. 5.14

C,, = 2n 9
t 3

(laminar) .

J 11is equation is secn plotrtrcdas clrrve (1) in Fig. 21.8 for a value of .v/R = 0.02. It shows very good agreement with tllc experimental values due t o 0. Zumbusrh (sw rrf. [54j). C!. Scllmirtlcr~[49] invrst,ignt.rtl I,lto inflncncc of t . 1 1 ~wiclt,ll n of t,lte lateral spacing of n clislc in a oylindrical housing, Pig. 21.7, on the assumption of vcr.y small Reynolcls numl~ers(creeping niotion). Thc Navicr-Stoltcs equations can bc simplified because for of t,lic vcry low ltcynoltls nurnbcrs (scc Soc. IVtl) and the solut~iori the momerlt cocffirionC appcars in tho form C,, = Ii/R, in analogy with cqn. (21.34). Tlle const.ar~t I\' tlc~l)c~(ls t , l ~ e on two tlitnensionlcss ratios n/R ant1 a/R.' I n t.11~ case of very sma,ll vnl~~c:s o / R ( < 0.1) tJtc valurs of C,,arc! mnrltctlly 1:trgcr I.1la.n tl~oso cqn. (21.34), of in \vllc%rrnsli)r Inrgc valrlc~sof cr/II' cqn. (21.34) rct.ains ib valirlit,y ( K = 2 n Ills). . . 'I'llc flow pnl,tnrn in t.11~ case of lnrgcr gaps differs considerably from the above sin~plc scltrn~c. 'l'llis latr(.crcase was invrst.iptctl t.llroretically and experimentally by 1'. Srll~llt~z-(:r~~llo~v I f 1.11~ [54]. gap is a ninlt,ipl# of t,he boundary-lnyer tl~ickncss, thcn an ntlditional boundary layer will bc formed on t l ~ c I~ousing,Fig. 21.7. The flt~id tllr bollnt1:ary Ia.ycr on the rot.nl.ing tlislc is centrifngerl outwards, and this is in coln[~rrlsnt,ctlby a llow inwartls in t.l~t? I)onr~tlnry layer o n the honsing a t rrat. Thcre is 1 1 0 nl)prrc:inl~lnrntlial c~omponor~t. t,l~c?int,c:rrnctlint.clayer of fl~lidwhich rotrates in wil.ll : L ~ I O I I~nlf ang~llnr I~ t,llr! vt?locitayof 1 . 1 1 ~ clislc. P. Sc1111lt.z-Gr~~now invcstigatcrl this

This equation has been plott~cclin Fig. 21.8 ns curve (3). Cornj)nrotl wilflt Int.:1wroment i t lcacls to vnluea whicl~arc too small hy ~ h o r r t per cont., ant1 t#l~is I I I)o ~ 17 ~ H ntLribt~t,rtl t,l~c to crntlc n.qstltnl)t.ionu rnntlo in tltc cr~lcu1nLio11. It is particularly noteworthy that, apart from the cwc of vcry small gaps, eqn. (21.34), the momcnt of viscous forces is complctrly intlepotcto~t I,llc witlt.lr of of the gap, as seen from cqns. (21.35) ant1 (21.36). Cotnparirlg t l ~ c friclionsl rnorl~c~ll on a "free" disk and on one rotating in a housing, eqns. (21.35) and (21.36) as against e q n s (21.28) and (21.30), i t is secn that thc n ~ o m o l on a frco disk is grcatcr than t t h a t on a disk in a housing, Fig. 21.8. This fact can bc explained by the existence of the core wliicll moves a t half the angular velocit.y. This decrrascs t.he t,ransvcrsc gradient of the tangential velocity to approximately onc hc~lf what it worlltl t ~ on of r a free disk and, consequently, the drag is also smaller than on a "free" disk. The flow process depict(ct1 in Fig. 21.7 in which tllc boundary layer on the rotating disk flows outwards and that on the casing flows inwards was lat.er investigated e~periment~ally J. Dailey and R. Nece [Bb]; their rneasurcrncnts covered the wiclc by range of gap widths s / R = 0.01 to 0.20, and a range of lteynolds nnrnbcrs R = R2w/v = 103 to 107 and included bot.11 laminar and turbrrlent, flows. The rcsults shown in Fig. 21.8 concerning the torque have bceri largcly cor~firnicd. Ilenl ~ r n n ~ f cl'ltc rnt,c of hcnt I,I~JLII~~OI.I.IYI n Ilc~irlc(l~~ol.ctt.ing to 1111% r: from tlisli coolcr casing at, rest. is irnport,ant.in t l ~ e design of gas t,urbincs. Thc tempcrat,rlrc ficld which develops in t,l~e gat) between t.he disk ant1 the casing is strongly infinrnrcd by the complex flow pat.t,nrn wllich prcvails in it,; in t,urn, this has a lnrgc il~llucncc on the flux of heat from tlislz to ho~lsing. The sirnplrr cnsc of n rot.nt,ing "frcc" tlislc isns invest,ignted some t.imc ago by K. Millsaps anti I<. I'ohllrnnscn [34a], scc also Src. X I I d ant1 Pig. 5.11. Tllcorct.ical anrl expt:rirncntal inforn~alioticoncerning t h r tlisli in a housing in laminar as well as in turbulent flow can bc ftrnnd in a t,l~esis It. \)y Caly [en] prcsent.ct1 1.0 Aacllen Ul~iversit~y. Caly matle measnrc~rnrntsof I,ofl~t.ltc velocity as well a.3 t l ~ t;cml~crat,ure r borrntlnry lrtycr and inrl~ltlrtl cast: of n ~ i : ~ r ~ . o w t,lle

652

XXI. T~lrt)~~lcnt houndnry layers at zero prcssr~re grndicnt

c. The rough plate

653

gap with a single bountlary lnyer and that of a wide gap with two scparate boundary layers, one on tho inner and one on t l ~ c outer wall. I n most cases good agrecmcnt between theory and measorcment of heat flow was obtained.
c. The rough plate

1. The resistnnce formuln for n ur~iformlyrough plntc. I n most pracLicxl applications conncctcd with t h c flat platc (c. g. ships, lifting srrrfaccs of an aircr;tft;, turbinc blades) tho wall cannot bc considcrctl l~ytlraulically smooth. Conscql~cnt~ly, the flow p m t a rough platc is of as much pracl.ical interest as that t h r o l ~ g a~rough l pipc. The rclative roughness k / R of the pipc is now rcplnccd by the qrtantity k / 6 , where (9 denotcs tho boundary-layer tl~ickncss. Tho csscnt,ial difference bet,ween tdrc flow through a rough pipc and that ovcr a rough plate consists in the fact that the rclat9ivc roughness k / 6 dccrcascs along the platc when k remains constant because 0 increases downstrcam, wl~crcas a pipc k / R remains constant. This circumin stance causes the front of thc plate t o behave differently from its rearward portion as far as t$lreinflucncc of roughncss on drag is conccr~lcd.Assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that, thc Ijoundary laycr is turbulcrlt from the leading ctlgc onwards, wc find co~nplcLclyror~ghflow ovcr the forward portion, followctl by the trransition rcgimc and, cvcnt~ually,thc platc may become hydraulically smooth if it is sr~fficient,ly long. The lirnit,s bctwcen these three regions arc tletcrniincd by the climcnsionless roughncss paramctcr v, k,/v aa givcn in cqn. (20.37) for sand roc~gl~ncss. 171c result of t<hccalc~~lat~ion pipcs can bc Lransposctl to t11c casc of rough for platcs in cxaci,ly the samc way as for smooth platcs in complcte analogy with the dctailcd clcsoription givcn in Scc. XXTa. Such calculations were carried. out by L. Prandtl and 11. Schlichting [41] wit,h the usc gf Nikuredsc's results on pipes roughcncd with sand (Scc. XXf). Thc calculatio~~ bascd on the logaritl~mic was velocity-distribution law for rough pipcs in tho form of ccln. (20.32), whcncc u/v, = 1 = 2.5 In (ylk,) . B. The dcpendcnce of the roughrlcss function R on the roughness paraincbcr v, k s / v is given by the plot in R g . 20.21. The calculation, which is essentially tShcsamc in Scc. X X I a , n ~ u sbe carricd out separately for the txansition t ant1 complctcly rough rcgimcs rcspcctivcly. For the dcteils of this method reference sho~lldbc matlc to the original paper. The rcsult can bo rcprescntcd in two graphs, Figs. 21.9. and 21.10, in which the coefficient of total skin-friction drag, c,, and the local coefficient, c,', have been plotted against the Reynolds number R = U l / v with the rclative roughness , Ilk, as a, paramctcr. I n the case of the local coefficient, U x / v and xlk, are used. , , I n addition thc tliagrams contain curvcs of U k,/v = const, which can be comprltcd a t once from the previous oncs. The two families of curves have the following significance: if the ve1ocit.y on a given plate is changed, Ilk, remains const,aut, arlti the cocfficicnt of skin friction varies along a cur,vc ilk, = const. If, on the, other A hand, the lcngtll of the plate is changcd, ( I , ks/b remains constitnt, and the &,ocfficicr~t,of slrir~friction varics along a curve lJ, k,/;= const. 13ot11 grapl~sfliave becri computctl on thc nss~lrnptionthat the turbulent b o u ~ l d s r ~ layer t~cgiri; rigl~t a t the leading ctlge. 'l'11o broken curve shown in the tli:~gr,ims corresponds to t,he limit, of complete rotrghness arid it may be rlotctl t h a t a given rclnt,ivc rorigl~rlcss

]pig. 21.9. Ilcsist,anccfor~nula sand-roughcnrdplnto; cocfficict~t lokd skin frict,ion of of

!&z !.

Fig.21.10. Resistance formula of sand-rougllcned plate; cocificicnt of local skin friction

654

XXT. l'r~rl~r~lmt I~or~rttlnry lnyrr~ zero pressrlrc gratlient at

c..

'l'lrr ro~~gli p1nl.c

665

causes the coefficient of skin friction t o increase only if t h e Reynolds number exceerls a certain value, in complete similnrit,y with pipe flow (see See. X X I d ) . I n the romplct,cly rough rcginic it is possible to make use of the following interpolation formulae for t,ho oorffirirr~ts skin friction in terms of relative roughof ness : -" 2.87 1- 1.58 lng (21.37)
ks

the vegetation is used a3 the rongl~ncss parnmctrr k. In accortlal~ccwit11 ctlti. (20.38), this is the samc as talting the ecluivalcrit santl rorlghnrss t o I)c k , =- 4 k.
I<. . 2. Mrn.surements on ~inglerotrglloess e l e l ~ ~ c ~ ~ t s Wicglrirrtlt [BC,] cnrrirtl or~tn I : q c ~~rrrnbcr n~c~srtrcrr~c.t~la of or1 rougl~~a:ns t,hr qrccial tnnrrol irr (:octl,i~rgo~~. tntrrml, ol~oriihcl in 'I'hc: on nir, hntl s~noot,Ir \vaIIs anrl 1 r r ~ t a n ~ r t l i ~ r : crtr~q.scct,io~r ~r~casr~ring x 40 C I ~ I(il11011t X I .:<nl) 140 4.5 :tnd vr:ts C, 111 (;iOo~rI, ft) 1o1:~. 20 'l'lrc 11r:tg w:ts ~nt:asnrt:tI 1vil11 I11r : r i d of :b Ir:rl:trr~!f: w h i t , I ~w:is :tl.l.:~t.l~c.,l (1) :I r~:~:t.n~rgt~I:rr11litk: (50 x :)O t:rrr, or I.li.5 x 1.00 fl, 1tli~rroxi1ir:rlr\1?/). ~ H L IesL 'IIIr(* 1,lat.c s.ns acco~n~~rotlntccl rcrcss i t r l . l ~ nlonrr wnll (1.4 x G I:) or 4.5 x 20 ft npproxi~irnkly) in a of t,l~c tu~lrlrlant1 it was free to IIIOVC over a sl~ort tlisf.nnrc. 'rl~t. tlifircnce I>cL\vrcn1.110 drag on 1,110 lcsl 111;tFv i l , l ~I ~ I willto111 ~ ~ ~ I I ~ I I Iclr~~~rcrtl~l,Irt> incrr,:~sci n { I ~ I L .,I/), {IIIO \ I ~ t,110 IO~S gnvo ~, to rouphncus. Gencrnlly speaking this incrcwc consists of two lcrtrrs. Thc lirnt trrrn is tho forin drag cl"e to rouglrrrcss it.sclf nncl tlrc second is c111cto tlre facl Llrnt Lhe prcscrlcc of ror~gl~rrcss clc~ncnLq changes the vt?locily profile in iLq ~rci~hhorrrhood IICIII:~ the S ~ I C B ~ ~ Isl,rrss 011 tl10 and IF, wall as, for cxe~nplc, n t,lrc rcgion of back Ilow bcliirrd a fillet. or Ictlgc. 'l'lrc rntio of 1 . 1 1 ~ i Ilr-ifilrl, of the ronghness elc~rrcnt t.he bortnclnry-lnycr thickness, kld, is an i~r~portn~lt In para11rt:l.c.r for t,lic a]rplicnt,ion of RIICII rrs~~lLq nctrriil conditi~ns011 a slti11'~ or nn acroplii~~c. vitlr~e\r?as L o 111111 118 v:rrirtl hy setting ,111 t,he snnrc roirgl~ncss clc~no~ils dilTorc~rt n L pl~tcos nlong the wall of tlro l.11111rrl. Yron~the p o i ~ oft view of prncbin;bl applic;tt,ions it is also i~nporbnt tlofi~~cs1riL:rlrlc t l i n ~ r * r r ~ t,o n sionlcrrs cocflicient, wit11 the nit1 of tlrc atltlitional dritg. I(. Wicgh:rrtlt r~sctlone tlcfinccl I I ~

which are vnlid for 102 < I l k , c~ lofi. I n order t o use t,hcse clingrams for ror~ghr~esa other than the sand roughness assr~mctl hero, it. is necessary to tlct,crmine t hr equivalrnt sand roughness a s explainatl in Src. X X g . I n t11c cslrulat.ion of t.ltc tlrag on ships it, is important t o consider plates with vcry small roughness (painted met31 plntcs) a s well a s smooth plates coverctl with single protnheranccs, srrch a s rivct, heads, wrltlctl seams, joints, etc. F. SchultzGrurtow [62] carrictl out a large 1111rnl)crof rncns~lrementso n such sr~rfacesill t l ~ c open cl~annc?l the Tt~stitut~e Gont,t.ingcn mcntiotlcd in See. X X g Atlditional of in comprchcnsivc d a t a on rongl~rtcsscs c c ~ ~ r i nin shipi)uilding can also IIC fo~tntlin o g several papers hy G. I<ernpf 1321. Acr:ortling t o these measuremenk it is possible t o IISO an avrmgn v a l ~ l c ccluivalt:rlt s:antl rorcgl~ncssor k, = 0.3 mm (= 0.012 in of :111prox.) for trc?wly l i ~ ~ ~ n c hs11il)x. A1, l.l~c otl Irigh KC~IIOIIISI I I I I ~ C C \vl~ieIrO C C I I ~in I~ R sllij~s this callsG? a n i~~crt:aso rcsisl,nrlt:c of 34 to 45 per cent. due t o r o u g l l ~ ~ e ~ q , in a s con~l~arotl \vit,h l~yclrarllicallysnrnot.11 walls. Itougl~nessdue t o weeds atlhering t o ships' hulls 11.w a pn.rt.ic:rtlarly tlct.rinicnt,al e r e c t on resistance. Tllcreascs ill rcsistanrc? of 50 per cent,., a s corni):~rc,tl\vil.ll rtorlnal c~ntlit~ions, well occur untlcr may suc:h circnmst,anr.rs. 'I'hc rn~rghnrssof s ~ ~ r f ; ~ise also important in tturbincs, tnrr s i ~ o - c o r n ~ ~ r s sr~iitl o r s sitnil:~r t-ngil~t~s. str~ootl~iless normally manufacturctl blatle 'I'IIc of sl~rlaccs not suflirier~t o scc~irc ix t I~ydrnrtlirally smooth conditions [17a, 671; see also 1). (i60. (lan~oufl:~.gc p;~ir~t.s ~tsctlon arrol)l:r.tlc sttrfat:cs call be woll fittrtl illto the ~ m l e of a c ~ ~ ~ i . v ; ~ l c ~ nro~rgl~r~c:ss 11rovotl I)y I l ~ o s;~tttl t as it~vcstignt~io~ls carrictl out Ily A . I). Y ~ I I I I ~ cluring wllic:lr ccluivn.l(:r~(, l,(i!)], s:dt1(1 r o ~ ~ g l ~ r ~ eof c s = 0.003 t,o 0.2 mm s s ks (0.001 t o 0.01 in approx.) have been measured. They are equal t o about 1.6 times t,he size of !.he Incart gconielrical protrusions, i. e., k8 = l..B k. 111 this connoxion it is notcwort~l~y the incre;r.sc in rcsist,:rr~ceclue t o roughness in the sabsonic range t,hnt of llow is it~tlcpcrldcntof tho Mach number.

\vIr(;rc! ,I/) tlc~iolestlre ~n~:~sr~rctI n.~ldiI,it~~ral 11 I,IIc 1:irfivsL rro~~I,nl~ I > I Lo f I l r t - ~ I I I I ~ I I I I ( . ~ S (lr~ig, IL rlcmcnt prpcndicrrlnr to thc tlirection of Ilow, :in<l ? is 1.lie sI,:ig~rnt~ion {rr(>?i411rc irv(:t.ii~(.tI over t.hc Irrigl~tof the rorrgl~noss elcrrrcnt,, or
t

Fig. 2 1.11 ltesistanco cocficicrrt for rectnngular ribs, as n~cnsured hy I!'irglrard t [MI

W. I'aescl~k~! (393 clcmonst,mt.ctl t.lint t,ho laws of friction, in flows along rougll wn.lls, w l ~ i t ~ l ~ c~ncrgcd Iravc: from tllcsc exprrimcr~t;alinvestigations can be applied f,o t , l ~ mot.ion of nn.ttrr:~lwinds over t,hc snrracc of !,he earth. The effective roughness c of srlrfahcs covorrtl with tlifferent Itintls of vegctat.ion corlld be determined by rnen~srtrrlncnt~ t,hc vclocity t l i ~ t ~ r i h ~ ~of i o n wind in t h e layer just above the of t ~ tile sl~rf':tc:o t,l~c of earth. ICq11at.iot1(20.32) ~ , / ? t , -- 2.5 In (ylk) 4- B ] ,which has been deduced [? rrotn pil)t:-flow rrsrilt,s ant1 whiell r r p r t a e t ~ tt,. ~ t ?velorit,y profile over a rough surface, I~ w:ls confirnlotl, nl~tl 1.11~vnl~tcor N -- 5 was fol~nclwhen t,he pliysic,zl I~cightof

a t right, angles or a t an acute angle lo the strca~n, shaped filleta of triarlgular and oirc~rlar crosssections, sheet n~etal joitrt.s,sirrgle rivet heads and rows of rivets, cnvities in the wall a11d others. Some of (,heresiilts for rectangular ribs at right.angles to tho st,rcan~ seen plotted in Fig. 21.11. are The value of t.110 cocfficient. CD tlccreases with increasing t / h ( t -width, h - h~ight).llolefl and cavities in t.11~ sorface Icnd t.o incrensrd vnlrles of tho rr,sistnnco coc?flicicnt.I ~ r r a ~t.lig ~w cxtrrnnl llow carlsos 1.110 l l r ~ i t lin tilo cavity to tnkc part in tho motion.

Here u ( y ) denotes t,lte vrlocit,y distribution 011 t l ~ c srnoot.l~ \vnll, t l ~ a t e. 3.. u/[J =- (!//8)117. is, A large variety of roughness elements was srrbjected to Lest, inclrrdi~rg rect.nngr~lnr nrrangcd ribs

656

XXI. Tnrbr~lcnt boundnry layers a t zero prcssure gradient

Tlie flow pattern which exisb behind an obstnclc loccd in the boundary lnycr n m r n wall diRcm msrkc~lly from that behind an obstacle placccf in tho irco nt.rcnm. 'Shin cirnntnst,ancc clncrgca clcarly from nn oxpc!rilnc~~t pcrfor~t~ccl 11. Schliol~ting [45] n11c1 ill~~nl.r:ilnxl by in Iqig. 21.13. Thc cx[~crin~cnt consiuLCd it1 tho t ~ ~ c n s ~ ~ r c : ~ n c n t vclocity liclcl I)cl~in(l row of of 1.11~ a sphcrc~ plnccd on a smootl~ Ilnt s ~ ~ r i n c'l'hc pnl.tr!rn of cllrvcs of conntrrnt veloc-ity clorwly nl~own e. a kind of negative wake e//ect. Thc s~nallcstvclocitira Itavo bcon I I I C ~ L R I I ~ C ~1110 frcc g r r ~ ~ s in in u1hic.h no spherrs are prcscnl ovcr Lhe whole 1cngt.h of t l ~ c plate; on t l ~ c olhcr I~rrr~tl, lnrgcst I.l~c vcloc:il,ine havo been n~cnsrrrocibehind tho rown of upltorcs whcrc prcciscly 1.110 nmnllc:r vc:loc:il.ion w o ~ ~ lbc cxpectcct to exist. W. Jacobs 1201 c:orriccl 0111rr tuorc t1c:t;iilccl i~~vc~nf.ig:iLio~~ d or 1.11i~ i>ccrrliar cllect. According to $1 rcn~nrkrnadc by P.Scl~nltz.Ur~~now 1 . 1 1 ~ rcrlson for n ~ ~ c l ~ [RR], behrrviour seems to be conncctr,d wit.1~ cxintmw of wcondary (low of a kind which is sitnilar the to thnt on a lift..gcnerating body. 'rhc strcamlinc~of this secondary l l o ~ havc 1)nc.n shown skct,nhcd in Fig. 2];13. 'l'ho cxistcnce o i Lhia cllect was oonlirlnccl by I). tl. Willi:in~n nnc1 A. 1". Brown [68] who pcrformcd mcnar~rcmcnbon an ncroloil proviclctl with rows of ri\rcln. Thcre i~ in existenno a very cxtennivc literature cot~ccrningtho ror~gl~ncsa ncrofoiln of [9, 24, 251.

Fig. 21.12. llcnistance coefficient of circnlor cavitics of varying depth in a fiat wtrll, ns tncns~~rcrl \Yicgl~trrdt [66] hy

Figrlrc 21.12 presents the increase in drag caused by c i r c ~ ~ l a r cavities shown in the sketch (diameter d and dcpl.11h). Since the definition of q adopted previously loses ita sense in this case, the drag wns ~ n n d e dimensionless with refercnco to the stagnation pressure outside the boundary layer, Aco = ADlf q n d'. Tho increaso in drag is smaller for smaller values of the ratio of the depth of t.hc cavity, A, t o the hondary-layer thickncm, 6. I t is noteworthy that all curvcq l ~ a v c a common rnnxinn~ma t hid r~ - 0.5. l'nrlher, small locnl n~aximaoccur a t -hid 0.1 and 1.0. The rninin~abctwccn them occur a t - h/d = 0.2, 0.8, and 1.35. Depending on the depth of the cavity it. may nometi~neshoppcn Lhat rcgular vortex patterns arc formed in it, l c a d i ~ ~ g to t l ~ c diRcrent, val~rcs drag. As swn from tho syn~metry tho curves about h/d = 0. nl~allow of of cavitiw of up to - d/h = 0.1 givc the same incrcaso in drag as m r m p n d i n g small protubcrancoa. l t o r ~ g h ~ ~insthe f o r n ~ rifling or ridges on a plate cut normal to the flow direction have c s of been the subject of modern studies by A. E. Perry e t n1. [39a].

3. Trnn~ilionfrom n smooll~ a rourgll ~~rrlnee. .Jscol)s [27) i~~vc.nLigslotl Ilo\r, II:LLlo W. 1.110 learn Iwar a wall which co~eistedof o s~nooLli wction fr)llowd by a ro~tgh one, or vice versa. The problem is of some interest in meteorology and oeeurs WIICII a wind 1)asncsfrom ncn L 11111c1. o or from land to sea, flowing past nurf1Loc8 whose roughnesscs tlimcr connitlorably fronl cncll oL11er. I t is noticccl that the vclocity profilo whicl~ corrwl~ontlslo t.hc clownst.rc:rn~ nrc.l.ion of 1.11~ wall forms only a t a cerhin distance I)chir~el I)onndary b c t w c c ~ ~ two sccliol~u. a vnri:il.ion Ll~c 1110 'I'II(, of nhcxring st,rcsn ~alcnlntcdfrorn tho 111enn11rc:c1 velocity prtxfilc ~ i l . 1 11.11~:lie1 of I'rrr11cIl.1'~ 11y11oL~lcnin,i. c., r - p l z (ei~l/t~?y)~, ; I \ I ~ ~ ~ o l ,ill l~ lg'ij?,n. 21.14 11111~21.1fi. 't'hl? ~ ~ ~ # L ~ ~ H~~ IL< I) W<11143 is ~ ~ I !c~ I I H remarknl)lc? le;rttrrc, nan~clythat the n1w:iring ~ t r c u s ~ 111c:/~v:iII ~ L R R I I I I I C S ~LH i t new VBIII~: \vl~ic:h corrrsponds to fully dcvclopcd flow 1.\vo ,.his rwult is imporhnt, c. g., when im~ncdintelybcl~incltho bo~lnd:rry bct.wc:cn 1.11~ nrot.ionn. I it is clcnircd Lo cnlculntu Lhu clrrig r111 r 11ln1,o\vl~i~:l~ r co~~sista of a smootl~ and a rough section. In t11c zone of tran~itionthc vnrintion of nl~cnring strcsa at, right ~~ angles to tho wall, r(y), hna -9 form which is inLcrlncclinLc bctwccn the linear f~~ncI,ions l i i ~ i l ~ k r i ~ t of fully dcvclopecl flow ovrr n rot~gh and a smoolh wall rcspcclivcly. T11c sl~c:irit~g r w ~ nt f~lnc:l,io~~ r(y) obtaincd from rneasuretncnt can bc inlcr~tolatcrl with Lhc :riel of tho c~~~piric:rl rclalion

which is sl~own dotted in Figs. 21.14 and 21.15. llorc T, ant1 r, clcr~olcLhc s h c a r i ~ ~ g strcsscs on the rough hnd srnoot11 wall, rcupcctively, both for fully clcvelopccl How, z is Lhc disbncc along the u.all rneasurcd from the border line bctwccn Ll~ctwo portions of thc plate, y is tho distance irom the wall, and h denotca the height of the cl~anncl.Ebr tho rcversc order of transition (roogh smooth) the same formula may bc uscd, exccpt that 7, and rr ~ n u n t inhrchi~nged. bc The influence of a pressure gradicnt on the transittion fro111a nn~ooth o r o ~ ~ g h to snrfacc ha8 been investigated by W. 11. Schoficld [Fill and It. A. Antonin [Is]. Scvcre local prcssnrc fluct,uations havc been observed by P. J . Mnlhenrn 136~1 downstrcntn from RIICII nn a h r ~ ~ p t , (:l~:~tlgc.

-.

1 Fig. 21.13. Curves of conatnt~t velocity in tho flow field1bcllind s row of spheres (full lines), as n~easrlrcdby 11. Scl~lichting1451, and accompanying i t the secondary flow (broken lines) in z by the ncighthe boonr1:iry Inyrr bchilld sphere (I), ,s calr~tlnted F. Schrtltz-Grunow [65a]. 111 bourhood of the wall, tho vcloeity behind the nphorcs is larger than that in the gaps. The spheres produce a "ncgntivc wake cff6ct" which irr rxplnincd by the existence of secondary flow 1)ismrtrr of n1rlirrt.q d 4 mm

The arnount of ro~rgl~ncss which is considcrctl "atlmissiblc" in cngir~coring applications is that maxirnum hcighl of individual roughness clcments whicl~causes no increase in drag compared with a smooth wall. Tho practical importance of determining the amount of admissible roughness for a givcn set of circr~nistanccs is very great, because i t determines the amount of labour which it is work11 spcntling in manufacturing a givcn surface. Thc answer to tl~isql~cstior~ esse~~t,inlly is different depending on whethcr tiic flow under consitlcralion is laminar or tl~rt)lllonL.

658

XXI. Torhulcnt boundary layera at zero preuaure gr~liorit

InJ!le case of lur.bw-Z?nt.~bo~~n+ry y ~ r s h roughness lias no effect., ant1 the wall is hy&aulic$llfjmooth if all_ ~rotuberancGsiife cofitai~lcd -within the larniriar subG e T A s mcnt~iortctlbefor;, the thicltnrss of the lnttcr in only a small fr,zc>tiol~ of tlie boundary-laycr thickness. I n cor~ncxioriwith pipr flow i t waq forlticl that, trhc contlition for a wall t o be l~ydraulically smooth is given I)g cqn (20 37) w l ~ i c s~a t r d lt t h a t the dimensionless roughness lteynolds n l l ~ n b e r t

wl~crc , = \ / t o /denotes tlic frict.ion vclocit.y. This result can be cor~sitlt:rcclvnlitl v P also for the flat plntc n t zero incidence. 1Iowcvcr, from tlto prnctical ~ ) o i ~ ~ t . of viow i t sccrns more convenient to spccify a valr~c rclativc ror~glincss Itcfcrring t o t.lie of kll. diagram in Fig. 21.9, which represents thc rcsistancc formula for a plate, we citn obtain tlie admissible valoc of k / l from the point n t which a givcn ctlrvc Ilk =-. (:onst. deviates from the curve for a smooth wall. I t is sccn t h a t the ntlnlissiblc vnluc of k/l decre,wes as the Reynolds number U l / v is increased. Ronncletl-on' vnl~rcsfrom , Fig. 21.9 are Listed in l'al)lc 21.2. They can be sitmmarizccl hy tlic following s i ~ n p l e forrni~la :
rough portion of wall, na ttl~a~ured W. Jacobs 1271 by

at*r~ls tho bo~lndarylayor on pnaaing from a anzoolh to a in Fig. 21.14. Varint.ion of slicnrit~g
.--. Y

=lw,

(21.42)

wl~ose approxi1nat.e validity can also be deduced dircct,ly from l'ig. 21.0.

Table 21.2. Admiwihle height of protr~bcrancesin tcrlns of the Rcynoltln nu11111c.r

This fornir~lagivcs only onc v:~lucof k,,,, for t,lir: wholt? Icngt.1) of t.hn pl:tt,o. in Sincc, howcvcr, tho bouncl:wy-layer t~l~iclz~tcns smnllc:r ricstlr (,IIc: It*:ltli~igrtlgc:, the atlmissibb va.lue of k is srnaller ~ ~ l ) s t , r c a ~ r i ft~rl~llcr t,l~an tlownst.rcnm. A fi)rn~rlln which talzes this circn~nst,:~r~nc acaonr~t obti~inctl into is wllrr~ o,2/(1,2 = t , , / 11,,2 ~) = 4 cf' is introtluced, cf' clonot.ing the local cocfliciont of sltin frict,ion, a s giver1 in 'rahlc 21.1. Thus wc obtain

Umrknam

<d.;.

( 2 l :IR)

or i Fig. 21 I5 Vnrinlir~ti ~limring~trr911 n ~ I I P I~ontidnrylnyer on pauning frorn a rough to a r,tioolh porlio~iof \$:ill, tilrnsi~rrtl11y \I1.Jnrol~n(271

t The estimates performed in this section make no tlisliricLion hx-twrr~itllr rqi~ivnl~*nt S:LII(~
height, k& and thle actual l~cight, of a prott~brrt~i~cr. k,

660

X X I. T~~rl)l~lent bo~~ndary layers a t zero pressure gradient

For mall Reynolds numbers R < loReqns. (21.42) and (21.43) give practically , the snmc results, whereas a t larger Reynolds numbers eqn. (21.43) gives somewhat greater valr~es. We are, thus, jrlstified in retaining the simpler equation (21.42) because t l ~ c r e noclanger of fincling valnes of k,, which are too high. Equation (21.42) is ,, st,ntJest h a t the admissible height of roughnes.9 elemeltts i s independeltt of the length of the phde; i t is tlc~l~c.rminctl sololy by t t ~ r velocity and by tho ItincmaLic viscosity in :~ccortlancc:with t,hc contlitior~ (21.44) I t follows t h a t t,he absolutc vnhles of admissible roughness for a moclcl and its original arc c q r ~ a l tile velocity and kir~cmat,icviscosity arc the samc in both cmes. if l'or long botlios this may Icatl t o extremely small admissible roughnesses as compared, with t,hcir linear tlimensions, see Table 21.3.

Fig. 21.10. Atln~issibleroug11ne.w for rough platcs at zero incidence, and aircrnft wings from crln. (21.44)
k,dm

For ~xnc:t,icnlapl)licnt,ions it, is still more convenierlt t o relate the admissible val~loof ronghricss clircct,ly to t,hc Icngth o f the ~ ~ l n t1, ,or more generally, t o the c length, I , of the I)otly 11ndr.r co~lsiclcrnt~ion, g. length of ship's hull, wing chord, (c. 1)lntlo chortl in t~~rrl)inrs rol.nry cornprcssors), I)ccnrlse this lcatls to a more graphic: or

662

XXT. Tiirltnlcnt bo~tntlnry lnyrrrr

nt zero

prcssl~rc ~rndicnt

tl.

Atl111issi1)lc rougl~nrss

'

ti(;:!

mrnsurc for tllr rcqttirrtl snrfarc smoot~llncns.To acllieve this, eqtlation (21.44) may be rewrilttcn ns

wl~rrc:R, - Il.,, I/v. 'l'hn tli:~grntni ~ l'ig. 21 . I 0 rnny Itc: uscd t o fn~ilit~nta t calc\~lnt,ions wit11 the nit1 of' ccln. (21.46). 'L'l~c: tlingrnm cont.;rins a plot of admissible sizes of prot,~ll)cm.t~ces ngnirlst Rcynoltls I I I I I I I ~ )wit.11 t.he cl~nractcristiclength a s a para(?~, rnct.cr. 'l'llc mngcbs of Itcpr~oltlsn11rnI)crscnc.ot~nt,crctlin variolts engineering applications (ship, airsllip, nirc:r:l.ft,, conll)rcssor I)ln(lcs, .sI,cam t,~crbiticblndcs) I ~ n v c\wen shown at, t,llc bot,t,orn or tllc clingrnrn for convcnie~~cc rcfcrcnce. In addition, Table of 21.3 gives n sutnrnnry of scvcm.l examples which hnvc been computed with the aid ~ atlmissible roughnesscs are of t h e order of of Fig. 21.16. r r i tllc cnsc of . F I L ~ h sd' l ~ of to scvcrnl Iirrr~tlrcclthsof one ntillimrbrc (scvcrnl t,cr~t~lls orle t.hor~santlt.l~ scvcrnl t,ho~tsnndt.l~s a n inch); s r l r l ~ of vnltrcs c ~ t i t i o t at.taincd in practice nnd it is always 1)c necessary to allow for a consitlrra1)lc increase in d m g due t o ro~lghtlcss.The same is txuc of nirsI~ips.As far ns rcircvn,/t surlncea are conccrnctl, it is secn tllat atlmissiblc rortgllncss tlimcnsioris lie bcl.wcen 0.01 ant1 0.1 mm (0.0004 ant1 0.004 in). With vcry carcfi~l~)mpnmt,iori t,Ilc surface i t is possible t o meet these demands. I n ttie of r:rsc of nrodel nivcrnlt and compressor blnrlcs wliicl~rcqnirc thc same ortler of smoot,hIIPSR, i. 0. 0.01 t o 0.1 mm (0.0004 t o 0.004 in), hydraulicnlly smooth surfaces m n bc ol)t.nined wit.llot~t nntltlc cliffictall,y. 1'11c Itcynoltls numbers encountered in steam t~ci.bi7rc.s arc coml)arntivcl.~large ~ C C R I I S O t11c prcssr~rcsarc eompnrntivcly lligllt in spit.c of Lllc stnn.11 linmr tlirncr~sions,nntl nclmissiblc rougllncss values are, conscclt~cnt~ly, vcry srnn.ll. 'I.'hc rcqrlimtl vnlucs of 1)ctwccn 0.0002 t o 0.002 mm (10-"0 10 in) c.n.1, I~artllyIre al.tfninctl on newly ~ n a ~ ~ u f a c t u rblnrlcs. They are certainly ctl c!xccctlc(l :rfl.er n prriotl of opcrntion due t.o corrosion and scaling. I t may now be rc~mnrltctl tllnt, f.ltc prcretlirlg consitlcrntions apply to tligl~tjly spacctl protul)eranccs \vllic:l~corrrsporid l,o snntl rotlgl~ncsn.In t.lle rnsc of widely speccd obst.aclcs and in 1.11~ msc of w:lll \vnvincss the atlmissil)lc vnlr~csarc sorncwl~at larger.
r 1I1c i n ( l ~ i ( ~ nof : r o ~ ~ g l l n r s s t,llc Iossrs in :r st,cnm t,tlrbinc stage? tlepcntls t o a ~ c 011 gwnt, rxtant, on t,l\c?prrssrrrc tlrop :wross it.. i . e. on t.l~c tlcpree of reaction of tile ~ t ~ a g c . , I his point crnolpcs clcnrly from Fig. 21.17 wl~iclircprcscnts the rcsnlts of measnrenlcnts pcrfol.n~rtlby I . ,Spriclrl\68l on t.uri)inc cnscntlcs with varying sand rotlgllness. , 1 II(: tlin.grnm corlt.nit~s plol of t,llc loss cocf'ficicnt = Ag/.j e,zo," where Ag denotcs n I.l~c nlrnn vi~lltc (.l~r,loss in t,ot.nl llcntl avcragccl over one plt,ch ; tlie loss 11a.sbren 01' tnntlc tlinicnsionlcss wiI,ll rcfcrcncc t o tilo tot,:~l l~cnda t exit (iuz t1cnot.e~ ttlw leaving vc*locit,y). 'Ill~cinc.rr:iso in t,llr. vnlrtc of t h e loss cocffcicnt 5, as PI is ittcrcascd is cnlisetl I)y nn incrmsc in lol wit.11 as nlny be vcrilirtl with rcfcrcncc t.o t l ~ e vrlocity triangle. 'I'II(- 1)roltcn st,r:ligl~l, lines in Ii'ig. 21.17 rrprrscnt t11c a t w11ich 5, irlcrcasci or1 I.hr a s s n ~ ~ ~ p t1.l1:t.t~~ I~o~intlnry ~ i o tf 110 Inyrr is t 1 n r b ~ ~ l cn.ll n.lotig t.hc blatlc. For lower nt
3

Fig.21.17. 1,ons oorfficio111.s t,nrfor bine b l a h provided wit11 snnd rougl~nean, measured hy I,. Spcias clcl [88]
CL
= A g / l p to,';
f ~ lolnl t

Ag-Ins.

kmd. Solidily 111

lunrntn I~lmIennglo /Itn 72"; Rrysoldr r t t r t ~ ~ b c r P I U , I / V R

= 0.07;

CP

6 x 10';

(P-P,)/~ e U, J'

'ksam

~~u.ov,val~nl sand n~uqhnhnrss KI

'7

<,

roilghness valrtcs t h mcnsured poi11t.s fall consi(lerab1y I)clow t,hose ~t.rnigl~I, lines. I t has hccn ascert,nincd during thc invostignLiotl tllnt this bcl~avior~r rrst~llsI'ro111 the cxistcr~ceof long st,retches of laminar bori~ldaryInycrs; a s trltc rotrgl~ncssis increasetl thc lengtll of tlic laminar l,ortio!i of tltc bortntlnry Inyor tlcc:rn:rsc:s. '1'11~: c estirnn.t,e of t,llo amount, of permissible rortghncss from cqn. (21.46) 1 at1s I1rrc t o :L valile of k,/l = 0.2 x 10-Q:lt R = lo2 [/I, = 5 x 10" 'Tl~islimit has bccn ~ n i ~ r l cin l r~ Fig. 21.17 and it, is sccn tallati t agrees well wit11 t l ~ c cxpcrin~clltnlrrsu1t.s. Ibc~li:rc>tlc:c is also made t o papers by K. Bammert and I<. Fiedlcr 12, 31. 'I'hc heiglit of a prot,ubcmncn wllicll causes t,mnsit,ion in n Inlnin:~r I)o~tntl:~.ry I:tycr will b c cnlletl critical ]height or oi/iml rougl~,ress(cf. Scc. S V l l g). L~OUC~III(\SS a.frectts the resisl.arlce offerecl by t11e wa.11 by moving tltc point of trnnsif~ionin :rn upst,rcam clircction, and, tlcpcnding o n tllc s l ~ a p c tile hotly, t,ltc tlrag nl:ty Ito rit1l~cr of itlcrenscd or rlccreascd. Tltc drag is increnacd by sucll a shift ill Lllo 1)oinLof Cm.tlsif,ion when the dra.g of t,llc body is prcdo~ninnnt.lyduo t40 slcitl friction (for cxn~rlltlc:trl aerofoil). It may be decrenaed under cert,a..in cirot~mstnncrsif t,llc tIt.;lg of' 1.11~l)o(ly is mainly due to form drag (c. g. circular cylintlcr). I n accortlnr~ce wit81ks o l ~ Jnp:ttlcso ~c mensurcmctits [62], t.llis crit,ical v a l l ~ e ttllc rollgl~ness give11 hy ol' is

I
-

..

Iior vnlnrs of lllr kic~c.t~tetir viscosil:~of snf)rrI~cnte,(lI P R I I ) C O I I S ~ I I':s(:J~erW ~ M ~ ~~ Itcports, vol. S, No. I , 11. :1 (1!)37), or NI~S-NI\(:A'J'111~lrs f 'I'l~ort~~otly~~ntr~io of (Znses, o I'rolwrticn W,zsl~ingt.on, 1954. Scc ~ I R O.I. l(eqt,in nnd J . Wl~itcln~v, Trnns. A S M E (A), J . Basic Engincerin^. 8.9 (\!)fin) Hz-- 104. Most recent vnlnra can he taken from Meohnnionl R~t~inc?crir~~, sty,
7) (IV76). !

'*
v

:= 1 5 .

(21.46)

664

XXI. Turbulent boundary layers a t zero pressure gradient m e t e r of cylinder). Tllc boundary laycr appcars t o I)c tlisturbctl b y r o ~ ~ g l ~ n l,o s cs such a tlcgrec t h a t transition occurs a t corisidcrably lower Iteynoltls r~rlrnl)ers t.lr:~n is t h e case with smooth cylinclers. Ronghncss has, Ollrrcforc, tlic samo clTc:ct a s Prancltl's tripping wire (Fig. 2.25), namely, i t does reclncc d r a g in a ccrl.nin rnrlgc of Reynolds numbers. Jn a n y case t h e tirag in t h c supcrcritical r:tnge of Itcynoltls t l u ~ n b c r sis always Iargcr for t h e r o r ~ g ht h a n for t.11~ smool,l~ cylintlrrs; scc I ~ n r c IC,OJ.

t W e shall now c a l c i ~ l a t e h e valuc of k,,,, for a wing of length 1 = 2 m ( a b o u t 6.5 f t ) in m2/scc) a t a velocity U, =83m/sec =3OOkm/hr ( a b o u t 185 m p h ) . a i r ( v = 14 x W e h a v e R, = U, l/v w 10'. Consider a point o n t h e wing a t x = 0.1 1, i. e. at R, = U, x/v m lo6. T h e boundary layer c a n remain laminar as f a r a s this poirit owing t o t h e existence of a negative pressure gradient. T h e shearing stress a t t h c wall for a laminar boundary layer is given b y eqn. (7.32) a n d is t o / ~ =0.332 UW21 / 1 ' / ~ ~ = X = 0.332 x 6000 x lo-? m2/scc2 = 2.20 m2/sec2. IIcnce v, = = 1.52 mlsec. Inserting i n t o cqn. (21.40) w e h a v c

itole

kc,,, = 1 5 - = ~ 6 X 0.14 x lo-' m = 0.14 m m ( a b o u t 0.0056 i n ) 3

u8

15

This shows t h a t t h e critical size of a protuhcrancc wliich causes transition is a b o u t t e n times largcr t,linrl t h c valuc of a b o u t 0.02 rnm (0.0008 i n ) in t h e t u r b u l e n t bounin d a r y layer, a s c a l c ~ ~ l a t c t l T a b l c 21.3, f o r t h e case i n h a n d (small aeroplane). T h c laminar b o ~ ~ r ~ d a r y "can stand" m u c h largcr roughness t h a n t h e t u r laycr bulent boundary layer. I(. Sclicrbarth [481 carrictl o u t experiments o n t h e bchnviour of laminar bountlnry layers o n walls provided with single obstacles (rivet heads). It w a s mccrtained that, behind t h e obstaclc t,herc forms a wedge-lilte t u r b u l e n t distjnrbcd rcgion whose angle of sprcad is a b o u t 14O t o 18'. r I 11c very r ~ l ~ e n s i v c m s u r e m c n l ~ s n~ cnrric3tl o u t bv E. G. F e i n d t 1171 1i:~vnIecl t o -.. a refiricriicnt~ tllc crit.crion for t , l ~ c of critlical height given in e q n . (21.46) a s mentioned in See. X V I I g .
1 k
J

l'ig. 21.18. 1)mg on circular cylinders a t varying ronghness, aftar Fage and Warsap [I41

T h c inflnrrict of r o u g l ~ n c s s form d r a g can be surnrnarized a$ follows: bodirs on wit11 s h a r p rtlgrs, sac11 a s c. g. a flat plate a t r i g h t angles t o t h e st,rearn,'are q u i t e insensitive t o surface roughrtcss, because t h e poitjt of transition is determined b y tlic etlgcs. 011t h e o t h c r hanct, t h c d r a g of b111ff bodies, such a s circular cylinders, is very sensitive t o roughness. T h c valne of t h e critical Rcyrloltls n u m b e r for which t h c tirag shows a sudtlcn d r o p (Pig. 1.4) tlrpcnds t o a rnarltetl degree o n t h c roughness of I h c surface. According t o mcasurrrncnts, [ I , 141 a s shown i n Fig. 21.18, t h e critical Reynolds nurnher decreases with increasiug relative roughness k / R (d = 2 R = dia-

[I] Ackerct, J.: Schweiz. Bnuzeitung 108, 25 (1936). [la] Alltonin, It.A., nntl Wood, D. H.: Cnlculnt,inn of a t l ~ r l ~ r ~ lI~onntl~~ry clo\vnslrt~:~n~ ent Inycr of a an1a11 step cliange in surface roughncss. Asro. Quart,. 26, 202--210 (1!)75). [Z] Rammert, K., sad Fiedler, K.: Dcr Rcibunga\~erlnat rn,~heri ~ I ~ ~ ~ I I C I I S ~ ~ I ~ von T 13rcnnatoff-Wiirmo-ICraft 18, 430-436 (1966). [2n] Banner, M. L., and Melvillc, W. K. : On the separation of air flow over water nnvcs. ,I T M 77, 825-842 (1976). 131 B~innlert, and Ficdler, K.: Hinterkantcn- i ~ n d K., lteiban~~vcrluut T~rrbincti~c.l~:r~~fcIin g11,lern. Forscl~g.1ng.-Wca. 32, 133- 141 (1066). [4] Blenk, H., and Trienes, H.: Stromr~ngstechr~isclre 13eitriige ziini Wintlschrrtz. (;r~~ncllagcn der Landtachnik. VDI-Verlag, No. 8, 1956. ~ltinfric.1.io111ro111 [5] Brndrrhaw, P., nncl Grrgory, N.: The dotor~ninnbionof locnl trirl~nlcnl, observations in the viscous sub-laycr. AltC JtM 3202 (l!Nil). [O] Burgers, J.M.: The rnotion of a fluid in t l ~ c bountlnry 1nyc.r along a plnt~c:~niooI.l~ RIITIIWC. Proc. First Intern. Congrese Appl. Mecli. 121, Delft (1824). [en] Caly, R.: Der Wiirmeiibergang an ciner in1 geschlosaencn Gehause rotierenden Sclleibc. Thcrris Anchon 1966. [7] Chap~naiu~, D.It., and ICester, It. H.: Mcast~renicr~l~ of tr~rbnlcnl skin friction in cylintl~rs in axial flow a t subsonic and supersonic velocities. JAS 20, 441-448 (1083). [8] Colea, D.: The problem of the turbulent boundary laycr. ZAMY 5, 181-202 (1054). [Ba] Coles, D.: The law of the wake in the turbulent bonndary layer. .lFM 1, 191-226 (1986). [8b] Daily, J., and Nece, R.: Chamber dimension effecta on irldl~cccl flow n!id friction resintnnce of enclosed rotating disks. J . Raaic Eng., Trans. ASMIP. Series D, 82, 217--242 (1960). [9] Doetsch, H.: Einige Versuche iiber den JCinfluss von Obcrl~ric~lcn8tarrlngcn die Profilauf eigensclraften, insbesondere auf den Profilwidcrstand irn Schncllflug. J b . dt. Luftfnlirtforschung 1, 88-97 (1939). [lo] Van Driest, E.R.: On turbulent flow near a wall. JAS 23, 1007-1011 (198(i). 1111 Dutton, R.A.: The accuracy of tneasuretnent of turbulent akin friction by tncans of surface P~tot tubcs and the distribntion of skin friction on a flat plate. AltC IZM 3058 (1957). A6ro. I'aria 1121 Eichclbrcnner, E.: La touche-limite tnrbulente B I'itithrici~rd'un dihdrc. Itecl~. NO. 83. 3-8 (1961). 1131 Elder, J.W.: The flow paat a flat plate of linitc width. J1"M 9, 133-183 (1!)00). [I41 Fage, A,, and Waraap, J.H.: The eKects of turbulcncc and surface rougl~neas the drag on of circular cylinders. ARC RM 1283 (3930). [IR) Fnlkner, V.M.: The resi~tanceof a smootll flat p h t c \\it11 turbulent bonnrlary I~~ycr. Aircraft Engineering 15 (1843). [I61 Favre, A., Dumaa, R., and Verollot, E.: Couche li~nite paroi plane porc~racavcr a ~ p i r a sur tion. Publications Scientifiques e t Techniques du Ministdre de ]'Air, No. 377 (llf61). [I71 Feindt, E. G.: Untersuchungen iibor die Abhangigkcit dcs Urnschlages laminar-turbrrlent von der Oberflachenrauhigkeit und der Drnckvertcilung. Disa. Brannschu~eig 1956. Jb. Schiffbautechn. Ges. 50, 180-203 (1957). [17a] Fomter, V.T.: Perfor~nanceloss of modern stream-turbine plant due to surfaro r0ug1111rus. The Illst. of Mech. Eng., Preprint, London, 1967. [18] Gadd, G.E.: A note on the theory of the Stanton tube. ARC RM 3147 (1960). [I91 Gebers. F. : Ein Beitrag zur experimentallen Errnittlung des Wauscrwiderstandru gegrn bewogte Kiirper. Sclliffbau 9, 436-452 and 475-485 (1008); also: Daa Blinlicl~keitclgesetz fur den Flaclimwider~tandin Wauaer gcradlinig fortbcwegter polierter I'lntten. Srhiffbal~22, 687 -030 (1920/21), continuations.

666

XXI. Turbulent boundary layers a t zero prensure gradiont

References

(if17

[20] Gersten, I<.: Die Grrnzsrhirhtrrtronl~ng eincr rcchtwinkeligen Erke. ZAMM 39, 428-429 in cffcctsr. AGARD Rep. 299 (1959). (1959); sec nlso: Corner ir~terfcrcncc [211 Goltlatcin, S.: On thc rcsistnnce to the rotntion of a disk itnlnersrd in a fluid. Proc. Cambr. Phil. Noc. 31, I'nrL 2, 232 (l93fi). [22] C2ranvillc, 13.S.: The torque and turbr~lcntboundary lnyer of rotating disks with smooth and rough surfnces, nnd in drag-rednction polyrllcr solrttions. J. Ship Research 17, 181105 (1973). . , [23] Hnn~n.F.I<.: 13onnrlnry lnycr cl~nrncterisl.ics smooth ant1 rongh ~ ~ ~ r f n c'rrnnsnetion for ro. of thc Socirty of Nsvnl 11;cllikcta n11d Mnrine 1':11gincers62, 333--358 (1954). [23a] Ilnnscn, M.: Dir (:cscI~~vindigkcibvert.eil~t~~g in der Grcnznchicht an ciner einget,ar~cl~kn PIatb. ZAMM 8, 185-l9!t (I!)28); NACA 'r'M 585 (1930). [24] Hood, M..].: Tho r f i c t a of sorllc comtnon snrfncc irrcgr~lnrit,irs wing drng. NACii T N on 095 ( I !)JOl. [26] J ~ ~ A ~ R ~ .Airfoil section chnracteristirs ns affcrted by protuberances. NACA R P ~446 g. , : . (19321. . - ~ \V.: St,rii~nunghinter eincin einac.lnen R.nuhiglcrit.srlc~~~cnt. Giit,tingen 1038, [20] Jacobs. Dins. Part I, log.-Arch. 9, 343-365 (1938). [27] Jacobs, W.: U~nfortnnng eines t c t r b r ~ l ~ l l t e ~ ~ ~cnchwil~tligltrib~)roftl.. Giitt.i~lgrl~ ])inn. 19.78, P a r t 11. ZAMM I?: 87-100 (1939). 1281 Jeroniin, L.O. F.: l l w st,attls of research in trlrbulrt~tbormdary layom with fluid illjrct,ion. Progress in Aero. Sciences 10, 05-190 (1970). [29] VOII Kdrtnhn, Th.: Mechani~che Ahnlirl~keit rmd Turbnlenz. Proc. I I l r d Intern. Cotlgr. of Appl. hfcrh. 85, Stockhol~n1931, and Hydromerhanisrhe Problelne des Schiffsantriebe8, H a ~ n h ~ ~1!)32; see also: JAS 1, 1 (1932); NACA TM 01 1 (1931); see alho Coll. Works 11, rg, 322 -340. [30] von I<QrtnBn, Th.: Ubcr Inminnre ntld t,nrbnlc?nte Reihong. ZAMM 1, 233--252 (1921); NACA 'I'M 1002 (1940); see also Coll. Works 11, 70-97. [31] ICetnpf, (:.: Nene Ergehninae dcr Widerstnndsforscll~~ng. Werft, Reedcrei, Hafen 10, 234 utwl 247 (1929). [32] I<etnpf, H.: Uber drn Rinflnns dor Rnnlligkcit. nrtf tlen Widerstand von Srl~iffell. ,Ih. SchiFh a u b c l ~ n .Gcs. 38, 150 and 233 (1!)37); and: The effect of rougllrtess on tile resistance of ships. SEngincering, I ~ n r l o n I'IJ, 417 (1937); see also: Trnns. Inst,. Nar. Architect* 79, 109 and 137 (l!):37). [BB] l,n11d1vcbcr, I,.: l l r r Rrihr~t~gs\viderstn~ttl liingsnngent~riit~~ter~ Plntte. J h . Srhiffclrr ebenen bal~techn.GCR.46, 137-- I50 (1!)52). [341 1,icpmann. H. W.. and Filn, G. If.: In\,estignIions of effect8 of crurfarc tet~~pernturr single anel ro~l~hncns rlrmenta on borrntlnry layer tmnsition. Nr\CA Ibcp. $00 (1947). [34a] hfillrnj)~, nnd I'ohlhnnncn, K.: Hent transfer by Inminnr flo1v f r o n ~ rotating plate. K., n J A S 19, 120- 12G (1952). [35] Mottnrtl, 1':. J., nnd Loposer, .T. D.: Avernge skin friction drag coefficient froln ta.11ktests of parabolic: bocly of revolution (NACA IXM-10). Nt\CA Rrp. 1101 (1954). [301 hlotzfcltl, 11.: 1)ie t ~ ~ r h n f e nStriininnp n11 ivrlliger~U'iit~clen. I)iss. G i i t t i ~ l g ~ ~ ~ Z;\nlnf to 1935, 17, J!):j--212 (1937). [Xn] l\lnll~c:irn.1'. J . : 'I'url~nlcntborrndnry 1nyc.r 1vnll prcosllrc flttctnntio~~u tlo\vllntrcalll rrO1llnll abrupt chn~lge st~rfilce in rougllncss. I'I~~.sirs Flrriels ID, 790-801 (1070). of [37] Nalcid, .l.F., nnd Tho~npson, J.: Prcssurc-grndirnt erects on the Presto11 trthe in Roper. M. sonic flow. .JASS 24, 940--944 (1901). [RRJ Nik~~rndsc, 'rnrhr~lcnte .J.: 1LiOni1gssc.l1irl1trn der Plntte. Pnblinl~cdby Z\.\'R, 11. Oitle~~. nil bourg, Miinclicn nntl I9crlin. 1942. [3!)] I'acst~l~kc, \V.: J':spcril~~rt~telle Untsrutlrh~~ngen z1111iRnnhigkcits- uncl Stnbilitiitsprohle~n in tler h o d e n ~ ~ n h I.ufkrhicht,. Iliss. l:iitt.it~gc~l f:~~ 1937. S n ~ ~ ~ m in: yBeitriigc zltr Physik nr /-"'dcr freien At.~nosphiire 24, 103 (1!)37); scc also: Z. Geophysik 13, 14 (1937). [39n] )'erry, 1\.1':.. nnd Srhofirld, W.H.: Rongh wall t,urbnlent boundary layers. JFM 37, 383. . 41:l (191~9). 1 [40] I'rnnrltl, I,.: t h r tirn Ilribongs~vidrrutnrltlstr6innr:der 1,rlft.. Ergebnisse .4\'~i GGttingen, 1llrd Scrics (1927) antl: Z~rr t~lrbillentcnStriin~r~ng Rohren und liinga Plnt.ten. Ergebnisse in AVA (:ijtt.ir~~cli, i\'Ih Scrim (I!)E); Pirut mention irl let, Scrios 130 (1921); nce also Coll. '\\'nrks 11, 1\21) 1P21; nntl (;:!2 --1;48. [ J l l I'rnr~cltl. I,., tint1 Srl~lic.l~lirig.l . : I)ns \Vi~lcrst,nnrlsge~rtz f rn1111c.rPInt.ton. IVrrft. Ilrrrlcrri, Ilnfcv~ 1 4 (I9:l.l); 8c.c nlso (:oil. \.Vorks 11, ti48 ---0172.

1421 Pmndtl. L.: The niechanics of viscous fluids, in: W.F. Durand: Aerodynamic theory, 111 * 34-208 (1935). [43] Preat.on, J.H.: The detertninntion of tnrbulent akin friction I)y means of Pitot t.ubcq. J. Roy. Acro. Soc. 58, 109-121 (1954). [44] Rotta, J.C.: Control of turbulent houndary layers by uniform injection or suction of fluid. J b . 1970 Dt. Gesellschaft fur Luft- und Raun~fahrt, by H. Blenk and W. Schnlz, 13ra1lned. scllweig, 1971, pp. 91-104; see also ZAMM 40, T 213-T 215 (1900). r413l Schiichtinn. 11.: Exncrimo~telleUntcrsuchungon zntn Ita~~higkoitrrprohlcnl. Ing.-Arch. 7, 1-34 (19%). N A C ~ 823 (1937). TM r461 Schlichting, k.: Die Grerlzsch~chtan der ebenen Plntte mit Ahsaugung und Auuhlwen. . ~ r n f t f a l ~ r t & r n c l19,~293-301 (1942). ~ ~n~ r471 Schlichting. H.: J)ic Gren7achicht tnit Absnngon nntl A~ishlnscn.J,rlftfill~rt,ft~rurl~~~~~g 19 ., L179- 181 11942). 1481 Scherbnrth, IC.: Grenzschichtnlessl~ngrnhinter einer pullktformigcn Sttirung in Inminnrcr Strdmung. Jb. dt. Jn~ftfahrtforschungI , 51-53 (1042). [49] Schtnieden, C.: v b e r don Widentand einer in ciner Flunsigkeit roticrcndon Schrihc. ZAhlAI 8, 400-470 (1028). [50] Schoenherr, K. I:.: Resistance of flat aurfacecl moving tl~rougll fluicl. Trans. Soc. N:rv. Arrh. a and Mar. Eng. 40, 279 (1932). [51] Schofield, W. H: Mcaarlrements in arlvernr p r w u r e gradient turhnlcnt honndnry lnycrs wilh a ntep rhange in surface roughness. JL'M 10, 573-693 (10713). [52] Schultz-Grunow, F.: Der hydraulischo Itcibungawiderstantl von Platton tnit tniinsig rn~lllrr Oberfliiche. insbeaondere von Schiffaobcrfldcl~en.Jb. Schiff bnutcchn. C h . 39, 171; -198 (1938). rr;nl Sc1111ltz-Grunow.P.: Ncucs Widorstnndngcsctz fiir glnt.t,c l'laltnn. I,uftfnl~rLforst:l~~~r,a 17, L 239 (1940); also NACA TM 980 (1941). [64] Schultz-Grunow, F.: Der lteibnngswitlrrnt~r~~d rotiercncler Srllrihcn in (:ol~~inst.t~ ZAMM 1.5. 191-204 11935): sce also: H. Fultinger: ZAMM 17, 356-358 (19:57) ant1 I<. 1'1111tull: - - ,Porachg. 1ng.-'\Vea.'l0, 97- 108 (1950). [BR] Schultz-Crunoxr., F.: Ilcr Mcchnnis~nusclrs Wirlorstn~~dm ICit~zolrn~~l~igkritc~~. volr Z11Rlhl 30, 300 (1950). 1558.1 - - Schultz-Grunow, F.: Die Entstehung von Liingswirbeln in Grcn7,srlticl1tcn. ZAhlhI 38, 85-95 (1958). 1501 Smith, D. W., and Walker, J . H . : Skin frirtion n~rns~~rclnenta in incompressil)lr flo1v. NASA - Tlt R-20 (1959). 1571 Siirensen, E.: Wandmuhigkoit.sei~~fluns StrGtll~~ngnt~~nscI~i~lrn. hci Forsrl~g.111g.-Wm.8, 25 (1937). [5$] Sj~eiclcl, :Einfloss der Ol)erfliicllc~~ra~~l~igltcit.n~~fdic L. Striilnnngsvrrl1t4b in el)rnrn S r h n ~ ~ f r l glttern. Forschg. Ing.-Wes. 20, 129- 140 (1954). [59] Squire, L C . : Eddy viscosit,~ distributions it1 cot~~pressiblc tnrbulent boundnry Inycrs with ~iijection.Aero. Quart. 22, 109-182 (1971). [GO] Szeckenyi, E.: Snpercrit.ical Reynolds ~ ~ r t ~ n b c r ~itnrtlnt~ion two-clirne~~sio~~nl ~ Tor f l o over circnlnr cylinders. J F M 70, 529- 542 (1975). IGIl Sznhlewski. W.: Bcrcchnung dcr t ~ ~ r h r ~ l c nStriit~~rlng tlcr cl~oncn trn liingn l'ln1,tc. ZAhlM 31. t '-> 309-324 ( i s s i ) . [02] Tsni, I . . H a ~ n a J., and Mituisi, S.: On thc per~nissiblcrouglulcss in the Inn~insr , 11011ndnry layer. Acro. Rcs. Inst. Tokyo, Rep. I99 (1940). [RD] ' ~ l l l ~ n n n n , Neue Widerstandsmwsu~~gen Ohcrfliicl~ct~stiir~~~~gen t , ~ ~ r l ~ c ~ l o n l r n W.: an in clcr (:ron~achiclit. I~orsclit~t~gsl~cftc fiir Schiffst~chllik No. 2 (1!)5:3). [64] Townscnd, A. A. : The tnrbulent houndnry Iayer. Boundary-lnycr ltrmqenrc-h, U'SAhl S ~ I I I I posium Frciburg/Br. 1957 (H. Giirtler, ed.), 1-- 15 (1958). l051 Wieehardt. K.: u b c r die tnrbulente Striin~rtngim Rohr unrl liings dcr P1nt.t~. ZAMM 2.1 294:-296 (1944). [60] \Vieghardt, K. : Erhtil~ung tnrbulcnku lteit)nngs\r~iderstn~ltles des durch 0bcrflAchc11stiirut1gen. Techn. Rerichte 10, Heft 9 (1943); nee also: Forschnngshcftc: fiir S e l ~ i l F ~ t r c l ~ ~05i k 1. ~ 81 (1953). [07] Wiesclshorgcr, C . : Untfrs~rclir~ngen iibrr dcn Rrib~r~~gs~viderstnt~dR ~ . ~ I I T J I ~ * R I I : ~ I I I I I ~ I I \,on Pliicl~cii.Ergcbnisse AVA Giittingen, Isl Scries. 120--121; (1921). 1081 \Yilliatns. S1.H.. nrltl Brown, A.F.: ICxperin~entaon a rivekt1 wing in tho rntnl~rrssrtlnir tunnel. ARC I ~ M 1855 (1938). [fin] Yont~g, A.D.: Tho drng ofl'ccta of roughness a t high nnl)rrit,icnl sl~occln.J . IL),y. Ac%ro. Sor.

>

>

. -

a. Some experimontnl rusulta

CHAPTER XXII

The incompreesible tl~rhulent boundary layer with preseure gradient JI n tho present chaptcr we sliall discnss the bchaviour of a t~~rbrxlcnt boundary layer in the prwrnce of a positive or nrgativc prcssr~rcgradient along t l ~ c wall, l.hi~s providing a11extension of thc s111)jcrtmatter of the preceding chapter in which the boundary layer on a flat plate with no pressure grhdicnt was considered. The present case is pzrticnlarly important for tlic calculation of the drag of a n aeroplane wing or a tutbinc blade as well as for t11c ilntlcrstanding of the processes which take plarc in a tliffrlscr. Apart from skin friction we arc int~rcst~ctl knowing in whctllcr the boundary layer will scpara1.c under givrri rircumstanccs and if SO, wc shall wish to detcrmine t l ~ cpoint of separation. The exist~nccof a nogstive and, in particular, of a positive prcssnro gratlicnt exerts a strong influcnco on the formation of the laycr just as was t,hc case with laminar layers. A t the present time these very complicated plicnomcna arc far from being understood complctcly but there are in cxistcncc several scmi-empirical mctbods of calculation which lead to comparatively satisfactory results. I n the year 1962, J.C. Rotta [86] prepared a comprehensive and careful review of this vast ficld of knowledge. I n order t o develop methods of calculating incompressible, turbulent boundary layers with pressure gradients it is necessary to derive from experiment relations which go beyond thosc employed for pipes and flat plates at zero incidence. For this reason we shall begin by giving a short account of some experimental results.
a Some cxl~crirncntalresults .

P
in Fig. 22.1. Vclocit,yc1iutrib11Li011 coni~ergcnl and. divergent cl~nnnclswith flat wall^, as titcmrirocl by J. Nikurncluo [71] - 11x11 l~teluded nnglr; It - wicllll of ctlnnrlcl

ILrly systc~natic cxpcrimcnts on two-di~nensionalflow^ with pressure drop and prcssuro rise in convcrgcnt, ant1 divcrgcnt clianncls with flat walls have been carried out by F. Doench [28], J. Nikuradse [71], II. Hochschild [45], R . Kroener 1571 and J. Polzin [76]. Measurements on circular diffusers, and particularly on the efficiency of the process of energy transformation, are described in papers by F. A. L. Winternitz and W. J.Ramsay [123]. These experiments demonstrate that the shape of the velocity profile dcpcnds very strongly on the pressure gradient. Figure 22.1 shows the velocity profiles which were mcasurcd by J. Nikuradse during his g~~erirnent.3 with

L 6
Fig. 22.2. Velocity distribul.ion in a divergo~t chnnnel of l~nlfincludotl angle n = 6" nnd a = Go, as measured by .J. Nilruradse [TI]. The lnck of Qmmetry in the velocity dis. tribtition signifies incipient separation

Tho new version of tliiu chnplcr wo.8 propnrcd by Profemor E. Trr~ckenbrodtwhose nssistanre I I~erel~y grnbfnlly nc:knowletIgo.

Fig. 22.3. Volodity distribution in n diaergent cl\nt\ncl of hnll inclrtdect n ~ ~ a nc= X", l : mc.lsrlred by .I. Nikr~rntlnc [71]. Itcvctsr: flow is cot~~plobly dcvclopcd. Tllc flow oscillntcs nt longer il~krvals bet.wm1 pnthrll~ at~d (a)
(b)

670

XXII. Tho incomprcaniblo t~urbulont boltnd~rylaycr

slightly convergent or divergent channels. Tllc half included angle of the channels ranged over the valrles a = -ao, -4", -2", 0, lo, 2", 3", 4". The bo~lndary-layer thickness in a convergent channel is much smaller than that a t zero pressure gradient, whercas in a divergent channel it becomes very thiclr and extends as far as the cent2reline of the cl1n.ntle1. For semi-angles up to 4' in a divergent channel the velocity profile is fully symmetrical over the witlth of the channel and shows no features associated with sepamtion. On increasing the semi-angle beyond 4" the shape of the a velocity profile ~rntlcrgoes fnndament.al change. The veioait,y profiles for cllannels wit11 . 5 O , Go and 8" of divcrgence, respectively, shown in Figs. 22.2 and 22.3,cease t,o bc symmctricnl. With a 5" nnglc o f divcrgcncc, Wig. 22.2, no barlr-flow can yet bc disccrncd, but separation is about to brpin on one of t,he channel walls. In addition the flow bcnomcs unstable so t,l~at, depending on fort-uitorls disturbances, the stream arllleres alternately to the one or the other wall of t,lle channel. Such a n instability is characteristic of incipient, separation. J. Nikuradse observed the first occurrence of separation a t an nnglo bet.ween a = 4.8" and 6-1". At a n angle of a = Go, Fig. 22.2, the lack of symmetry in the ve1ocit.y profile is even more pronounced, and the reversal of t.he flow intlicnt~csthe start, of separat,ion. At n = 8" the witlt,h of the region of
Pressure distribulion

reversed flow is considerably larger than for n = 6",and frequent oscillation of the stream from one side to the other is observcd, the phenomenon being absent a t a = 6" and Go. However, the duration of one particular flow configuration is sufficiently long for a full sct of readings to be obt.nincd. As tho nnglc of divcrgence is incrcnscd, the region of reverse flow becomes wider, and the beats are more frequent. The diagram in Fig. 22.4 shows an example of a turbulent bounrlary laycr formed on an ~erofoil and measured by J. Stueper [lo61 in free flight. I n the case represented boundary layer on the pressure side is turbulent from the leading edge here, t l ~ c onwartls, because here the pressure rises over the whole witith of the wing. On t,he suction side, t,hc point of t,ransition plnccs itsclf a short distancc behind t h r pressure minimum in agreement with the clescription given in Scc. XVII b. The fact that the boundary layer has become turbulent is inferred from the sudden iorrrasc in its thickness. Very t,horough expcri~ncntalin~est~igat~ions t,llo bchnvionr of l.~~rl)~llcnt, into boundary layers with pressure gradients have been later perfnrmctl by G . 1%. Schubauer and P.S. Klebanoff [97], by J. Laufer [68], and by F.11. Clauser [21]. The first two of the abovc papers contain, in particular, rraults of mcnsarcments on t,urbnlent, fluctuat,ions nnd on thc correlation cocfficicntw wlricll wcrc ciolincd in Chap. XVTII. I'hc last paper contains cxt,cnsive rcsu1t.s of mcasl~rcmrnt~s shnaring on sLrcssns. 'l'hc c:nlc~~l:~l,ions closcril~otl I,llo following sonl.io~t~ c:vitlorll.ly n l ~ l ~o11l.y in c::rt~ lg t,o [flows which adhere comptctcly t o the walls, tirnt is, to cnscs wllicll arc sitnililr to the one shown in Figs. 22.1 and 22.4.
b. The cnlculntior~ of two-dimcr~siorlnl trtrbulertt lto~~nclnry lnyers

Try-

Fig. 22.4. llol~~lrlnry lnyrrotl wing nrrofnil. nn rncrmltrcd by Stitrprr [IOR]; mensuremmtrr in flight; lift rooffic:iottt r,, =- 0.4; IZoynolrln tt111111)cr- 4 x loo; chord 1 = 1800 nlln. 't'lre boundary 1a.s-er R in turhulrnt all nlot~p prrn.wrc sirfr owing l o xtlvotnr, prmnrtro grnrlintlt; or1 tlle a e r t i o ~ s t.110 ridr it. iu lnllritlnr r~prtrcntn prc8strro t n i t ~ i ~ ~nnd ~ t n of i ~ trlrl~rtlc~~t do\r.nut,rcnlrlfrotn it

1. Gcr~eralrernarks. T o this day, all methods for the calculation of turbulent boundary layers rely on semi-empirical procedures, because the apparent r ~ o r n ~ n l and tangential st,rcss componcnta creat.cd by t J ~ c turbulent fluc1,nations as well as the thus released energy losses cannot be ~alculat~cd purely t,heorct.ical means. by Furthcrmorc, it. is st.ill necessary to int,rotlucc hcrc empirical relations of t.hc t,ypc of Prandtl's famous mixing-length formula invented in 1925, because the st.at~istical t,hrory of t,urbulcnce has yet t.o produce a replacement. for it. [ t is nst,onislting thatf 1'rnndt,l1s hypot,hesis, half a cent,ury after it8 discovery, still plays a vcry itnportant role in thc lit,erat,urc on the calc~~lat~ion of tu~.bulcntboontlary Iaycrs. Mosl contcmporary met,hods are approximate; they make use of t,lte ~nomerltumand energy ec]uat.ions of t,he velocit,y layer (as dist.inct from t.he t,hertnal layer which will not be discussrcl in t,lris scction) and of certain relat,ions t.hat follow from them. Thc corrcslmr~lingrclitl,ions for Inlni11n.r I)ountln.ry In.ycrs wrro tl~-t~ivctl Clr:~ps.S :t.ntl XI. in The procedures for the c a l c ~ i l a t i o ~ ~ of turbulent boundary laycrs available totlay can bc tlividcd into two clnsscs: methods based on in,legral fornts of t,hc principal equations and met,hods based on diffarcnlid erjuations. The former can be traced t,o work t.l~at was done by Th. von I<&rm.in in 1!)21 1.: + ! : i s procetlure, thc partial tlifferer~t,ial eqrxations are reduced to a system of ortlinary tlillercnbia1 cqnat,ions in t.11:~t. an ana1yt.i~ int,cgrat,ion in the t,ransversc dircot,ion is first perforxncd, cf. C11n.p~. l l I V and XITI. 111the ot,Irer class of cnscs, tthr pnrt.inl tliFrrent,ial ~clnat~ions int.egratctl arc dircct.ly I)y the n.l)plicnt,ion of nnmoriral rnrt,hotls, sr~c:hns the mrI,ltod of fini1.c t l i f i rcnces out,linctl in Scc. IXi, or by finitc clcmcnt.s. It, is c:vitlrnl, t>l~n,t ntnol~nt, worlr t.hc of

672

X X l l . 'l'llc incon~prcssiblc tilrb~~lont bol~ndarylnycr

1). 7'110 cnlci~lnLion two-tlimcnsional lrtrbulnr~t of boundary lnynrs

673

involved when differential equation methods are used is substantially larger than in tho case of integral methods. The former require the use of a very large digital computer equipped with a large memory, whereas the latter can be done on a small calcrllator or, even, with the aid of a slide rule. of I n tlie following paragraphs we shall confine ourselves to the des~ript~ion methods which rcsult merely in the calculation of time-averaged values of such variables of the turbulent flow as t,he velocity, the local shearing stress and the region of separation, because we subscribe to the view that only such mean values are of real interost to the engineer. Thus we rcfrain from calcr~lat,ing those quantities that all result from fluctuations, for example the correlation coefficients, the intensity of turbulence and i t s scale. Readers interested in these aspects are referred t o more specialized publications, e. g. [lo, 813. Rcsearch into turbulent boundary layers was considerably advanced by the Stanford Univcrsity Conference organizcd by S. J . Kline in 1968. The results achieved a t the time have been published in two large volumes edited by S. J . Kline, M.V. Morkovin, G. Sovran, D. J. Cockrell, D. E. Coles and E.A. Hirst [64]. I n the appended [79] "morphology" prepared by W. C. Reynolds, the reader will find a de~cription of 20 integral and 8 differential methods and characterized according to their respective physical basis (status = of 1967). They differ, principally, in the empirical closure functions which are introduced in ordcr to malre the system of equations solvable. I n addition, the conference had a t its disposal 33 sets of experimental data which served as testing material for the computational algorithms. About ten years later, W.C. Reynolds [81] provided once again a summary review of the very large number of computational schemes; this appeared in his contribution to the Annual Reviews of Fluid Mechanics of 1976 (cf. the same author's 1974 contribution in Chemical EnginWhite [I191 which describes eering [80]). I n 1974 there appeared the book b y F.M. 20 integral and 11 differential procedures. It is difficult, and we shall not attempt, to select a "best method" from among the very large number proposed so far. A summary of many of these methods, principally integral ones, was prepared earlier by A. Walz [116] and J.C. Rotta [86, 871. A review of differedial methods is conl-aincd in P. Bmdshaw's contributions [9, 12, 13, 141. Further, the book by T . Cebrci and A . M . O . Srnit,l~ [20] and two earlier papers by the same authors [18, 191, contain good reviews of many calculational procedures. The two earlier reviews by L. S. C. I<ovasznay [50] and P . 9 . Clauser [21al may also be consnlted. We shall also refrain from describing in detail several of these numerous methods. Instead, we shall concentrate on a single one of the many and bring i t to a point where the reader can work with it dircctly. For this purpose we have selected the integral method developed by E. Truckenbrodt [ i l l ] . The first version of this method was published in 1952; i t has now been brought u p to date in the light of the present physical understanding of the subject. [114]. The procedure is convenient to handle and constitutes one of the best integral methods from the point of view of I accuracy. i.
>&>Y

tho As time progressed, and, in particular, since tehc middlc of t,hc tl~irtics, empirical basis, and hencc also the semi-empirical and tlleoretical computatior~alprocccl~lrcs, underwent a process of continuor~simprovement.. The first method for tho calculnt.ion of t,urbulcnt boundnry Inycrs wit.11 prcssnre gratlicnts was formulated by E. Gruschwitz [40] in 1931. The ~xpcrimcnt~nl on tlnta which this mrt.hotl wns basod wcro Intnr irnprovcd by A. 1<(:111 IX1J. At. al)o~tl., l ~ t :s:tlne t time A. Buri [15] pciblishcd a similar proccdorc. 1I.C. Garner [:$A] tlcvclopcd a mcthod based on the work of A. E. von Docnhoff ant1 N. Tctcrvin [27] t,lrnt tr~rnctlo l ~ to be t superior to the first one mentioned above from t,he point of view of riunicrical cona simple cluatlraturc hascd on vcnicncc. In 1952, E. TrucLcnbrodt [ l l l ] form~~lat~cd the experimcnt.al results of K. Wicgllarctt [120], f l . 1,udwicg and W. l'illmnn~r 1601, as well as J.C. Rotta [82, 831. The ~net,l~otl s ~ ~ i t , a lfor ct,\vo-tli~ncnsio~~nl was ~l ns \vrll as for rot,ntionnlly sym~nct.ric flow. This rnc?l,hotl wns i1n1)rovctl in 1!)74 on t.hc 11:~sis of Inter insighb [I 141. It is this version that wc now propose to tlisc~tss sotnr tlol,ail. in
Characteristic nurnbere: I n ordcr to provide a tlcscription of thc esqcntisl behaviour of a velocity Iaycr it is ncoessnry to know its t.hic:l~nc:ssand to Ilnvc an intlication of the velocity distribution in thc boundary Inyer. Since the boirr~dary-layer thickness, O(x), across which the dissipntivc In.ycr mcrges with the fric:tionlcss cxt,c~l~nal flow U(z), so that u(z, = (3) = U(x), oannot IIC tit-lir~c:tl with any arctlr:rc!y, it, is convcniont to opcrntLcwith the ( J I I R I I ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ( : s ~lvfinc~l enrlicr i n cclns. (H.:10), ( H . : \ l ) , I L I I ~ I (8.34). Thcse include the following

d3(x) = J [ l - (u/U)2] (u/U) (1 y

0

(energy thickncss).

(22.l c)

These q~tant~ities be made dimensionless by introducing approprint,c I ~ c ~ ? I . o ~ ~ . F can nuntbers formctl with the cxtcrnal velocity. Thus, we may usc,

The velocity profile depends strongly on the external pressure graclic~lt,cxprcsscd through the derivative dU/dx, and IS charactcrized by a number of shnpr factors. Thcse arc also rnedr dimensionlcss for prrfrrrnec nntl cntl 1)r dcfinctl in t11(- form of cont.rnrlions ratios of tl~ickncsscsfrom cqns. (22.1 ) I t is cuslo~nnrylo use t l ~ c

2. Truckenbrodt's integral method. Before we proceed with the description of the details of E. Truckenbrodt's [I141 method, we find i t helpful for its understanding to preface i t with a few historical remarks. As already mentioned earlier, all computational algorithms for turbulent boundnry layers rcly on ecrtnin empirical relations.

For the rnorncnt we refrain from rcprotlucing hcrc thc shape factors usctl I)y E. Gruschwitz [40] and A. Buri [15]. The fact t h a t the shape factors defined in eqns. (22.3) constitute useful quantities for t,l~c description of vclocity profilcs has bccn known for a long time; this has been corroborat.cd by t.hc sum~narics prcscnted a t the Stanforcl Confcrcncc [54]. l3cyond this, mcasurcmcnts intlicat,~ that t,urbulcnt velocity profiles can bc described approxirnatcly by a om-p,ram.eler fum,ily of ~ 2 ~ r v r s . This mcnns t h a t thc shapo factors IIlz anti \Iaz = I / l l z n nro rclntctl 1.0 c,rrc:ll ot11c.r

074

XXIJ. Tho incomprc~~ihlo t,t~rbnlcnt boslndnry lnycr

b. Thc cnlculntion of two-dimcnsionnl tr~rbrllcnthonndnry Injrrra

675

uniqocxly, as evidcnced by the graph of Fig 22.5 This fact is expressed by a relatiort Iflz = /(If32), if a light, residr~alrlcpendence on the Reynolds ~iuniber neglected. is Guided hy the prenrding ohservaf ion, IS.'rruckenbrodt [I 141 iritrodr~cetltthe nrodt/i~d shape factor

The reference valuc (IIz3)m = (l/Naz)mlins been cliosrn as t.he loner litnit, of iiltegrntion bccnilse it. reprcsent.~ avcrage valr~cfor flows wit'hoi~t pressure grnrlicnt,. 111 an a tlie casc of t ~ r ~ r b ~ i l boundary layers wn choose cnt = 1.3. Tlie n~~niel~ical evaluation of the relation in eqn. (22.4) can tie undert,alren on the basis of n relation int1icnt.cd 1)y 11. Fernholz [33]. The result is seen plot-tetl in Fig. 22.6. I n the case of flow witli zero pressure gratlient we find that I/ = If, = 1 by definition (mean value in t.hc casc of tnrbrllent flow). I'lows \\.it11 atlversr pressure gradicnta (pressure rising in the downstream direction) are characterized by If < H < 1, wlierc.ns for accelerated flows (pressure decreasing) we find that 1 < H < Hopwhere Ifs denotes tlie shape factor for the velocity profile wit11 incipient separation, and Ifo denotes the shape factor of a two-dimen~ional stagnation-flow profile. According to I<. Wicghardt, the shape factors If lz and 1132 are related to each other by tho equation

Fig.22.5. Tlir ratio of houndnry lnyrr thirknrclncn Ifaz = d3/r5z plottcd against If12 = dl/bz, aftcr J.C. ltottrr 1831 and I<. Wicghardt 11201. See alao H. Femholz [33]

on the assumption of so-rallrd powrr-law plofilrs. S111)stitrttingthis expression into eqn. (22 4a) and intrgrating with respect to we can derive the follo\\ring expression for thc modified shape factor in a turbtllcnt boundary layer:

li

H m = rcferrnre alate; approxlnlately flow at

modilleel sbaw hctor from

rqn. (22.4)

in re boundary layers for The numerical values i~~clicatcd the l i t ~ r a ~ t ufor t.urb~rlcnt which aeparalion can occur vary considera1)ly. J . C . Rotta [86] recommends 4.05 > (Hlz)s > 4.0 or 11s w 0.723, w~l~creas \\'nlz [I 161 proposcs the values 1.50 < (1132)s < A. 1.57, or 0.736 < If,. < 0.761. Accortling 1.0 A . I\. 'I'ownscritl ( I Ion] (cf. St.vatfort1 (1041) a vanishing xhcar st.rcss occurs for (I/12)s 2.274 or IIs = 0.784 in the case of profiles crcat,ed I)y an ext,crnal flow with U ( x ) sP witli p = -0.234. Tlie various shape fact,ors for incipient separation havc been indicat,ed.in Fig. 22.6. The values of the modified factor Ils fluctuate much less than those of (IIlz)s and (H23)S. Refrrence 11141 indicates t.l~at acparalion can occur for

--

constslit pressllrc l s = aepnrntcd bou~iclnrylayer i H s s TI s N; b o ~ ~ s c l n r lnyer prone to y srl~nn~tlon (I) a,. terms of H In (1n)deterlnln~clnulnerirally from eqn. (22.4n) -rter 133. 1101. If,, 1 1.48 (2 - 81,) m. 104 (2 - II.,)'.~ (lb) cnlcnlnted with llle nld ofrqa. (22.6) (21 = If,, 111 lerma o f l l (Zn) nncl ('Lb) are nnnlogous to (In) nnd ( l b )

Vig. 22.6. Shape factor of a turbulent boundary lnyer

The rangc Ifs - 0.723 < II < 0.761 = If; I describes velority prolilcs thnt nre pronr to separiatc.

: l'hr

n \ ~ : ~ i l : ~ b Lc llir 111ire. nl

ri~rnirric*nlroncltnntn i n

rqn. (22.51,) hnve heen ndjusted to represent the experiments

3. Basic equations. In ordcr t,o c a l c ~ ~ l a tile boundary-layer t,liialtnrss ant1 tlia to shape factor, the latter characterizing the velocity profile, it is ncccssnry to have two equations. These are: the rnomcntum integral cqrlnt,ion (8.32) n.11~1 rncrgy t,lle equat,ion (8.35).In t.he scnond equnt,ion it is nec?ssnry to introdi~cc. t,llc right-hnnd on side a still unspecified expression for the dissipation work associat,ctl wit.11t,llc shearing stresses of the turbulent stream.

070

XXII. Tlic inco~npreaaibto lnrl)~rlont bounclary layer

b. The calculation of two-dimenaionnl turb~llontboundary lnyera

077

for As ttlie hnsic rqiia~f,ions nromen,tum. thickness &(x) and for e?asrg?/ thickn,esa 03(2:), w t nbt.nint :

I n order t o complete the evaluation it is still necessary t o know the ahape-laclor /un,dion H(x). It is shown on p. 487 of [I 131 t h a t eqns. (22.7n, b) lead t o tho working forms

and

rmprct.ivcly. Ilere CT is the slrin-frict,iorr cocfficicnt and c~ is thedissipntion cocfficicnt. r l l r r prrrrtling two coeifiricrib rela.t,ctl to tlic shearing stress depcnd st,rtingly on theltcynolrls nurnbcr, R, arcortling to eqn. (22.2), and on the shape factor 1 in conform1 ity aritl~cqn. (22.4). 'l'hrr following power-laws for their description lrnve withst.oot1 t,hc fcst of time:
7

for the cnlculation of H32(x) and of HZ3(x).The shape factors can now be cnlculated either by the use of a coupled pair of cquations, namely (22.7a) ant1 (22.98) or (22.7 b) and (22 9 b ) To distinguish bctwcen these two possibilities we speak of the morne~tl~~rn method in the first casc and of thc energy method in the second case. In most. proccdr~res use is made of the momentum method, whereas E. Truckcnbrodt [I 11, 1141 favours the energy method. Thc lnttcr choice has bccn madc for two rcnsons: (a) The Icft-lland side of eqn. (22.7b), unlike t h a t of cqn. (22.7a), does not dcpcrld explicitly on tho shape factor. Thus instead of eqn. (22.7 b) we can also write

'l?lic cx~)rcssinns contain the factors a([{) and P ( N ) which are k q u e functions of t h e shape factor and a specified power of the local Reynolds nrlmbcr~Rz or R3. T11c din' grams in Figs. 22.7%and b represrnt the cluantities n. and h a s well a s a = n / n m and p' = fi/j?rn together with am and /?, (denoting values for zero-gradient, flow) a s f~lnrtions II. The rrsprctive formlrlac are quotcd in the captions. J t is seen t h a t of /?' varirs slowly with 11, whcrcas n' assumes the vnlue a f ( l l = Ils) = 0 a t scpnration anti t,l~cil inrrcascs fast with increasing If. Equations (22.8a, b) are now snbstituted int,o eqns. (22.7n, b) and this lends 11s to the modifietl forrns of thc momcntum and energy equations for &(x) and 63(x), respe~t~ively.

(b) TIlc dissipntion fnc(,ol.c~ on the riglit siclc or c(,n. (22.70) must bc (::llc\~l:~(rcl [twin eqn. (22.8b) by performing a quadrature extended ovcr the boundary-layer tlricltness 0 ( y < 6(x), whercas the skin-friction coefficient c~ on the right-hand sitlr of cqn. ( 2 2 . 7 ~ )tlcpcnds only o n t h e local shcaring strcss a t thc wnll, cqn. (22.411). 'l'llis signifies t h a t the dissipation work depends much less on the shape factor than t h c shearing stress a t the wall. This is confirmed by the graphs of n'(I1) and P'(I1) in Fig. 22.7b. Thus, in t h e energy method, the coupling between the equations determining the boundary-layer tllickncss (energy equation) a i d the equntion which determines tllc shape fnctor t,urns out to bc much wcnlccr than in thc n~omcntum method. Reference [114] s l ~ o w s l ~ o w basiccquntions for t,lre bountlary-laycr t.llicltncsses, the eqns. (22.7a, b), can be transformed into equations t h a t dctermine the local l t c y ~ ~ o l d s numbers defined in eqn. (22.2). Similarly, this reference shows how the basic equations for the shape factors, eqns. (22.9a, b), can be transformed into equations for t h e modified ~ h a p e factor defined in eqn. (22.4). I n this mnnner, we obtain

= 0-268 b = 0.2317 IT,,

,

- 0.2044 - 0.87 x

106

(2 =

ll,,)=o

a m = 0.0157 A' = p/Pm W1f.h Bm = 0.0055 a = 0.0245 (1 - 2.007 log H , ' ' ,)'" 8 = [0.00481 0.0822(II,,- 1-5)'"J

a '

alum

with

H, P

Pig. 22.7. Shearing stresses in turbulent boiindary layer/correspondingto eqn. (22.8) after [33], [I 161; a) exponent8n and b in terms of If; b) fnctors a and P in terms of If

Table 22.1 summarizes t l ~ c expression for the contractions m, di and y. The quantities R, m, @ and p are provided with subscript 2 for the momentum mcbhod, and wit,h subscript 3 for the energy method. turbnlet~t boundary layers. Under crrtain 4. Quadrature for the calculation of simplifying assumptions it is possible still flnrtller t o siroplify the system of equations (22 l l a , b) I n this manner it is possi1)le to derive explicit cxprcssions for R(n) and N ( r ) by quadrature for an arbitrary velocity variatio~r, TJ(x), in the o u t t r flow, t h a t

The above eqnntiona ncglect t.llc effcct of tlie normal components 3 and of the tonsor of lteynolds stressrs from oqn. (18.10). Among othcrs, references [85, 87) contain indications 011 how t modify bliooe cqunt.iona if t,liia uimplificat,ion is not acceptable. o

678

X X 11. The inconiprcnnihle t ~ ~ r l ~ a lbo~tndnrylnyer ont

h. 'rile cnlrr~lntion two-di~ncn~iotrnl~ ~ r h r ~l~n~~r~clnry of t. lrt~t lnycra

679

Table 22.1. Sr~tnn~ary t,lw qnanlitir~whirl1 occur in the eqnstions for the cnlrulation of the of din~ensionless ~non~entu~rl tlrirkness, Rz, of the tlin~rnsionless energy tl~ickness, 3 , and of tllr shape R factor; RCC eqns. (22.1In, b) BIo~ncnt~~rn method (811bscript 2) Energy method (subscript 3)

Using his own and J. Nikrlrndse's [71] measurements, A. Buri cst,ablisllcd t h a t F ( r ) can be represented by the linear relation

wit11 a good dfsgree of approximation. For accclrratcd ant1 rctartlctl s t r m n ~ s ~ forlntl t c the numerical values 0.01475 rm0.0175 and 3.94 5 n 1 4 . 1 5 for a = 0.25. If 2 we now introtlurc cqn. (22.15) into eqn. (22.14), wc can obtain the int,rgrnl with respect t o z in closed form. Thc resr~lt~, expressed in terms of the Reynolds nnmbcr formed will1 the momentum tl~icltncss,is

where v' = v / r m and

The numerical values for the exponents a , e and n a s well as for t.he modified lrinematic viscosity, v ' , are listed in Table 22.2. Tlie constant of irltcgrntion is is for zcro, atlvrrsc, or favourat)lc prcssnrt. grat1icnt.s. The int,rgrat.ion is here cxt~entlccl only over crrt,nin powers of TJ(z). We now proceed t o derive such approximate, cxplirit. formrilae ant1 to sllow how a, suit.al)le choice of approximate procedures can lead to a step-by-stcp improvcrnent. Analogy witli l a n ~ i i ~ n r borrndary layer (momentum method): I n a manner analogor~swi1.h I<. I'ol~ll~ansen's approximate mct,hod for the laminar boundary layer out~li~ictl Chap. X, A. 1)rll.i [IR] assumes t h a t i n the csse of a turbulent boundary in layer t.hr ratio I t l z = cTl/rY2 as wcll a s thc slrin-friction coefficient, c~ = to/eU2, c-onI,itrric to I,(, I'~~nctionsf a single s11n.p~ o factort

Annlogy with trrrbi~lent o u r ~ c l a r ~ b layer on a flnt plate: Wllerea.3 along a flat. plate a t zero incidence (constant-pressure flow) the velocit,y of the external flow rcniains constant, U(x) = Urn = const,, t11c gcncral case is cl~aract.crizctlby a varic~l)lo ouLrr velocity U(.r)#=const, t h a t is tlU/d:r 0. M c shall srrppose t,liat for U(.c) $ const T the value assumed by t.he shape fact.or is tllc same as t h a t for a hypot,hct.icnl Urn = U(X) which implies t h a t I I ( z ) = H , = I t . I t follows t h a t lIlz = (IIlz)m = 1.3 and, m according to Table 22.1, we must I~avc? = const for thc momcnt,um as wcll a s for , . = P,, a = a, and b = ha, scc Fig. the energy mctl~otl.Correspo~ldinglya = a 22.7. As far as t,l~c cxt,crnnl flow is concernctl, wc always s n b s t , i t ~ ~tt l ~ c c not,nal clis-

R62 d U a ; ( a = 1/41. ds 2

(22.12)

1Ie i n t r o d ~ ~ c the following functions, c/. eqn. ( 2 2 . 8 ~ ~ ) : es

cT , , 2 % &(ill (22.13a, b) QUZ Rt ' These relations are now a~lbstit~r~tctl the momentum equation (22.7a) to obtain irlt,o

Tnhle 22.2. S ~ ~ n ~ n tofrnnn~erirnlconstnnta tllnt occllr i n tllo rxplirit c q ~ ~ n l ifor thr cnlrun y o~i~ lntion of rnnn~entu~n energy thirltness: ~ c eqns. (22.l(i), (22.17), nnrl (22.1!)); for 1 ucc. Fig. nticl c 1 22.7n; tnkc fl from Fig. 22.7b

rilz = --I= / ( r ) , dz

I
Annlogy
Ill

Mon~entuni n~etl~orl J,nnlirinr bor~nrlnry Inyer

-n

Rtirrgy 111~*111o~l Sclr-ui111il:tr

nolrcti(~n
~-

Tr~rhr~lont borlntlnry lnycr on flat plnto Ill2 .I I = 2.30 n 0,268 111 (1 4- n ) 2.92 1 t 711 (1 + a ) = 3.92

d 1 (& 2;) = F ( 0 , , wllerc . F ( r ) is a universal function given by F ( r ) = (1

(22.14)

i
0

-ta.1 i z ( r ) - ~2

+ a + (11+ a ) 11( r ) i r.
t

0.25 2.94 < e < 3.15 3.!14 < 11. < 4.15

-.

2 b 2 ( 1 I h) 3 -1- 2 h

0.152
2.:10
3.30

K =d l - d U - 152 d U = R IJ dz U tlr

'I'll~fnrt that, strictly ~pmking,i f ( ~ ) 1.0 for n flnt 11lnt.cin Ilrrc igriorr~l. w

FRO

XXII. Tho incornprcs~iblo turbulent bollndary layer

11. Tho calcirlaLion of two-climcnsionnl tnrbtrlcnt boirntlnry lnycrs

(iX I

tribution U(x). Since the valrlc of the shape factor, N(x) = 1, has already been assigned, the only quantity t h a t we need t o calculate is the local Reynolds number determined by eqn. (22.11a). Since m = const, we can contract t h e two terms on t h e Icft-hand side and solve the problcm by performing two integrations, one each for Rz(x) and R3(x). I n ~ o n t ~ r a c t e d form these are

to perform calcnlat,ions using numerical values based on t,hc flat-plat,c ani~logy. Tllc quantity P' = PIPQ)t,hat appears in eqn. (22.19) also dcpentls only wcaltly or1 t,hc sllnpc factor; by way of approximation, we let it be P' = I. 'rhns, tile calculabion of ~ ( I I c cncrgy t,hickness with the aid of eqn. (22.10) can be bascci on tdlc followitig numerical valucs : R +=R3: h = 0.152; e ==2.3 ; n = 3.3; r' = 78 v; P' =- 1 . (22.20) \Bit11 thrse assumption, eqn. (22.19) transforms into cqn. (22.17) bearing in mint1 tlint i = b, R = R3, and /C = "3, a s cxpcctcd.

The relations and nt~mericalvalues t o be used for t h e exponents i, e and n, as well M for the modified lrinematie viscosity v' are listed in Table 22.2, separately for the m o m e n t ~ ~ r n for tile energy method. Tire constant of integration is and

DifTercritiat.ing eqn. (22.17) wit11 rc~pcctr x and taking into account thc contractions to dcfincd in Tablrs 22.1 antl 22.2 wc can tlcmonst~ral~ eonsist~encywit11 eqn. (22.11a). I n the case of the moment,um m ~ t l i o deqn. (22.17) becomes identical with eqn. (22.16) , if wc pilt i = n, R = Rz ant1 IZ = Ez. Comparing the nurnerical d a t a of Table 22.2, we find far-reaching agreement. I n spite of considerable difl'erences in the assumptions for the shape fact,or and for for the shearing stress a t the wall we discover t h a t thc two explicit cqr~nt.ions the calculation of the momcntnm thickness are equivalent. The following specific numerical values can be recommcndctl:

Reference [114] ~ h o w s t,hat eqn. (22.1l a ) suffices by it,sclf t o solvc tlic prnbleln a.hen the energy mct,llocl is used. 13y contxast, when t.hc nionlent.urn ~nctliotl r~sctl, is t.he coupling between cqns. (22.1 l a ) and (22.11b) cannot hc disregardcdt. 'I'lie Iatl.er Icads us t,o tPhetrivial result t h a t Rz = IIz3R3 in view of the dcfnit.ion Ifzn -- 02/fi3. At. t.hr i c ~ ~ ofl approximation considcrcd so far, thc ~uorncntummctliotl t.r~rns c -out t,o be itlcntical wiLlr t.11~ cncrgy 111cl.liotl. Ncvcrtl~clcsrr,ttllc two proc:rtl~~~.c,s tlilli,~, csscntially from one another in t h a t tlic momenturn mcthod ernploys tho t,wo I~asic cclunt,ions ( 2 2 . 1 1 ~and (22.1 lb), whcrras t,hc cncrgy mct,hotl gct,s by wit11 cqn. (22.1l a ) ~) nlonc. As far as tlic devclop~nentof f~irtlicr approxilnat.ions in the for111 of simple int,egrals is concerned, we have cxl~aust,ctl t.hc pot,ent.inl inlierent in the rnomrnt.u~n mct~horl. the energy mcthod, cqn. (22.1 1b) is used t o tlcrivc n forninla for t,hc shape In fnclor by closctl-form int.rgrnl.ion, as wc arc nl)oiit, t.o ~ l i o w .
Integration method due to E. Truckenbrodt: 13. Trr~cltcnbrodt 11, 1141 worlrcd [I orit an nl~proxinrnt,~ nlc:l,hotl for 1.11ccxl~licil i~it~cyrnl.iol~ cqi~n.Iio~is t.i11.11111v1it, of t,llc of boundary layers which serves t o obtain the boundary-layer t,lliclrness (energy tliickness) a s well as the (modified) shape factor. The first vcrsion of tire method [ I l l ] has proved t o be practicable for calculat,ions in engineering applications. I t was, therefore, tliougl~tuseful t o modify it in the light of more rccent discoveries. Employing the classification introduced above, we tlescribc this a s an energy nz,ethod.Tlrc rnctJhod can be used for two-dimensional a s wellasforaxiallysymmct~ricflows,c/. X X l X c l . Sco. Tlic method is based on cqn. (22.11a) which is used to c a l c i ~ l n ttlrc Iteynolds ,~ number formed with the energy thickness. EIcncc we p u t R = R3, m = 2 and (IS = @a = ( 2 1 ~/? R a b in accordance wit11 Table 22.1. If we assume 1,hat 6 = const and ) p(r) is known, we can integrate eqn. (22.11a) with respect to x and obtain {R3(x))lfb = -;[C1(2)1C where E3(x) = E3(x1) ;
1 B3(x)

The cnergy method is discussed below. Analogy with self-sitnilnr eolutions ( e n e r ~ ymethod): Self-similar solutions in bounclary-layer thcory are generally described as equilibrium /lou)s when they occur in tnrbalcnt motion. They are characterized by the fact t h a t the velocity profiles u / U nt varying positions x become similar for certain velocity distributions U(x) of the ontcr flow. 'J'llis means that, the shape factor H ( x ) remains constant witli z,t h a t is t h a t d l f l d x = 0. Figure 22.7 implics t h a t all quantities which depend on x in gcnrml nlust bcrome constant for such equilibrinm boundary layers. in We now sul)st,it,ut~c cqn. (22.10) t,hc cxpression for cn from cqn. (22.813) and note that, the integration witli respect to x can be performed in closeti form with b = const and p' = const. The Reynolds nnmbcr formcd witli t h e energy thickness is thus given by

+ JP'
2%

1 :

Un d x .

(22.21)

.I.

hc numerical vn.lr~csfor 6 , r, n, and v' are t o I sclcctctl in accordance with the p I relations in Table 22.2 and l'ig. 22.7s.

The numerical values in cqn. (22.20) are valid up to P'(.T) = P(:c)/POoIlowcvcr, a n I docs not clcviatc niuch from t,he valtlc 1.0, inspection of Fig. 22.7b shows t h a t / ' and we may calculate with /I' = 1.0 by way of approximation. I n this case, eqn. (22.21) transforms into cqn. (22.19). Thus, if no great dernands of accuracy are made on the values of the Reynolds number, we obtain
1
z

lllltbl

111 the spceial rase of separation-prone flows for which H s I 1 Ilk, we find, b, = 1.152. Tliesc two values differ by for example, that. 1 4-b$ = 1.004 ant1 I about. 5%. S11c1i a disrrcpancy can t)c tlisregardcd in view of the i~ncert~ainties inIirrent in s~rc-h approxirnat,~ mctzhods.In othcr words, this signifies t h a t it is possiblc

< <

t
By way of amplificst,ion, we rncnt,ion that the result, dcrivctl in Tal~le of [I141 in also valid 6 when a -= const nnd b = ronut,.

082

XXII. Thc inco~nprm~il~lr Lllrbtrlolt bn~rndnry lnyrr

(cf.

b. The cnlc~~lntion two-~lir~~or~uio~~d ~ ~ olIrI ~ I~ Irty~rn of t t ~ r l ~ I ~ I ~ tI ~ ~ ) ~

(iR:l

wherc t,hr following numerical vnlncs employed :

b = 0.152; v'
. =

'l'able 22.2

- energy

method) have been (22.22 b)

with

80 v; with f l q ( r I )= v' {[U(r1)J2R3(xl))lCb.

This explicit form~llacont,nins only t.hr ext,crnal free-st.rcam vclocity U(x) which mny IIC known fronl pot,cnt,inl t.hcory or from mcasarement. The positmion.2: = xl constit.utes t,he st.nrt,ing point for t,he calculation. Apart from the velocity U(xl), the constant of integration E3(rl) rontains also the encrgy tliickness 63(.cl). If the station xl coincides with the point of trat~sit~ioli the cnergy thickness sho~lldbe ralc~llatcdover t,he laminar boundary layer in t.hc rangc 0 2 x xl IIrrc x = 0 rlenotcx tlic start of t,he boundary layer; for example, the leading edge of a plate or the stagnation point of a blunt body. It waa shown in 11141 that eqn. (22.22a) is also valid for laminar boundary layers whenb = 1 , v i = ~ / 4 @ m 0.91 7v and lC3(xl = 0) = 0 shor~ld specificd. I n this case, with a laminar = be starting length, the constant of integration becomes
112

and

G1(x) = G(x1)

+j

y' un-' d x ,

2,

where n is listed in Tablc 22.2 (energy method). The correction firnction y'(x) = yf(R3,H ) can be calculated with the aid of a ( l l ) , b(H), u(H), /l(II), If12(x), 1fS2(H), as well as R3(2) and N(x). The correction y' differs by a larger or smaller amount from tShcvnli~e1.0 in the case of a turbulent boundary layer, nnd cannot bc determined with an adrqnnte degree of relinbi1it.y. 13y way of approximation, we assume y'(x) = const = 1.0 and introducc a new quantity c = const = 4.0 in order further to simplify the annlyt,ic solution. The qunntily c has been. so dct~ermi~icd to nchicve optimum ngrcemc111 as between available measurements [64] and theoretical results; see also [114]. The modified shape factor is obtained from the equation

(point of transition).

(22.23) which is the result of somc algchraic t~raitsformations reproduced Itcrc. llerc thc not influence /unctions of the external velocity distribution are defined os Q(x) = Q(x1)

If the boundary lnyer n.lrcntly is t,nrbnlent a t z = XI, it is necessary to substitute into eqn. (22.22) for E3(z1) t,he local vnlue R3(x1) = n3(x1) U(xl)/v. I n many practtirnl npplicnt.ions it. is not cnolrgli to know tlie \)rllaviour of t,hc boundary-layer thicltncss, l ~ c r et,lic encrgy t.hicltness 6 3 ( ~ ) This is the case wit,h . ueparation-prone or separat,ctl boundary la.yers. If, for example, it is necessary t,o makc n statcmcnt about t.he possibilit,y of separation, i t is necessary to know the velocity parameters along the ~0.11. mct,hods discussed in Sec. X X I I b l provide All procedures for t,he caloulet,ion of sonir xhnpe fnctor in addition to t.hnt of a bor~ndarylayer t~liiclrncsx,s~lcllas the niomcnt,i~rntliiclrness &(x) discussed t.here. The s l ~ a p c factors nre defined differently in diff'rrent methods and different differential eqrlat,iorls are specified for thcir ralrniat~ion. revic\r and intercomparison was given by J . C . A R o t h [85]. l'11c diPFrrc~nt,inl (~(l~~r2t~iori I)) for t.11~ (22.!)n., shnpr. factors 1132(x)ant1 H z 3 ( ~were ) of and obtained by tlic co~lj)ling t,hc ~~ior~~rnturn-integralenergy-integrnl equnt.ions (22.78, b). Thc pereding dilTrrent,inl equnt.ions det,ermine the shape factor in a unique way proviclrcl that onc-para~net~cr velocity profiles Hlz.= f(H32) or Hlz = f(Hz3) nrc post,ulnt,ctl and npproxiniaLc cxprrsxions for t,he shear-stress coefficients CT and co are s~hst.itilt.c11r o ~ n f ~(111. (22.Rn, b). Thc dct,crmining ecluntion (22.11b) for thc shapr factor cn.11 br writ.t.c.n in t,crms of thc naodijied shape lactor If = f(llzs)proposed 11y 15. l'r~~rlzcnl~rotlt.. l'ogcl.licr wit11 rqn. (22.11a), this relnt,ion forms a system of s i m i ~ l t n . r otliffrrrn(.ial cqr~ations t,l~e ~s for Reyncllds number formed wit,h t,lte energy t,hickncss, Ra(:l.). antl for t.hc shapt factor 11(a)! According t o Table 22.1 we must put TN -.- 2 =- const 1t)1 Ihr rnrlgy ntcthotl clisri~ssedherc 7'hc forms of the fr~nrtions cl,3(RR, nnd lli3(R3. If) arr lo Irr taltrll Irom t l ~ c 11) same tal)lc Rcference[ll4]summarizci crlns (22 1 I n) nntl (22 1 1 0) as follows :

,+

UZ(l+b)d x ;

2,

The initial valuw, i.0. the constants of intogration are

We take the numerical constants as The integral expression (22.25) for the calculation of the shape factor contains only the external velocily distribution U(x), as was the case with the corresponding integral expression (22.22) for the calculation of the Rcynolds number. Tlic det.crmination of the inllucncc function N ( r ) rcqr~ircst11c pcrformnnco of n doublc inLcgration with respect to x. The position x = xl once again represents the starting point of the calculation. The constants of integration G(s1) and N(xl) coritnin the shape factor lI(xl) in addition to the'velocity U(xl) and thc Iteynolds number R3(xl). If the position xl coincides with the point. of transition, it, is necessary to require that the encrgy thickness of tlie laminar boundnry layer must be equal to t h a t of the t,r~rbulcnt. boundary lnyer in accordance with eqn. (22.23). On the other hand, the sliapc factor may change it.s value a t the point of trnnsition. The n~~mcricnl values of bllc shape fnctor lic in t,lic mngc 1.0 2 1 2 Ils = 0.723. 1

684

XXII. 'Yl~cincon~~~rcssible Lnrb~rlot~t boundary layer

1). 'I'll(: calc:ulntion ol two-climrnsionnl l~lrbr~lcrit bounclnry lnyrrs

The t,l~cory tJic origin of turbulence presented in Chap. X V I l leads to t h e of conelusion, which agrccs with mcasurcmmt,s, t h a t transition from laminar t o turbulent~flow in 1,lie bountlnry Inycr occurs a t n place which tics n small distance downstxeam from the vclocity rnaxi~nuri~ t,lic external stcream.For t,his rcnson, and by of way of approximntion, it is permissi1)lc t,o base thc calculz~tiona t the point of transition on t h e value t,hatt corresponds t , a~ cxtcrnal flow with a zero pressure gradient. n Accorcling t o the definition of II in win. (22.4) the latter is equal for laminar a ~ i d turt)ulcnt boundary Iaycrs, namely

laycr is already tdrbulcllt a t x = q , i t is necessary to employ tho If t,hc bo~~tndnry corrosporiding local valr~csG(zl) and N(xl).

5. Applicntion of the mcthod. The approximate mcthod described in the preceding paragraphs can bc applicd wit,h ease bccausc only simple integrations are required. Such dct.ailcd caloulat.ions have been performed for all experirncntal d a t a (33 sets) collected in 1543; in particular, using cqn. (22.22), tlic calculations yielded tlie variat.ion R3(x) of tfhcReynolds number formed with t h e energy thickness a s well as t h e corresponding variation I l ( z ) of the modified shape factor aftcr eqn. (22.2B)t. I n t,11is manner, t l ~ c pract,ical calculations inclutled vcry diverse extcrnal flow rcgimcs and so covercd a wide range of applications. Figure 22.8 illustrat~esthe comparison bctween tlieory and mcasurement for a n aerofoil in an adverse pressure gradient. Similar are : comparisons for ot,hcr meas~iremcnt.~ shown in Figs. 22.9a, b. The latter diagram contains a comparison of calculated and measured valucs of the Iteynolds number and of t,l~e shape factor for the measuring stlation located furthest downstream. Deviations from the straight linc const.itr~t.e measure of the quality of the approxia mate method. The comparison for logR3 contained in Fig. 22.9a is satisfactory, part.icularly if account is taken of the fact t h a t excessive demands on the accuracy of calculat.cd valucs of the Reynolds number arc of no great practical significance.
According t o t.licory, the six sets of rneasurc~nentsillustrated in Fig. 22.9b for which I2 < I l s cxl~ibit incipient scpamtion. Measurements have confirmed this, arid circumstance. The sets of meaRef. [ J 141 cont,ains a more dctailcd discussion of t,I~is surements designated ldent 1500 ant1 Idcnt 2600 show particularly large discrepancics I)ct.wccn Ll~cory ant1 rneas~~remcnt. casc Itlent 1500 rcprcscnts a reThc attached boundary laycr bnhind a ledge. I t is understandable t h a t t8hc preceding method is not quit,e sat,isfactory in this casc a s far as the calculation of the Reynolds number ant1 of t,hc shnpc factor is conccrncd. Case Idcnt. 2600 rcfcrs t o n so-callcd equilibrium boundary le.yer formed uncicr a n external stream with U ( z ) x-0.255. Townscnd [IIOa] investigated a similar boundary layer, ne.mely one with T J ( x ) x-0.234. IIc obtained t.he value B = 0.748 for the shape factor which differs considervalue Ei = 0.823. Thc appyoximate method yields If = 0.731. ably from t#hc~ncasnretl At Lhc prcscnt time it is not possible t o explain the reason for these discrepancies. To conclutlc, we wish t,o draw the reader's at$ention to the fact t h a t the simple

Fig. 22.8. Turbulent boundary layer on a wing aorofoil in adverso premuro grndicnt [R4]; cnsc Idcut 2100: a = (z- xl)/(x - sN) wliere zl = initial lneasuring station (start of measorement), X N = final measuring station (end of measurement). Meaaured points by G. B. Schubaucr and 1'. 8. Klebnnoff. Theory - full line - after eqns. (22.22) and (22.26). a) Reynolds n~rn~bcr; uhnpe I)) fnctor~ nnd I I Ill*

Fig. 22.9. Turbulent bouudary layer data taken from 33 sets of mensurer~lents with diKercnt velocity distributions in the free stream; plotted points refer to end station at ZN. Measurements (subI'h) ru~mber script Illpas) nftcr [R4]. 'rheory (n~lbucript aa in eqns. (22.22) nntl (22.25).n) ~bynoltls RB; b) shnpe factor 11 assumption regarding the coefficient CD from cqn. (22.8b) for dissipated work is only conditionally valid because it describes merely it,s variation wit21 t,he local Rcynolds number and shape factor. A more accurate calculation would have t o include tlie effect of the upstream portion of the boundary layer on CD (cf. here tlie irlvcstigation in [86]). I n cases when the extternal velocity can be assumcd to be proport*ional t o a power of x, say U(x) xp with p = const, the application of our method becomes very simple. Let, us assume t h a t the turbulent boundary layer starts a t x = 0 without a laminar inlet portion so t h a t the constants of intcgmtion in cqns. (22.22a) alltl

\1'e have introdrlccd corrcct.iot18for t.lirec-tli~~~er~niotlal ill order t,o account for a possible eflccts bot~vcr~ci~cc or divnrgenco of nt.rcntlllincn. Tile correction wns based on t,l~e ~nethotlof J.C. Ihttn 1861. C f . mn~nrkon p. 676 'rl~c dingrnnis inc.lrltlc t01c crlnrs of axially nyt11~11ct,ric discus8ed in See. XXII d 1. flowd

I). 'I'l~rrnlc111:rfion of t.\vo-di~nrnniondI.nrbr~lrnt.ho~n~tlnry Inyrrs (22.26) vi111ir~11. r e q l ~ i r c rint,cgrnls c a n b c writkrn in closed form, a n d w e obt,ain 'S11r l

687

w i t h 1 = 0.162, ) -- 2 ( 1 4 1)) / , = 0.0127, c = 4.0, r = 1 (3 2 8 ) p a n d n = ? I -12 ( 1 -1- b ) p. I'or n givcn v n l r ~ cof p t,lln s h n p c f a c t o r is I l ( z )==const,. 'l'hia Inenns t.hnt, for 11(:1.) .7:p IVD nro tlcnling will1 n self-sirnilnr solrgtion ( c q u i l i l ~ r i r ~ r ~ r I,ountlnry Inyrr). 'I'l~o c:nsc p 5 0 rol)re~c*nI..s I l : ~ t1)lnt.o at z r r o incitlcnce wit,11 lJ(:r) = U, = n co11st..

+ -+-

rcspcctively. For eqvilibriuni bo?cnrlnry layers for which Ille(z) = e o n ~ tnnd Ilzo(r) r o ~ ~ s t . we obt,nin hl(z) &(x) &(x) z(I-~D)~"+~), as seen from eqn. (22.281~). Total drag: 'The form drng of n hody in a ~ t r c a n ~ I I S ~ S ~of skill f r i r t i o ~ ~ I ~ ~ C S S I I ItCl r : ~ ~ . CO R ant1 Tho skin frict.ion is the integral of shearing stresses taken over the srrrface of thc body. 1Svon in cnnna \viI,l~t~nt l ) n ~ . : ~ .it~in nnc(:cunary to a011 1.110 11re.s.viircflr(~q skin frif.tion. 'I'II(- ~ r i ~of l ~ ~r l i ~~ t,t~ i t.he 1)rcssrlrc tlrng lies in the f;ic:t t11aL thc! boundtrry Isycr cxcrh a ~Iis~)lncctncnL artit~nO I I 1110 external stream. 'l'l~cstren~nline the potential flow are displaced from the contonr of the body of hy nn a~notrnt, eqnnl to t,l~c tlisplnce~nentthickncrrs. This motlifirs sorncwhnt thn prmsrlrr rlistri1111tion tlte holly unrfnoc. In contrnst wit.11~n)Lc:~~tial (cl'Alc1111)~:rt's T I L I I O X )Iht: r c s ~ ~ I t . i ~ ( ~ t on llow ~~ . of this 1)rc:nnnrc ~lisI.~~ibnLion ~notlilirtl11y friclion 110 1011gt~r v~inisl~ru I I L~)rv(I~~r(vi ~I n I)rrsattr(: (Irilg wI1ic.11 I I I I I ~ ~ . added t,o skin friction. The two togeLhcr give lorttr drog. l'hr c-nlrnli~tion fort11 be oldrag which is determinet1 by t,lre ~ n o m c n t n ~ n tl~irkncss t.hc t,rnili~~g a1 edge will I)o tlisc~~sscd in det.ail in Chal). XXV.

- - -

O'

O? .

dL

0:6

i8

1; .

08 07

lheory

02

OL

06

08
X

10

Fig. 22.10. Tnrhnlrnt bonr~tlnrylaver on a bodv - . of rrvolution wit11 initially strong prcssnrc tine entl t,ransition to constant prrssnre [R4]; cnac Sdrnt 4000: ii ( x - XI)/(% XN), where xl = initial measuring station (start of meaaurernrnt). Z N = finill ~ncasllring station (end of n ~ c n s u r r ~ ~).~Measured pointi by Mosrs (case 5) cnt Theory (fnll line). a ) ILynolcls nnrnher R1; b) shape factor I l l 2

6. Rc~narkson tile bel~nviorirof turL111ent boundnry layers in the presence of n pressure grndirnt. 'Sl~c!apl~licntinn the method described in Chap. X X I l b 4 to turbulent boundnry layers of lrndn 11s to the c~tlc~~lation of t,hc vnri:rt.ion along the llow of the Keynoltls number Ra(z) fornlcti wit11 t l ~ energy t,l~ivkneru, r fin(%), and of that of t,lrc n~odificd shape factor H(z). Adrlitional quantitics pcrtnining to the bonndnry In.yer cnn be ol>tnincd hy adding .the re la ti or^^ depicted in Figs. 22.6 and 22.7.
, hr Ilr,yt~oltlastressos (lo not change rr111r11 I ~rlongstrnalnli~~rs rclnl.ivnly short t ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l e ~ t in I~o~~ntlnry lirycrn in 1 . 1 1 ~~1rcsc1Icc atFOllg pW38111.C gradic~rLq.It. O . Doissler 1261 dc~nonstmte~l of that, t,hc n~snn~pt.ion a constant shearing stress can lead to good agreement betarell ealrr~lat.ion of and ~ncnsnrc~nr~rf also s~~ccccded calculating heat-t.rn118fcrcoeflicients for tr~rbulo~lt ; It(: it1 bollnd. nry 1:ryrr.s 1261 by t.110 nsc of the same n~et.l~od.

Non-sepnrntina boundary layers: Thc ~~rcnuurc drag rc~nainssmnll only if scpamtion m n be avoitled. 'Shis ccrn be ncl~icvctlby l l ~ c I)ropc!r clcuign of t.l~e nhnpc of tho 1)otl.y. 'l'hc srlf-~imilnr Innlir~nrflows dinc11~8ctf (;thnpn. Vl 1 1 ant1 IX tillbrcl cxnl~~p~cflflo~vswhic:ll (10 nol. Irllcl to in of separation in the prtxence of an adverse prcssnrc gradient. When t.hc external flow follows the power Iau. U(z) zp, separation occun in lnminar flow for values of p s < --0.09. T h r corrcspondir~g valrrc in tr~rt~nlcnt is obtnined fro111cqn. (22.28b) by suhstit>nt.ingin it. N = Ns < 0.723. flow Thi~ qivw p~ < - 0.27, wherem A.A. Townsend [IlOa] indicntm the valrre p s < - 0.234. This nignifien that a tnrb~~lcnt, honndnry lnyer cnn sl~stnina considerably lnrgcr adverso prcsaurc gri~tlicnt. ~\,il,hot~t, urpartrling ~ , I I ~ tlocn n I I ~ I I I ~ I I I1)01111tlnry II L~ l~iycr. Self-nirnilnr uol111~io11 11 l1i111, givf* on how 1.0 srrcrngc?1.110 prr-?.nure dinlribation i l l c~rtlt?r n~~skrin 1t1r4(.nt. onni nil do IIIIVI'~H(! JlrI~HHIIIo In) 1,hc gradient without separation. A pressure dislribution that s t a r k wiLh a large and continues with n deoren.~ing adverse pressure gradient generates a thinner boundary laycr and ~nakcs t possible i n t.llnn n, i~nifor~n gratliont, wonltl. This fact wnn rt~nfir~nrd to u~~stninInrgo t,otnl I)ressnro incren~c cxperirnontnlly I)y ( U. Scl~ul)auur : . and W.C. Sl~nngor~borg rrnd I I B. S. Ft.reLl;)rtl (10.iJ. I\ [!I&!] ~ critical review of different methods of cnlculatir~gthe position o t the point ol' s c p a r a t i o ~ ~ conis tnined in [17]. Re-attaching boundary layers: More recent contril~ntionsconcerning t.lm partic.~~lnrly intcresting m e wlren a separated shear layer re-attaches itnclf to the wall and clcvelops furt,l~er a as boundary laycr in the downstream direction arc rontainctl in the papor I I 1'. Rr~rtlnl~:iw 1'. Y. ~ 1rnc1 F. Wong 1141 na well na P. Wauschkuhn and V. Vmantn llin~n11171. The tliscussion rclatrs to a boundary layer which has separated a t a backward-facing stcl~. The esscntinl dill'crcncc bct\vecn such a houndary layer and a "normal" bol~ndarylayer, for c x a n ~ j ~on n flnt p1a.k or nn aerofoil, lc consist8 in the fact that its turb~ilcncestructrrre h~ hcro~nc st.rong-ly disturbed by the prior separation. Such a pcrt.nrhat,ion in s t . r ~ l c t ~n~altcs t very climcr~ltto for~nulatc proccrJurc for ~re i a calcnlation. P. Wanscl~ltul~n \'. Vnssnta Ram [I 171 report ~neasurcments wall nhcar stress, nnd of mean-velocity di~t,rihntion and Iteynolds ~t,ress the rc-attached laycr and describe ro~nparisons in wit11 several eval~rnt,ion procedures.

7. Turbulent boundary layem with suction and injection. The possibility of ir~flncncingthe Bow in a boundary lnyer by blowing or snctiot~ of s o ~ n c in pract,icnl iniportnnco. ~~arlicnlnrly with a view to increasing the maxin~urn of aerofoils. The p r o m d ~ ~ for cnlculntit~g lift ro laminar hortndnry layers with suction was given in Soc. XIV h; t.ho corrcspondir~g 111cthot1for n b~rhr~lrnt. ho1111t1ary laycr wns discusbed in Scc. X X I a .

Boendnry layer tl~ickness: When t,ho vnlucs of II(k) n.rc kno\v11, t,he diagram in Fig. 22.0 yields the roln.tion 111z(a.) = 1ftz[1f(z)l and Ilzn[ll(~)].111 turn, employing the deAnit.ions given tl~icknessand the motnentr1111thicklless in eqna. (22.:31), c), we ran cnlcnlate the disj~laoen~ent

A procedure for the calculation of a trtrh~~lcnt houndary laycr with I~omogenrous suct,ion and blowing on a flat plate a t zero incidence wna first fortnulat~d H. Schlicht,ing [!)0]. Expcriby mental invcstigatione and a comparison between them and theory were discvbed in See. XXIa. The preceding procedures were extended by W. Pechau [75] and lt. Eppler [32] to inclnde the ewe of an arbitrary velocity distribution -vo(z) of suction velocity. The rtxulk obtained by performed with the aid these methods are discossed in [92, 941. They contain further calculatio~~s of this procedure; they illustrate the effect 01' the magnitude and position of the suction zone on the minimum suction flow required to eliminate sepnrstion on ncrofoils. I t turns out that tlle optimum arrangement is to concenLrate the auction zone in a narrow region on tho suction side of the mrofoil and to place i t a t n short distance behind the noso. This is undcrstnndahlc, b e c a ~ ~ s o

688

X X J I . The incon~prcssiblct,c~rb~rlent bountlary lnycr

b. Tho calcnlntion of two-dimensional t~~rbrllont bonndary ltrycrs

1) without Injection

689

the largest. local advcrse prcssurc gradicnta occur in that region when the angles of i~icidet~ce arc large. The required nlir~imunisuctiotl m b ~ns described by the suction cocfficicnb co.,,{, , are on of tJie ordor of 0.002 to 0.004. A. k w p t [78] performed flight mensure~nonts wings provitlcd with su(:tion a t the nosc. AnoI.hcr clli?ct.ivc? 11icLl1ot1 incrrrr.qe ~ ~ t r r r i n t l oli/l )arl,icnlarly in wings with a large flaplo tr ! dcflcc!t.ion :~nglc,co~~sista Ll~cinjccliou of :t I . l ~ i t ijet of * atr of largc vclority closc to the nosc of in the flnp, I'ig. 22.11. 'J'his drt'icc inll)arI~ consi~lcmhlc a arnon~it enrrgy to the tr~rbnlcnt of bounrl. nry lrtycr antl C ~ I I S C S i t to atlherc lo 1.1ic wing. 'rhc p i 1 1 in lift acliicvcd by this tuethod call be esbi~natctlby co~nparing pressnrc dist~ril)ut,iorm t,lm flnp wing with and w i t l ~ o t ~eparixtion, t,l~c of ~t rwpect,ivcly. According to ,I. Willinrns [122], t~l~reffcotivencssof jet can be judged wit11 reference (.he tli~nrnsionlr~a I ~ I I I C I I ~ I I cocfficicnt I~ III to t.l~r

dl wilh injection
-

-.-I

slil

wl~cre11, c1c11otcs t.hc vclociby of tshc jet anti n rcprcnolta i b witlt11. F. 'l'l~o~itns [log, 1101 ]~wfortnodrxlcnsivc nlc:rni~rr~i~cnt.~ rlli:ct.ivc~l~w injcctiol~Tor tlrc il~crcnnoin the lift o n t,hc of o a t,hc value of Ilnl, wings. 110 W.ZS RIRO able t for~nul:rtc? procedure whicl~allows us to calc~rlnte of thc ~notncntn~ii c~ocflicict~t rcquircd to avoid separation h injection through a slit into a turbulent boundary Iaycr. In addition, I?. Thomas [I001 perLrmed detailed measuremente in Lhc turl~nlcnt1)orrnd:rry lirycr I~chindan injcct,ior~slit. Sirriilarly, iuvratigations were perforn~ed by P. Cnrri6ro and 15. A. Eichclbrenner[lC,J on t.hc q~tcsl.ion the rct,urn of a ~ e p a r a k d of boundary Iaycr in a large ildvcrsc presstire gradient throngh t,hc application of a tangent.ial jet.

gain in /I//
h

separated /low

zm

H. Srhlirht.ing rgl] gave n ~ l i o r s n n ~ n ~ a of irivc~t.igat~ions tho prol)lcni of increasing t ry into the n ~ a x i ~ n i ~ ~of wings by snit,nl~ly lift n controlling t,hc boundary layer. If a dilfcrctit g w is injccLcd into :r t ~ i r b ~ ~ l Ic) n t I I I ~ I I ~ ~ , V OI I~rycr,wc nrc agail~faced witell a Oinnr!y lnyer, .w was the cwc wit11 Iarninar flow (Scc. XIVc), in which t l ~ c concc~~tratioti varies thro~tghouttlw flow field. Various physical hypotheses 11avc bcen proyoscd in order to bc in s position t o analyssc the procrss of injection into a t ~ ~ r b ~ r boundary layer. 11. L. Turcotte [115] lct~t amllrrlcs that the proccss of tliixing is c~sc~~li:rlly conlplcte in the larninar sublayer and derives in this manner an approxin~ate formrrla for t,l~e shcnring atreas a t the wall for the case of an inc:o~nprenaiblc Il~~irl. for~nnla extended to i ~ ~ c h compressible boundary Iaycn; i h form in: 'l'hc wm ~dc

Fig. 22.1 1. Flnt wing \vit,h i~ijection thrortgl~ ulit a t thc nose of Lhc 11111)for t.ho I ) I I ~ ~ ) O H V ~ I I I . I . < : I ~ n ol' sing maximum lift; a) separated flow, rvithout injection; b) adhering flow with injecl,ion; c) prossttrc tIist,ribntion: d ) vclocit,y dist,ribt~tion t.110 bormdary layer( in

111 this cqontion, the sobacril~t rcfcrs to the wall, thc subscript 0 relaks Lo the ewe without tu srlbscript 1 dracribcs tlic frce ~ t r c n n ~ .l ~ c T validity of the preceding equation injection and t l ~ c haa bee11 c o n f i r m ~ ~ l rl~enn~~rclncnta by lwrforlncd by several authors on plaks and cones a t Mach nunibers ranging from 0 to 4.3. Extensive m~wurementa tile c(fect of the injection of an otlier gas on Llie shearing strew on a t the wall in boundarv layera formed on cotlea in wmpresaible flow have been reported upon by C. C. I'appna and A: I?. Okuno [731. M. W. Jtnbesin aud C.C. Pappna [UU] propo~cda mixing-length theory for tho calculation of the effecta of the injection of a foreign gas into a turbulent boundary layer. This waa applied to the calculation of thc rate of Itwit transferred from the wall, and the corresponding results and hydrogen are shown in Fig. 22.12; they have been plotted along for the injcction of hcliu~n with experimental results for comparisoti. The latter show an even larger decrease in heat transfer mka than predicted by the theory. By contrast, the dcovery factor seems t o be affected but IitLle by the injection of a lighter gtw, in a t>ttrbulcntas w&IIaa in a laminar boundary layer. Expcrin~enbin w11icl1 a heavy gnn (froon) was blown into a Larb~~ictit boundary layer of air yiclcled approximnlcly idrnt(icn.1velocity profiles ns those in which air was discharged, even thong11 t.lie cleosit,.y ratio of the gascs between t,he wall and outer edge of the boundary layer wna ns 1iigI1 as 4. &x(:ept for t,l~c cnec of an adverse prcwure gmdicnt or of very vigorous blowitig, the pl~ct~omena I)e tleorribed quite well with the aid of Prandtl's mixing-lengt,ll theory. ran
q
=

T,,= rrrovary lanilrcmt.rlrr

hont flax

T,,, =5,
=

WIIIItn~~~lwrntllrr

3bnntoll nr~llll)cr tllo In sbaenco of Injection

Fig. 22.12. Heat-transfer rates for a binary bouiidary layer on a flat plat,c a t zero incidence with the injection of hydrogen or lielium int,o air in a turbulent bonndnry Iaycr, after M. W. ltlrbcsin a n d C. C. Pappna [UU]. Comparison between theory ant1 mcanl~ren~cnt t,ho St.anlon nrlrnher for S = q/el ti1 cpl (T,- T w )

690

XXII. Thc iticompre~niblc ti~rbi~lorit boundnry lnycr

c. Turl~~ilcnt boitndnry l n y n r ~ ncrolniln: mnxiniictn lilt on

691

8. Bonnclnry lnyers on cn~nhere~l wnlls. Two-dimensional boundary laycrs on curved walls have been ir~vestigatedby 1%. Wilcken [121] (see also A. Retz [4]). I f are the wall is concave the faster p ~ r t i c l e s pressed against i t by cent,rifugal forccs and slower particles are deflected away from it. Th11s the process of turbalet~tmixing and which takes place between faster and slower fluid particles is accent~rat~ecl the intensity of t~lrhltlence increased. The rcvcrsc is t,rue of r ~ n v e z is walls in t,l~e ncig11borrrhoocl of wliicll t,he faster particles are forcctl riway from t11c wall, the slower particles being pressed towartls it,, ancl t ~ ~ ~ r b u lmixing is impeded. Conseqner~t,ly ent with equal pressure gradients, the thicltnws of a turbulent boundary laycr on a concave wall is greater than, ant1 t h a t on a convex wall is smaller than, t h e illieklless on a flat plate. 11. Schmiclbaucr [96] cxtcnded Gruschwitz's method t o inclucle the case of convex walls. Further rcslllts were provitletl by G.L. Mellor [ l o l a , 101b] and R. N. Meronry and P. Dradshnw [65a] ant1 13. R. Ramaprian and 13. G. Shivaprasad [77a]. c. Turbttlent boltndnry layers on nerofoils: maximuna lift A very comprcl~ensive survey of the prol~lcm high-lift of ae,rofoilshas recently of been given by A . M . 0.Smith [101]. I n tiis following, we proposc to dealwith t,hc theoretical t~qpoctsof calc~~lat~ing maximum lift of nerofoils. the I t is wall ltno~vnthat t,hc maximum lift of an aerofoil is a.ssot:iat.stl wit11 t.lle separation of the bortndary layer oti its srlction side. 'J'hus the theoretical preclict,ion of the nlaximrtrn lift must deal wit.11 t,he prcssurc di~tribut~ion a n aerofoil scct,io~~ of with partly separated Row and with the int.eraction between this pressure disbribut.ion and t.he bo~~rltlnry laycr. This prohlcm 11n.sbeen at,t.ncltcd by K. Jacob [47]; sce also the summary articlc by G. K. Korbacher [55]. Figure 22.13 refers t.o a. prof le a t tile rather large angle of incidence of ac = 10.7", and presents some theoret,ical and experimental results for the pressure distribution. The pressure distributions (a) and (b) for the two Reynolds numbers, R = 0.4 x 105 and 4.2 x 105, differ considerably: for t,he low Reynolds nr~mber flow on t.t~e the suction side of the profile is nearly fully separated; a t t,l~e higher Reynolds number, the flow is only part,ly separated, S being the point of separation. 130th pressure dist,ributiona are cltaract.erized by a rat,l~er long stretch of nearly constant pressure on the suction side of t,he aerofoil. I n t.he separated acre in terms of the potential flow theory, these pressure distribut,ions are calculat.ed by nssrtming that there exists a region of "clead air" on the suct,ion side wit,h approximat.cly constant pressure a t its boundaries. With a surface singularity n~et*l~od a region can be simulated hy an out,flow region produced by a cert,ltin such distribution of sources on t.he aft part of the suction side of the profile. R~alizing tl~is, the main prohlcm now is to determine how the Reynolds number influences separahion. 'l'l~is is achieved wit>h t,hc aid of boundary-layer theory in the following way: in t,I~e potential-flow cnlcr~lnt~ion ~ e t l 1ocnl.ion of the point of separa.tion is treated as a free paraniet,cr. 3'11s determinat.ion of this parameter is achieved by combining the cnlc~ilnt.ion the pressure disl,ribr~tion thc potential flow with separation wit.11 the of of calc~~lat~iont.he laminar or tltrbr~lctttboundar layer generated by this pressure of clistribr~t~ion. "atleclnatc flow" demands t,hat t le point of separat,ion of the boundAn ary laycr must coincicle wit,h the point of' separation of the potential flow with a tlmfl-n.ir rcgiott; the rccluirctl rcsult is achicvcd by iteration. In this way the point of scpnmt.ion anrt be locatetl. The cnle111n.l.ionbring.9 to hear t.hc influence of the Reynoltls nr~mljrr, ~ c a r ~ s e lomlinn of the point of sepnrat,ion of n tnrbulent boundh the

T = trnnsltlon

- sepnrntlon;

Fig. 22.13. Prwure distribution on an wrofoil in aepnrated flow, after K. Jacob [47], nt two different Reynolds numbers
R = Vllv

NACA 2L12

NACA 61-210

Fig. 22.14. Lift coefficient e L against angle of incidence a for an nerofoil with a slat. Thsory by I<. Jncob snd D. Steinboch [48], n~enaurctr~ents W. Baumert [3] by
(a) I,heory, rusltrnlt~glnvlsrld flow rmfh slnt
(r) theory. nsaun~lng viscous flow wilh slat

Fig. 22.15. Maximum lift coefficient of an ncrofoil c , , ~ , , na n function of ltryt~olds n~nnbcr, nfter I<. Jncob [47]

(b: tlteory. ass11111isg vlscotls flow wifhoul slnt

002

XXI1. Tl~o inro~nprc~sil~lc! tt~rb~rlent boundary lnycr

ary layer dcpends on the Reynolcls number. Figure 22.13 shows t h a t for the pressure distribution of the profile G o 801 thcre cxists rather good agreement between experi~onsidcrat~ion. ment and the trheory ~intlcr The theory was extended t o multi-element aerofoil systems with separation [48]. Additional result,s, especially on t h e lift, are presented in Fig. 22.14. The diagram dcmonst,rat,csthat, the curve of the lift coefficient versus the angle of incidence Cr,(n), and especially the maximum lift coefficicnt C[,max, for a n aerofoil NACA 64-210 with a slat is considerably improved by tho slat. The agreement betwecn theory and experiment is quite satisfacttory here, too. Finally, Fig. 22.15 shows the dependence of the maximrim lift coefficient, CL,,,,, of the profile NACA 2412 on t.he Reynolds number, R. The increase in thc maximum lift coefficicnt with increasing Reynolds number, which is ohcrved in experiments, is well confirmed by the theory. Calculations of maximilm lift of wings in laminar flow have bcrn performed by G. 11. Goradia rt, al. [37, 381.

At the aft portion of n body of revoh~tionthe two derivatives, tlN/tl:t: :lntl dR/dx, become negative. I t followsfrorn the precedingequation t h a t t h r ~norncnt~r~rn tdliclzncss dz(x) increascs ancl becomcs very Iwgc there. This may orcnt.c circ~rnlstances which nullify thc main assurnpt~ionof boundary-layer theory, ~ ~ x r n r l yl ~ a t t, 6 < IE. As a consequence, t,hc calculat,ion near the but,t o l t,he body of rcvolut.ion , may become crronco~ls anrl thc posit,ion of the rrgion of scpnration cannot IJC tlctrrmincd reliably. According to F . M . White [II!)], cqr~ation(22.31) romnirls rts:~I~lc when the local Reynolds nmnber satisfies the contlition t h a t U(l) R(2:)
v

> 1000.

1'. S. Crranvillc [39] forinulated a mt~ltiparamcter~)roccdnre tho cnlc~~lntion for of t.urbulcnt boundary layers on rotat,ionnlly symmetric botlies ~~lacccl an asin.lly in tlirccttctl st,rcam. 'l'hc nlcthod I~ingcs n trlic c n l ~ u l a t ~ i o ~ motncnt~umt~llirl~ncss o ol' ? ant1 of a shapc factor and can bc used for the aft portion of the 1)otIy where t.hr I)o~intlnry layer thickness is of the same order of magniturlc as thc local ratlius of t . 1 1 ~ I~otly.
In a manncr similar t o t h a t used for t.wo-dimensional I~onntlnryIayr~.s, 'I'I.II(:~ZCIIbrodt [ I l l , 1141 was able t o show t h a t t,he use of the encrgy intcgral r(l\iat,ioll leads to a n explicit integral formula for .the calculat,ion of the s?l.crgljthiclinc~s.If a: tlcnot,cs the current, arc length measured along n mcridiarl, and ]((a) the radius of a, scc.t,ion norrnal to tho axis of sylnmctry, then t.ho cxt,cnsion o f ccln. (22.22n) Tor 1.11~.Itc.y~~oltls number formed with the energy thickness can now be written
r
-,l/llIbl

11. Three-dimensional boundary layers

General remarks: The phys~calnature of a three-dimensional boundary layer is

charact,erized by the fact t h a t the direction of the velocity in t h e interior of the bounda r y layer dcviat,cs considerably from t h a t in the outer flow. This is brought about by a pressure gradient t h a t acts a t a n angle t o t h e main flow. As a result, there occur vigorous scconclary motions, cf. Fig. 11.1 in Chap. X I . A good example of such a is c l flow pntlc~rr~ r o ~ ~ t n i r ~incLhc mmsurrmrnts pcrformcd by 1L.C. Snrlidcva and J. TI. l'rcston [a!)] in thc bountlary laycr on a ship's hull. There exists a summary account describing the calculation of three-dimensional, incompressible bounciary layers prepared by J.C. Cooke and M. G. Hall [23]; it deals pr~dominant~ly with laminar boundary layers. A comprehensive monograph on turbulent three-dimensional boundary layers was published by J . P . Nash and V.C. Patel [70]. The analytic calculation of a general case, for example t h a t of the boundary layers on swept or delta wings, is still very difficult, even though numerorls proposals of such met.11ods exist. Ilcre we may mention, for example,-the work of N . A . Cumpsty and M. R,. Head [24], J. C. Cooke [22], P. Bradshaw [7], L. F. East [29], 1t. klicl~cl t nl. [FG], and A. Elscnanr and R . van den Berg 1.311 anrl F.M. White c et, : ~ l .[ L 18:1]. 'l'hc prcsrnt st,al;ns of rcscnrch in this ficld was rcvicwcd by Fannelocp a t n syn~j)osinn~ in Trondhcin~in 1076 [30a]. 111 what, follows, we sllnll describe hcltl sevcrnl simplcr examples of t,l~rec-dimensional turbulent boundary layers. The state of the t,hcorg is, howcvcr, still unsat,isfact,oryt.

The numerical constants b and v' should be taker1 from eqn. (22.22b) ancl the constant of integration is

I n the more recent form~ilat~ion [114], the equation for the modificd shape laclor in tllc axially symmetric case contains the function describing thc variation of the bocly radius.This is in contrast with the earlier formulation [l 111 according to which the motlified shape factor was the same for bodics of rcvolut,ion and t,wo-tli~t~c~t~sior~al bodies. The generalized form of eqn. (22.25) is now

1. Boundary layers on bocliea of revolution. C.B. Millikan [67J'was the first t o e n l c n l a t ~ t,url)r~lent a boundary laycr on a body of revolution, the method having been based on t.hc momeninurn irltcgral equat,ion. The relevant rnomc~ltr~m equation was given in eqn ( I I 39). Using our prcsrrlt notatio?, we can write it as

e,

whore t,he influence functions for the radius and cxtrrnal velocity distril)r~t.io~~s nrc ~ ( 1= ~ ( x + ) Ill+b U2(l+b)d z ; ) ~
2 ,

N(x) = N ( r l ) 1 c

/ IIl-'h lJ2("h)I'GC-'
21

tlz.

The constants of integration are IJrre R(T) tlrnolcs thc radil~sof the local cross-section of thc hody of revolution. G(x1) = v' [ l ( r l ) {IE(x1)}'+"U(x1)}'+26 N ( x i ) = [U(xi) G(.zi)/I~(xi)lC.
"It in c l ~ r i 111111 ~ ~ o ~ d('l)l.?R~illg tllnt. t.11~ marc ~opllint.icnl.rd t,l~rory,l ~ poorrr is tllr agrco~ner~t t,llr t r \ v i l . l ~ rxp(vi111rnI8" M. \\ll~ilc 191 p. 54!1). (I?. [I

{R3(rl)}1+b];

'I'hr nr~mcricnlronstants follow from rein (22.2Gb).

Tho diagrarns in Fig. 22.10 show a comparison bctwccn tllcory nntl mrnsrlrcrnrnt in flow past nn axially symmetric body; the diagrams plot the Itrynoltls ~ ~ u n i b e r formed with trhc cncrgy t81~icloicss ant1 the modificrl shape fnctor.
Tn order to take into acconnt correct,ions due 1.0 thrcc-di~~rc~~sio~ralit~yby r:111srt1 the possible convergence or divergence of streamlines, J . C . I t o t t s [8F] proposcs t o base the calcr~lntion a n clTccLive radius R ( z ) . N ~ ~ m c r i c a l on vnlurs for R ( n ) nrr snmrnnrizctl in [86] for all ~ncnsr~rcrnolts cntnlog~~rcl 1541; comI)nrc Iir1.t: t,lic I I I ~ ~ : ~ , s I I I . ( ~ in tnrrils 1)y Mi.\\'. \4rillmnrt,h c t xl. 1122~1 nntl A . M . O . Stnit,lr Il0.l-a].

Fig. 22.1 0. filorx~t~~rl f l)ic.kl~osnra IIIII dz, nrlrl nxinl s l r ~ : r r nncr 0. I'nrr [74] ~~,
daZ rind d., from cqn. (11.60) rolrtlnn p a r r n ~ r t c r A, Reynnlcls n l l n ~ b r rR - - I!, n,lr = 3 10,

fizz,

01,

mlnl ir~gbocls of r r v o l ~ ~ l 1)lncctlill tr11 io~~

-- IV,IU,

2. Bn~tt~clnry lnycrs OII rntntiltg hndiea. 'J'l~t: calt:rll:~t.io~~ I:inlin:~t. l)o1111tl:i1.~ ol' layers oti rotat,ing botlies placcd i r ~an axiril s t r c n ~ nwns clisoussotl i l l Scr. S 1 c. The m c t l ~ o d of cnlcrilntion which maltcs usc of ntomc-nt.11n1 int.cgl;ll t~t~r~;ltions, formulated for the nieridional ant1 t:irc~~rnfcrent.inl tlirrc:t.ions rcsprc~tivc4y, Ii;~s been cxtc~~clctl R. Trucltenbrotlt 11121 to inclt~tlrt.hc ~rirbulrnt, by c.:~sc.. IT(: wn.s, moreover, fortunato t o s~lcccctlin giving convcnicnL intcgr:ils l i ~ r t,l~c c~n.lt~111;ttol' ion the par:rmetcrs of thc boundary 1:lycr. JCxperimcntnl nntl f11rt11crt~11c~orct.ic::l.l ~ v r s ( . i i~ gations into the boundary layer on rotnting strcn~nlitrc botlics wcrc c:nrrirtl o t ~ I)y t 0. Parr 1741. Jn this casc, tho bour~tl:~ry laycr grows rnjjitlly wit.11 t,lro rot.;~l.ion parnmctcr 2 = (11 R/U,,,; licrc (1) t l c ~ ~ o t c s n1ig1111~r t,I~o voIot:ity, It t , l ~ t : 1:1,1.grst, ~.;t(Iius of thc body, nntl (I,,, is tho axial rofrrcnc:~vcloc:il,y. 'I'lrc t,~~rln~lt!r~I. I)ot11ir1:11.y 1:iyt:r on a rotating body of rcvolr~tionplacctl i l l arl :~xinlst.re:ltn cnn I)(: (::~lt:~~l:~.tt:~l \\,it,l~ t h e aid of tllc system of cquat,ions (11.45) t o (11.48), in w l ~ i c lt~ ~ c l s11r:tring stress r n ~ ~ bct nss~lmcdt o vary wit11 t4herot:~t.iorrpnr:lmc?t,t~r. s 'I'hc tlin.gr:~.tn l l I'ig. 22.16 i compares Lhc onlc~rlntctlnntl n~caq~lrt:d vnll~cs l tlto rno~ncnl.r~nr o I.l~ic:lit~c:ssc~s :111tI 5, , ,a as rcportcd by 0. l'nrr [74] for :I cylintlrical botly provitlctl wit.11n. spl~vric.:tIIlosr. , 'l'hc ngrccrncnt is good. 'L'lrc rcgion of tmnsition l'ron~ lan~innrt o Lnrl)~tlcntflow moves forwarcl a s the rotation paramctcr incrcascs; its position coincitlos with t h e Scc point at, n~lriclr thc momentum tlrickncsscs incrcnsc nl)i-~~j)(.ly. also Scc. X1112.
~

J'ig. 22.17. I,or,nl lift. c.oeffi(sient*. nt. vnriol~~ c,, rntlinl sections on n rot,llt.ing propeller nccordirlg t.o IIII('ARIIRIIIBIIL~ w r f o r ~ ~ ~ c d lli~nlnclskntl~p ~ by 11. [44]

A ~nctlioclfor thc calc~~lnt~iontll~rrr-tli~~~c~tisionnl . I:~yc:rs or1 st.:~t.iool bo11ntl;~ry rtnry botlics a s ~volla s on rotating orics, silc:lr a s ~>ro[)cllors 1)l:rtlcs of rol,:lr.y (:omor pressors and turbinaq, was inclicntcd by A. Mngcr [Fl]; comparat,ivc mc:tsurcm e n b are contained in ref. [621. H. Himn~clskamp[44] carried out mcnsurcmcrlts i r ~t l ~ c boundary laycr on a rotating airscrcw ant1 tlct.crminctl ioo:~l l i l L cocffiric~rb of t,l~c blstle frorn mcasurcmcnts of prcssrlrc tlisLribr~Lions.Somc of his rosl~lbsarc? sccn reproduced in Fig. 22.17; they arc given in the form of plots of l,ltc loon1 lift cocfficicnt., c,, a t vnrious radial seclions, in t . e r m ~of t,hc nnglc of irlciclcnce, or. Corrcsporlding mcasurc~nentson n st,nt,ionxry blndc placed in a \vintl t,nrlnnl are for i11t:rcasctI lift c o e f l i r i ~ ~ ~ t , ~ also slrowr~ comparison. Pigurc 22.17 shows tlrnt ~nnrlrr?tlIy nrct obt.aincd near the hub, and the d c c t can LC trnoctl L soparation 1)cing clcl:~yccl o t o larger angles of iricidcncc. F o r cxnmplc, ttrc scc:t,ion closcst to the hub h : ~ sI , m n x i m ~ ~ lift coefficient of 3.2 compnrcd wit11 1.4 on Utc stat,ionary blatlc. The m tlisplacemcnt of s ~ p i r a t ~ i o r ~ towards larger anglcs of incidcr~ccis cxplai~rctlby the appearance of a n additional acceleration wlrioll acts in t,hc flow tlircction ant1 which is crcetcd by Coriolis forces; i t has t l ~ samo cffcct as n fnvonrablc prnss~~rtr c gmtliont. 111addition, b u t t o a lesser extent, l d ~ cccntrift~gnlforces acting in Cllc bourrd;rry layer carrictl with the blade exert a beneficial influcncc with rcspcot L soparation. o Ii'luict p,zr~iclesin the hountlarg layer sro actctl upon by s ccntrifugnl forcc whit:h

fi!)O

X S I I. 'rho i~~c:nrnl~rc.ssil~lr LII~IIIIIWII, l1o1111t1:ir~ I:b.yc.r

is 1)rol)ot't,iot1nlt o 1,110 rntlins. Consccl~lel~tly, llr~itlis transportctl t o each blntfc loss from t-llc r.ot~t,rr t,llan nw:ry from i t ant1 outwarclu, ant1 t l ~ c bor1ntlnry layer is thinner t.llnn woltltl be 1,I1ecasc in t~wo-t~itiicnsiotl:rI flow a b o u t tlle s a m c strape. A. Betz 161 gave some t(t~eorct.icnl arglltncnt,~o n 1.llis point. F. G u t s c l ~ e [42J m a d e tile flow o n a propellor I~lntlcvisil)lc: I)y ~ ~ a i n t i n g fortnor wittll a tlyc. C e ~ ~ t ~ r i f r l forces also Cllc gal r x c r l :r 1 : l . r ~ ~ itl~lut:ncc o n t81lcJ)rocc:c~ssof l.mnsi1.ior1. I[. M~lcsnlalln[(j8] sllowctl ill his t.11c.sis t811:itp, otllcr tdlit~gsb c i r ~ gcqnal, t r a r l ~ i t ~ i ooccurs or1 a rotatirlg propeller n I)la.tlc at. :t. considcrat)ly lowcr Ltcynolcls n ~ l m b c rt , l ~ a n n one wl~icllis stationsr.y. o

a n d tllc momerttrim i t ~ t ~ c g r a lq r ~ a t ~ i o t ~ s t b c srlpplcri~cntatl will1 t,l~o c mu :~tl(lil~ion:rl term 0 , 1J2/(z -1-a). Conxctlrlcnt.ly, l.l~c: m o m c n l r ~ mi11l,rgr:1.1 ecl11a1,ion for (.II(: ~ ) l : ~ . r ~ c , .of s y m m e t r y which replaces eqn. (22.711) is now

Fig. 22.18. (YonvorgrnL :tr~tlclivcrgent ho~~~lclnry layers; ~yrrte~nf o

La- '

"n*,

F o r divorgont strcamlincs wa Ilnvc rr. 1- z > 0, anti rc 1- z .-: O c:orrc:xl,on(ls l o n convergent, s t r c a m , Fig. 22.15'. I t follows ill, onc:c fronl cc111. (22.34) tfill:rtt.l~c ~ ~ c r c a s o i in t h e moment,nm thic:ktrcss 1)roccctls :lL :I srnallcr rata i t 1 1.11~ case of t l i v c ~ r g c ~:I.II~I ~l~, at a larger r a t e in t h o casc of convc~rgt:nl.sl,m:~~nlitlt:s, I)ol,l~ c:otnl):rmtl wit.11 1 . h ~ I.wotlitncnsiol~:rl case. 'l'l~is rcsrrll, is 1r1so 1.0 IN: t:~l)c:c-lt:~I l't.0111 I I I I ~ s ~ ~t::Io ~I~ s i t l ~ ~ ~ ~ : r I i o ~ I,

3. (:rct~vcrgc~tt RIICI clivc:rgerli bo~rr~clary layers. 'rhc mctllods for tllc calculat,ion of t , r ~ r \ ) t ~ l c1)ortntlary l a y r r s wlricl~were tlcscribed in SCC. nt XXlTb h a v e been ext,cntlntl 11y A. l<nhl [53] t,o i n c l ~ ~ t lcases W ~ I C I I tJlc st.rcamlincs o i t , ~ ~ c r c aotlvcrgc o r tlivcrgc sitlcways, Fig. 22.18. J30111itl:~ryIaycrs of t.his tjypc occur in a tlilTuscr o r in a nozzle ant1 also n e a r t,he bow o r t h e s t c r n of a body of revoll~tion. n t h i s connoxion I t,he m c ? n s r ~ r c ~ r ~tlnc t o G n ~ s c l l w i l zl ~ a v c rnb I)ccn cx1,cntlctl t80 R -- U O,/v = 3 x 10" ant1 his ~ n c l ~ l ~oft l o calc111aI.iot111:1s ~ C O I gc11t:r:~liz~d o inc111dc this casc a s wcll. AsI t in in suming n sysLrn~of roorclinntas as s l ~ o w n Fig. 22.18, z a n d z \)cin,n chosor~ Ll~c plane of t , l ~ c w:LII, ?J bc:irlg tnc:asnrotl rigl~t nnglcs Lo it., we notice t h : ~ talong t h e st.renmlinc w l ~ i c lcoinciclcs wil.l~ axis, i. c. along t.l~at, wl~iclll -- 0, tlle s a m c ~ tho for o eq~lat,ion mot-ion is sat,isfietl a s th:~t,fnr t h e t,wo-tliu~cnsio~~:bl , eqn. (8.29). 0 1 of ram 1 t.11~ t , l ~ c r o I~n.r~cl l ~ c t , cqrlat.ion of rotit.in~rit,yclta.~igcsIn

, ~ ~ Boundary lnyer in n corner: 'rl~t:flow in ;L L I I ~ I ) I I I ~ ~ I III~ o ~ ~ n t l :1 :,rr. y ~l'or~ntxl in a rectlangular corner l)cl,wccrl t w o Il:rt w:t.lls was it~vc:sl,igat.crlt.l~t:orol,ic::~~II~~ :I.II~ exporimentnlly b y I<. Gcrsten 1361 (soc :l.lso Sco. X X I a 4). 'F11c rclnt,ctl ~ ) r o l ) l c ? ~ ~ l of l h c st,rrtctnre of a t.rlrblllant l ) o ~ ~ r ~ ( l : ~ ~ . rrl, t,l~o In.-ycr y jtrnc:t.io~tof :r c:ylinclrit::~.lI~otly ant1 n flnt. pinto wan first consiclcrctl I)y .I. 1'. .jo1111sLon 150, 611 I I . I I ( ~I~il.t~~.. 11101,(11t1(1 thoroughly, b y 11. G. IIornung ant1 P. N . J o u b c r t 1461; scc also S. G . Itubin [SSa] a n d M. Sliafir a n d S.G. Itubin [90a.].
[ti!),

T h e morncntir~n ir~tcgral erluntion (22.7a) obt,ains a n additional t e r m which stperns from ttltc corivcrgcncc o r tlivcrgcr~cc t.11~ of st,rcatnlines, a s t,llc case m a y be. ltcLracir~g h e t s t c p ~ i t,I~c l ~ clcriv:~t.iori l,l~c of momcn111111 cclunlion, w l ~ i c l ~ g i v c r ~ Scc. V I I I c in was in conr~cxionwit.11 cqn. (8.20), wc see t.ltat Lhc intcgral of trho sccorld Lcrm ill t h c fimt cqual,ion of mol,ion bccomcs

, Ilc 1.wo I:l.stf t,t,rrns on 1 . 1 1 ~rigl~l-llantl l sitlc a r c dl\c t o t h e divergcncc of t,hc flow irl tjlrn z-tlirecl.ion. 'Faking it1t.o ~ c c o r ~ n. t 1 ~clivcrgence of t h e s t r c ~ m l i n c s .we lmvc t1

[l] Ackeret, J.: Zum Entwurf dicht stehender Schaufelgitter. Schweiz. Bauzeit. 103 (1942). [2] Baker, R. J., and Launder, B.E.: The turbulent boundary layer with foreign gas injection. in Part I: Meesurements in zero premure gradient. Part 11: Predictions and mc.z.lurerne~~ta severe streamwiae pressure gradients. Int. J . Hent and Mnss Transfer 17, 276--306 (1974). [3] Baumert, W., and Enghardt, K.: Dreikoniponentenmes~ut~ge~~ nn cincni Reclltccklliigcl nit Vorfliigel und abgeaenkter Nase. DFVLR Bericht 71-C-29 (1971). [4] Betz, A,: uber turbulente Reibungsschichten an gekriimmtcr~ Wiirlden. Lcctnresl on nerodynamica and related subjects, Aacllen 1929. Verlag Springer, Berlin, 1930, 10-18. [5] Betz, A,: Hochataoft.rieb von Fliigel~lan u~nlaufendcnRiidern. ZFW 9, 97-99 (19G1). [GI Bienert, P.: Strijmungsbild eit~cr turbulentet~Ablosnng. ZFW IG, 141- 147 (1968). 171 Bradahaw. P.: Calculntion of three-dimenaiond turbulent boundary Inycrs. JI'M .16, 417445 (1971j. [8] Braddahaw, P.: The understanding and prediction of turbulent flow. Acro. .J. 7'6, 413-418 (1972). [O] Brndshnw, P.: Turb~rlerice resenroll - progrcw and problcms. Proc. of tho 1976 ITmt 'llr:tnufcr nnd Fluid Mcch. Institute (A.A. I\lcJ~illop, cd.), Stnnforcl Univ. I'rws, 1!)7(i. [lo] Bradshaw, P. (ed.): Turbulence. Springer Verlng, Rerlin/Hridelberg/New York, 1976. [ I l l Rradshaw, P., and Ferriss, D.H.: Calculation of boundary layer dcvclopment using the turbulent energy equntions: Compressible flow on adinbntio walls. JFM 46, 8 3 - I10 (1!)71). [12] Braduhaw, P., and Ferriss, D. H.: Applications of n gencrnl n~cthotl calct~lntitlg i ~ r l n ~ l e ~ ~ t of t sllcsr layers. J. Basic Eng., Trnns. AShlE Series l , 94, 345 -354 (1972). ) [13] Rrudstiu~, Ferriss, D.H., and Atwell, N.P.: Cnlcu1nt.ionof boundary lnyer clcvrlop~~le~lt Y., using the turbulent energy equntion. JFM 28, 893-61G (1W7). 1141 Rradullaw. P.. and Wone. F.Y.F.: The reattachl~~ent relnxntioll of n t r ~ r l ~ ~ ~ l c n t nnd shear L--I -layer. JFM 52, 113-13; (1972). 1151 Buri, A.: Eine Rerecl~nungsgrundlngefrir die tnrht~lenteGrcnzuchicht bci I)cscI~lctlnigtar nnd vereiigcrter Striirnnng. Diss. Ziirich 1931.
L
2

(308

XXIT. The incomprc~~iblc trlrhulent b o ~ r n d n r ~ lnycr

[16] Carribre, I'., and Eichelbrenner, E.A.: Theory of flow reattachment by a tangential jet diachargin ngninst a strong adverse prpasure gradient. Boundary layer and flow control (G. V. l,ac!mnnn, ed.), Vol. 1 , 209-231, 1961. [17] Cebeci, T., Mosinskis, G. and Sn1it.11, A.M.O.; Cnlculation of separntion point8 in inconlJ., preasiblo turbulent botlndary Inyers. J . Aircr. 9, 618-624 (1972). [I81 Cebeci, T.and Smith, A.M.O.: A finite-difference solution of the incon~prewible tnrbulent bonndnry layer equations by an eddy viscosity concept. AFOSR-IIW, Stanford Conference of on Con~pntntion Turbulent Rotlndnry I,ayers, Vol. I . 346-355 (1968). [In] Cebeci, T., and Smith, A.M.O.: A finite-difference rnethod for celculnting con~prrssible lnminnr and trirbnlent bonndnry layers. .I. I3nsic Eng., 'rrnns. ASME, Series D, 92,523-535 119701 ,-- , [201 Cebrri, T.. and Smith, A.M.O.: Annlyni~of tnrbnleltt bonndnry layers. A m ( l e ~ ~Press, ~ir New York, 1974. [21] Clauser, P.M.: Torbrllent I~outldnrylayers in adverse prcasnre gradirtlk. JAS 21, 91 - 108
1 lc)fid\ ,* .,. ,

[21a] clnuser, F.N.: The tnrhrllnnt hor~t~rlarp layer. Adv. Appl. Mech. 4. 1--51 (106.5). [221 Cooke, J.C.: Boundary layers over infinite yawed wings. Aero. Quart. 11,333-347 (1960). [231 Cooke, J.C., and Hnll, M.G.: Bonndnry lnyer in thrce tlimcnsions. Progmss in Acrona~~ticel Sciencca 2, 222-282 (1062). [241 Cumpsty, N. A., and Head, M. R.: The calcr~lation t.hree-dimensional turbulent boundary of layers. I'urt I : Flow over the rear of an infinite sweptwing.Aero. Qunrt. 18,55-84(1067). Part 11: Attachment-line flow on an inlinito swept wing. Aero. Quart. 18, 150-164 (1967). Part 111: Comparison of attachment-line calcnlntions with experiment. Aero. Quart. 20, \r.ith cnlcr~lationaon t l ~ e rear of a 99-113 (1969). P a r t IV: Comparison of n i e ~ u r e m e n t a swept wing. Aero. Quart. 21, 121- 132 (1970). [251 Deimler, 1t.G.: Evolution of n n~oticratelyshort t u r b ~ ~ l e n t honndnry lnyer in a sovere prcssnrc gmdient. J F M 64, 763-774 (1974). [26] I)eisalcr, R.G.: Evolnt.ion of tlic hrnt t.rn~ml'cr at~tl flow in ~nodcrately short turbulent bounclary layers in severe preasurc grndienk. J. Heat and MRRR Transfer 17, 1079-1085 (1974). [271 von Ilwnhoff, A. R., and Tctorvin, N.: I)ot.crn~innt.ionof gonornl rclntio~~rr tllc I~cliavior lor of trlrbulent bour~darylayers. NACA I h p . 772 (1943%). [28] Donch, F.: Divergcnte und konvcrgantc Stro~nt~ngcn kleinen ~ffnrrngs\vinkcln. Dim. mit Gottingcn 1925. Porscl~ungsnrl~eiten VIII No. 292 (1926). 1293 Emt, L.F.: Mensurcmenb of thc threc-dil~~cn~ional incon~pressibleturbulent boundary laycr on thc al~rfncc a slcnclcr tleltn wing by the leading cdgc vortex. ARC RM 3768 (1973). of [301 Eaat, L.P., and Hoxey, 1t.P.: Low-apr~d three-dimensional t.nrbulcnt bonndary lnyer dntn, Part I. RAE Techn. Rep. 60041 (1969). [Ron] Ea.st,, I.. F. (cd.): (:ornput.nt,ion of three-tlirncnsionnl honndary Inyers. Sy1nposi11111 14:11ro~ n e c 60. 'I'ronrlheinl, 1!)75. FP,\ 'rN AlC 1211 (1975). Sec article by Fnnncliip, 'L'.IC.. and l~ Krng~tntl. P.A.: Thrcc-dimensionnl t.nrbrllrnt hour~dnrylnyers in ex'ternnl Ilo~vu.Also J P M 71, 815--826 (1975). [31] Elsennnr, A,, vnn den llrrg. B., nnd I,inrlhol~t,J.F.P.: Three-dimensional sepnrat,ion of an incompresnil)le turbr~lcnt boundnry layer on nn infinite swept \virtg. t\GARD Collf. Proc. No. 34168, Flow S~pnrnt~ion, 1 to 34- 15 (1975). [32] Eppler, R.: I'raktisclie Barecl~nungln~nir~srer turbt~lenterAbsnuge-Orenzschiclitc~~. und 1ng.-Arch. 32, 221 -245 (1963). [33] Pornl~olz, N.: Hnlbetnpirischc Gcsotze znr Berechnnng turb~ilet~ter H. Grenzscl~icht,en nach dcr Mct,l~otlo dcr I~~l,rgrnlbcdit~g~~ngcn.Arch. 33, 984-305 (1964). 111 [34] Prrnholz, 1I.H.: l~xpcrimc~~lcllc 7Jrl(crsttcf;ng cinor inkompreesiblcn Lurb~~lcntcn Grenzschicht n ~ i Wandrcibong nnhe NIIII in einem liingsnngecrtromten Kreiszylinder. ZFW 16, t 401 -406 (l9G8). [35] Garner, H.C.: 'l'hc clcvclop~ncntof tnrhnlcnt boundary layers. ARC RM 2133 (1944). [36] Gcrstcn, I(.: Corner interferrncc cn'eots. AGARD~ltep. No. 209 (1959). [37] Gorntlia, S.H., and Colwrll, G.T.: Annlysis of Ingh-lift, wing systems. Aero. Quart. 26, 88-108 i1!)75). ~, [3$] Goradin, S. [ I . , nntl J,y~nan,V.: T,nn~i~~nr l prrdiction and cstin~ntlonof CL std J. Aircr. . 11, 528-531; (l!)74). [39l (Irnnvillr. I'.S.: Sin~ilnrity law rntrninn~ent method for thick nxinymmetrir turbulent bornirlary lnyrru in I)rcssllrc, ~rntlic,ntn. David 'hylor Naval Ship itesenrch rind 1)cvclopIIIPIII ('rnlrr. Ilrllien~ln.MI). I<(*]>. 4525 (1975). No.

[40] Gruechwitz, E.: Die turbulente Reibung~lchichtin ehor~erStromung bei Druckabfall ~ r r ~ d Druckanetieg. Tng.-Arch. 2, 321-346 (1931); summary in ZFW 23, 308 (1932). [411 Gruschwitz, E.: Turbolente Reibungnschichtcn mit Sokondiiratr6mungen. 1ng.-Arch. 6 , . 355-365 (1935). [42] G ~ ~ b c l F.: , Verar~chean umlaufcndnn Pliigelscl~nitten mit nngorisscrtor Shriiln~tng..lb. ~o Schiffbentechn. (h. 188-226 (1940). 41, [43] Head, M.1t.: Entrainment in the turbulent boundary layer. ARC RM 31.52 (1960). [44] Himmelsknmp, H.: Profilutitersuchunge~~ einem nmlnufendcn Propeller. 1)iss. Giittingen an 1945. Max-Planck-Inat. fiir Strornungsforscl~rrng,got tin get^, Rep. No. 2 (1950). [45] Hochschiltl. H.: Versuche iiber Stromungsvorgnnge in erweiterten utid vercr~ghn Kaniilen. Forschungsarbeiten VDI No. 114 (1910). 1461 - . Hornnna, H. G., and Joubert, P.N.: Thc mcnn vclocitv - profilc in thrce-dirncnnionnl t.l~rbr~lent bo&clary layers. J F M 15, 368-384 (1963). 1471 Jacob, K.: Berechnnng der ahgelosten ir~kompressibleti t r o n ~ l ~ n g Trngfliigclprolilc urtd S nnl Bcstimrnrtng des maxitnalen Auftriebs. ZFW 17, 221-230 (1969). [48] Jacob, K., and Steinbach, D.: A mcthod for prediction of lift for n~nlti-ele~ncnt airfoil AGARD Cl' 143, V/STOL-Acrodynamica, 12-1 to 12- 16 (1974). systems witahseparatior~. [40] Johnston, J.P.: On tho thrco-clit~~c~~aionnl tnrbulcnt bonnclnry lnyer gonornted by secondary flow. 'rmns. ASME, Ser. D, J. 13wic Eng. 82, 233--248 (1000). [50] Johnaton, J.P.: The turbulent boundary layer a t a plane of syn~metry n thrcc-din~enin sional flow. Trans. ASME, Ser. D, J . Bnsic Eng. 82, 622-628 (IDGO). [5l] Johnston, J . P . : Meaat~rementain a threo-dimensional tnrbulent bo~lndnrylnyor incluccd by a forward facing step. JPM 42, 823-844 (1970 [52] Johnston. ,J. P.. and Wheeler. A. J. : An u e s s m e n t oiihree-dimensional t~trbnlcnt b01111dnry lnyer prccliction n~ot,tioda. Trans. ASME, Ser. I, J . Plr~ideEng. 9,5, 415-421 (1!)73). [RO] ICchl, A.: Unhrsuchur~gct~ konvcrgcnta 11rlr1 tlivcrgct~Lot.~~rl)~~loril.oi l ~ ~ l l ~ ~ u ~ r . l ~ i i . I iil~or lt~* Diw. Gottingen 1942; 1ng.-Arch. 13, 293-320 (1943 [ N ] Xliiie. 8.5.. Morkovin. M.V., S o n a ~ 6 .,. Cockrell, b . J . , Colca, D.B.. and Hirsl. E.A. ~ (ccla.): Proc. APOSR-1FP-Stanford Conforonce 1968. Cotnl~~t,ntion t,nrhnlrnt bountlnry of Inycrs, Vol. I nncl 11. Stnnforcl Univ. I'rwm, lO(l9. [55] Korbncher, (:.I<.: Aerotlynamica of powered high-lift R Y R ~ ~ IAnn. . ltov. I'luitl Mach. 6, IIR 319-358 (1974). I661 Kovmznnv. L.S. G.: The turblllcnt bonnclary layer. Ann. RCV.lpl11ic1Mcch. (M. vnn i)ykc, " ,ed.) 2. nexriz (1970). I571 Kronor. R.: Versuche iiher Stroinunncn in stnrk erwcitcrtrn Rnnnlcn. Forrrrl~~lngsnrbcitr~~ > VD1 ~ b 222 (1920). . 1581 Lnufor, J . : Investigation of turhulent flow in n two-clin~ct~siot~nl chnnncl. NI\(:A I<rl>.I053 (1951). [59] Ludwieg, H.: Ein Gerat zur Measung der Wnndachubspnnnr~ng turbtllct~tcrliribrti~gsachichten. 11)g.-Arch. 17, 207 -218 (1949). [GO] Ludwieg, If., and Tillinnnn, W.: Untcrancliangc~~ dic Wnt~dnclinbspi~t~n~l~ig r h u iiber in t ~ ~ lenten Reibungsschichten. Ing. Arch. 17, 288-299 (1949); srlrnlnnry of both papers ZAMM 29, 15-16 (1949). Engl. transl. in NACA TM 1285 (1950). [Gl] Magrr, A.: (:eneralization of boundary-layer momentum-intcgrnl eqrintions to tltrcc-tlitl~ensional flows including those of rotating systcm. NACA Rep. 1067 (1952). [62] Mnger, A., Mnhoney, I. I., and Budinger, R. E.: Discussion of boundnry laycr chnr:rcterist.ics near thc wall of an axial-flow compressor. NACA Rcp. 1085 (1952). [OJ] Mollor, 0. 'rho clTccl~ prcclsnrc grncliont,~ tfnrhnlrnt flow n m r n R I I I ( I O I I ~\\~IIII.IpRf L.: of on ,I 24, 256 -274 (1nc;o). 1641 turbrllcllt boundary laycrs. J l W 24,225 2F3 . Mellor. G.L., and Gibson, D.M.: Eqr~ilibrir~m (1966). [65] Mellor, G.L., and Herring, H. J.: A survey of the mean tnrhulcnt firlcl closnrr t~~ctbotla. AIAA J. 11, 590-599 (1!173). [68n] Merotlcy, R.N., nnd Brndshaw, P.: T r ~ r b r ~ l rborlnclnry lnyrr growth ovrr :I longitr~rl~~~nlly nt curved snrfncc. AIAA J . 13. 1448- 1453 (1975). [G6] Michel, R., Quemnrd, C., and Cousteix, J.: M6thodc prntiql~cdc pr6vision tlrs cot~cl~cs liniitcs turbulentes bi- e t tri-djmenaionrlles. Recherche Abroap. No. 1972.- 1. 1- 14 (1972). [67] Millikan, C. 8.: The boundary layer and skin friction for n lignrc of revolrlIion.'rmr~a. AShlR, ,J. AppI. Mech. 64, 2 --29 (1932).
L

L.-

. ,

700

XXI I. '1'110 i ~ ~ ~ : t l ~ ~ t ~ ) r~c In ~ Ii) II~~l!~Il)o1111(11try , I s I I I :I ~ I:by(:r

lf$8] Mucsm:tnn, 11.: Z~~snrntncnhnng Strii11111ngaeige11scI111ft~e11 dcr dcs IA~ulrndes eiues ,\xialgeblases nit dellen cines 15inzclflugcls. Ijiss. Braunsch\vcig 1958; ZFW 6 , 345-302 (1958). [on] Nnnl~, J.F.: Tile calc~~lation three-ditnonsionn.I t.urbrtlcnt botn~darylayers in incornprcsof sil~le flow. JI'M 37, 625- 2 4 2 (1969). [70] N:rsh,. ,J. I?., nnd I'alcl, V.C.: 'I'llrec-dirtte~~sio~~alb r ~ l e ~ ~ t tur bountlary Inyers. S. 13.C. 'rechnicnl llooks (Scir~~t.iRo 1311siness & Constlltnnte, Inc., At,lanta, Georgia), 1!)72. 1711 Nikurndse, J . : Untersuchungen iiber die Stron~ungen des Wnsscrs in konvergenten und. divorger~t~en Iianalen. Forschungsnrbeilar~ V.DI No. 289 (1929). [72] Orzag, S.A., and I~rneli,M.: Nurnerirnl sin~r~lat,ion V~A(:OIIR of incott~~)ressihle flows. Ann. Itev. Fluid Mecl~.6, 281--318 (1974). [73] Pappns, C.C., and O k ~ ~ nA.,F.: I\.lenstlrr~r~cntsskin friction of tlte cott~prrssible , t ~ r l ~ ~ ~ l r n L o of t bountlnry Inyer on a ronc with forcign g:w iujcction. J A S S 27, 3321 -331 (I!)(iO). [741 I'nrr, 0. : Untcr~orltt~rtgan drcitlirncnsionalrn G r n ~ ~ z n c l ~an lrot,icrcntle~l dcr ic ~t Drel~kiirperl~ bri n x i ~ l e r Anst,riitnung. l)iss. 13rannsch\vcig 1902; 1ng.-Arch. 32, J93--413 (1903). 17.51 I'ecltar~, W.: &:in Niil~crungsverfnl~rcn 1Zcrechn11ngdcr ellenen t u ~ d zrlr rotntionssyrn~t~etriscllcr~t,~rrbrrlcntbnGrenzschicht mit belicl~igcr Absnr~gung oder A ~ ~ s b l n s ~ ~ n g .\VC:I, ,Jb. 1968,82- V (1959). 2 (761 I'olzin, .J.: S t r i i n t ~ ~ n g s ~ ~ n t m nnc cinem ebenen ~I)iffr~sor. 111g.-Arrll.11, 001 -- 385 ~ l~~~~~ge ~ (l!)40). 1771 i'reteclt, J . : Zur thcoretischcn 13crenl1r11111g I'rofilwitlnntnt~tles. .Jb. (It.. l,~~ftfnltrt,fordcs scl111neI. 01-01 (1938). [77a] ~ n r n n p r i n r ~ , B.lt., and Sllivaprasad, 1%. Menn llow t~~oasnrcrnenb t ~ ~ r h u l c honndG.: in nt nry I:t.yers : ~ l o ~ ~ g t l cr~rveds~~rfnccs. n i l~ A[AA J. 15, 189--1!)0 (1!)77). [78] Raspct,, A., Cornisli, d.,J., and Grynnt, (?.I).: Ilelny of the stall by s ~ ~ r t ~ t.Itrotrgh distriion buted perforations. Aero. Eng. Rev. 11, 0, 52-00 (1952). 1791 Roynol(ls, W.C.: A morphology of t l ~ c prediction n~ctltodo t ~ r r b ~ ~I)or~nelary (of l c ~ ~ t layers). Article in [A41 Vol. I, pp. 1 - 15 (1969). [80] Ilrynolcls, \V.C.: Rccent a d v n r ~ c ein t,l~ccotnprrtation of t.orI)ulerlt Row. Advances in ~ Clic~nirnl1cngint.ering 8, 1!)3--240 (1974), ed. by T.B. Brcw c t al., Acatle~~tic: Press. I ] I ~ I I O I I H : o 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ l i ofn1 1 r 0 1 1 l 1o tv . I \ o t .I I l iM I . , I 204 (1!170). [82] R.ott,n, J.: Hcitmg zur 13ererhn11ngder tr~rbr~lonbn Grcnzsnhicht~cn.Ing.-Arch. 10, :$I -41 (1!)5I) nnrl Mnx-l'ln~~clz-l~tst.. SI,rii~iti~ngsforst:I~~~ng fiir (:iiLt,ingen Itrp. No. l (1950). [83] JEotCa, J.: S c l ~ ~ ~ b s p n n n ~ ~ ~ ~ g s v e und iEncrgiediwipatior~ bei t u r h r ~ l e r t b ~ rte l~~~~g Grenzsclticltt~cn.111g.-Arclt.20, 196--207 (19.52). [84] Rot,t&, J . : N i l h e r u ~ ~ a s v r r f n l ~ r c ~ ~ zor Uerechnung turb~ilcnterGrenzschiclrten unter Benutzung (108 ICnergicsafxc.~. Mr~x-l'litnek-l~~at. St.rij~r~~~~~psforscl~~~ng Itep, No. 8 fiir (:iittingell (Ins$). [05] Itoltn. .J.: 'J'urbr~lcntbountlary laycrs in incotnprrssible fiow. Progress in Aero. Sci. 2, 1-219 (10(12),eel. 11y A. k'crri, I). Kiichcmann and L.H. G . Stcrno, Pergnn~on l'ress, Oxlortl, l!J02. I801 ltot,t,a, , I . : Vcrglcicholtlc I3creolinungen von t,urbulent.en Grenzscl~iclttenmit verscltiedenen Dissil)nt~io~~sgcsetzc~~. 111g.-Arch.38, 212 -222 (IVO!)). [87] 1tott.a. J . : 'l'~rrbr~lento Striimungcn. Stuttgart, 1972. [88] l t ~ ~ b e s iM. \V., rind Pnppn8, C.C.: Annlysis of Ll~c n, turbulent boundary-lnyer cltarnctcristics on a llrlt lalo lo a.it,l~ tlinl,rib~~t.ccl ligl~t,-gns injcction. NACA TN 4149 (11158). [88nj 1t11l)itt. S. I:.: I I I C O I I I ~ ~ ~ C S along ~ ~corner. JPM 26, 97---110 (I!)C,Ii). flotv S ~ ~ n C [89] Snc-hdr\~:~, C., ant1 I'rrst.on, J . If.: Invest~ignt,ion tr~rhr~lent It. of bo~lndnry layers on a ship tt~oclrl.St:l~ifl'sbrrl~~tik 1--45 (1!176). 23, [!lo] Srhlirl~l.ing,1-1.: Die C.mnzschicl~tan clcr ehcnen Platto init A b s a ~ ~ g t ~ n g A~rsblxsen. uud 1,11ftfaI1rt,f~)rscl1111g 2!)3-301 (1042). 1.9, [9l1 S r l ~ l i c l ~ t . iIt.: g15inigr netlore 1Crgel~11issc ~~ , iiber Grc!n7.~cltiol1tbeeinfl11ss1111g. First Int. Proc. Congr. /\c?ro. Sci. hlndritl; Atlv. in Acro. Sci. I t , 603-58fi, Pcrgntnon Press, I,ondon, 1959. [92l Svl~lirl~ting, nnrl Pcr11n11, 11.. W.: A ~ ~ f t , r i c b s e r I ~ i jvon ~ ~ ~ g l ~ r 'Vragfliigeln t l ~ ~ r ckontin~~ierlich li v~~r1,riIte I ) S I ~ I I ~ I I I I ~ . , 113.- 1I!) (1!)5!)). /\ ZIPW 7 [!):$I Srl~lirlit.i~tg, 'I'ltree-tli~ncnxionnlhountlnry lnyrr/flow. Intern. Assot:. Ily(lmr~lir H.: Itesc:~rcl~, 1Xtl1 (k)ngr., I ) ~ ~ l ) r o v ~ tl2(?2--i k , l2!)0, (l!)(il). ,941 S v l ~ l i ~ l ~ l11.: ~hcrody11n1l1ist:\1(1' ~ O ~ I ~ drsI llij~~l~stn.~~ft.rieI~~~x. :LL 'r~tird Int. i~ g. ~ C I I ~ I,ect~~rc Congr. Arro. Sr:i. (ICAS) Stocltliolnt, Sweden, 1902; ZI'W 13. I--14ql9G5). [!I51 S~:l~lirhling. ICinige lloucrc ICrgcbnissc nus der Acrodynnmilt rlrs Trngfiiigcls ( T e ~ ~ t l t 11.: I'mn(l1l hlr~t~orinl I,c.rt,~~rc! I!l(i(i). .Jh. W(:l,lt I9fiC,, 11 --32 (1907)

[9I;l Selt~~liJb:u~cr, Vcrltnll.rn tt~rb~tlcnt.cr 11.: Itril~~~~~gsnol~icl~Lc~i g~:ltrii~n~nlr-r~ :~II crlt;thc~~ \\'iitt(lcn. I)iao. hliit~cltcn1934; src slso I,~~Il.f:~l~rl.forsc:l~~~,lgl (I!):$li); Engl. I.r:tnnl. i l l Ni\(:,\. 13, I ( i 'Shl 7!)l (l!):ll;). [!I71 S I , ~ I I I ~ I ; ~ I IIt., ti11(1 l<lt:l~;tnoll',. S.: 111vrslig11t,io11S C : ~ I : I ~ :of~1111. O II~I I I I I I - 1 1 1 I I ( > I I I \ < ~ (:. C T , 1' or I ~~ I I I . ary layer. N,lC,l I < C ~ lU:$t) (1951). I. [!Is] SCIIIII);LIIC~, a ~ t dSpnngct~herg.W.O.: Icorcctl t n i x i ~ ~in I)(>~cn(l;u.y (:. 13.. g 1i1yc.r~. .ll'Rl d, 111. .- ..'" ,. . . :w (tw;nt Scl~\v:trz,I<'., ;tncl \lJ~~exl,, l?I~~gvc*rn~~~:ltc: L I I I I I I I S ~ I)<) 27 nit, ~ ~ r t - ~ ~ ~ , s v l ~ i ~ ~ l ~ l ~ ~ W.: ;LIII J ! ; ~~ grrng zltr Stciger~tngdrs Hiichst.n~~ft,riclrtm.\ Z V 12, 108- - 120 (I!)IiJ). l' + [!)!):1.1 Sl~nfir, a11(1I{,nl~i~i,G . : ' ~ I I c : ~ , I I ~ I I I I I ( : I I ~ , l)o1111(1:iry hl., K l;iyrr nr:tr ~t vornrr. , I . Appl. hit.t41. ('i'rn~~s, ~\ShllC,Scr. I<). .I<?, Mi7 - 570 (l!)76). [IOU] Sl~:u~cl)rool~, IIINI SIIIIIIIICT, A s111;tll(.ross llo\v Lllcory for t,ltc ~ ~ I I ~ I : ~ : - ( ~ ~ I I I ( ~ I I s ~ ~ I I : L ~ .I. It.. \V..J.: co~t~prc~ssihlr L~~rbulrllto ~ ~ ~ ~ t litycr 011 :tlli:~b:it~ic b litry \v:tIls. AlAA .I. 11, !I50 !)54 (l!Ji:l). 1 1 O l ] Snlit It, A . hl. 0. : Iiiglt-lift. ncrotlyt~atnirs.37t,11 \4IrigltL I%roLl~rrs I,rcturr 1!)74. , I . of Airrr. 12, 501 - 5:$0 f l!)75). [ IOln] So, It. h1.C.. nntl Alrll~~r, (:.I,.: lCxl~rri111e111.sI~III~I)IIICIII, on 1)01111(l:try Injrrs 011 ( . ( ~ I I ~ :ni~ll. I\.(' Acro. Quart.. 26. 25 40 (1!375). [lOIl)l So, l<.hl.(!., and Mcllor, (:.I,.: 1Cxprri111ont.s rt)~tvcx~ I I ~ V : I c*ll'(~,l.~ C I I I ~ I I I I I ( ~ I I I , on ~ , I I in I)orrntl;~ry layers. .I I /ill, 4 3 ~ (- 2 (1!)73). M ' Y [I021 St>ritlcl,I,., n ~ t d St:ltolz, N.: UnLers~~ch~~ngon Strii1111111g8vrrl11nle iihcrrlir in ~I>CIII!II S(.l~:t~~ff-1git,t.c:rn. VDI-I~orsc:I~ur~gsltcft (1057). 464 [lo31 Srluire, Il.J4., n~ttlYoung. A. I).: 'Sl~e~ R I C I I I R ~ ~ ofI ~ O profilc clr:~gof :tirllow. AI<.(:I L M IH:(H . ( I 938). [ 1041 Slr:~tfortl, S , : I'rc(iiction of scp:tr:tIion of t IIC ~ I I ~ I ) I I \\~ OIIII~ I ( \ l:tj(!r. ,) l'hl 5, I I t i I$. I~ I :L~~ (I!)5!1); An c~xl~c:ri~ncnI.al \vit.l~ flow zrro skin fricI,iot~l ~ r n ~ t g l t r t~ ~r~ g.i o ~ ~ prf-snurr rise-. t i n rl of .J I ~ M 17 --:i5 (1!)5!)). 5, [104n] Smith, A.hl.0.: St.rat.fortl's t ~ r r l ) ~ ~ l c n t srp;trntion rritcrion for axially ayn~nt(.lri(. IIo\v. ZAMI' 28, !I28 - 938 (1977). Ilo5l Sl.ii[~or, ,I.: I J I I I C ~ ~ I I ~V.O~II I I I I~~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ g s s ~ ~ I ~ iIli~.g~-n(l(.n ~ I I ~ Y ,. ~ ~ lI' I ( l . l ~ r ~ I ; ~ r . I ll~ i 11111 ~ : l t t , c ~ ~I ~ / I t~~ st,l~ul~g 20---32(l!):$4); acc also N14(:A 'I'M 751 (1!):!.1). 11, [LOG] Sz:~l~lc\rski, \V.: ' T ~ ~ r t ~ ~ ~ l rtn r . c n ~ ~ ~ n g S ,t ii in ko11v~rgellt~l~lt I<it~~iilt*n. Ing..Ar('lt. 20. 37 45 (l!)54). [I071 Sznblenski, W.: T ~ ~ r h ~ ~ l Striimungc~~ tliverger~tcn I<:l.l~iil~~i ente in (111i1,I~lrr~r~ I nk~rlzrr IIII l)r~~rk:lnnt,ieg). lng.-Arch. 22, 208 - 28 1 (1954). [I081 Szahlc~vski,W.: Wnndnaltc Gescl~win~li~ltcibverteil~~~~g l r ~ i( l> r r ~ ~ s s ~ ~ l ~ i ~ ~ l ~ l s l . r i turb~~ er gen mit T)ruckanstieg. 111g.-Arch. 23, 2!k--301; (1!)55). [10!)] 'rl~o~tlnrt, Untersucl~u~~gen dic ISrl~iil~ung A~~ltriebcs 'l'rnglliigoln ~~~it~t.i:Is F.: iihcr flea von C~rcnzscl~icl~tl~cai~~fl~~su~~~te tl~~rcl~ Ar~sl~l:rnc~~. I3rn111mol:i I ! ; I I)iss. 0 , t i li5 ( l!)(;2). [I 101 Thomas, F.: Untersuch~~ngcn die C:rcnzsrlticl~tan einer \V:~nrl~l~ro111:~l1\r.iirt.4 i ~ ~ c l n iiber VOII r Ar~sblnsspnlt. Abl~nntll.k~iss.Gcs. Urn~~nsrh\vrig I - 17 (l!)Iif). 15, [ L l O n ] To\vnsrntl, A. A,: 'rl~oe l e v r l o p ~ ~ t e ~ ~ t of t,url)~~lont I)ot~ntlnry I:hyers \vit.ll nrgligil~le wnll s1,rcs~. IPIvl 8, 14:$--. ([!)GO). ,J I55 [I I I] Tr~~c~kenl)rotlt,I+:in Qr~:ttlrntnrvc~rf~tItw~~ 142.: zur Il(:rrt:Itn~tng litn~innrcn dcr 11nd I . I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ : I I ~ C I I IXeihrtngnscl~irl~t. cbcncr nnd rotntionsnym~~tc.Lrisc:I~~~r hri Sl.riinrung. Ing.-Arrli. 20, 41 1 Z'L8 (1!)52). [I 121 l'r~~c*ltcrthrodt, Ein Q~~actmtt~rverfnl~rcn 15.: zur 1Jrrccl11111ng I~c:il)~~ngmc~l~irI~l, tlrr nn :txi;xl an~cst,rijrnte~~ rotierenclrn I)rehkiir~crn. l l ~ ~ . - A r c l ~ .21 - 3 5 (l!)54). 22, [I131 'I'rr~ckenl)rodt.E.: SI.riir~~r~~~gsl~tc:(.~tiIz. Springer. I%t:rli~~/lltitl~:lI)crg/N~*\~~ I!t(iR. York, [I 141 Trr~rkcl~brodt, Neurre ICrkcnntnissc iibc!r (lie Bcrcc:ltn~~ng Slrii~~~rr~~gngrc~~~xsc.l~ir:l~l~c E.: vo11 rnittels cinfacl~crQ~~ntlrnt~urformel~~. : Ing.-Arrh. 43, !) 25 (I 973); l':~rl, I I : lng.. Part I Arcli. 43, 130 - 144 (1!)74). [I151 Turcottc, 1). I,.: A sr~blayertllcory for fluitl injcction i111.o1.ltr inconll~~rssil)lc t,11rl)t111,11t, I)o~~ntl:try It~yrr..JASS 27, 0 7 5 0 7 8 (I9(;0). (1 161 Wa1.1.~A.: SLriin~~~ngs.I ~' ~ r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c r : t t , ~ ~ r g r ~ ~ ~I<~:IIIII, I ~ l t ~ ~ ~I!)Ii(i. III ~ z s r l ~I<:trlsr1111r,. ir [I171 Wnr~~chkuhn, and V ~ s a r i t ,I~n ~ n ,V.: Die t ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l(:rrnsscl~irltt 11int.c.rr i ~ l r nA l l P., t rnlc ~ lijsnngsgel)ict,. ZF\V 23, I --9 (1!)75). [I 183 M1llite, F.M.: A new intcgrnl n~nt,ltod for n~t:tlyzing Lllc t . ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~11o111tcl:try lcnl, Inyrr \vil.lt arliit,mry prrsstlrc grntlirnt,. ,I. 13:~sicICng., 'rrnns. ASM15. Srr. I). !)I, 371 378 (l!)fi!l).
\
~

a.

Grtrrrnl rcrnnrks

703

conclude, tlterefore, that the three compo~icnts thc additional heat flux (q~iant~ity of

of heat per unit arca and time) arc:

q; = e c , , m ;

qyl =ec,,v(rllr; q i =ecp?OI[I1).

(28.2)

Tt~rbl~lent houtldary layers in compres~ible flow t

n. Grr~crnlrcmnrks It has bccn domonstfmt.ccl in Src. XTTTa t41rnttlio preseiico ot'ltigl~velocities in tho I~onntlaryIn,ycr gives riso t,o sii(:Ii 1:~rgctcmpcratiire tlifi'crcnccs tltnt i t becomes ncccssary to f:tkc into account, thc elT'cct of tempcratrirc on the properties of tlic fluid in addition t,o that of the clinrigcs in its volume. Beyoncl this, i t is found t,l~at the transfer of lieat plays an essctit.i:rl part in tlie bcl~avioi~r a compressil~lebountlary of la.ycr; its presence Icacls to the appcxm.nce of a strong interaction l)ct,wccn the velocity ficlrl aritl t.hc t ~ c n i p c m t ~ field:. ~rc I. Ti~rbulrrrt heat transfer. When :I liqrricl or a gas of non-uniform trrnptraturc is canscd t o move tnrl)ulcntly, it is fotrntl that the t,tirbulent mixing motion creat,cs in i t temporaturo flr~ctualioris :ttltlit,iori t o thc more familiar vclocit,y Ilr~ct~r~at~ions. in I n analogy wit,li rqn. (18.1 ) for v~locity flt~ctriations, may r ~ p r e s r n tlie fliictuating we t tcnipcmture T=T+T' (23.1) in tlie form of the slim of a temporal average, 7', antl a pure flitc:t~iat.ioti,I". These fluctriations givc rise to a supplementary heat flux which is analogor~sto the flux of momentr~m evolved by the velocity fluct~~ations. order to show this more clearly, In we assume, as we did earlier in Sec. X V l l I b , that throngh a surface element, dA, whose normal points in the x-dircct.ion, there Bows a mass of fluid dA eu dl during timc dl. The cnthalpy of this mass per unit volume is e cp T,and tho corivective flux in the x-dircction has a value dQx = dA e u cp T . If we now introduce the expression for u from eqn. (18.1) and that for T from eqn. (23.1) n r ~ d form the tempornl average of the heat flux, we shall obtain

I t has bccn assrimed licrc that tllcrc exist.s a stat.istical corrclntiorl bctwcrn tltc velocity and tcmpernturc fl~ict~tat~ions. cxistcrrcc of s11cI1 a correl~itioriin tlic Tlie presence ofagratlicnt dT/tlyof t,he mean tcnipcrat,rtrc can bc den~onst~ratctl t.hc satno in way as t h a t usetl earlier to tlctnonslrate the cxi~t~cticc the corrcl:~t.iot~ v'. 'l'llc of IL' : ~ r g ~ ~ r n atlvaiicctl in t.11~ rttt last paragrnpli of Scc. XVIII 11 rct.airts its forc:o if is subst,itlrtctl for 12 antl 7" for I*'. In sricl~circi~mst:~nccs 1.licrc will :~riso t:orr~lnt.io~~ a v"l".1 t follows fr~rt.ltcrfrom this : ~ r g ~ ~ t n ct,liat, t,lie sirnnlt.nncolis esist.cncr of t,lic? nt. gmdicnts c17;/tIy and dT/tly must impose a strong correlation bet*wcct~ :intl 'I". TL' %'tiis concliision has I,ccn confirmed 11y mcasurcments with hot-wire aiicrnomctcrs it1 notiiprcsnil,lo [47] rind inc!orn[)rcssil~lt~ ltot~n(laryI a y ~ r sforrnctl on n 11c~:tt.c~tl \c,:~ll 141, 421. Accortli~ig rrieasurcmcnts pcrforrnctl by A. I,. IZistlcr 1471. the c:orrolalion to coefficient. -.
- . --- . . -

i*

7L'

T' -. .

f?

2. The frtt~dnnirntnlcqiraliona for comprrnsibic flow. 'I'crnpc?r:~t~iirc flr~c.bttnI.iotrs togclltcr with t.ho prcssrlrc Iltrett~nt.ioi~s mct~l,io~ictl ~ r l i c r SCC.I\:V I I I 1) 11rotI11t'(? c~ in tlcnsity flilctuat,ions. lror this reason it is ass~~tnctl the tlcrtsity t.hat (23.3) e=@+e'

is also eqr~:ll to the sum of a tirnc-avcmgc, $. arttl a tlcr~sil~y flt~cti~at,ioii, T l i ~ p'. fluct~tationsin tcmpcmtr~rc,pressure, arid density arc rcl:tt,otl throiigli tlrc cclrrnl,iort of state of tlic gas, eqit. (12.20). Wltct~the gns is treat-ccl as pcrfcct., niitl \\rlicn t,litb fluctuatioris are small, we may put

It is secn that tho presence of vclocity and temperature flr~ct~uations generates the supplementary heat flr~x e c, u I" in the x-direction. Corresponding expressions rlA ' are obtained for the supplementary fliixes of hdat in the directions y and z. We
.

t o a first approximation. In addition t o thc turbulent transfcr of lieat,, t,lic prcscrlce of density fluct~iationscoristitntes tho secorld importarit rlcw pltcnomeriot~ which occurs in compressible, t i ~ r b u l e r ~ t st.rcanis. Evitlently their prcscncc tnay not bc ncglcclctl when cxprcssions for tho laitsor of nppnro~ltstrcsscs (St!(?. X.Vlllc) is derived. Formally, when eqn. (23.3) is tnkcri into accorltit, cqns. (18.5) n ~ t ~Is Il rc~ placed by the following additional terms due t o turbrllctlce

t I km itidehted to Dr. J.C. Rottn for the text of this rliapbr which is new. :A comprehensive aummory of the theory of turbulent boundary layers in compressible flows
is given in tlie book of S.S. Kutateladze and A. I. Leont'ev [SO].

Here e'u', e' v', and '

--

play the part of tho components of a turbulent flux of

70-t

X X I1 I. ' r ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l c n t bonrwlnry lnycrs in cotnprcwiblc flow

Ilere, (.he t,erm ~ r c p r e s e n t s rncan valr~o the (lissil):~t ancl for it,, I Ilc followt,l~c of ion, ing npproximat,iort may bc employed:

mass in t>hct,hrcct directions: z,y, z. On averaging, t h e equation of cont*inuity for a c~omprcssiblcstreitm, cqn. (3.30), leads t o

,
1bcgn.rcling t.he clensity flltctuaf.iorls, it is possible t o say a t first that, p'/@ is hanlly likely 10 exccctl u'/S. Since, now, u'/d 1, i t appears possible t o neglect the last tcrtn in caoll of cqns. (23.6) with respect t o the first. Further simplificat,ions r r s ~ r l t wllcn aI.l~(:nt,iot~ confined t o bountlary layers in which d & 12. .I. C . Rottn [SO] is clc:rnor~str:~I.ctI l.l~:rt,in suc:l~cnscs if, is possible altogct,ller t o o l i m i ~ ~ a t,hc tlcrlsit,y te Illlct~~ations from t , l ~ c cql~nt~io'ns boundary layers if, a s is customary, tho nornial for st,resses tllnmsclves arc r~cglcctccl. First we notice t h a t 6 ~i in t,hc eql~et,ion for t, in (23.5), so t-hat only two terms need be retained. P ~ ~ r t h c r r n o r e , ', since r ? p / ( 7 r a e 7 / a ! / , t.hc cont,irll~it,ycqr~at,ion(23.G), written for a t)onntlnry layer wl~ic-11 two-tlimcnsior~don t,ha average, acqr~ircs is the form

@ = p

--

-1- rt

ail

<

The set mr~st. nl~gmcnt~ctl t.hc a.pproxirnate forni of t.11~ t)c by rcln:rt,ion of st,al,c for mean values : - - P"PR?'. (2:%.!)) l ' l ~ e1)rccccling syst,crn of cq~rntiorrs co~n~)rcssil)le, for l,rrrl)l~lcnt l)o~lntl;try I:~.yc:r.src1)lnccs cqunt.ions ( 1 2.6Oa) to ( 1 2.50~1)l i ~ r corrcsl)ontlitlg I : ~ n ~ i n flow. 'l'l~cI ) ~ I I I ~ ~ ~ : I I . :~r contlit,ions rcmn.in 1111c1r:rngctlc f . Chap. X I I ) . ( I n order 1.0 explore the tlcl,ails of t.rnl)nlcnt ~not~ion comprt?ssiblc rnctlia, it, is in with hot, wires. 'l'his is matle cliffic~rlt.0 ~ 1 t,lrc necessary t o untlert,akc tncasr~remer~ts rlcctl t,o ~ l n r o ~ l p t.Irt: c:fTcct of I,c~nl)c:rat,l~rc vcloc:it,y Ill~ct,un.I~ions lc ant1 \vit.lritl ;I s i ~ ~ g l c signal. 'rhc problems wl~ic:!~ :wise in this way form t.l~c s~rbjcc:tof t.ho pl11)lic.n.t.ions [49, 651 by I,. S. G . I<ovnsi..nny and M. V. Morkovin, rcspc:cl,ivcly. 1,cavirrg n1)art t . 1 1 ~ appearance of tlcnsity :rntl temperature flr~ct,rl:tt,ions, is forrntl t,hatf1.he flow rrmnir~s, it in ills gct~ar:do l ~ b l i ~I,llc, same :IS in : ~ I I inc:ornl)rc~ssil)le l ~ ~ i tIlowc~vc:r,:IS I,II(- hl:rc.11 ~c I l. nnml)or is incm:~sctl,t l ~ c volooity Ilt~c:t~~:~t~iorlsl l iill,t:tlsit.y, :I.$ ~Ic!~r~o~~sl,r:tl,~:(I lose i I)y Ll~eex~)c:ri~n~~r~(,n.l tlrtc! 1.0 A . I,. I<isl.lrr 1471 : L I I ~SIIO\CII i l l Icig. 23. I . '1'11t- t*lli.t.ll rrs11ll.s ~ of tlcrlsity fluctnat,ions which go bcyoncl t,hose inc:ll~tlrcli r ~cclrls. (Y:!.H:t) to (23.Xc:) 11nve Iwrn invrst,ig.rt,etl hy ,T. C. Rot,l.:t 1801.

<

<

'l'l~c bor~ntlary-layer equation i.9 clerivecl from eqn. (12.50b) in t h a t cqn. (12.50n), m~llt,iplictlwit,l~ is adtlcd, with eclns. (18.1) nntl (23.3) s~~l)sLiLt~tecI r e ~ u l t u, ; tho is t411cnavcragccl in nccortlance with cqn. (18.4). When the above-mcntionecl t,ertns arc neglect.ctl, t.he following, final form for the boundary-lnycr cquat.ion is ol)t,ninetl:

I t is nol.ccl t h a t in t-clns. (23.Ga) and (23.7) the tlensity fl~~ctnat.iorl appears only in t.hc form of adtlctl t80@ 6. I t is, t.hcrefore, convcnicr~t o r e - i n t ~ r o d ~ ~ c c original t tjIle ex1)ression fo; t.ho Inass Il11x p v 17 -1- p' v' in the y-direction, ancl t,o tlcfinc t,Ilc tfr~rl)l~lnnt,, apl)nrcr~t. st,rc:ss as

fl

-. ;

I n any case, t.hc exact value of the mean velocity component a t right angles t o the wall, 17, remains untlet,crnmincd, being of little interest anyway. The energy equat.ion (12.19) can 1)c: treal.ctl in like manner. lrlt,roducing the turbulent heat flux

Fig. 23.1. Distribution of turbrllct~tvclocity flnct,r~ntiorrn tire houndnry Inycr in on n flat pink placed st, zero incidcrrce in a sul~crsonic st.rcnrn.Mcasorc~nc.~rb tx, clnr A . I,. Itiatlcr [47J nntl F.S. Itlel~nnoR [48]

we obtain tht: following set, of equations which tlcscribe the processes in compressible, t~rrbolcnt, bour!tlary laycrs: In ortler t o render t,hc system of c q n ; ~ t . i o ~ ~ s (23.8;1.) to (23.8tl) more :tmctl:~l)lc to practical caIcnlat.ions, it is possible, a s was (lone in C11:rp. X [X, to iritrotluce i1lI.o i t empirical ass~irnpt,iorlsfor momentturn and heat. t,mnsport. lCcl~~at,iorl I ) for tlrr (19. a p p ~ r e n shearing stress t, = t, is usually t,alrcn over ~ ~ l ~ c h a n gAs far ns the Lnrt ', cd. btllent 1ica.t flux is conccrnetl, i t is cust,on~aryo givc it a f rm r c ~ n i r ~ i s c c r ~Fourier's t of t law of thermal conducttion, cqrl. (12.2), according t o wl~ichwe have

706

XXTII. T~~rbulont bo~~ndary loyors in comprcaaiblo Row

h. Rnlntion bctweon vclority and tcmfnmt,urc dintxihotion

707

and t o postulate that q, =

- c,

aT ay

(turbulent) .

(23.10)

N Ct h a t the exchange mechanisms for momentum and heat, arc similar; neverthcless, they arc not identical. The cxchange coefficients A, and A, for momentum and heat, respcctivrly, havc, t,herefore, dillkrent values in general. Taking into account cqns. (19.1) and (23.10), together wit11 eqn. (23.8d), we can transform the system of equations (23.8a) t o (23.8d) t o the form:

It is ~

Fig. 23.2. Ratio of the turblllcnt trnnafcr coefficiente A,/A. over the length of a radiua in turbulent pipe flow, after B. Ludwiog [65]
Rcynolda numhcr R

3.2 x 10' tn 3.7 x 10'

3. Relation between tbc cxchangc cocfficienta for momentum and heat. We have stressed in t h e past t h a t the occurrence of a fluctuating motion i n a turbulent flow causes momentum to be exchanged vigorously between the layers of different velocities. It also causw a n increase in tho t r a n ~ f c of lieat and mnss when tcmperaturo r o r concentration gradients arc present. For this reason, there exists a n intimate connexion between heat and momentum transfer in general. I n particular, we must stress a t expect t h e existence of a relation between the heat flux and the sl~earing the wall itself. The existence of such a n analogy between heat and momentum transfer was first discovered b y 0. Reynolds [76], and for this reason we now speak of Reynolds's analogy (cf. Sec. X I I e 3). This analogy enables us t o make statements concerning the transfer of heat from the known laws of drag in s turbulent boundary layer. The exchange coefficients for momentum and heat - A, and A, - both have t h e dimension of a viscosity, p(kg/m see or lb/m see in absolute systems), so t h a t in addition t o t h e molecular Prandtl number P = p c,/k, it is convenient to introduce a comcsponding, dimensionless, turbulent P r a d l number

confidence with which the results of such meas~~remcnts be accepted is low owing can to the difficulties of measuring l o ~ d temperatures in flows in gencral, and to the uncertainties in the values of the gradients dzi/dy and dP/tiy. I t turns out that P, varies with the distance from the wall. I n a n investig.ztion performed by I-I. Ludwicg [56]i t was fonncl, a s shown in Pig. 23.2, t h a t thc ratio A,/A, = l / P l vi~rics from n b o ~ ~ b unity a t the wall (r/R = 1) to about 1.5 in tllc ccntrc of a pipc (r/R =0) ancl is indcpondent of the Mach number. Similar rcsulb were rcportcd by 1). S. Johnson [42] who made measurements in a boundary laycr on a heated wall. According to tllesc, thc ratio AJA, increases from about unity a t the wall t o approximately 2 a t the edge of the h o ~ ~ r i d aInyer. A . F'xgc ant1 V. M. I'alltncr ( c f . ref. [R7]) and IT. Rcicl~artlt ry [72] mcasrtrctl a vnl~tc: 0f2, thc I'ortncr in td~e wi~ltc bchincl a circ~tlr~r c:ylitlclor,rrl~tl Ir~l.l.c:rl l t,l~c! i a free jet, both in a11 i n c ~ r n ~ r c s s i bst.ream. According t o the preceding measurements le the ratio Aq/A, is smaller in a bountlary Iaycr t.11an in a frcc strcern owing to thc inflncncc of t,lic wrbll on 1.110 ho~~ntlnry ~ y cIrI, R ~ O I I ttliornroro, l,lnr~ail)lo nssllnto I~ . IR, 1.0 t h a t t11c mtio Aq/Ar Itas a valuc of unity a t t,hc wall (accortling to 1,ntlwicg t l ~ c value is 1.08 giving P, w 0.9) aticl increases to a valuc of 2 (P, =.. 0.5) away from the wall. I n practice, frequently, n constzaut value of Aq/A,=l (Pt = 1) or of 1.3 (Rcichnrdt, kivir~g P, = 0.769) is nssnmcd. It, mnst,, howcver bc poirltcd out that tthc manner 111 whicl~ tho t u r b ~ i l c ~1'rantlt.l number varies across a bountlary laycr has not Lcen rt dotcrmincrl bcyontl tlo~tl,t,,ant1 that 1,l:crc oxist, cxpcri~ncnt~al s ~ ~ l which arc in rc t~s conllict wit11 the p r c c c t l i ~ loncs, as rcl)ortntl in the ~ n m m a r i c sby J . I<cst-in antl ~ P. 1). Richardson [45, 461. The rclat,ion l)rt,wcrn heat tmnsfcr :rntl sltin frict.ion aras r~tilizctlby .I[. 1,titlwicg [Ti41 ill ordcr t o mrn-sl~rc tho shraring st.rcss at, n wr~llby mc:~qrrrit~g :~.tno~tr~t. blic of heat, tml~sfcrrcrlfrom a small rcsist.:h~~c:c clcrncnt brtilt int?o the wall ntitl Itcmtctl to a t,crnporat.urc cxcrctling t.l~at the sl.rc:lm. of 'J'hc analogy I:rt,wrcn I~cat. n,iitl tr~o~nrnt.nm t,r~nsfcr a frer. jct is tlis~nssedin in Sor. X X l V r . b. R e l n t i o ~ ~ between velocity
and

Thus by definition, tenlpcrnture clistribotiont

1. Tllr trn~tsfer 11eat f r o n ~ flnt plntr. It, was sllowr~in Chap. X I I LII:I~, t,hc of n veloc:iLy ant1 t.cmpcmt.urc profiles arc itlent,ical in the c;asc? of lanlirinr flow pnst n flat plate a t zero intlicence on condition t11:tt frictional heat is ~lcglcctcdwlti t h a t tlac Prancltl nurnbcr is cq~ial nnit,y. Tho s:btnc can be nssertctl in rcl:tt,ion to turbulent to flow, on contlit.ion tltat P, =. 1 as well as P = 1. This implies physically that it is t Rcferrncw In papers on turbulent boundary Inyrro wit11 uuctdon and injection in ronrprrssi0le Row l~avc heen indicntcd in Scc. XXInB.

The total rate of heat tratisferrcd assumes the fofm

The turh~llcntPrandt-l number can be dctcrmincd with the sit1 of simultaneous determinations of velocity and trmporat~nrc profiles; nnfort~~nately, level of tohe

708

XXIII. T~rrb~~lont bo~lndnryIaycrn in c o ~ n p m i b flow l~ lent, cxtcrnal boundary layer, in which the molecular coefficients /L orit1 k con be neglected. Under these assnmptions, cqns. (19.1) and (2:1.14), wriLtcn for 1,111: ltr~ninar ~ub-layerwill Icad t o the form k dT (1 .. - -- - - -11 du ' T
whereas in tho turbulcrit layer thcy will lend to d 7' f -l - - - CP .

w u m e d that the same mechanism causea the exchange of momentum a s well a8 of heat. Since the velocit.y and temperature profilm are identical, we can then writo, that k q (2) = - T w - T m TI, (2) /a urn The ~ m c c t l i ~ equation can be easily re-arrangcd to the form ig
N = t R, ' , , c

(Reynolds, P = P, = I)

(23.16)

described earlier as the Reynolds analogy. It is seen t h a t tlle relation of direct proportionality between the Nussolt number and the coefficient of skin friction which was derived in Chapter XTI for the case of laminar flow paat a flat plate a t zero iricitlcncc, (el. cquation (12.56 b) remains valid iri tho turbulcnt wso. Equatior~ (28.l(i) retains its validity in tJie prescrlce of compressibility, jrrst a s was the case with laminar flow, on condition that tlie Nussclt number is now formed with the temperature difference Tw - T,. t As already mentioned bcfore, the principal difficulty in studying turbulent 1)oundary layew and turbulent heat transfer problems stems from the fact that the eddy or exchange coefficients A. and A, are not properties of the fluid, unlike the viscosity [L or the thermal conductivity k, but t h a t they depend on the distance from the wall inside the boundary layer. A t a sufficiently large distance from the wall they assume values wliicli are many times larger than the molecular coefficients y and k, so mlich so, in fact, that in most cases the Iattcr can be neglected with respect to the former. By contrast, in the immediate ncigtibourhood of tlie wall, i. e. in the laminar sub-layer, the eddy cocfficients vanish because in i t turbulent fluctuations and hence turbulent mixing arc no longer possible. Nevertheless, the rate of heat transfer between the stream and the wall depends precisely on the phenomena in the laminar sub-layer and so on the molecular coefficients p and k. It is fortunate that eqn. (20.16) remains valid tt1lronghol~t, regardless of the existence of a laminar sub-layer, because whcn P = 1, as shown in Section X I I g , the velocity and tempcri~turedistribution in the laminar sub-layer remain identical. The assumption t h a t P, = 1 in tor1)ulent boundary layers leads, as a rule, t o useful results; by contrast, the Prandtl number in the laminar sub-layer can differ appreciably from unity, as is the case, for example, with liquids ('rablc 12.1). When this is the case, cqn. (23.16) loses its validity. Extensions of the Reynolds analogy to cases whcn P # 1 have been formulated by many authors, among them L. Prandtl 1701, G. I. Taylor [96] and 'l'li. von 1CArnitin [44j, and R. G. Dcisslcr [20, 21, 22, 231. I,. Prandtl nssumctl that P, = l and diviclctl the boundary layer into two zoncs: tlir laminar sub-layer in whirh the eddy coefficients vanish, and tlie turbu-

a*,,

IlcIncnlbcring t,hat a t the wall r = 0 , a s s l ~ m i nt,hat the tcml)cmt,urc :L& the wall ~ is r,or~sLnnt allti cq~~:rl I t , , nnd clcnoting the volocity nnd t,cn~[~crnt,~~rc, 1.0 rcspoc~ivaly, a t tiIc 0111cr cdgc of t.hc Ir~rniriar stlit-lrtycr I)y u, nncl 7 , rrntl in tho free! sl.rt!a~n 1jy ', [I,, 'I1,, 1'raI1dtl i ~ ~ t r ~ d ~thcc assnmption t,hat tho rrltio q/t remains consl8:tntj ~ ctl across the width of t,he I)ound:try 1:lycrt. lntcgration over bhc Inminor sublaver will t.hen load to

Sirnilarlv, integration over the turl)ulc~it zonc will lcntl to

I4:q11ating the two right-hantl sitlcs we obtain

Ilcncc. the local cocfficicnt of heat txnnsfcr bcconics

On introducirig eqn. (23.17) we have

a
1
C
T

-?
(P - 1)
(J,

L i u

Freq~ler~tly, itrsCmd of tl~e Nrrrrselt nornbcr nee is mfde of the so-called Stanton number

: wC express Lllis rcslllt in terms of tho Nassclt n~lml)crL I I ~or(: led in 1.llis tv:~y t,o tllc extension of tlie Reynolds analogy wliicli was rlorivcd indcpcnclcrltly by 1. l'randtl and G. I. Taylor: , ic,'R P (2:L 18) N z(Prandtl-Taylor, P, --- 1 ) . I 4 (u1/rrm)(p - 1 )

If this i~ prcfrrmd, tl~o Itcynolds analogy fron~ eqn. (23.16) becornea '

s = ;c,'.
Tho rrn~ninir~g nqlrntionn can bo owily I.rnnnforrnd to rcplnco N by S.

'?,

710

X X I I I . T~~rhnlrnt. I~onntlnry lnycrn in rornprrmihlo flow

In orctcr to apply the preccding equation t o particular cases i t is still necessary edge of the laminar suh-laycr to that in the free stream t. I n the particular casc when P = 1, thc I'randtl-Taylor equation (23.18) rc<luces to Reynoltls's cquntion (23.16). 111 clcriving thc Prarrtlt~l-'raylorequation (23.18) i t was supposed that tlic bor~ntlary laycr coulcl bc sliarply divitlcd into a t u r b ~ ~ l c rlaycr and a laminar sob-layer. rt I n actual fact orrc merges iritp the other in a corrtiri~~ous antl i t is possible t o way or ~ discern the cxistcnce of an intcrmcdiat,~, I~uCferlayer in w l ~ i c lthc mngnit~~rlcs of ttic molccl~lnrand t.~~rl)ulcnt cxchangc arc comparable. 'S?Ii. vo11 I<~irmii~i [44] subdiviclctl the bountlary layer into three zones and derived a similar formula for the relation hctwccn the coefficicr~tsof hcat transfer and skin friction. This is of the form N =
$R PC'
-5-1

to malzc a s ~ ~ i t a b a e s ~ ~ m p t ~ iabout the ratio of thc mcan velocity a t tho orrter ls on

arrtl temperature of the external stream, rcspcct.ively, must hc rcplaccd by t.11~ mean vclocity and tlic mcan tcmpcraturc of the fluid in the pipc. I n all prccctling deri~at~ions have assr~rnctl we t.lint the b ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l c n t numhc:r I'rantlt'l P, = 1. I n other words, i t has been a s s ~ ~ m ttx la t the eddy coeffcicnts for rnorirctit,u~n h antl tlicrmal energy transfer arc equal. I t is, howcver, kriown from mcasr~ronc~rts tlii~t valuc of this ratio diffcrs from unity. Thc case when P, =f 1 in lieat t,m~isfcr thc was cxtensivcly irivcstigatcd by 11. Itciclrartlt 1731. Accortling t o this work, tho Nossclt number is reprcsentcd by the relation Nz P, t-

y'h

=--- =---.. ---- - - c; {(P - PJ n -t A )

;G,'R

(Rcichardt) .

(23.20)

"

(von ICrirmAn, P, = I) .

(23.10)

1+~y'~~,'((~-1)-~ln[1t-;!(~-1)1)

Von Kirrmiln's cqllat,ion (23.19) also reduces to Reynolds's cquation (23.16) in t-hc special case when P = 1. The relation bctwcen the local Nussclt nr~mbcrN, anrl the Reynolds 1111mbcr R, is sccn plotted in Fig. 23.3 for the casc of a flat plate and crlrvcs for thrcc valucs of tlic Prandtl numbcr, namely P = 10, 1 and 0.01. T l ~ c (b) ant1 (c) rcpreselit, respect~ively, thc plots from cqr~ations(23.19) and (19.42) for P, = 1. Thc analogy r ~ l a t ~ i o n s hctwcen the rate of I ~ c a ttransfrr antl skin frict,ion in turbulcnt flow arc of groat practical irnportrr-ncc bccar~sctlreir applic.zt.io11is not rcstrictctl to llows past flat plates. 'S'hcy can l ~ c uscd for arhitrary turbulcnt flows ancl thus enjoy much more general applica1)ility. 'rlie latter statement. has been confirmed by nr~mcror~s mcasnremcnts. The e q ~ ~ a t i o n s under consideration Iiavc t~irnctlout to be valitl when applied to tlic calculat~ionof lieat trnnsfcr from slcnrlcr botlics in pnrallcl st,rcams, that is in cases when the prcssrlrc grntlicnb oukidc thc bodies arc not untlrlly largo. I t was also possihlc to show tliat tlic analogy carrics over t o compressible flows w11c11 it remains independent of thc Mach numbcr. All of the forms of the Reynolds analogy quoted earlier remain approximately valid when they arc applied to internal flows in circular pipcs. It is then ncccssary to rcplacc the c~rrrcnt lcngt.11, x, in the expression for the Nussclt and Reynolds n~lmbcrs the tlia~nctcr of t.hc pipc, ant1 tlic vclocity by D

\"it11 Fig. 20.3. VnrinLion of Nt~nncltnnn~l~rr Rrynolds nntnhcr at di(rcrc~~t Prancltl n ~ ~ n ~ l incLhc ~ rn cwe of tc~rb~~lcnt t,rnnufer on a flal plnh 11ent (Ilcyttoltln nnnlogy)
(a) I l r y ~ ~ o l d s . rqn. (23.10) (b) L. I'ranclll nnd (2. 1. Taylnr, rqn. ( 2 R . I X ) (e) T ) von K b r ~ n l n ,eqn. (23.lV) I.

I t hnr been assllmecl LllaL Pt

c,'
= 0

1,

0592. -R

0-2, cqn. (21.12).

'rhe quant,ity n, wliicl~ri~nkcs nllownncc for tlic trnnsfcr of Iiont. 1~11ro11gl1 N I I ~ I an 1.110 layer, depends on thc ratio of t,hc two Prnnclt,l numbers, PIP,, slit1 is givclr 11y
m

In the casc of turbnlent flow in e pip, t11c ratio of thc*vrlocity a1 the onter edgc of the la~ninar aub-layer to the velority U on the axis ia given by -- ul/U = 5 i r / p U 2 = 5 I/= ~8 mliown in Cl~np. XX, eqn. (20.151~). itlr tliia approximation Prandtl'n eqnntion becomca M'

Referring c,' lo tho mean pipc vrlocity 6 , we wo~lldliavo

1%. Itcichardt cvaluatecl this integral assuming a smooth variat,ion of A,, tlint is of the vclocit,y, from thc wall u p to the region of fully tlevclopctl turbulcnt flow. The numerical results arc scen reproduced in Tablc 23.1. 'rhc quantity A wliicli also appears in eqn. (23.20) is a function of the turbulcnt Prandt.1 number, P,, and is e l i g l ~ taffected by changcs in l~ ; howcvcr, cqn. (23.20) is iiot,gcncrnlly spmking, very sensitive to it. Accortlirrg to calculations pcrforrnccl by d. C. 1t0t~t.a[RI], it is possiblc to approximate it. by A w 4 (I - P,) .

712

XXI 11. 'I'~~rl)~~le:r~t lnycrs in comprwsiblc flow boltntlnry

b. Rclat,ion bctween velocity and tornpcrnt~tre distril>c~Lion

7 13

Tnhlc 23. I . l'llr conntnntn n nrld 11 for bhc cnlrl~lntion tile coclficior~t llent transfer from cqn. or nf (23.20) nnd of the rcrovrry f:u.tor l'ron~ rrlrl. (2:1.27),nfler H. Ibichnrdt [73] nrtd J. C. Rottn [El].

Pig. 2:1.4. Tho roltghnc~n funct,ion ( p 4- 8.5) P-0.44 ns n f~~nr.t,ion lJ+ k./v for sand F O I I ~ I I I I C R R of nt vsrioun Prnnclll r~u~~~bcrci, lllo l r ~ c n ~ r ~ rby ~I). IT e1I)iltltrc.y 111rt1 It. II. S1\11t!wI<y fron~ o ~~ ~~l~ 12.51 'rlic t.cn~pcmturc tlistribufion in tirrbulerit boundary layers on flat platcs in the prescncc of an arbitrarily vn.rying, t ~ i r b ~ l l c n t T'mndtl :lumber, P,, was studied by R. R. von Ilricst 1283 :rncl ,I. Itotta 1811. 111 t h c I;~t,t.crrcfcrcncc it is showti t,ltat C. only the vsltrcs whic:li Ll~ctirrhrtlcnt I'r:~t~dtl n~tmbcr,P,, assumes clowc t o t*I~e wall detcrrnine t.11~ rate of hcat transfer ant1 the tempcrat~irc distribution; conscqucntly, tlic details of the variation of P, away from the wall are less important. The variation of P, witlt tlist,:incc: from tfl~o w:~llis I~rol~gltL I)c:~r t.o only t,ltrough tho int.crrnctliary or t.11~ c111:~nt~il~y A wlior~in t.lic rcrnnintlcr the v a l ~ ~ c P, a t the wall is s~ibstit~ited. of A suitable value for this scems to be Pt = 0.9. J.R. Taylor [98] performed such calculations for boundary layers with variable pressure and temperature along the wall.
2. Tlrc transfer of heat from rougtr m~rfaces. t t tins bccn clcmor~stratctlin Secs. X X f and X X I c that rough surfaces develop considerably larger values of skin friction irt tur1)ulcnt flow than do smootlt ones. The same is true of the coefficient of Iieat tmnsfcr. Normally, however, tlie percentage increase in the rate of hcat t~ransfcris srnallcr t,l~ari that in skin friction. This is underst,andable, because a part of the turhulcnt shcaring stresscs can be transmitted t o the wall through pressure forcw c x e r t ~ t lon protuberances; but there exists no analogue for this mcchanism in Iicat, transfer. Expcrimenkzl invcstig,ztions on the transfer of heat t o a rough ttrbc wcrc carried out, among others, by W. Nunncr [66] and V. F. Dipprey and R. I . Sabcrsky 1261. 'I'llc latter autliors made mcas~~rementat different values T a of trhc I'rancltl ttntnbor. l'ltcoretical conaidcmtions cltrc to 1). F. Ilipprcy and R. TI. S a l ) c ~ s ) [26] :13 wwrll 113 to P. It. Owcri anti W. It. Tliomsor~[67] arc based on the c~ hypothesis that the elfcct of roughness on the mcchanism of exchange is confined to the regions locat,ed in t l ~ c proximity of thc wall. Starting with this hypothesis, i t is possible to clcrivc an equation w l ~ i c lhas the same structure as cqn. (23.20), ~ ancl differs onlg in that t11c term ( P - P,) must be replaced by a quantity, P, which is a function of the Prandtl numl~er,P, and of the roughness. 111the particular case when P, = I, we ot)t,ain

Dipprcy and Sabcrsky quote that

This eorrelat,ion is l)wcd on their own cxpcrimct~t,:rlrcvnlts with s:rntl rottghricss aritl is vnlitl ill ttlic ooml)laCcly rotlgl~rogin~owlicn TI, k,/v > 70. '1'110 g r n i ~ l ~ ffho ol' function p t,ogetlicr with tlic expcrimcnt:tl rcst~lt,s ovcr Lhc wholc rarlgc of rol~gh~lcss Reynolds riumbcr v, ks/v is shown in Pig. 23.4. Owcn ant1 'rhomson corrclntcd experimental results from various sources, including thosc from refs. [25] and [66], ancl coriclrrdcd that (23.24) Proccdurcs for thc calculatio~~ heat-transfer ratcs in turbulent flows with rtoriof isothermal surfaces have bee11worked out by D. U. S p l d i n g [88], and J . Kcstin ant1 coworkers [36, 46, 461. Extensive mcasuremcnts under such conditions arcre performed by W. C. Itcynolcls, Mr. M. ICays, and S. J. Klinc [77].
3. Temperature distribration in comprceaiblc flow. In ortlur L ut~tlc~rat~ancl o the laws which govern the temperature distribution in compressible flows, t,hc rcader may wish first to refer to tho rolovar~tconsirlorntions for lnminnr I)o~l~~clary lnyors wliicll werc advanced in See. X l I t b . Wlicn tire pressure rcm~~itts (:oIIHI.:LI~I~ ~ I I I P = P, = 1, the tcmpcraturc distribution satisfies cqns. (13.12), and cqn. (13.13) in tho general case with hcat transfer, both owing to tlie evolution of frictior~all~cat,. Whcrl P P, $r 1, i t is to evaluate thc recovery t ~ m p c r a t ~ ~on c (atliai r an batic) wall by the use of eqn. (13.19), i . c. by

N,= . I -4

--- --

4 c,'

- -.k / v ; P)

Rz P

C c f i / (v. I

(I)ipprcv, Sabersky, Owen, 'I?~omsorr; P, = I )

(23.22) The recovory factor, r , is somewhat larger in turbulcrlt flow tharl it was in inmir~ar

714

X X I I I . ' ~ ~ ~ r h ~ ~I)oc~nel:~.ry l c . r ~ t . I:rycrs in con~prcrrsiblc flow

c. Infl~~cncc Mach n~tttll,cr; of laws of fric:bion

715

flow, r x p c r i r n r ~ ~showing tltnt on the avcragc its value placcs itaclf between 0.875 ts antl 0 88 (sec. lj'i'ig 17 31). 'I'hc diagram in l'ig. 23.5 rcproduccs 1 M. Mack's [56] , . comparison of valucs of the rrcovcry fartor, r, measurcd on concs a t cliffcrcnt Mach numhrrs antl a t cliffcrcnt Itrynoltls numbrrs I n order to rstimate the cffcct of Pr:~rltlt,l nllrul)rr, many :~~ltllors~ t o t cthc formltln q

Numerical values have bcen incluticd in Table 23.1. The factor 13 dcpcrrds on P, ant1 somewhat on dc,'/2 . According t o Rotta, we may take When the turbrllrnt I'mndtl number varies over the tllickrrrss of thc bo~trltlary layer, i t is necessary to insert into eqn. (23.24) the value assumed by it a t the wall. Whcn the Pmndtl n~lml)er,P, as well as the turbulent Prantltl number, P,, differ from nnity, i t is wort11 noting that, riormally, eqn. (13.21) givcn in Chap. XTII for laminar bountlary layers constitrltcs a usable npproxilnation for the tfcmpcrntf~lrr di~t~ribcltion a comprcssiblc turbulent boundary layer. 13. S c l ~ u l C z - J n t ~ c l ~ in 1!15] dcvelopcd n procedure for the calculation of temperature distribut-ions in turbuicnt comprcssible boundary layers.
c.

wIlic:ll yiolels r .-I 0.896 at. P :: 0.72. I t is r~lso possi1)lc t.o obtain this cst,inratc thcorctioally, in a tnallncr analogous to t ~ l ~ 11soc1I,r tltc crtlcltlntion of tltc cocfficiont of at 11eaL t,rttnsfcr. I'or this I)urposc? i t is ncc:cssary to start with the crlcrgy cqllntion (23.1 1(:) anil 10 irlclr~tleLllc cffoots of Cllc molccrllar and of tho trrrbulc~rttransfer mecllanisms irl arcortlancr! whicll the hypot.hcsis contraincd in eqn. (23.14). Proceeding in this way, . J . C. Rotta [81] obtaincd tllc equation:

Infl~~ence Mnch nun~ber;lnws of friction of

Tltc qrrnnt,ity h is a fclnction of the raLio PIP, ancl accounts for, like the quantity a in cqn. (2:!.20), t.ho procwscs taking place in the laminat' slrblaycr. It is given by the int.rgt.al
Df)

T o date, the calculation of turbulent boundary laycrs in inconl pressiblc flow has not developed t o a point where i t could be classccl a s bcing morc than a semiempirical theory. I t is, therefore, not surprising that the same remark applies to the cnlcctlation of comprcssil)lc t11r1)ulont bounclnry layers. I n tllo rnsc of it~comprcssil)lr turbulent bouncl~ryl a y c ~a ~ ~ . starting point is proviclctl by tllc hypothcscs wllicll we-re tliscusscd in the prccc.tlirrg cllnptcrs, riarnrly by l'rnntltl's mixing-lcrlgt.11Ilyl)otl~c*~is, by von Kilrmjn's similarity rule or by Prandtl's universal velocity-distribution law. The authors of numerous contemporary papers have cndcavourcd to create a semiempirical theory of comprcssiblc turbcrlcnt boundary layors by transposing thcsc hypotheses and by adapting them to thc compressible case. Ttlis ncccssitatcd thc introduction of additional ad hoc hypotheses. I n the absence of detailed investigations into the mechanics of compressible turbulent flows, thc trarlsposition of thc scmiempirical theories of turbulent flows from the incompressible to tho comprcssible case involves a good deal of arbitrarincss. Prom the practical point of vicw, thc climcr~lticsincrcnsc bccnrrsc, on tllc one hand, there arc two additional pamrnetcrs- thc Mac11 numbcr, A&,, of tltc: froc stream and the temperature, T,, of tllc solid surface- which inflr~errccthe flow, and, on trhe other hand, tire availablc experimental results are not cntircly frcc of contmdictions. Tllrcc mcthotls should bc singlcd out from among t l ~ c nltmcrous propos:~ls for handling the prol)lcm, bccause tlley havc bcen employcd ~)arlic:~rlarly freq~rently: (1) Introduction of a reference temperature for the density and viscosity of the gas. (2) Application of PranclLl's mixing lengtlr hypothesis or of vorc ICiirmbn's similarity hypothesis. (3) Transformation of t l ~ c coordinates. Over and above, the literature of t-llc slibjcct contains expositions of mc~t.llotls which cannot be classified under any onc of the thrcc procctling hcdding~.111 an impressive comparison, D . R . Cllnpmnn and R.11. ICcstcr [I I ] brought to tlrc forc the large diffcrcnces which result when cliffercnt methods arc usctl t o calcr~lat~c skin friction (cf. [30]). An extensive comparison betwcen twcnty cliffcrcnt comput8ationaI schemos and cxisting, experimental rcsults was carricrt out by D. R. Spnlding ant1 S. W. Chi [89].

I ~X~ Pig. 23.5. ltecovery fnctors in tcrms of Jt~ynoldu I I I I ~ Irrol111nciwllrcn1enIa011 n~tnll)orn - I-i Mm 0.0 nftcr I,. M. Mnck [BF] M,, to
1

COIICB t ~ t

Mibell

\Vind l u n n c l 10" I~ollcrw:rlerl 10" ltc>Ilf~w; slrel 10" hollow: alerl 10" l ~ o l l o w ;slsel 10' Ilnllow; slrcl 10" l ~ o l l o w ; at~.rl 10' lloilllw; s1ccl 10' I l n l l ~ ~ w ; slcel

I /
M ,
G In. 3 lt No. 1 20 i n . 20 in. 20 in. 1%in. 12 in.

T y p of pone

k~,ercirca (:AI.CIT 5 x I x Aatm I8 x JI'L 18 x I ' I?( x JI 12 x JI 12 x I ,

2.18 10' woo11 6.0 20" ccrnrnlc 2.0 PO' l ~ o l l u w ; slrcl 4.60 5" nl~rcglnss I.o:l 13' l ~ ~ c i t , e 4-50 13" ltrcitc I.G:l 13" l f ~ c i l c 2.54 10" lllcitr

716

XXIII. 'I'urbr~lcntbor~ntlnry lnycra in con~prcmiblo flow

1. The flat plate at zero incidence. The guitling idea of the methods of class (1) is tho hypothesis that the laws of incompressible flow remain valid in tohecompressible case on contfition thnt tlie values of density, Q, and viscosity, p, are t,aken a t a suitably clioscn reference temperature, T*. TI). von Khrmicn [43] was the first one to utilize this possibility and selected the tomperaturc a t the wall as his reference tempcrat,~tre. Starting with the law of friction for a flat plate a t zero inridence in incomprcssiblc flow embotlicd in eqn. (21.17), von lCdrmAn obtained the following equation for t.he skin-friction coefficient in the compressible mse:
0.242
-

fi

,__5" _ y I2

M&

where M = tJ,/c, , denotes the Mach number of the free stream. The preceding eql~ation valid only for an adiabatic wall; in it, the viscosity function was assumed is in the form p/p, = l/T/To.Various attempts have been made to improve the method of the reference temperature by choosing a value T * which lies between the highest within the boundary layer. end the lowest values of temperature, T, e n c o ~ ~ n t c r e d E. It. G. Rrkcrt [29, 301 proposed to place the reference temperature a t T * = T o -t. 0.5

(TI, - T i ) -10.22 (T, - T I ) ,

(23.30)

whore T I denotes the ten~pcmt~urc t,hc cclgc of the boundary layer, T, is tho sorat face t e ~ n p c r a t ~ i ~ t rt.hc wall ant1 '' represents the recovery (i. e. adiabatic wall) ar f , tcmpcmLrrre. lilcltcrt's f~ormnl:& inc:l~~tlcs I;:WC wit11 heat transfer. The int~rodnction I.hc of a mfcrcncc Lc~npcmtltrc const,iltr~tcs si~nplcst the way of accounting for the infl~~cncc of Mach number ant1 heat Lransfcr on skin friction ant1 leatls to results which arc often adequate in criginecring applirntions. For this reason, M. 11. Bertram 121 carried out a I a g o programme of calculat.ions of skin-friction coefficients covering a wide range of Mach n r ~ m bcrs and trmpornt,llrc r;~t,ios. The itloa of applying Prat~clt,l's mixing-length hypothesis wa.9 taken u p by E. It. van Driest [27]. I l c ~Lipnlatcdthat 1 == x y, as given in oqn. (10.22). The cffect of conipressi1)ilit~yis brought to bc:w by allowing the density to vary thus causing the boundary-layer tlrickrlrss t,o change too. I l c obtainecl explicit formlilae for turbulent ski11 frict,ion on ;I ll:~l,plale, with ant1 wiLt~out,heat tr:~nsfcr,which accorttit for the infli~enccof the 1L.ynoltls ant1 Mach numI)crs sim~lll,ancoosly.For the case of an adia\)atic wall tlic formula for the coefficient of total skin friction has the form:

Fig. 23.0. Cocfficicntof loLd akin friction for nli ndinbntie flirt plnlo nt 7.oro inc:iclc.nro for Intnit1:br anel turb~~lorit bonnclnry leycr. 'J'hcoroticnl curvca for trlrl111lc:ntflow rrotn cqn. (2:).:11). : ~ f t n . ~ . E. R. van Driest [27];y = 1.4, cu = 0.76, P = 1

-Tltcory
[I021

whcrc 1 -12 =
1 1
L -

+ Yz!
2 ?

M&

d t l s to Wllson a n adlnbxlic wnll nnd zero pressllre grnrliast: Lllc rntio T,JT, vxrirn helwaetl 1.8 Tor M -- 2 and 21-0 for M I0 Tltvory dtic lo vnlt Drirat (271, wit.11 ltcat trnnslcr, ncro prosstarc grnclient Menserctnml.s: (1) xcliahntic wnll, zero prcasllrc grndinnt (2) wif.11 Itant tmsnfer, zero prrssurr grnclirnt (3) wit11 ilcnt lran.sfrr, T,,IT, = 8 0, favottralrl~ prcssurc gradient

m v Lobb, Mnk/ecPershfp.neIlow)
0

k,r

Hill /JXU//?'dym7)

06

012 theory, m/son, w~fhouf t r m b _heat

I

+
6

I--

and M, = U,/c, denotes thc free-stream Mach nl~mber. The symbol u) denotes the exponent in the viscosity law / ~ / p ,= (ll/T,)" from eqn. (13.4). This equation differs from (23.29) by the factor (sin-' 1)/1 the left-hand side and by the appearance on of t,lle exponent cr, of t,hc viscosit,y law. For M -+ 0 eqn. (23.31) transforms into ,

M ,

Fig. 23.7. Skin friction coeficient of a Rat plab at zero incidence

WI n function of Lhc Mncti numbcr for a turbulent boundary layer; compariaoti betweon theory and measurement; R w lo7, , from 1381

718

XXIII. T~lrl)~~lcnt boundnry layem in comprcssiblo flow

von 1Z:irrn;in's i~icomprtssiblc resistance formula, eqrl. (21.17). Fig. 23.6 gives a plot of eqn. (23.31) ant1 a comparison with experimental results. The measure of agreement bctwcc~~ thcory ant1 experiment is not satisfactory in all cases, but ill this comexion it, must bc poiut~ed out t h a t mcasurcmcnts a t high Mach numbers are somewhat uncertain. 1t.E. Wilson 11021 cnrricd o u t similar calculationq, but based them on von JZ6rm6n's sirnilnrity liypot2hcsis,cqn. (19.39). Limiting himself t o the case of an :ulial~at,ic:w:bll, IIC tlcrivccl a resr~lt~ which is quite similar t,o cqn. (23.31). I'tirtllcr c x ~ ~ c r i m o t ~m sl~ r l karc contnirlctl in Pig. 23.7 which shows a plot of the ratio of ta tltc sltin-friction c:ocflicient,s in compressible and incompressible flow in tcrrns of t.11~ M:tcli ~ i ~ l m l ) c r , c:ovcrirlg a rangc whicli ir~clutlcs very high Mac:h numl,crs. 'I'lic grapli cont.ains two t,heoreticnl curves; the first one due t o R. E. Wilson [102] presupposes nri adiabatic wall, and the second one, +rived by E. R. van Driest [27], includes tl~c cffcet of Iicat transfer. The mcasurcmenta were performed 11y several workers [7, 14, 38, 63, 871 and show good agreement with thcory. Atlditionnl information conccrnir~gtlic inllt~cticcof heat transfer on skin friction is contained in I'ig. 23.8 wllicll was also I~ascdor1 van 1)ricst's calct~lations 1271. The diagram shows t h a t the skin friction on a n adiabatic wall is sornewhnt smaller t h a n is the case when heat flows from the flr~itlto the wall.

The syml)ols usccl here arc identical wit11 those dcfincd for eqns. (13.24) to (13.41). Wit.11 the mntlie~nat~icnl possil)ilit,y of t.rarisforrriing trhc crlrlations for coni~~rcssil~lc flow ir11.o a form it1cntic:~l with t h a t for iricornprcssil~ln flow, riialiy nl~t,liors(r. g. B. A. Magcr [57j, D. Coles [15], L. Crocco [16], I). A. Spencc [$I, 921) t:ouploti n pliysical Iiypotlicsis, accortlirig t o which the vclocitry prolilcs in t i ~ c t,r~~rislormc:tl pl:c~ic rcttlin t.11~ sarnc form as tlir~l,valitl for iriconiprcssil~lcIlow. Consccl~~cnt.ly,1 1 ~law 1. of friot.ion a s wcll as othor relations rcrn:~in vrtlitl w l ~ c n t11e l.rntisforn~otlI ) : L ~ : I I I I ( . ~ ~ ( ' ~ s arc s l ~ b s t i t ~ ~ tinto t.hcrn. 'rl~isconcl~tsion, ,c(l wl~ic:li certainly valid For 1amirl:w flows, is tlocs riot ncccss:~rily carry over t o I.rrrl~tlli:nl. Ilows bct::~~lso l.rnt~sli)rlti:~t.io~~ t,l~c coortlinatcs cannot I)c a1)plictl to t h e eqnat,ions which tloscribc the Ilrrct~tnLing ~iiotion. This lcatls t o contratlict,iorls with rcspcot t,o all thcorics whiclr arc 1)ascd or~I3o1rssillesq's assumption cmbotlicd in cqn. (19.1). Thcsc irtclr~tle tl~corics whicl~utfilizc Pr:~litll.l'.s mixing-length hypothesis or von I<irm:i.n's si~nilarit~y hypotlicsis. If wc accept t , l i ~ physically plausible assumption t h a t the eddy kinematic visco~it~y dcfinrtl it1 ctlrl. E, (19.2) is irltlcl)cntlcnt of clcnsity, we arc f:~ccdwith blic f a c l t,lial, a t~.nrlsli~r~li:tl,io~i If() t,hc incon~prcssil~lc: form ceasrs to 110 possil~lc.Ilowcvdr, :L t.mtisforrn:ktion to

<

can still be cnrric:tl oril.. In t l i i ~ case (,lit: ricw rtltly Itinc*tnr~l.ic: vis(:o~iI.~. is I I - I I I I ~ . ~ I I.,, to the original quantity, 8 , tfIirough the equation Pig. 23.8. S l t i ~ ~ frirl.iot~ coc~ffic.ient a for llr~tpl:rls a t zcro il~citlcr~cc turbulcl~t in flow i~lilhlicat transfer as a f~tnctionof Itcyt~oltisnulnhcr for different valrrcs of t.lic tetnporakrrc ratio !7',/T,, after 1':. It. van Driest [27]

Now, i t is known t h a t the dcnsity mt.io e/pl varies corisitlcrably with the tlistance,

y, from t h e wall when the Mach number is large. Conscqucntly, one of two concl~~siorls forccs itself upon us. If wc, assume t h a t the velocity profilcs remain tlncharigctl oom1)arcd with tlie incomprcssiblc case, we find ttltnt, the clisl,rii)~~l,ion F has cli:~ngctl. of If, I~owcvcr,wc admit, t h a t c remains ~~nalt.crccl, cntl rip wit.11 riloclifictl velocity we profiles. Tlle stat,cmcnts concerning tlic cffcet of Mach numl~or t,hc vcloc:itsy proon Iiles iri tlic original coordiriates which can be m:ulc on tlic I~asis the two prcct:tlitig of scl~cmes turn out to be exactly opposite. This observation tl~rowsa gootl tlcnl of light on tlie whole complex of problcins whicli arisc wl~cntho laws ol~l~nint?tl i.hc in incompressible case are tmnslatcd to apply t o t.lie comprcssiblc case.

Coordinate trnnsTormntion: 'l'hc coordinatc trxnsformn.t.ion dcscrihcd in See. X I I I t l and valitl for 1amin:lr flow can also be cnrricd tlirougli formally whcn applictl to the cliffcrr~ll~ial cclt~af.ionsfor comprcssil~lc t,rlrl~ulcntbo~lntlaryIn.ycrs. The lteynoltls stress t, is trnnsformcd t,o ', (23.33) and with this s~rbstit.nt~ion, m o m c n t ~ ~equation (23.8h) acquires the form: the m

Further dctailer The effect of Mach number on the velocity profile is hror~ght o t bear through the increase in temperature in the direction of the wall. Since it is possible t o s111)pose t h a t the pressure, p, is indepcncicnt of y, it is fonntl t h a t 1.11~ density distribution in t h e boundary layer is described by

ati

a~

-1.

"j.-'C.

ag

= s1 ---' (1 -1-

ac a

S) 4-

v, --I-

a8a %

1 +eo

ag .

(23.34)

As the Mach nllmber increases ont.sitlc a n atlial~n.t,it: wall, i t is seen t h a t the d ~ n s i t ~ y nl~ist dccrease very st,rongly a t small values of y orit1 Chis must c:ause the l~o~lntla.ryIaycr t,l~icknesso incrcasc considerably. On tlic otlicr hantl, a n increase in thc Mach t ~lnrnl)er effects a n increase in viscosity and a decreasc in the sltin-friction coefficient. , ,his, in hum, causes I,hc lalni~larsub-layer l o incrcnsc strongly. An cxa~nl)lc the I of

720

XXIII. Turbulent bountlary layers in con~prcasible flow

c. lnfl~lence Mach number; lawe of frictiotl of

72 1

Fig. 23.0. Menn~~rcrncnts on vclociLy tlist,ril~~~l.io~l in turi~rllcnt bol~n(lary layer on flnL plate a t zero incidcncontsupcrsot~ic velocity, aft.er It. M. O'1)onnell [20]
M , = 2.4; d, - n l o m c n l ~ l n ~ lluiek~~rss rrorn crllt. (13.76);

t.hc momerit,nm thickness from eqn. (13.75) bccomes smaller comparccl with the boundary-layer thickness, 8 , a s the Mach nt~ml,cris incrcascrl, bccausc thc clcnsity tlccreascs in t l ~ c dircct,ion of tho wall. The tliagrarn in Fig. 23.1 1 contains a logarithmic plot of the vclocitty ratio ' I / , / I J , against 71 y v * / v W of thc type er~cour~tcrcrl Fig. 20.4, in wliiclr thc valucs of in clcnsity, Q, ant1 kinematic viscosity, v , havc bccn taken a t thc wall tcmpcratnre. I t is noted t h a t the characteristic shapc familiar from it~corn~~rcssiblc persists at! flow lligl~crRlncl~ numbers, but qnar~titativctlepart,urcs makc thcir appoamncc. 'I'ltis follows from I,llc ex~)crimcntal rcsl~ltnplot,l.ctl in l.hc figtlro ant1 due tlo It. I<. I.ol~l), 15. M. \I'inltlcr, ant1 .J. Pcrsli [li3]. 111 tho ~ ~ r c s c n c c llcat t,rnt~sfcr, of tltc:rc rlpl1c:lrs t,o cxist a largc ir~flucncc the sub-layer, wl~orcas cnrvcs in 1 . 1 1 ~frilly dcvcloprd on the

TW
-- -

"'a

Inentn~rrer.iil~lr!~ c o r y : tl
r ; 0-il,i ; '1 t ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ L l ~ ~ n~ y : ~ l l ~ l c ~ ~ r r s

" ,

A L J L 1 - J
4

I
1 2

I
L

I
fl

,,g

- n .

c.:!

( Y7 ( ,)'Ii

Fig. 23.1 1. Universal velocity distribution Inw i n a tt~rhnlentbotmtlnry lnyer on the wall of n altannel at supersonic flow with hcat transfer, as lneasured 11y R. JC. Iubb, E.M. Winkler, nrltl J . Pcrsh [53]

I. - 1/ r./o,"
t:llrves ( I )

rt

n./l.,,,

vclociljy 1)rofiloin n aom~~rcssiblcn r l ~ ~ r l c ~ ~ t If I~oundary laycr is given in Fig. 23.9 wllicl~ cont:tins a plot of ILIU, in terms of y/02 for M = 2.4 a s mcas~irctl It. M. O'llon, I)y nnll [26]. Ilcrc, d, rcpmscnls tllc momcnt~rmtl~ickncss dcfincd in eqn. (13.75). 111 t4hcatloptctl systcnl of coortlin:ltt.s, tJlc point,s for tliffcrcr~t, Rcynoltls numbcrs arrange 1.1i~msclvcs well on a single curve. 'l'llc t,I~corct,iatl curvc sllown on t,hc graph tlcviates from tthc corrrs~~ontling curvos for incompressik)lc flow m ~ i c Icss than was l~ tllc cnsc wit11 laminar flow, Fig. 13.10. As cxpcct,ed, thc 1)ountlar.y-layer t~l~ic:ltncss incrcn.scs wit.11 Rlacl~ nnmbcr ; this is I)rongl~t, into cvidcncc in Fig. 23.10 which clisplnys vclocit,y profiles u p t o M = 9.9. I t is wort11 noting in t-his conncxiolt t , l ~ a t ,

nnrl (2): Theoreticnl l n w s for I n c o n ~ l ~ r r s s i lflow ~lc t:llrrr ( I ) : T.ntninnr sub-lnyrr, u/v. = rt ('rlrvr ( 2 ) : Ilni\.rrFxI Iog~rI1l111li~ w la 5 . 5 I 5 . 7 5 Ion ? ,

,,/,..-

turbulent boundary layer on n. flat plate in'supcrsonic flow a t various Mnch numbhs, r29 memuretl'hy!I W. Matting, D. . It. Cllapman, J . R. Nyliolm, and A. C.. T1iornn.q 1581
Tw = Ta

region become nearly parnllcl. Theoretical invcst,ig,ztion into t t ~ c proper gcr~cr:tiization of tho universal velocit,y-distribution law t o includo compressibility offccts Iiavc I)con published by R. Dcis.slcr [21, 231 and J.C. Rotta [78]. Accordir~gt,o l.l~rsc~, 1.11~ velocit,y distribution in the proximity of the wall is influcncetl by two pararrrctcrs, namely by the Mach number M, and the heat-flux number, pp,each defined by the - respective equation, a s follows :

a.

and

p,=

9w

--

l'a--- Tw

(23.37)

722

X X I I I . 'r11~1111lent I~o~rndnry Iaycrs in conlprcariiblc llow

wl~ercc , clcnotcs the vclocity of sound a t the wall, S is the St,anton nnmher, and c,' t,l~e local skin-frict,iort coefficient. (hlc~rlations performed by J. C. Rotta [78] under ccrt,ain simplifying assulnptio~ls yielded results which werc qualitativcly correct; howcvcr, t,he elTcct of p, on the 1amina.r suh-layer turns out to be larger in experin1ertt.s than t h a t which can be reflected in the calculations. The measurcrnents undertaken IJ. b y 8. Mcicr L60, 01, 621 give an indication of the corresponding t,clnperat.ure distributions. The evalllnt,ion of these result* showed that the t(urb111entPrandtl ltrttnbcr increases across the sublaycr and reaches a value exceeding unity; this means that* thc factor A , for hcnt tmnsfcr to t,hc wall dccrenacs fmtcr than t,hc corrrspo~~tling eddy coefficient A, for momentum transfer. Acoording t o H.U. Meier and J.C. ItotLn [63], it i~ possihlc t o descrihe this state of affairs tl~eoretically txansposing Pmndt,l's by mixing-lengt,h hypothesis (Chap. XIX) to the transport of heat. Thus, eqn. (23.14) is transformed into

temperntmres as functions of the Mach-numbcr ratio M/Mm. llere

When the rate of heat transfer is small (q, m 0), the temperature increases from t.he wall outwards and reaches a maximum which is followed by a decrease to a mirtirnum and an ultimate increase. When the wall is rough thc influence of thc Mac11 number on slrir~friot,iot~is even greater. According to H.W. Liepmann and F.E. Goddard [37. 621, the ratio ~ , ~ , , , ~ , , , / cfor , the complotcly rol~ghregime I ~ c c o n ~ ~)roportionnl III(, ( I ~ I I R ~ ! . ~ ~, ~ rs 1.0 ratio e,/em, and hence
"lcompr =
1

el cnc

1 -I-

?zL Ma
2

where r denotes the recovery factor.

"

The mixing length 1, for heat transfer diffcrs ~cs o mngnit,ucIe from that for morncnt tum transfer, 1 in eqn. (19.7). I n analogy with I3.R. van Drinst's equat,ion (20.15b), i t is assumed t h a t in t.hc neighhourhood of the wall we may put

The dimensionless const.artta xq and A1 have tliffcrcnt, vzlues t,hnn x nncl A in eqn. (20,1511).The 1.11rhulcnt I'rancltl numhcr, cbs drfinctl in eqn. (23.12), becomes

2. Variable pressure. I n practical applications, it, is frcqt~cntlyncccss:u-y t,o perform calculations for turbulcnt boundary layers in cornprcssible flows with vt~rying pressure. The need is particularly acute in the design of co~lvcrgcnt-divergent nozzlcs for supersonic wind tunnels, because the displacement cmect of the b o ~ ~ n d n r y layer in them must be known fairly accurately. As was the case witohirtcomprcssiblc flow, the known approximate procedures are based on the integral momentl~mcqrration; in some cnscs, tho cricrgy integrnl cqnal.iorl has also baa11 ctnployetl. 'rho Lwo i t ~ l , ~ - g r ~ ~ I equations in question have been already given as eqns. (13.80) and (13.87) for adiabatic walls. As far as turbulent boundary layers are concerncd, these are writtcn:

The variation of Pt acrosu the bou~tdarylayer was computed by I1.U. Meier [64]. Figure 23.12 allows us to conclude t,hat measured total-temperature distributions are rel)rodncect quite well by calculat~ionsba,sed on J.C. Rott,a's [78] law of the wall for compressible boundary layers. The diagrnms represent the ratio T o / T m of total

-dd,+ 2 - d 2 d U ( +N dz U dz energy-integral equation (kinetic energy)

-Mz)=.Y
12

61

u' '

they are valid for P = 1, and are not restricted to adiabatic walls. liere, O3 denotes the energy thickness, eqn. (13.76), 6 , represents a n cntl~alpy thickness, eqn. (13.77), and H I , = 6,/6,.
@ 1.019 .oZz
LR7

-0.91 -o.gr

rn

L022

Fig. 23.12. Totnl tompcrnturo To in tho tnrbulent boundary layer on a flat wall and in tho prcsenco of a weak hent flux at sr~pcraonic vclocit,y, nflcr H. U. Blcier et

A number of authors, including G. W. Englcrt [31], IC. Rcsltotlto and M. Tucker [76], N.B. Cohen [12] and D.A. Spence [92], applied the Illingworth-Stewartson transformation with respcct to thc momcntunt-integral cquation (23.39) ant1 thus reduced i t to its incompressible form. A. Walz [loo] rcduced the two cqnnLior~s (23.39)nrttl (23.40) to a rclativcly convcnicnt form from tho point of vicw o f ~ ~ ~ r r n c r i c n l computation and oncornpassed the rcq~lireduniversal f ~ ~ n c t i o n s a s r t of tnblcs in of numerical values. J.C. Rotta [84] described a similar procedure for two-dimensional and nxisymmetric Rows as well as for the calculation of a body of revolution in subsonic and supersonic flow [105]. The agreement between calculations and mensurrmcnt is satisfactory u p to a Mach number of M = 2. The deviations which occur a t M = , , 2.4 and 2.8 are cxplnincd, partially, by the fact that the curvature of tlic st.rcnmlincs

i n c o n j ~ r n c t i o nwit,lt t.hc vnrintions of tlenait,y exert^ n n unexpcctctlly large inflrlcnec o n t h e tlevclol~mcnt.o f t.ltc b o u n d a r y Iayc-r - a n effcct n o t a c c o r ~ n t r dfor ill t,lle c a l c n l a t ' i o ~ ~ .h e rcnsona for t h i s effect, of s t r e a m l i n e cnrvatrrre were invest.igat,ecl T b y J.C. R o t t a 1821; n cont.rihr~lion t,llis p r r ~ l ~ l c r na s also rnntlc 11g 1'. Rrarlsltnw (4). t,o w Methotls of finite tlilTercnrrs l ~ n v c also becn atlnpt.ct1 t o d e a l wit.11 l , u r l ) u l e ~bountlal.y ~t layers in corny)rrssil)le st~rc:ltns.7'.C c l ~ c c i nntl A . M . O . Smit.11 [I)] dcveloprtl n mtttllotl I)nsrtl o n ~ n i s i r ~ g t,l~c,ory (src. Scc. X I X r ) wllosc v:~litlil.ylins 1rcc.n rxtcntl(,tl t o inc:l~ltl(* t . h r o e - t l i r ~ ~ c n s i o ~1)ountlnry Inycrs I101. 'l'he ~ n e t . l ~ od u e t,o 1 13rntlsltn~\. (sc.e ~al d . ' Sec. X I X f ) that mnlres u s e of t.he equat.ion for kinetic e n e r g y h a s n.lso been extentled t o a.pply t,o comprcssiblc flows (61. P. I~mtls11,zw rcnchctl t,hc conclusion t.liat t,hc [5] volumet,ric tlilxt.nt.ion e x e r t s a d e e p influence o n t h e st,ructure of t h e t,urbr~lence t,he in b o u n d a r y laycr. A g r e e m e n t between rnensnrement, a n d calculnt.ion could b e consitlcra b l y i m p r o v e d b y t h e introduction of an a d d i t i o n a l t e r m in e q n . (19.42). A met.1tod of int,egrat.ion for three-dimensional compressible b o u n d a r y layers w a s (leveloped b y I'.T). S m i t , l ~ (941; a ~ ) r o ~ ~ oi s ntlh i s rnnI.(.cr w a s tniitlc by J . Corlst,cix [ g a l : colnpnrcn also I). Ar11:il ct, al'. [ I n l n.ntl J. C o n s t ~ i xc,t al. [Db].
References [I] Anon.: Con~preasihlcturbulent boundary Inyers. A symposiunl lield a t Langley Itesearcll Center. Hn~npton,Virginin. Ilecenibcr 10-11, 1968; NASA S P 210 (1969). [In] Arnnl, I ) . , Courrl.c:ix, .I., and Mirl~cl,I<.: (:ollc.ho I i t i i i t c so ~l'velol~p~tt~t. ~rtttli(?ttt nvrc (lo presaioti positif clans 1111 i.rottlctnenL cxti.rioilr turhulo~tt.Iloclt. Acrosp. I'arin, 1!)7li, 1, 13--20 (1076). [2] Bert,ram, M.H.: Cnlcrllations of compressible avcrage turbulent skin friction. NASA T R R-123 (19G2). [31 Jlor~rne, l).l'C., nntl I)nvirri, D.11.: On thr ctrlrrllntion of rddy vi~cosityand of lietit trtinsfcr in n turbnlrnt bonndnry layer on n flat surfncc. Quart. J. Mcch. Appl. Math. 11,223-234 (1958). ~ r turbulent flow. ACARDograph No. 169 [4] Bradshaw, P.: Effects of strcnniline c r ~ r v a t ~on e (197.3). -, [5] Brdahaa., P.: The effcct of mean conlprcsnion or dilatation on the turbulence structure of supersonic bonndary Iaycrs. J F M 63, 449-464 (1974). [6] Bradshaw, P., and Ferriaa, D.H.: Calculation of boundary-layer dcvelop~nent~ ~ a i n g tho turbulcnt energy eqnation: comprcaaible flow on adiabatic walls. J F M 46, 83-110 (1971). ancl I)iaconis, N.S.: Boundary layer development and skin friction a t Mnch[7] Brinirh, P.F., rirltnbor 3.05. NASA TN 2742 (3952). [S] Burggmf. O.lt.: The comprcauibility tmnsforniat.ion and the turbulent boundary layer equation. JASS 29, 434-439 (1962). [9] C~hcci.T.. nncl S~nitli,A.M.O.: A finite-difference method for calculating compressible lantinnr anrl turbulcnt I~onndnry leyerrr. Trans. ASME Ser. I), J. Besic Eng. 92, 523-535 (1970). [gal C:ousteix, J.: Annlyse t,l~Boriq~ie moyrns de prevision de In couche lin~ite et turbulente triditnetioiotielle. ONERA J'obl. No. 157 (1974). [9b] (:oi~at.cix,.I., nritl Jlontlrvillr, It..: E l ~ n i s a i ~ ~ c t c t~ni.l~nrnt.iond'111ioCOIICIIO lilnito t,urbtt~ cr~t, lontc: R ~ I I I I I ~ Rcti illkrnctiott nvct: IIII (:hoe obliqnc. Jtcch. Aorosp. I'ari~, 1!)7G, 1. 1 - 11 C 1107fi). , r [lo] Crheci, T.: linups, li., Iln~nsey, nntl Mosrr, A.: .Cnlcnlntion of three-dirncrisionaI com.J., prr~uiblrt ~ t r b ~ ~ l boundary layers on nrbitmry wingo. Douglas Aircr. Co., lleport No. cnt I M I X J. 68G6 1- 40, (197.5). [ I l l Chnpn~nn,11.11.. ntid Iienter, 11.H : ~cnsurrmenta'ofturbulent skin friction on rylinders in axinl flow nt. subsonir nnd srtprrsonir velocities. J A S 20, 441 -448 (1953). [I21 Cohrn, N.13.: A ti~ethoctfor c o t n p t ~ t i n ~ turbulent heat transfer in tlie prearnce of a strenmaiae pressure gradient for borlirs in Iligh-apecd flow. NASA Memo. 1-2-50 L (1959). [I31 Cole~,I).: h l r n s ~ l r r l i ~ c n t tt~rbulentfriction on a srnooth Rat plate in supersonic flow. of J A S 21, 433-448 (1954).
%

[14] Colos, D.: Mea~rlretnentain tho boundary layor on a stnooth flat pinto in supcraol~io(low. I. The problem of the turbulent boundary layer. Cal. Inst. Tochn. J e t l'ropitla~on Lab. IEcp. 20-69 (1953); 11. Inatrumetitation and cxperirnental techniques a t tho J c t Propr~lsioti Laboratory. Cal. Inst. Techn. Jet Propulsion Lnb. Rcp. 20-70 (1953); I l l . Mensurementa in a flnt plate boundnry layer a t the J o t Propulsion Lnboratory. Cal. Inst. Tcchn. J c t I'roprllsion I d . Rep. 20-71 (1953). [I51 Colcs, D.: The turbulent boundary layer in a comprc~sible fluid. I'hys. Fluids 7,1403- 1423 (1964). [16] Crocro, L.: Comprrs~iblc turbulcnt honndnry lnyrr vvit,l~ hcat exchange. AIAA .I. 1, 272:s2781 11968) ,----,[17] Colick, F.E.C., and Hill, J.A.F.: A turbulcnt nnalog of the Stewartson-Illingwortll transforrnat,ion. J A S 2,5, 259-262 (1958). [18] Davicq, D.11.: 011 the calcr~lntion eddy viscosity and hent t,rnrisfor in a tr~rbnlcnt, of bor~ntlarg laycr nenr n rapidly rot,ating disk. Qunrt. J. Mccli. Appl. Math. 12, 211-221 (1959). [I91 ~ n v i & ,D.R., and gounre, i ) . ~ . ; O n tlie cnlculation of h e i t and mass trnnsfer in laminar and t,ttrbulent botlndnry layers. I. Tlic latninar case. 11. The turbulent caac. Qunrt. J. Mcch. Appl. Math. 9 , 457-488 (1956). [20] Doissier, R.G., and Eian, C.S.: Annlyticel and experinlental invast.igation of fully clevcloped l,nrhrllont flow of crir in n slnootli 11the with Iioat t,ratisfor \vit.l~varinblo linitl propnrt,ic!s. NACA T N 2629 (1952). [21] Dcisslcr, I1.G.: A n a l y ~ of turbulent hcat t,ransfcr, rnnas trannfer, and friction in ~mooLh i~ tubca a t high Prandtl and Schmidt nnmbcrs. NACA TR 1210 (1955). [22] Deissler, R.G., and Taylor, M.F.: Analysis of turbulent flow and liont transfer in noncircular pesssges. NACA TN 4384 (1959). [23] Doiaslcr, R.G.: Analysis of turbulent flow and heat trnnsfcr on a flnt p l n b a t high Mncl~ ~11~1111~~rn vn.rittl>lo \vil.lt Ili~itlprol>ort.ion.NACh 'l'otrlin. IL- r. 11 17 1 - :1:1 IOT,!)). [24) Dhawan, S.: 1)iroct ~ncaserctt~cnlel ski11 friobiot~. o Itnl,. l i 2 l (1065). [25] Dipprey, D.F., and Sahersky, R.H.: flcat and ~ i ~ o m c n t utrnnsfor in stnootli and rortgh m tubes a t various Prandtl numbers. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 6, 329-353 (1963). [20] O'~)orntoll, 1t.M.: Expcrin~cntnl it~vost~igntion t hfach nltriihor of 2.41 of nvcrrrgc skin a friction cocfflcicnts nnd velocily prolilcs for lntninnr ancl turbnlont I)oitnd~iryItryt~rn nl~tl assewn~cntof probe elfocta. NACA TN 2132 (1!)54). [27] \'nn Jlrieat, E.11.: Turbt~lent boundary lnyor in comprcssiblc fluids. JAS 18, 145- l(j0 (1951). [28] Van Driest, E.R.: The turbulcnt boundary layer with variable Prandtl number. Fifty years of bountlary-layer research (W.Tollmien and H. Gortlcr, eds.), Bmunscl~weig, 1955,257-271. [29] Eckert, E.1t.O.: Engineering relntions for friction arid lieat transfer to srtrfaccs in liigli vclocity flow. J A S 22, 585--687 (1955). [SO] IEckert, E.R.G.: Survey on lieat trnnsfcr a t high speeds. Rcp. Univ. of Minncsotn, Minncapolis, Minn. (1961). [31] Englcrt, G.W.: Estirriation of comprcflsible boundary-layer growtli over insulntetl si~rfnces with pressrtrc gradient. NACA TN 4022 (1957). [32] Ferrari, C.: St,udy of the bouiidary lnyer nt supersonic speeds in turbulent flow: Case of flow along a fiat plate. Qunrt. Appl. Math. 8, 33 (1950). [33] Ferrari, C.: Thc turbulent boundary laycr in a comprcssihle fluid with posit.ive promure nradient. Cornell Aeror~n.utical Laboratory CAL/CM-500 (1940); summnry: J A S IR.4GO277 (1951). [34] Ferrari, C.: Comparison of theoretical and experimental resulk for the turbulcllt hoi~ndnry laycr in stlpernonic flow along n flat plnte. J A S 18, 555-564 (1951). 1.751 I'orra~i, C.: Dohrttli~~abioti tho l~citt of lmnsfer proporlios of n t,ctrl)itlont Irotlritlnry Itryor i l l the case of supersonic flow wlion tlic ternpcrnture disCrihr~tiortalong tho wall is arf)ibrnrily awiencd. Fifty " years of boundary-layer research, (W. Tollmien and 1%. Cdrt,ler, (!(Is.), 13ra~nscl1wei~, 1955, 304-384. [36] Gardner, G.O., and Kcstin, J. : Cnlculation of the Spnlding ~~~~~~~tion over n rnngc of I'm~itltlnumbers. Int. J. Heat Mnss Trarwfer 6, 289-290 (1963). [37] Goddard, F.E.: Effect of uniformly distributed roughricss on turbolent skin friction drag a t supersonic speeds. JASS 26, 1 - 15, 24 (1959). [381 Hill, F.K.: Boundary-layer rnensurenlents in hypersonic flow. JAS 23, 35-42 (1956). [39] Hill, F.K.: T ~ ~ r b ~ r boundary lnyer n~ensuremenk t Mach ntrrnbcrs from 8 to 10. Phys. ler~t a Flnids 2, 668-680 (1959).

NAUA

[40] fioffnint~n, E.: Ilrr WRrmciibrrget~gbei drr Strolllung i ~ n Itohr. X. Ges. K5ltr-Ind. 44, nn -107 I I ! I : ~ I .,. [41] Johnson, 1).S.: Vclocsity, t r ~ i i p r m t l ~ r c , h m t transfer mcnsuren~cnts in a t ~ ~ r b u l c n t atit1 borir~tlnry lnyrr d o n ~ ~ r n t r r oft n ~ x ~ ntrpwise d ~ s c o ~ ~ t i n u i t wall tempcrntc~rc.J. Appl. Mcch. it1 y 24 2 X 1 lOTr7I ..' - .. ,-..,.,. (421 .Jol~nnorr,D.8. : Vclocit,y and l~niperat~urc fli~ctrtatiori rncnaurctnei~ts a t ~ ~ r h i ~ lhoundit1 cnt ary laycr downntrcnrn of a step\rrisc cliscotitinuity in wall tetnporat~tre.Trn~is.ASME ,I. Appl. Mecall. 26, :125--33(i (I 95!8). [43] von KB.rm6.n. Tli.: '1'1ic ptolilctn of rcsi~tancc cotnprc~niblc in flt~irls.Volta Congress Rome 19JR. 222 -277; see also Coll. Works I l l , 17!)-221. 1441 von I<(rrmhn, '1'11.: 'rho atlalogy bet.rvcc-r~ ll~tid friction and hcnt t,rnnafcr. T ~ I I R . ASME 61, 70R--7 10 (I!):)!)); R C P 111~0 (:011. Work8 111, 355-:)(i7. 1451 Koatin, .I., and Hicltartlson, P.I).: Hcat txanufer ncrom turbr~lent incotnpressihle bouritlnry Inyera. Int.. J . Ilcat anti Mnun 'I'rnnsfor 6, 147-189 (IO(i3). 1461 Knst.in, .J., nnd l<.icl~nrclsot~,1).: Wiirmeiibcrbrngung in t~irbulenten (:ren7*lcliichten. 1'. Foruchp;. 11ig.-WCR. 93.- 104 (1963). 29, [46a] Kcstin, J . , ant1 Person. L.N.: The 1,ranafer of hcat across a turbulent boundary layer a t very high l'riitidtl nnmbera. lnt. .J. I-lmt and Mass Transfer 5, 355-371 (1962). 1471 KistJer, A.1,.:' FIuct.unt.ioti rneasnrctiictib in a supcrsonic tnrbulcnt boundary layer. Phys. @ Iilitf~2, 2!)0 - 296 (1969). 1481 Klobnnoff, Y.S.: Cl1nrackristic8of tr~rhrtlence n boundary layerwith zeropressrtrcgratlient. in NACA T N 3178 (1954); TJt 1247, 1135-1163 (1955). [49] Kovnuenny, L.S.O.: The hot-wire nncmometer in ~ i ~ p e r s o nflow. J A S 17,565-673 (1950). ic [50] Kntateladze, S.S.,and Leont'ev, A.I.: Turbulent boirndary layer in compressible gesee. I'ransl. by D.U. Spnlditrg. Edward Arnold Publishera Ltd., London, 1904. [6l] Lilley, G.M.: An npproxitnation solr~tion the turbulent boundary lnycr equation in inof compressible and colnpressibie flow. Coil. Aero. Cranfield Rep. 134 (1960). 1621 Licpmann, H.W., and Goddard, F.E.: Note on the Mach number effect up011 the skin frict~ion roi~gltsitrfncca. J A S 24, 7R4 (1957). of [R3] Lohb, R.K., Wit~klcr,EM., ant1 Porsh, J . : ICxpcrirncntnl invrat,igntionoftr~rbr~lettt bor~ndary layern in hypcrnoliic flow. NAVOJtl) Rep. 3880 (1955). [54] Ludvvieg, li.: Eiri Gerat zur Measr~ngder Wandschubspannung turbulcnter Reibungaschichten. 1ng.-Arch. 17, 207-218 (1949). [65] Ludwicg, 11.: 11cntiminong des Verlinlt.niaaea der A~tstauachkoeffizientenfiir Warme and Inipula bci tt~rl)ulentenGrcn7achichten. ZFW 4, 73-81 (1966). [RO] Mack, L.M.: An cxpeririicntal investigation of the temperature recovery-factor. J e t Prop~~lsion Laboratnry, Calif. IIIRL. TCCIIII., Ynundcnn, Rep. 20-80 (1054). 1571 Mnger, 8.: Trntlalbrtnntion of tlic compresuible turbulent boundary layer. JAS 25,305-31 1 (1958). [BR] Matting. P.W., Chapman, D.R., Nyholtn, J.R., tho me^, A.G.: Turbulent skin friction and a t high Mach nnmbcrr artd Reynold~ numbers in air and helium. NASA TI2 R-82 (1961). [59] Mchffcrty, O.11.. irntl Hehbor, 1C.E.: 'rho offect of ndverae proasnre gradienb on the characteristic~of t~trhulcnthortndary lnyers in sr~pcrsonicatrcams. JASS 29, 1-10, 18 (1962). [60] Meier, H.U.: Experirncntellc und thcorctische Unterauchungen von turbulenten Grenzschichten bei Uherschnlistrii~n~~ng. MPI Stromungsfonchg. u. Aerodyn. VernuchsMitt. anat. Nr. 49, 1- 136, (1070); Dim. Brnrtnschweig 1970. . [61] Mcier, H.U., Im, R.E., and Voisinet, I2.L.P.: Vergleichsmessungen mit einer DanbergTeniperatoraonde und einer kombinierten Druck-Tempcrat~traondein turbulenten Gre~izachichtcn hci Obcrsclinllntro~n~tng. ZPW. 22, 1-10 (1974). [62] Moicr, H.U., Voiainct, R.L.P.; and Gatea, D.P.: Temperature diatribt~tiona using the law of the wall for cornprcauible flow with variable terbulent Prandtl numbers. AIAA 7th Fluid and Plnnma Dynamics Conf.. Palo Alto, Calif. 1974, AIAA Paper No. 74-696 (1974). 16.31 Mcicr, H.11., ntid Jtotta, J.C.: Tcmpcrature di~tfibntionsin supersonic turbulent boundary Inyers. A I A A J. 9, 2149-21R6 (1971). I641 Meior. H.U.: 1tivcstignt.ion of the hcnt transfcr tnccliatiism in auperuonic t~rrhulent boundary Inycrs. Wiirme- und Sbffiihcrtragttng 8, 169-165 (1975). [c,:',] Morkovin, M. V.: Effect* of colnprraaibility on turbulent flows. Colloqr~csJrit. CNRS No. IOR, 3fi7- 3R0, MCcirniquo dc In t ~ ~ r l ~ ~ l Marseille,, 1962. lcti~~ [66] N~ttliicr,W.: Wiirtneiibergang und I)ri~ckabfallin rauhen Rohrcn. VDI-Porxcli. 455 (1956).
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1671 Owrn, P.R., and Thomaon, W.R.: Hcnt trnn~fcr across rongli surfnccs. JPM 1.5, 321 --Xi4 (1943). [68] I'nl)pns, C.C.: Mcasnrc~ncntof beat transfcr in the tr~rbrtlorit Iiorttitlnry layer on n flat. l~lnte in supcrsonic (low and co~~iparison wilh skiti friction rcsulta. NACA TN :12'2!! (l!)54). [69] Persc~i, L.N.: A note on the bnnic cquntioiis of tr~rhitlcnt,boundary laycn n~itltho heat transfer throiigh such laycrs. ZFW 15, 31 1-314 (19li7). [70] Prandtl, L.: Eine Beziehung zwischerl Wiirtncaitstnusrlt itnd Striin~ungswiclerstnticl (lor Fliissigkciten. Phya. Z. 11, 1072- 1078 (1910); see also Coil. Works I I , 585--5!M. [71] Reichnrdt, H.: Dio Wiirtnciihcrtragrlng it1 C ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l Rcil~~tngsscliicl~te~i. 20, 297.onbn ZAMM 328 (1!)40); NACA TM 1047 (1943). 172) Jloic:lttrrtlt,, 11.: 11111)nlarit~tlWiir~t~o~ir~nI.nr~st-l~ ' I ' I I I ~ ~ I I I ~ ~ ZAhlM 2.i. 21% 272 bci froior ~~Iz. - (1944). [73] Reichnrdt, 11.: o c r EiliflusR der watldnal~cn St,r"niting nt~ftlcn titrb~tlcritenWiirmciibcrnng. Rcp. Max-Plnnck-Inst, fiir St~riit~tungsfor~cli~tng 3, I---li:t (1!)60). No. [74] fZeiclIardt, H.: l)ic Grendlngen des turbulctrtetl Wiirtrieiibcrgn~rges. Arch. Wiirtnotocl~n.2, 129- 142 (1061). [75] Reahotko, E., and Tucker, M.: Approxirnate calculation of the contpre~~ible tlirbulet~t boundary layer with heat transfer and arbitrary promilre grdicnt. NACA TN 4164 (19571. (761 Reynolds, 0.:1 tho extent and nct,iotl of tho Jicatitig sltrface for rtcaln hnilcrs. I'TOC. 01 Munchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 14, 7-12 (1874). [77] Reynolds, W.C., Kays, Mr.M., and Kline, S. J.: Hcat trnnufcrin the turbulcnt inconiprcmible boundary Iayor. I. Constant wall temperature. NASA Mctno. 12-1-58 W (1968); 11. Stop wnll tcmpernt,urc diatribr~tion.NASA Mcmo. 12-2-68 W (1958); 111. Arbitrary wall temperatnrc and lieat I~IIX. NASA Mcii~o.12-3-58 W (1958); IV. Effect or loc:ntio~i of trnnsition rind prodiction of hont tmnafor in n known tranuibion ragion. NASA Momo. 1 3 - A - - 5 R-- W I,IORRI. ..-,. .. - -. [78] Itotta, J.C.: Ober deli Einflum der Mnchschen Zahl i ~ n d m Wiirmeiibergangs auf das d Wandgesctz turbulcnter Stramun en. ZFW 7, 264-274 (1959). 1701 Rotta, J.C.: Turbrtlcnt boltndary!ayera with heat trnnsfer in comprcssible flow. AGARTI .. Rep, 281 (1900). [80] Itotta, J.C.: llemerkung zum Einflites dcr l)ichtoscl~wanki~ngcn turbitlcnlotr Urct~sin scliichteli bei kom~remibler Stromung. 1ng.-Arch. 32, 187-190 (1963). .. . [81] Rotta, J.C.: ~entpernturvrrteilun~en dei turbulenteti Grenzschicht an der ebencn l'lntte. in l n t . J. Hcat Maaa Transfer 7, 216-228 (1964). [82] Rotta, J.C.: Effect of streamwise wnll curvaturc on compr~lsiblc t~trbulmt. bonnclary layers. IUTAM Symp. Kyoto, Japan, 1966. Phys. Fluids 10, S 174-S 180 (l9li7). [83] Rotta, J.C.: Eine Bcziehung zwischen den ortlichcn Ibibitngsbciwcrten turbulcnkr Grcnzachichten hci kotnpressiblcr utid inkomproasiblcr Stromor~g.ZFW 18, 195-201 (1!)70). [84] I t o t t . ~ ,J.C.: POICI'RAN IV - Heclirt~progrnmmfiir Clrc~izacliichtcnI)oi kotnlirrssil~lon ebenen untl achsensymmetrischer1 Strbmungcn. DLIt FB 71 -51, 1-82 (1971). 1851 Rubeain. M.W.: A modified Reynold8 analogy for the coniprcssible tr~rbulrtitbou~idary laycr on a flat plate. NACA TN 2917 (1963). 1861 Scl~ubauer.G.U..and Tclien, C.M.: Turb~llentflow. lligh Spcocl Aorodyt~trtnic~ and J o t Proprilsiori V, 75-196, Princeton (1959). [87] Seiff, A.: Examination of the existing data on the hcat transfer of turh~tlcnthoundnry lavera a t s u ~ e n o n i c speeds from the point of view of Reynolds analogy. NACA TN 3284
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. t

>

[89] [90] [9l] [92] [93]

tlisHeat trnnsfer to a turbrllent stream from a surface with n ~tep-vr,ise continuity in wall temperature. International dovcloptr~entsin licat tra~iafcr(L'roc. Conf. organized by ASME a t Boulder, Coloredo, 1961), Part 11, 439-446. Spalding, D.B., and Chi, S.W.: The drag of n compressible turbulent boutldary layer on a smooth flat. plate wit.h and without hcat trnnsfer. J F M 18, 117-143 (1964). Spence, D.A.: Velocity and enthalpy distributiot~s the compressible turbnletrt boundary in layer on a flat plato. J F M 8, 368-387 (19GO). Spcnce, D.A.: Some applicatione of Crocco'a integral for tho turbulent bout~daryIayor. Proc. 1960 Heat Transfer Fluid Mech. Inat., Stanford Uaiv. 62-76 (1960). S p ~ n c e ,D.A.: The growth of comprwible turbulent boundary layers on isothermal and adtubatic walls. ARC RM 3191 (1961). Stratford, B.S., and Beavers, G.S.: The calculation of tho con~prmaiblc tnrhnlcnt bonndnry layer in an arbitrary presaure gradient. A correlation of certain previous mclhorls. AltC RM 3207 (3959).

[04] Smith, P.D.: An integral prediction met.hod for three-dimensional compressible turbulent bou~ldnryInyers. ARC IIM 3730, 1-54 (1074). [BB] 8cl111ltz-~Iantler, Hont t,ransfer cnlculrlt~ionsin tnrhr~lcnt R.: boundary layers rtair~gintegral relations. Acts Mechnnicn 21, 301-312 (1075). [!lo] Tnylor, G.I.: Conditions s t the sllrfnco of a hot body exposed to the wind. ARC RM 272 IIRlRL - ,[07] Tnylor, G.1.: Tlw t,ransport of vort.icity a r ~ dllcnt t,l~rotlgl~ fluids in tnrbulent ~notion. Appendix hy A. Fagc and V. M. J'alkner. l'roc. Roy. Soc. 135, 685 (1032); eee also Phil. Trane. A 215, 1 (1015). [B8] Taylor, .T.R.: Tetnpcrat~~re )lent RIIX tlistribt~tionsin incon~prrssibletr~rbl~lent anrl eql~ilibriun~honntlary Inyero. Jnt. .I. llcnt MILRR 'llr:insfcr 15, 247:)--2488 (1!)72). [00] Tnclcer, M.: Approxitni~tct,r~rbulcnthor~ntlarylayer tlcvclopn~entin plnno colnpressible flow along t~hrrnmnllyinsulntetl srlrfaccu \rsit.h application to supersonic-t,unncI contour corrcct,ion. NACA TN 2045, 78 (1950). [I001 Walz, A,: Niiller~~ngstl~eorie kornpressihlc t ~ ~ r b ~ l l e n t e fiir Gret~zncl~icllten. ZAMM-Sontlerheft 36, 50-56 (1056). /101] Wnlz, A,: Uher Fortsc11rit.k in Niihcr~nigsthnorir11nd Pmxis tler Rerccl~nung kornpressibler Inn~ino.rer rind turbulenter Grenzschicht~ennlit Wjirn~eiibergang.ZFW 13, 80-102 (1065). [I021 Wilson, It. E. : Turbl~lent bollntlnry lnyer chnmobristics nt supersonic npectls - Theory sntl experiment. JAB 17, 585-504 (1!)5O). [I031 Winltler, 1E.M.: Invcst,ipntion of flat plate hypersonic t u r b ~ ~ l c boondnry layers with hent nt transfer. J . Appl. Mecli. 83, 323-32!) (1961). [I041 IVinkler. E.M., and Cha, IM.11.: Investigation of fiat plate hypersonic turbulent boundary layers ~vitliheat t,ransfrr a t a Rlscll nr~nil)crof 5.2 (U). NAVORL) I k p . 0631 (10.59). [I051 Winter, K . G . , I<otL?. J.C., ant1 Stnith, I<. ( 7 . : 1Int.ersuchungen der tnrbulent.en Grenzschicht nn rineni tnillicrtcn Drehlc6rpcr hei Unter- und Ubrrschnllstron~~~ng. F B DLR 65-52, 1-71 (I!I65); scr also AltC 1tM 3633, 1 --75 (1!)70). [IOF] Yor~ng, A.D.: 'I.hc tlrng clfccts of ronghness a t high srlbcritical spcecls. J . Roy. Aero. Soc. 18, 534 (1!)50).
%

CHAPTER XXIV

Frcc tlirbrilcnt flowe; jete n11r1wnkce

a. General rc~llarks

I n t,hc prccetling c l ~ a p t e r s c 11avc ronsitlrrctl t z i ~ r b l ~ l c flows a l o n g solid walls w rlt ant1 wo propose t,o ~ o n t ~ i n l i c stllcly of t t c ~ r l ~ r ~ lst,rcnms wiL11 t l ~ o l i s c ~ ~ s s i o ~ i l,ho cnt t of several e x a m p l e s of so-callctl /ree turbulent floio. 'l'nrbulcnt flows will I)c trrrnccl free if t l ~ e ya r c not confined b y solitl walls. W c sltall tlisccrn tlircc Itintls of t u r l ~ t i l c n ( ~ frco flows, Fig. 24.1 : free j e t b o r ~ n d n r i c s ,frco jets, ancl wnkc-.

A j e t bounclary occurs bct\vccn t w o s t r e a m s w l ~ i c lr~ l o v oa t tlilTcrcnt s~)c(:ds ~ i n t h e s a m e gcncral clircction. Suc:l~a s r ~ r f n c c tliscontinr~ityin t h e vclocil,y or' flow of i s ~rnst,al)lo n d gives rise t.o a z o n c of t * u r l ~ u l c nmixing clowrrstrcam of t l ~ c a t point., wllerc t h e t w o st,rcnms first ~ n c c t .'l'l~c w i t l t l ~of t h i s m i s i l ~ grcgion incronscs i n a tlownst.roam tlircc:t.ion, I'ig. 24.1 n.

Arldilionrtl rc/crencca lo Ckrp. X S I I . lntqc 701 [1181i] Wliitr, I'.hl., nnrl I.rssn~nnn, It.(:.: A thrco-din~rnsionnl int.cgr:rl tnct,l~otlfnr t ~ n l c ~ ~ l : ~ t i t ~ g i t i r ~ n ~ p t . r s s itl~ ~ ~- t ) ~ ~ l c n t ~li skin friction. 'l'ratis. ASMlC, Scr. 1, 07, 550-557 (1975). (1101 M1l~it,c. 1p.M.: \'iscot~u I I ~ t i t lflo\v. McOrn\v-llill, New Yorlc, 1!)74. 725 1'11, 11201 \Vic>ghnrtlL,I<.: 'I't~rhnlt-nt,~ (:rcn~,scl~irhlcll. (iijttingor hlonogrnphic, I'i~rt, I1 5 (l04h/40). 1121 1 b\lilt!ltc:~i, 11.: ' I . I I ~ ~ I I \ C(I~ ~ c ~ ~ z ~ c l ~ iILIIl ~ t ~ c n I r A: c gt~wGlht(:t~ Wiinilcn. I n g . - A r ~ l ~ . :J57--370 1, ( l!):lo). [I221 \Yillin~~~s, I%rilisl~ .I.: rc.sra~rc.l~ I)o~tnrl:lryI:lyrr nnrl flow cont.rol for 11igl1 by I)lo\vit~g. on lift %F\V6 , 14:) IliO (I!)h8). [ 122111 M1ill~n:rr~,l~. I V . , \\li~~lccl, Is., S~I:I~III:I. k\l. II. 1,. I<., ant1 I%og:~r,. *I.: >\xially S ~ I I I I I I C ~ , ~ ~ ~ ; ' . I t,~~rl,~~lont. I)onntl:~t.y I:~.yrrs cylin(lrrs: III~::III 011 vt:lof.ity ~)rofilrs 1v1111 I)~(:SSIII.C( l ~ ~ r t , l ~ n t , i o ~ ~ s i111t1 J Fhl 7(1', 35 ~ ( i 4 (l!)7l\). [12J] Wint~~rnit.n, A.lr.. nntl J<.ntnsny, \ V . . J . : ITnbcts of inlot horltid:ary layer on t.ho pressure 1q. recovery in ro~~it'al tlin'l~scrs. MCCII. I ' : t i ~ . I~cR. Lnh., Flr~itlMoch. Div., Enxt ICilbridc, (:li~ngo\v. Itrp. No. 41 (1!)5(i). [I241 Yonng, A . I).: The cnlc111:it~ion the t,ot.:ll and skid frict,ion clrags of bodie. of rcvolut,ion of n t Oo in(:i(l~n(-c. All(! ItRI 1874 (I03!,). (1251 \ ' ~ I I I I ~ ,A. I).. nncl M:~jola,0.0.: An rxl)rrin~cnt:~l invrstignt,ion of the t,urhnlont ho11nt1:~ry ' Inyrr nlong t i ~ t r e : i ~ n t \ - i ~ c t!ornrr. TU~IIIIIOII~, l7Io\v, A(:AILI) Conf. l'roc. 03, 12-- 1 to Sl~cilr 12---9 (1!)71). (1261 I ' o ~ ~ n gA. I).: Solnr sl)c*c.ial 110111ltlriry-1:ryrr . prohlcms. 20tJ1 Pmr~clLIMetnorial I.octure, %IP\V I , 401-414 (1!)77).

Fig. 24.1. 15xnrr1plcn of frrc t , ~ ~ r l ~ ~ t lflow^; cnL IL)jrl. I)t~~~nfliiry. frct: jet., C ) wnltc 0)

A free j e t is f o r m e d w l ~ e n fluid is discharged f r o m n nozzle o r orifice, Fig. 24.1 b. a 1)isregarcling v e r y srnall velocities of flow, i t i s forincl t.llnt t h e j e t t ~ c c o m c s cornl)lot.cly l , u r b n l c r ~ at n s h o r t tlistnnce from Lhc p o i n t of tliscl~nrgo.Owing to turbulcncc, tllo t emerging jet, bccomcs p a r t l y mixctl w i t l ~t . 1 ~ srirror~ntlingIlnitl n t rest. Pnrt.ic:lrw of llnicl from 1.11~ sirrrorrritlings a r c cn.rrioc1 n w n y I)y t . 1 1 ~ s o t l ~ n lt,. 1 1 ~ jot, mn.ss-flow il~t:rr:~.st:s

730

XXIV. Prec turhi~lent. flowu; jcta and wnkes

b. Estimation of tho increMc in width ntid or tlio dccre,wo i n vrlocity

731

in tjhe tlowrlst.ream direction. Concr~rrentlythe jet spreads out and its vclocity decreases, but the total momenturn remains constant*.A comprehensive account of the problems of free jets was given by S.I. Pai [26]. See also the book by G.N. Abrnmovich [ l l . A wake is formed behind a solid body which is bcing dragged through fluid a t rest, Fig. 24.1 c, or hehind a solid body which has hcen placed in a stream of fluid. The velocities in a wnkc arc smaller than those in thc rnain stream and the losses in the vclocity in thc wakc amount to a loss of momcnta~mwhich is due to thc drag on the hody. Thc sprcad of t,hc wakc increases as tllc distance from thc body is increased and the cliffcrenccs between the velocity in the wake and that outside I)ecomc smaller. Qnalit~ativcly such flows resemble similar flows in the laminar region (Chaps. I X and XI), but thcrc arc large quantitative differences which are due to the very much larger turbulent friction. Free turbulent flows are much more amenable to mathcmatpicelanalysia than turb~llcnt, flows along walls because turbulent frict,iorl is much larger than lnrninar friction in the whole region under consitlcration. Consequently, laminar friction may bc wholly neglected in problems involving free turbulent flows, which is not tho c.wc in flows along solid walls. It, will be rccalled that in thc lattcr case, by cont.mst,, lamirlar frict.ion must always bc taken i11t.o account in thc imrncdiatc ncigl~bor~rttood thc wall (i. c. in thc laminar sub-layer),ant1 that causrs great of matl~ematical tlifficultics. F ~ ~ r t ~ l i r r ~ nio r will ho noted that p r o l ~ l ~ m s frec turbulent flow arc of n t c, in hovndnry-Zn?ycrrlat.r~rc,nlcaning that tho region of space in which a solntion is being ao~rglitdocs not cxtcntl far in a transverse tlircction, as compnrctl with the main dirc~t~ion flow, and that, tho transverse grndjcnts arc large. Conscqr~cntlyit is of permissible to study such prol)lcms with the nit1 of the hoondary-layer eqllations. In tlic two-tlimrnsior~dillco~nprrssit)lc flow tlicsc are

or of ite extension

na They where the mixing lcngths 1 and l I are b be rcgartl~rt purely local fi~nct.ionst. must be suitably dcalt with in each part,icular case. l'urthcr, i t is possible to use Prandtl's hypothesis in eqn. (19.10), namcly

t , = o & ,ag - e x l b (urn,, %,in) -

aa-

~ I L

(24.5)

where h tlenotcs thc width of the mixing zone and x, is an empirical constant. Morcover is the virtual kinematic viscosity, nssumcd constant ovcr thc wholc width and, IICIICC, independent of y. I n adclition it is possible to use von IChrmhn's Ilypot,hcsis, cqn. (19.19) and t h a t due to G. I . Taylor, cqn. (19.15~~). Whcn cit.hcr of thc nssnmpt,ions (24.3), (24.4) or (24.5) is used i t is fonncl t,hat the rcsolts differ from cacll otlicr only compnmtivcly lilftlo. ?'he 1)csL rncnsllro of ngrccmcnt with cxpcrimcnt,al rcsnlta is furnished by thc awnml)tion in ccln. (24.5) and, in atldition, the rcsult,irig cqnations arc morc co~ivenicritto solvt:. I'tir I.l~c:sc: reasons we shall exprcss a prcfercncc for this hypothcsis. Ncvcrt.l~clcsa, sonlo cxar~lplcs will be s t ~ ~ d i cwith the aid. of thc l~y~ot,licscs cqns. (24.3) and (24.4) in ortlcr to cl in cxhibit tho diffcrcnccs in tltc rcsulta whcn clifhrcnt, llypoblicscs arc IIRCCI. Morcovc~r. the mixing Icngth formula, cqn. (24.3), has rcndcrctl such vaiuablc service in the theory of pipe flow (,hat i t is useful to tcst iL3 applicabilit,y to t,hc typo of glow under consideration. It will be recalled that, among others, the r~niversnl logarit~limic velocity distxibution law has bcerl dcduccd from it.

b. Estimation of the iricrease in width a~ialof the clecrcnoc in vclneity

Ilcrc T tIt:not,cs t.hc t ~ l t r l ~ ~ ~shmring sl.rc.ss. l'hc pressure term 11.mbccn droppcd lcrit in tlhc cqr~ation motion because in all problems to be considered it is permissible of to assume, a t Icast t o n firsL approximation, that the prcssnrc remains constant. In the case of w:~kcs this assumption is satisfictl only from a certain tlistance from the t)otly onwartls. In o r d ~ r I)c in a po.sit.ion t,o intrgratc the syst,crn of cq~tat~ions to (2.1.1) and (24.2), it is necessary to exj)re.q the tnrbrtlcnt shearing stress in terms of the paramct.cm of tthc main ~Iow.~t present, srrct~an rIimin&tiort can only 110 actticvcd witti the aitl of sorni-cr~ipiricd~qsnmptions.'U~cscliavc alrently bcen ciiscuwed in Chap. X l X . In this c:onncxion it is possible to rnakc use of I'rantltl's mixir~g lcngtll tllcory, eqn. (19.7):

Bcrorc proceeding 1.0 irltcgratc cqns. (24.1) ant1 (24.2) k)r scvcrril [)arLic~~l:rr cascs wc first propose to make est,irnatiotis of onlcra of magr~it~utlc. this way wo In shall bc able to form an itlea of the typc of law wl~ichgovcrrls t,hc increase in the width of thc mixing zone and of the decrease in the 'hcight' of the ~ c l o c i t ~ y 1~roAlo with increasing distancc x. The followitlg accollrlt will bc based on one first g i v r t ~ by I,. Prantltl [27]. When dealing with problems of turbulcrlt j c k ant1 waltcs it is usrl;~,llyassrtrned t,hat the mixing lcngth 1 is proportional t o the width of jct, 0, because in this way wr are led to 11scr111rcsults. lIcnce we put

t This extenaio~lwas not diucu~acd Chnp. XTX bccnuuc i t is usrd only very rnraly. in

732

XXIV. Frcc trtrbt~lent flows; jets and wake8

b. Estimation of tlro iticresso in width and of the dccrcnso in volocit.y

733

III addition, the following rule has withstood t h c test of time: The rate of increase of t,he wiclth. b, of the mixing zone with time is proportional t o the txansverse velocity ' : ) 1

In thc case of a two-dimensionaljt we have J' = const x p uZ,,,,, wlicrc J' e 11, denotes momentum per unit length, and hence u, = const x h-t/21/.~'/p. view ,, In of eqn. (24.9) we have, further,
u mnZ= const x
--

iG 114

(two-dirnensionaI jet) .

(24 10)

Here

+ v a/az/. According t o a prcvior~sestimate, eqn. (19.6), we havc v'

D/Dtdenotles, as

usual, the s ~ b s t a n t ~ i v e derivative, so t h a t

DID1 = u a/ax -11 au/ay, and

t(h11s

In the case of a circular jet the momentum is

J
ant1 hence

= ronst

x p u2,,,,h2

Further, t h e mcan value of au/aytaken over half the width of t h e jet may he nssumetl t o bo approximately proportior~alt o u , / . Consequently, ,,b

[n view of eqn. (24.9) we now have

Z = const x ' Dl

--

u,,,,, const x =

B u, . ,,

(24.7)

Two-dimensional and circular wake: Instend of ccln. (24.8) wc now have

Jet boundary: With t.he use of t,hr preceding relations wc shall now e~t~intatct,hr rntc a t wlticl~ h e witli.11of t.hc mixing zone wllic:l~nccompnnics n frro jcl, l)orlr~tlnry t incrcascs wit.11 t.11~ tlist,xncc, z. For t h e jet bountlar.y we have

wlicrc u, = U , On comparing eclns. (24.8) ant1 (24.7) we ol)tlain

- 14.

011equating tho two c x ~ ) r e ~ s i owc ~ , r ~ obtain

whic:l~rncnrls thnt the width of the mixing zone associatctl with a free jet. boundary is proportional t,o t,l~cl i ~ t ~ a n c c t,hc point wllcrc tllc two jcts meet. T l ~ c t from corist.nnt, of in1,cgraLion whiclr tn~rst~, st.ricLly spcalting, appear in Ll~cnbovc equation can br rnatlc t,o vanish by a snitnblc choice of t.hc origin of the coortlinnte syste$. Two-tlimctinionnl nntl cireulnr jet: 15clrlation (24.8) rc:nr;rins vn.litl in t.11~ cnsc 01' a two-tlitncr~sio~~d of n cironlnr jrt,, rc,,,,, clr~~of.itrg I.hc vclocii,y :kt, t.lrc cct11.1.c.ant1 now lirir. 'l'lins it1 SII(:II t:nscs wo :LISO Ilnvo

'J'lte cnlcrrlation of momcritum in problems involving wsltcs t l i ~ c r s from t h a t for the case of jets, because now t,here is a direct relationship 1)ctwcc.n momc~itrtm and the tlrag on the body. As nlrcntly mentionctl, rqn. (9.2(i), the ~nomcntrrrnirilrgrnl is D=J=eJu(U,-u)dA, provitlctl t , l ~ a 1.11~ t control srxrfacc has 11ccn plac:ctl so f : ~ rbcl~intlthe bocly t.h:~Lt<hc s1.nt.i~ prrssrxrc lrns hccornc cclr~:r.It,o t,lrnt in t,he ~~t~tlist~rtrl)rcl st.rcam. At) : I;lrgc I tlisl,nnc:c I)rhitr(l t.lrc botly =- / I , , - IL is stn:iII cotnl~:arrtl\ \ r i t , l ~ /I,, so tfhnL wc? rn:tjr p r ~ t?i,(rlC, -I,,) = (cJm -u1) 1 1 ~ (J,", 1 1 , ~ . '~'IIIIS for t\vo-tIiti1ctisio11n1 m anti circttlar

.;I

734

XXlV. Prrc bllrl~rllcnt flo\\.s: jot8

RIIC~

wnkcs

, .Lhus, for a circular wakc we f i ~ d that, Lllc wirlLIi of Llic w:tltc iticrc.nsos in ~)rol)ort.iorl
Insertring eqn. (24.12) for t.lio rate of increase in witlth, we obtain t o x'I3 arid t h a t the velocity decreascs in proportion to x - ~ I R . The powrr-laws for thc width and for tile vo1oi:ity in ttllr crrit.re 1i:tvo 111:ori summarizctl in 'l'ablc 24.1. Tho corresponding lnrriinar eases wIiic11 wt:rt: partly consideroc1 in Chaps. IX and X I have been added for cotri~)lrter~css. (24.15) c. Examples Tlic prcec~lir~g c:stiniatcw givc in Ll~crnsclvcs~t vory gootl i(lo:~ t,llo O H S I : I I ~ . ~ : L ~ of features cncountcred in problems involving free t r ~ r b n l c i flows. We shall, I~owrver, ~t now go one stcp f ~ ~ r t l i ant1 shall exaniinc scvcral pRrticl~lar cr c:ases in niuc:li grcat,cr detail tlediicing t h e complete velocity tlistributiori function from the ccl~~:~tions of motion. I n order t o achieve this rcsr~lti t is necessary to draw on orio of tho hypotheses in eqns. (24.3) to (24.5). Thc examplcs which hnvc bccn sclcat~ctlIicro for consiclcr:~t.ion all Iiavc t,tic common fc:~t~ire a t tho velocily profiles wliicli oc:c:llr th in thcm are aim.ilnr t o each ot,hcr. 't'liis mcarls t-hat thc vc1ocit.y profilcs a t tlifi'~:rcrit~ distances x can I)c made cotignlcnt 1)y n, suitsblc choicc of a vclocity anntl :r witlth scalc fnctor.

or

( p x cell (1)1/2

(two-tlimonsional wakr)

Inserting this vri111ririt.o cqn. (24.14) we fintl t,hat the rate a t which the 'depression' in the vclocit,y crllrvc tlccrcascs downstream is rcprcscnt,cd by

T other wortls, t,lir wint1t.h of a two-dimrnsional wake increases as n tlccreases a s 1 .

/fi

ii and tlievelocity

C i r c l i l a r w a k c : Dcnot.ing tlir front.al arca of t h c body by A we can write its drag as D = 4 c , A e M,Z and the momentum, eqn. (24.13), becomes J e U , u, h2. IC~li~nting and J, wc ohtain 1 1

2
Urn

Inserting this v:rhlo in1.o rcln. (24.12), wr fi~ltlIllat tlic increase in width is given by

6 ,iz '
or

d1)

-P

c,A b Z '

CII

(p c,

A x)1ln (circular wake)

(24.18)

Tnscrt.ing eqn. (24.18) into (24.17) we fir111for Llir clccreasc in the ilcpression in the veloc.ity prolilr t,hc rxl)rossion

-(

1 The urnoothing out of a velocity discontirleity. As our first cxarnl~lrwc- s1i:~ll . consider tlic problem of the smoot.tiing out of a vrlor.ity tliscontinlril.y wltit:h w:rs first treated by 1,. Prandtl [27]. A t time 1 = 0 thcre are two strcarr~smoving a t two different velocities, U1 and U2 respectively, their boundary bcing a t y ==0 (Fig. 24.2). As already mentioned, tlic bonndary ncross wliic~lithe vcloc,it.y v:trit-s discoritinuously is unstal)lc and ttlc prooess of t~irhulcritmixing sinoothcu ant. the transition so tliot i t becomes continuous. The width of the zone ovcr which this continuous transition from velocity U 1 t o velocity 1J2 takes place incrcnscs with incrca9ing time. We are hcre concerned with a problcrn in non-steady parnllcl llow for which u = u(?y,l) ; v = 0 . (24.20)
Thc convectivc terms in eqn. (24.1) vanish idcntically. Making use of I'randtl's mixing theory, eqn. (24.3), we can transform eqn. (24.1) t o give

c,#

)d

(circular wake)

'I'nblc 24.1. I'owrr Itiws for tho inrrc:nso i n witll.li nntl for tho docrcnse in tho ccntm-lino vclocity i n tcrlils of distance z for problclns of free turbulent flow

1 ---;
laminar width zll'
Z2/a

Fro jet bollndnry

Two-dimenuionel jet Circriler jot 'I'wo-dintonsionnl wake Circulnr wake

cent-rc-linevelocity or u1 x0
Z

turbulent

'
- i~

z
~ ~

a 9
Z-l/*

z
Zl/'

r1
z ~ / ~

z
~ I / Z

Z-I
Z-l/l

XI/'

z-I

&IIJ

Z - IS ~

Fig. 24.2. The amoothing out of n velocity discontinuity, after Prandtl [27]; a) Initial pattern (t =O), b) Pattern a t later instant

a)

700

XXIV. Prrc tr~rb~tlcnt flowa;

jcla

and wakes The velocity distribution from eqn. (24.23) is sccn plotteti in Fig. 24.2. I t has 1.11~ re~nnrlrablcpropertly t,hat t.hc velocity in 1.11~ mixing region docs not go over inlo the two free-stream vel~cit~ies a~ymptot~ically. Transition occurs a t a finiGc t l i ~ t ~ n n r c y = 11 witSh a tliscont,ir~~tity @u/ay2. This is a general propertmyof all solrltions in obt,ained on the basis of Prxndtl's hypotllcsis ( 2 4 . 3 ) for thc shearing st,rcss in Curbulont flow. It, const.itut.es what may be called a n esthetical tlcficiency o l t , l ~ ihypos t,llcsis. Thc itnprovctl I~ypothcscs( 2 4 . 4 ) or ( 2 4 . 5 ) are frcc of this blemish. Tho quantit,y /I = llh is the only empiriral constant which appcnrs in t,lle soI~rt~ion; can bc tlctcrminctl solcly from cxpcrirncrlt.nl tl:cta. it
2. Free jet bon~idnry. Thc c o ~ ~ d i t ~ i o n a frcc jcl bonntlary arc rloscly rt.lnt,rrl at s t o thosc in t,he prccetli~~g examplc. i$'it-ll rcfcrencc t o Fig. 24.1 a we shall consitlrr t h e more gencral case when a t x = 0 tllerc is a meeting of two st,reatns whosc const,:l~~t velocit,ics are IJl and U , , respectively, it, being assumed t h a t U 1 > IJz T)o\\.nstrcam of t.he point of c ~ ~ c o r r ~t.11~r ~ t cstreams will form :c nlixirlg zonc whoso \ v i t l l . l ~ h increases proportionately t o x, Fig. 24.la. The first solution t o the problcm under c~nsidcrat~ion given by W. Tollmicn [B2],who madc use of I'rantltl's mising was length hypothesis for turbulent shear, eqn. ( 2 4 . 3 ) .We shall review hcre the mathcmatieally simpler solution due t o H. Goertler [I81 who bascd i t on Prantlt,l's hypotllcsi~in cqn. ( 2 4 . 5 ) . Since t,hc virt11a.1Itincn~nt,icvisrosit,y E is i n c l e ~ ~ o ~ ~ of't ~ n t ~ t l ?/, C~IIS. (24.1) nntl ( 2 4 . 5 )givc
1L--+V--=&-.

The width of the mixing zone, b, increases with time and b = b ( t ) ; the mixing length is nssutncd to be proportional t,o b in the same way a s before so t h a t 1 = /I b . Assnming t.hnt the v c l o ~ i t ~ y profiltts are similar, we may put

wit01 11 = y/h anti 1) l p . 'I'ltc cxponrnt p in t h e oxprcssion for the witll,l~ can be detwnminctl from tho contlit,ion t h a t in eqn. (24.21) t,he ac~rlerat~ion frictional ant1 terms n111st br. proport~ionaltlo cqual powers of t,imc, t. 'rhus awlat is proportional to 1 - I , wllercas t,hc right-hnntl sidc is proportionnl t,o 12P-" = 1 - P , so thnt p = 1.
In this Innnner we obtp:~irl following ass~lmptions the problcm in Ilantl: the for

The ve1ocit.y u is bcst assumed t o be of t,he form

with lJ, = & ( U , -1- U , ) ant1 A = 4 ( I / , - 11,). In ortlcr t.o ~naltcsure t h a t a t the edges of the mixing zone, i. e. a t y = & 6 , the velocity becomes equal t o U , and U , respect ively, wo must pllt f = jl1 a t 77 = f 1. Tnscrting thc vnlue from rqn. (24.22) into cqn. (24.21) wc o l ~ t a i n (.he followi~~g tlill'crcr~t,ial rqr~:rt,ionfor / ( I / ) :

au

a~
ay

aZu

az

'ay=

(24.25)

Puttring b = c x we obtain thc following expression for tho virtual kinematic viscosity, cqn. ( 2 4 . 5 a ) , wllicl~is applicable t,o our casc: l'hc equation has one solution /' =- 0 , i . o. / = const, which rcprescnts tho trivial case of n constrant velocity. Tf, howcvcr, 1' tliffers from zero, we may tlivitle through, w11enc.c we f ntl q Upon intrgrat.iot~, have wc

4-

/ I r

=0

.
3

I n view of the similarity of the vclocit,y ~ r o f i l c s ant1 v arc funot.ions of y / x . P l ~ t ~ t ~ i ~ l g [ = a y / x we can integrate the equation of cotltir~uity the a d o p t i o ~ ~ n sLrrn~n by of function p = x U F ( [ ) where U = h ( U 1 U ? ) . Then u = U a F f ( [ ) and eqn. (24.25) leads to the following differential e q u a t ~ o nfor F ( [ ) :

F"'

-+ 2 a2 F F"

=0,

(24.27)

f ( 7 )= co q 3 ic1 ? -

wit,h c, = - IX/6 /?2 A . 'I'hc above solt~t~ion snt,isfies the condition f ( 0 ) = 0 so t h a t tlm rotlst.ants c,, : ~ n d , cnn br tlctcrlnincd from t.hc condition f ( q ) = 1 ant1 c =0 nt, ?/ = b, i. e nt 11 -- I . Ilrncr, =
/ I ( ? )

where a = & ( x , c 1)-112 and A = ( I l l - U , ) / ( U , U , ) . The boundary conditions are = & 00 : F ' ( t ) = 1 f 1. The differential equation (24.27) is identical with Blasius' equation for the flat late a t zcro incidence, cqn. (7.28), b u t the presrnt boundary contlitions are tliffcrent. II. Gocrtler solvcd oqrl. (24.27) by n s s l ~ n ~ i ~ l g n powcr-series expansion of the form

Introtlucing t,llcsc v a l ~ ~ c s cqrt. (24.22) we qbtlait~ solution in its final form illto the with F o = [. Substituting (24.28) into (24.27) and arranging i n ascending powers of A, we obtain a system of differential equations which is solved by recursion. The first of the differential equations is of the form

738

XXIV. Frcc ttxrbnlcnt flows; jctn nnd wnkes

with tho boundary conditions F'l(5) = f 1 a t is given by the error function

5 = f oo. The

soltltion of (24.29)

F1'

(F) = erf 4

The contrit)nt,ionsof the s~lccccding terms of the series in eqn. (24.28) are not significant. JJence the solution becomes
u = IJ,

+ U,

UI - y,

with

Fig. 24.4. Turbulent mixing zone in the wake close hchinrl n ~ q ~ iwedgo-liko body RA invwtint gntctl by M. Tuntier [40]. Tho ain~ilnritypnrnn ~ e b a front cqn. (24.308)reprwcnted as a fixncr tion of the wedgo angle 4 -

, IL - LL_I-__L_ ILJ
OD

WD

ftOO

moo

Figure 24.3 compares the theorct,irnl solution with 11. Reichardt's [29] m~asuremertts for the case when [Iz = 0 nntf agrcemcnt is seen to be very good. T h e quantity a is the only empirical constant loft free to be adjustad from experiment. According to the mensurements performed by H. Reichardt the width h,,l of the mixing zone, menstlrcd between stations where ( U I U , ) ~ 0.1 (corresponding to 5 = - 0.345) = and ( u / ~ J , ) ~ 0.9 (corresponding to 5 = 0.975) haa the value h,,, = 0.098 x, which = yicltls a -- 13.5. 'rhr virt,ttnl Itincmntic viscosity 1)ecomes c = 0-014 h, x lJ1.

zone behind a flat plate a t right angles to tlie flow is about double of t h a t in n hae stream. However, this is true only for the case when a flnt splitter plate is placed in the wnlre t o prevent the forn~ationof n von JC&rmAn vortex street.

W. Szablewski [46, 47, 481 extended these calculations, acr well as those given in Scc. XXIVcI , t.o cascs wllcn therc is n Inrge cIifi!rr~~cr tItc tIcrtuil.itw o f 1.11c: in two strc::~~ns, 1 ~:t ~ 1 1 s~itall t1iI~crcnt:citx t1tt:ir vclot~itit~s. I - ~ I ~ I Iottl, tIt:~t,t , l ~ t *\ v i t l l , l t ~ 11, S of the mixing zoncs are afTcctcd only very sligltt.ly by this tlihrenec! in tlrttsit..y. Ncvt~rtlicless, tlic cliffcrcnco in t.ltc dr~tsit~icsincrrnsrtl, t.ltc zone of rrlisin~ as is I~ct.olnt~+ tlispl:t,t;txl in t,he (1ircctzionof t11c loss (lt!tisc jet. 'l'lto p~.~!(;t:(ii~tg rt*s~tI{,s :t,lso IN: t::t,tt apl)liccl whcn t.hc two jets differ in tliair cltomicnl cotiat?l~t.r:lt,iot~s. 13. GoocI(~t~ni, 1'. G. 1'. Wootl and I[. J. JJrcvoorL [I71 cnrrictl out nn cxpcritncrtt.:tl irlvas(.ifi:t(.io~t into the contlitions a t tlie frcc I~otrt~tlnry n supersonic jot,. l'ltr rcsttlts sItt~\+~c(I~ n t of tl the mixirig zortc is soinc\\~ltntnarrower ant1 the 1cvt:l of t,urOt~lrncris so~ttar\~lt:~t, smnller tiinn in inco~iiprrssil~lr flow.

Fig. 24.3. Velocity tlistribtxtion

in the mixing zonc of a jot;
n = 13.5

Blunt body: The process of turbulent mixing t h ~ occurs in the wake behind a t blunt body was explored in detail by M. Tanner [49]. The results are displayed in Fig. 24.4. At each edge behind a blunt two-dimensional body or around the sharp circular edge behind cylindrical bodies t.here form mixing zones of the kind sketched in the figure. Tho velocity distribution across sttch a zone is of the same shape as t.liat in Pig. 24.3; it can be described by eyn. (24.30). The similarity parameter a from eqn. (24.30n) strongly depends on the angle 4 of the two-dimensional wedge or axially symmetric cone. This dependence is represented graphically by Fig. 24.4. The p a ~ n m c t e a tlecreascs considerably as the wedge angle 4 is increased. For 4 = 180" r (plate a t right angles to tlie flow direction) the value of a is only one half of t h a t for $ = 0 (frce jet.). 'l'his signifies that in the walte the angle of spread of the mixing

3. Two-dimensional wake behind a eingle body. Two-dimensional walres wrre first investigated by H. Schljchting [35] in his thesis presented t o Goettirlgen Utdversity. The investigation was based on Prandtl's mixing length hypotrlicsis, cqn. (24.3). A solution for the samc problem which was based on I'mnclLI's l i y ~ ~ o t I ~ ( ~ ~ i . ~ in eqn. (24.5) was later given by H. Reichartlt [29J ant1 II. Goertlcr [18]. Wc slt;~ll now give a, short account of both solutions in order t o illustrate thc fact that tplta two results do not differ much one from the other.

In t2hccase of n wake, the volocity profiles bcco~nc similar only at! l n r g ~ tlistnnc:rs downstream from the Gody, there bcing no similarity a t smallcr distnnrcs. Wt: shall restrict o~trselves tho consideration of large distances x so that, tltc vrloritty to difference u1 = Urn-u (24 31) is small compared with the frce stream vclocity I/,. At large dist,n.,ncnst.11t! stn.l,ic pressure in the wake is equal to tlie static pressure in tho frce stream. Conseqt~enbly, the application of the momentum theorem to a control surface which oncloscs the body, assumed to be a cylinder of hcight h, gives

XXIV. Prce tllrbulcnt flows; jets nnd.wnkos

integral (24.32); we tlius obtain B = 1/10P t , and tllc final soli~tiotl I~ocomcs

Neglecting u12, we obtain

+m
D = h p U,/u,dy
y- -m

Substitr~tingD = 4 c, d h e we obtain

rJ:,
y--m

It is not,iced t h a t the resulting witlth has a f trite magnitr~tie, same fcatt~rc the I~avitlg
whcrc d tlenotcs thc thiclrncss of the cylintlcr, bccn ol)servcd in corrncxion wit11 t l ~ c solnLion for t l ~ c s~nootl~irtg of a vc%locil,y ant, cliscontinuity, for wltich the snmc nssl~rnpt~iotl slict~rit~g for strcss Itat1 1)cotl I I S C ( ~ . At tllc ctlgc, y = h, t,llere is again n discontinuit~~r tltc cnrvatr~rc the v c l ~ c i t , ~ in of profile. Moreover, in tllc centrc a t y = 0 the sccond dcrivative a2?~/i)?/2 bcco~nes ever1 infinitely large and the vclocity profile cxllibits Ilcre a s l ~ a r p kink. The results of t,his theoretical calc~ilat~ion, eqn. (24.37) llavc brrn coml)arctl with Sclrlic:l~t,ing'srneas~~rements [36] in Fig. 24.5. 'L'hc mcasr~rcrnonl.~ wcrc 11crformed in the wake bel~intla circular cylintlcr, ant1 tJrc lfhcoret,ical nrlrvc is ~IIOIVII as curve (1). It is seen t h a t there is a n cxccllcnt measure of agrccmcnt. 'I'hc sitlglc free constant, the const,ant in eqns. (24.36) and (24.37),must, again, bc tlcl.cr~ninctl on the basis of measured values. Thc value of /I can be detlrtccd from Pig. 24.6 in wltirl~1 . 1 1 ~ witltlt o r tlro wnlto 11ns11t:cn ~)lotI.rtlL ~ I L ~ I I RI1l1o~ l i ~ t , n n (Z,t ~ , I L : ft.0111 t.11t: Ibocl,y. Tllc rrlcasurctl point,s l ~ a v c I~ccnobtainctl 11y 11. 1tc:icltnrtlt [2!)] ant1 11. rC;t:I~li(.l~(~i~~g [35] in I.llc wakes beltind circular cylinrlcrs of different tli:tmctcrs d. Accortling L o tltcsc, bl12 = 4 (:c cn d)'l2, whcre hllz tlcrrotcs half t l ~ cwitlth a t half tlcpt,lt. Since

+m /?dy

=+cDd

u,.

(24.32)

As detluced in,Scc. X X I V b , tllc width and t h e velocity difference vary in a manner t o give 1) x1I2 and u, N x-'12.
N

S l ~ e a r i n gs t r e s s h y p o t l l e s i s from eqn. (24.3): Since the term v8ul8y in eqn. (24.1) is small, we obtain -

a14! = 2 la ax

au aau --I.
ay all1

(24.33)

It is assnmcd t h a t tllc mixing length 1 is constant over the width h and proportional t o it, i. c. t,l~at = /I b(x). In vicw of tile similarity of the velocity profiles the ratio 1 7 = ?//h is i~~lroclurcds tho intlcpcntlcnt variable. I n agrccrnct~twith t11o power a
laws for tlrc w i d t l ~ ant1 for tlic dopth of depression in the vclority profile wc makc t h e assumptions : (24.34) h = B (en d x)'I2

Inserting into eqn. (24.33), wc arc led t o the following different.ia1 equation for the frtnction / ( v ): 1 - - (/ -17 /') = 21J2 /' /" - --2

= 0 and aul/ay wit,l~tllc honntlary conditiolls a t 11 -= 1 . Irrt,cgrat~ing oncc, we obt.ain

0 at y

= h , i. e.

f = /' = 0

i a c).litlrlor. Co~np:~riso~~ Fig. 24.5. Vo1ocit.y tlint,ribl~tionn n lwo-dililcnnionnlwnltc bchi~ltl c:ircl~lnr I)et,wcc~l tlleory nnrl mcnnurc~nrnt nrter Sclllicliting [35]

whrrr t11r constant of int,rgmtion ltas been mn?tle equal to zero in vicw of the boundary contli tion. I<.rpmtrtl irrtcgrntiorl yirltls

T l ~ r o r y :C I I ~ V C( I ) corresponds to rqn. (24.37): rltrvr (2) rorrrspcn~dsI n

tw111. (24

39)

Nom ift only rc~111ain.s tlrtrrntil~r ronsl,nnl, of intcgral,ion R from I,l~e 1.0 t,Ir(> mornctil.~tn~

I t will be nolad that

/ (1-

+1

qJra)2 dq

-1

742

X X I V . Frrc t,url)rllcntflown; jctn atit1 wnkrn

=-

bllz

0.441 h , we have 0.4111

4li) P : nntl thus

-5

The precctlir~gsol~~t,iono n ~ t ~ i t ~ a11capproximnf.ion for Inrgc tli~t~ances; c ~t s x rncns~lrcmollt~l l n w ~ t,llxl. it, is vnlicl for z/c, d > GO. 111the casc of srnnllor distnnccs i t is possible to c:alculntc addiLioni~lfarms for thc velocit,y, t,hc tcrrns bcing proportionnl t.o %--' nncl x - ~ / ~ , rcsprct,ivcly.

'Che valllc of hnlf tJlc witlt.ll a t llalf tho dcpt311is I),/, -. 1.075 I/F,,//I,, c,, r l ( . r c,, r l ) ' l y . . Comparing witalltllc prccctline; mcnsurctl vnll~e bIl, i t is Ii)lllltl t.lt:~t, f.I1(1 tblnl)i~.it::tl of qunntit,y 6, I~nn value t.11~ Eo .. = 0.0222 . .
ar
D

'ralting into :rcro~lnt.I,l~nt. I , c , d = 2.1 1 x 2 hllv ic,,,,. (

wc-

11:rvc.

The preceding solution sllows that the vclocit.y distribnt.ion in t,llc wnko c:~n1,c rcprcscnt.ctl by Gnusrt's function. The allarnntivc sohrt.ion from cqn. (2.1.:)!)) is scott plol.t.ctl in Ipig. 24.5 ns cllrvc (2). 'rhc tlifkrcncc bct,wocn t.l~is rtolnl.iol~i ~ ~ t 1.11:1t i n ~(111. t l (24.37) is vory sln:tll.

Pig. 24.6. l'wo-ditl1rnnionn1nnltr. Itlcrcast. i l l ~vitlt.llof wnkr hcllintl citculnr cylindrr

(.II~vC

( I ) bIl2

( r C,)

d)112

\V. Tollrnien [53] solvcci tllc snrnc problc~n on Chc b:tsis of voll Ii:irtn;in's llypothcsis from eqn. (lD.l!)). Tn t,hc nrigllbourl~ootlof t,llc point,s of inflrsion i l l t.110 velocity profile, wl~crci)2ir/ay2= 0, it, Ilns provctl nt:t!t:ss:try t o nl:lkt: :~tl~lil,iol~itl nssumptions. Ext~cnsivc cxpcri~iicnt,~, which wrrc carried olll, by A . A. 'I'o\vnsc~rltl1.541 in tho wnkc of n cylinder ant1 wllicll wcrc concernctl wit11 t11r1)lllcnt f I ~ t ~ t ~ ~ : t t , i o n s a t lteynoltls numbers near 8000, sltowetl t,hat a t a dist.nncc equal to nl)out 160 1.0 180 tlinmcters t8hc trlrl~cllentmicrostructrlrc is not ynt ftrlly tlevclol,etl. I~urt.I~crn~on?, osoillngrnms taken in t,hc strcnnl dcmonsLmtc that the flow is flllly t - ~ ~ r l ) ~ ~ l n n t ~ o111.y A ~ O I I I It.hc cent.re, rind ~ I ~ ~ ~ t ~ i ~ n t claminar and tliri)ulel~t, the ~lrig\ri)orlr~~ br.twcen s in hood of the outer boundaries of the wake. Mcnsc~remenk circ~tlar on cylinders nt, very large Reyrlolds numbers wcrc dcscribcd in Chap. I1 ; c f . 11. I'fcil 126b1.
Circular 1 1 1kc have I)ccn invcst.ignf.ed I)y Miss I,. M. Swain [41] who I ) : t . ~ ( t ~ l 1 1 l en t.he cnlrr~lntionon the hypothesis in eqn. (24.3). She ~bt~ninetl satnc rxprrssion tllr for vclocity as in thc two-din~ensional casc, cqn. (24.37), but the powcr laws for tllc width ant1 for thc ccnt,rc-line vclocity wcrc found to be tlilTercnt, namely b XI/:' ant1 TL~,,,,, N X - ~ / ~ as already shown in Tablo 24.1. , in Until recently, i t hns bccn ncccptctl t8l1at t.hc valociby disLrib~~Lion :I \ \ ~ : I ~ c becomes indcpentlent of the shape of the body far c n o l ~ g lbchirid it,, nntl is tellrrc~ fore of a l~nivcrsal form. This belief was pl~t. 1.11~ t,o t.est in a scrirs of ~ ~ p ( ~ r i t n ~ r ~ t , r t performed by If. Iteichardt ant1 It. J3rmshaus [31] and rei:itctl to wnkcs bchirltl bodics of revol~t~ion. turned out that in cach intlividusl casc the vclocity profiles remain Tt similar a t varying distances behind the body. Ne~crt~hcless, profiles behind b l u r the bodies (plates, cones with a ratio diamcter/height = 1) tcnd t o be fullcr than t,hot;o behind ~ l e r ~ d ones (for examplc a cone with ratio tlian~oter/l~cight 114 t.o 116). er = IJiffcrenccs of t.his kind have not bccn observetl i r ~ two-dinrcnsionnl wakes.

S h e a r i n g s t r e s s h y p o t h e s i n from eqn. (24.5): From eqns. (24.1) and (24.5) we now obtain i)ll a2UI (24.38)
ax ayZ

The virt,rlal lzirlrmxtic visrosity is here E,= k1 ul,,, h and, hcnec, constrant nnct equal to E,, say. Consequently, the tlifferential~equationfor ul is identical wit,h that, for a laminar wake, eqn. (9.30), except t h a t thc laminar kinematic viscosity v must be replaced by F,. Thus we can simply copy the solution which was found in Chap. I X . Denoting r] = !/ , wo obt,ain from cqns. (9.31) and (9.34) t.hat

i -

744

XXIV. l'rrc L~trl)~ilct~t jot. nntl wnltr~ Ilow.; .4ccording to the measurements performed by R. Gran Olssor~,this eqnat,iorl is valid for x / l > 4. Behintl a row of circnlnr bars for which 1/d = 8 the magnitr~tlcof t,hc mixing lengt,h is given by
1 7

4. The wake bellintl a row of bars. The wake behind a row, or cascade, of bodies, such as t,het, behind a row tvltich is composed of a very large ntimber of cylindrical 1)ars W I I O S ~ pitc11 is eqnal to 1, Fig. 24.7, is closely rclated t o tho wake behind a single botly. Thc prcsant, casc was investigated both theoretically and experimentally by R. (:ran Olssorl [19]. At a certain tlistance from the row, the width of the wake cast by a single clcmcnt of the row is eqoal t o the pitch, i. e. b = 1. Tho velocity diffcrencc u l -- ITr,, - 16 is hero also small comparctl with IJ,, and cqn. (24.1) can be sirnl>lifictl to
.. [JW
?"I

= 0.103

=.= .1- a.. .r

ay
'

ax

(24.40)

'rhc c:alculat.ion for thc case in llarlcl bccomes very simple whcn the more general mixing lot,gth I~yl)ot,l~csis from cqn. (24.4) is rlsccl. 'rho first step consists in t,hc clet,crniinat,ion of t.l~c cxponent in the power fr~nct,ion the decrease of u, with x. for 0 1 1 putt.ing 7 ~ , XI' / ( ? I ) , wc have au,/az -- zp-l. 'I'hc right-hand sirle of ecln. (24.40) becomrs proport,iona,l to at/LJ?/ (an/$/) . (azu/ayz) x21', because the mixing length, hcing proportiotlal to thc witlt.h, is const:ant. T h ~ l sp - 1 = 2 p and it follows t,hnt p = - 1, or, t h a t t,he velocity difference u l decreases in prop or ti or^ t o a-I. In the casc of fnlly tlcvelopcd Row the vclocit8y tlistribution must he expected t,o he n ~)ariotlic fr~rlct~ion ?/,whosc period is equal t,o 1.Tllus we assume in

t from ccln. (24.3) which itnplics 1, = 0 ; wit,h this nss~~nll)t~ion calcr~lnt~ion the bccor~~ss much more c ~ ~ ~ n b c r s o 11. t c - . ~ ~ (:oc.l.t.lrl1181 solvstl the same problem with thc aid of assumption (24.5) for t ant1 four~tl t h a t t,he solution was itlcnt,ical wit,h cqn. (24.41)t. A sccontl approsimnt.ior1 for smaller distances from tho cascndc was tlctlnccd by G. Cortlcs [7].

R. Gran Olsson also studied the case with

Cascades with a very narrow spacing bctjwccn the bars arc often usctl in wind tunnels to obt:~in a locally uniform velocity ~lisl~ribut~ion. oftcn several jets But, close in on each other, and this process prcvents the velocity from becoming uniform. J. G. von nohl [5] made a more detailed stndy of such phcnorncna nritl pcrfornlctl experiments on several rows of parallel, polygonal bars varying the solidity m, i. e. the ratio of t h a t portion of the cross-section which is filled by bars t,o thc t o t d channel cross-section over the values m = 0.308, 0.462 ant1 0.615. Wllcn tho value of In is small t,hc singlc jets remain parallel; the closing-in of jets occ:urs 11.t ahont, m = 0.37 to 0.46.

I'ig. 24.7. I'low pattern bcl~intia row ham. Explanatory ~ k e t c l ~

of

5. Tile two-Jimci~eio~~nl Tllc t j ~ ~ r l ) u l ctn t o - t l i ~ n c . ~ ~ s i jot,~ ~Ii~ S jet. w o ~ W l Ii~.st. (*:IIVIIlated by W. Tollmien [52] who used Pmndtl's mixing length hypothesis, rqn. (24.3). I n t,he present section we shall, however, give a short account of the simplcr solution based on Prandtl's second hypothesis, eqn. (24.5), which was given by 11. Rcichardt [29] and 11. Goertler [18]. Measurements of the velocity distribution wcre pcrformed by E. Foerthmann [ I l l and H. Reichardt [29]. The rate of increase in t h e width of the jet, b r , antl t h a t of t h r drcrcasc in the centre-line velocity, U z-'I< have already been giver1 in 'J'ablc 24.1. Eclrrations (24.1) and (24.5) lead t o the differential equation

1
x

"1

The point y = 0 has here been made t o coincide with the centre of one tiepression in t.he velocity di~t~ribution, A is a free constant whose value is still t o be determined. and We now form t h e expression for the shearing stress t from eqn. (24.4) wit.h 1 = const and assume t h a t l1 = 112 n, which scems permissible. The result is a very simple expression of the form -2 -!-= 12 uW2 A' cos (2n .

which must be combined with t h e equation of continnity. The virt.rcal kinc~nal~ir viscosity is given by & =xlbU, , where U denotes the centre-line velocity. Denoting t h e centre-line velocity ant1 Llle width of t h e jet a t a fixed characteristic distance 3 from the orifice by U , antl b,, re-- - --- -

ay

(+)

(?)'
I

+)

Inserting t,llis cxprcssion into eqn. (24.40), we obtain A = (r1/1)2/8n%nd the final soh~tion

hence

A or, on mlnpring u.il11 With t r = K A(u,, --?L,~,,),we have - -- -- - cos (2" 8xeK x eqn. (24.41), K ~ ( 1 / 1= ~ ) 0.103* = 0 0333. TIIIIR virtttal kinematic vi~cosit.y the herornrs & I = 0.0333 A(%mnz-?~m(n) .

i)

746

X XIV. I+'rccturhttlrnt flown; jeta and wnkcn

c. Examples
1

747

spectively, we may write

' 8

11. Rciclinrdt [29] who founcl that a 7.07. Fig. 24.8 coritairis n compnriso~~ 1)ctwccn the theoretical curve from eqn. (24.46) with the nicasurc~iit:lits due to E. I'ocrtlimann, curve (2). The theoretical curve obtained by W. l'olltnicrl [52] on the I)xsis of

Consequently,
s,= s,

) '( :

with

E, = x1 0,

U,

Fnrtflier, we put 7 =a-Y, where a denotes a free constant. The equation of continuity is integrated by the use of a stream function tp, which i~ assumed t o be of the form
y) = a-I

Us" 6 '

x''' F(q) .

Thus

On substituting into eqn. (24.42) we obtain the following differential equation for F(v): a2F"' = O , 1.F' + -1 FF" + .
2
2
us

Fig. 24.8. Vclocity tliatril)~~tion a two-tlilncnnionnl, turbulent jot. hlctw~~rt?~ncttb in (1110 Foerthmann [ l l ]
Theory: rarrv ( I ) BIIC If* T n l l ~ r ~ i[Be]: curvr (2) lrom cqs. (24 45) rn

Lo

with t h e boundary conditions F = 0 and F' = 1 a t Since s, contain^ t,he free constant xl, we may put,

TI

= 0, and F'

- ; -

0 at

v = oo.

Prandtl's mixing-length hypothesis, curve (I), hna also been sliown for cornparinon The first theoretical curve shows a slightly superior agreement with nicasrlrcrncnt as i t is fuller near its maximum. This substitution simplifies the preceding differential equation which can now be integrated twice, whence we obtain From the given nnmericnl value of a we obtain s,=
E,=

1.125 -n 4-

I 12 J 1

FB+F'=l.

(24.44)

. or

0.037 bl12 U ,

This is exactly tlic same equation as that for the two-dimensional laminar jet, eqn. (9.42). lksolution is F =t.anh v so that thevelocity is# = Us (z/.~)-ll~(l -tanli2v). 'L'lic riiamc~cristirvelocity can be exprcsscd in terms of the constant momentum per unit Icngt,h: .I

whcrc hllr ngairi denotes half the width a t half depth.

-- p /

-I m
?LZ

dy. JIence .I = ) p Us% / a With J / p = R (kinematic s

A generalization of this problem consisting in a study of turbulent mixing undergone between a two-dimensional jet with a co-directional external stream was explored by S. Yamaguchi [GO]. See also S. Mohnmmadian [24n] nnd TI. Pfcil c t nl. [26a].
6. The circ~tlar jet. Experimental r c s r ~ l b rircl~lar on jets wcrc give11Ily W. Zitil~n [61] and 1'. Ruder1 [33] as well as by I T . Reicliardt 1291 antl W. Wucst IFi!)] S o k c results of ~neasurcments circular jets are also cor~tai~icd tlir scrirs of rrl~orts on in published by the Aerodynamic Institute in Gocttingen [GZ].
The first tlicorctical treatment of a circular jct was givcn I)y W. 'l'ollri~it~r~ [52] who based his study on Prandtl's mixing-length tlicory. I n t.liis cxsc, as \vcll as in the preceding one, the assumption for slicaring stress given in eqn. (24.5) lcntls to a considernbly simpler calculation. According to Table 24.1 (.lie witl(.li of t . 1 1 ~

-03

inomrnt,~~m), obtain tlic final form of the solution: we

,rllr

Vn~IIo

t,Ilr siligle cmpiricn.1 const.ant o was determined experimentally by

748

XXIV. Free turbulent flowa; jete and wakes

jet is proportional t o x and Ehr centre-line velocity IJ kinematic visrosit,y t~rcomcs

x-I. Thus t,he virtual

wJ1icJ1m e m ~ st,11nt it ronxins constant over t,he whole of the jet, as it was in t,he two-dimensional wake. Co~~sequcntly, dirercntial equation for the velocity tllc distribution bccornes formally identical with t h a t for the laminar jet, it being only necessary to rcplace the kinematic viscosity, v , of laminar flow by the virtual ltinemat,ic viscosity, F ~ of t~lrbulentflow. I t is, t,hercforc, possible to carry ovcr t,he , solution for tllc Iarnitlar, circular jct, ~~111s. ( 1 1.15) t o (1 1.17). Introclucing, once more, the constant, kinematic momentum, K, as a measure of the strength of tllc jett, we obtain 3 K 1 U =- Xn cox 1 + 1 , ' ' T2 )

Y Y urn) Fig. 24.9. Velocity distSribrlt,ion n circolnr, turbulent jot,. Menuuromentn dnc t,o ltoicl~nrrlt in [2D] 'l'hrory: rlrrvc ( I ) ( 1 1 1 ~l o Tullmlcn[6Zl:curve (2) from eqns. (24.48)

(i-

The empirical constant is now cclrlal to f l / c o . Accortiing t o the mcasurement performet1 by IT. Reicl~ardtthe width of t,l~cc l is given by h , / , =- 0.0848 X. With j -7 = 1.286 a t u = ) u, we have hllz -- 5.27 x c , / 1 / ~ ,and hence

1/K
011

fo = 0.0161 .

the ot,her Ilantl wc llavo t,h~t

, =- 1.5:) h1/2(1 m
E~

40

= 0.0256 bllz U

in

Fig. 24.10. Pntttlrn of streernlines a circulnr, turbulent free jet

whrrc, as before, I),,, tlcnotcs half t.11~ witlt.11 a t half ticptll 'I'hc diagram in Fig. 24.0 contains a comparison ,between measured velocit,y tlist,ribut.ion point,s ant1 the t l l e o r c t i ~ d results from eqns. (24.46) shown a s curve (2). Cnrvo (1) ~)roviclcsa furt,llcr compzrison wit.11 t1hc theory due t o W. Tollmicn [52]. The mixing 1cngt.h tllcory lends hcrc also t o a vclocity distrihut.ion curve wlticll is sonicwllat t.oo pointcti near thc mnximum, whereas eqns. (24.46) givc exccllcnt agreement ovcr the wf~olcwidt.11. 'I'hc pnttcrn of stream-lines is &own plotter1 in Fig. 24.10. IL is seen tllat the jet draws in a t its,haoundary fluid from t h e srlrrounding ma.ss at, rest, so t l ~ a thc mass of fluid carrictl by the jet increases in a downstream t tiirection. The mass of fluid carried a t a dist,ancc x from the orifice can l)c ralculat.ed from eqn. (11.18). Inserting the above valnc for F,, we obtain

Wr h n v r K

2n

/
0

rt2y

tly.

Calculat,ions on the velocity and tcmpcraturc distributions in two-tli~nc~~sional and circular jets havc also becn carried out by 1,. IIowartll [21], both on the basis of I,. Prandtl's and of G. I. Taylor's assumption conrcrning turbnlcnt, mixing. 'l'llr mechanism which governs thc mising of a jct issr~ir~g from a circr~lartlozzlc wit,lr the fluitl in a large pipe was studied cxpcrirnentally I)y K . Irikt,orin [IjB]. 'l'hc experiments covered a range of values of tile velocity ratio in the pipe to t h a t in the jet of from 0 t o 4. Compared with the mixing of a free jet wit.11 the s ~ ~ r r o ~ l n d ing fluid i t i s noticed t h a t the pressure increases in t,l~e direction of flow in :I m:rllnrr

750

X X I V . I'rrr. t.i~rht~lnnt flow^; j n b

R I ) ~vakcs ~

c. Examples
3

75 l

\vliic:h rrsc:tnl)lrs t,Ile pl~cnomrnnnonr a sucl(lcn incrcnsc in cross-scrt.ionn1 nrcn nntl somctitncs t1rscril)ctl ns (::1rriott's loss. A tfhcorct,icnl cnlculxt1ion bnsccl on I'mntf(,l's tni sing Irngtli hy l)otlicsis sliowctl t h a t t,hc vclority dist.ribution l~chnvcs in t,ho s:lrlir \tray ns in n t:ircsr~la.r\ w k c (witlt.11 z-'/", centre-line vrlocity - ~ - ~ 1 : ' ) .

\\'l~cii $1, jet, of fini1.r wiclt.11 rmcxrgrs ir1t.o n ~ ~ n i f o r ~ n st-ream, tJio urliforn~vclocity tlist.ril)rit,ion I)rc~oii~rs l.r:~nsfortnc*t1 1lc.n.r t,lio n1o11t.hof tho nozzlc ittto the prccctlirig prolilc. 'l'lir case in Iinntl \vn.s sl,t~jlirtl11y A. h7. J<r~rt~lic [24] and 11. B. Squire nntl J . 'I'ro~~nccr 1981. 'J'~trl)~~lcnt issuing i11t.on pn,mllcl llow whosn vnlocit,y is 11, jotas clifTvr Prorn W:IIZCS ror1~1(:(1 l)oI~i~l(l single 1)otlics rssr~it.i:~lly in tlint t l ~ o only sign of 7 ~ , in rrln. (24.31) is ol~positc;in n jct 76 > I ] , , wllcrrns in n waltc IL < U,; . 111 p:wtic:r~lar, at. n largo c\ist,anrc from t,hc orifice wllerc we hnve 111, I IJ,, we find t,li;~t t.lio Inws wl~ic:l~ r s r r i l ) ~ tl t,lic st~rc!nclingof tlic jet nrc tho sxnic ns those given in 'l'nl,lf: 24.1 for t.ho t,wo-clii~irnsion:~l n.xinl1y synlrnotric waltc. Now, 11. Rciclmrdt or 1321 tlisrovt:rrtl on tlic: I~asis csl~c~t~itnont.s t.hc tlist,ribution of t,otnl prcssrlrc, of tJint t,lint, is, of c:xrc\ss r n o m r n l r ~ n ~

is turbulcnt. The earliest experiments on such a configuration were pcrformcd in I934 by E. Foerthmann [ I l l . Later mcnsurcrnents are due t o A. Sigalla [37] and 1'. 13nrlte [3]. E. Foerthmann discovered t h a t the velocity profilcs are self-similar, rlisrcg,zrtling the immediate do\vnst.rearn dist,ance from the slit; they cnn be described by t,hc cguntion This tlernonst,rates tlint, thc vclocity mnxinium tlecreasrs as x-112 nntl t,liat t,lie witlt,ll of the velocit,y profilc itlcrenses as z,where z denotes a fictitious diatnnce ~ I T I I : ~t.lic cxit slit. Evaluating the distribution of shcaring stresses, F. Foerthmann foniltl t,l~nt the mixing length follows a law of the form

<

where h rlcrlotcs t11c width of the ~valljct. The preceding results were confirmed by the measurements undcrtalrcn by A. Sigalla [37]. It was ascertained t h a t the local sticaring stress is

npproxim:ltrs a Clniissi:~n cIistril)r~tionovrr tlie witlth of t h r jet, e x r r p t i n the proximity of tlir orilirr itsvlf 1 L cbnii, tl~crrforc,IIP rrprc~rrit~rtl I tlic forrnuln I ~
-. .

I L ~ 1Jm2 -urn2-'1 ,(

= rxp

1-

(In 2 ) (y/b)'-

J.

TIIP tnrnsurc of witltli, I), was so cl~oscnns t o satisfy the co~ltlit~ion that
-

where u is t.he maximum velocity of the wall jct, and dl is tile corresponding dist,ance , from the wall.

e2

",n

Z ,- Uti, -.

for

y =b

A [~npor11y , I . F. IZcffrr ant1 W. 1). IZnines [22] treats tlie case of a turbulent jet untlcr t h r itifli~encrof nn external st,rcnm tlirect,ed a t riglit angles t o it. A paper by It. \Yille (581 sttrnrna~.izes cxpc>rimcnt.nl invest.igat.ions on free jet.8.
B~loynnt jetn: Tliroret.iral prediot,io~is m o n ~ e n t ~ r jet8 and forced plrimes disof ~rn chnrgctl into a homogcneotis or stratificd infinite ambient atmosphere of different tlc~isit~y clopend on l~uoyancy forcrs. These forces I~nve vital effect on the diffusion a rncclin.nisnl of n jot,. nlt,l~ough basic ttheory with its boundary layer assumptions is the gci~ernllgrct.ninecl. 'rlic appronch is the mcthod of integral balance laws of mass, mome~lt~urn energy and the cmcrging system of differential equations is completed and by a so-cnllcd cnt,rnintncnt. I~ypot~hcsis. litcraturc of tllis subject is vast [ l b , 20a, 'rhc 241,J. '1'11rl.n is cxporirnctlfa,l cvitloncc, Ilowevcr, thnt the ~tsunl bo~intlnry lnycr nssllmpt,ion can 11c rcln.xed in buoyant jct,s and plumes, a t least a.t larger tlist,atiocs froni t,hc nozzlo. In t.liis conncxion tthc papcr by Mr. Schncitlcr [36e] may klso be n~rtit,ionrcl.
1

7. The two-dimensinanl wnll jet. A two-dimensionnl jet is formed when a fluid jct of large lntcral wicltth issues from a narrow opening and flows along a wall on one side, t,hc ot.her side mixirig with a n expanse of fluid a t rest. Thus, the velocity distrihution ncq~tircsthe nntrlrc of a boundary lnyer near t h r wall but becomes that. of n frrr j r t n t n larger distance from it, see Fig. 24.11. I n most practical cases, the flow

Fig. 24.11. Velocity di~t~ribution a two-dimenin aional wall jet after the memorementa of N. V.C. Swamy et al. [44]. The similarity law stated in eqn. (24.48) ia aatiafied well

762

XXIV. Frcc t8~~rl)ulcl~t jcta arid wnltcs flows;

The first attempt to describe the circrtmstances of a wall jet by theory was underB taken by M. . Glauert [16]. Thc former was considerably improved by E . A. Eiehelbrrnner et al. [13]. The semi-empirical theory succeeded for the first time in predicting the separation of a wall jet. Subsequently, J. S. Gartshore and B. (2. Newman [I41 establislled an integral-momentum method which was based on very extensive meamade it possible surements. Thesc includcd wall jcts wit,ll injection. 'rhe calc~tlation of to determine tlte tlumcrical valr~c the momentum coefficient that is necessary t o avoid separation of the wall jet. T~urtllerexpcrimental results can bc found in the papers by P. Bmdshaw and M T. Gee [4] as well as of V. IZrrrlta and S. Rskinnzi [23]. Tllc account by P. Thomas [51] describes expcrirrlcnts concerning thc mixing of a turbulent,, two-tlimensional jet boundetl by a wall on one side with nn external flow on the other. Two-ditnensional jete on lligllly convex, curved walls exhibit the wcll-lrnown C:nn.)~rln cffrct, that is the adherence of the jet over wide tlistances along the wall in the flow directiofi. Experimental and t,heoret,ical investigations into the pattern ereatcd by a plane jet flowing nlong the contour of a circular cylinder have been cn.rrird out, by -1. Gersten [Is]. 17. A . Dvoralr [lo] deals with the calcnlat.io~i turbuof Irnt I)o~lncla,ry 1a.yorson highly convex, curvet1 wall^, pn.ying special attontion t,o wall jcte flowing along cnr\~ctlwalls. Wall jets are employed in practice for boundary layer cont,rol and in fill11 cooling; compn.rc a,lso H.G. Ncwrnan [25a.], A . hTcl,ral [24c, 24tlI anti I). W. Young [ROa]. Thrre-rlirnr~wionnl unll jrls with a finite ratio of the two sides have been recently stutlirtl expcri~ncntnllyIjy 1'. M . Sforzr~ nntl G. Ilt.rl)st [42], 1)y 1%. i . Nrwmnn ct, nl. ( [25J, by N. V.C. Swnrny nnd U 11. Gowtlre 1431, as wcll as by N.V.C. Swaniy antl 1'. Bandyopatfhyay [44] 'rliese measurcmcnts revealcd a very fast ratc of spreading of the jet in the spanwise direction and the existence of a very different fictitious origin for the growth of the widtll of the jet In the parallel as opposed to the normal wall direction. e. Dill'r~sion of tempernlure in free t ~ ~ r l ~ u l eflow rit
r

mixing-length theory the mechanisms of the transfer of ~norncnt~tin~ 11r:et i t 1 :~,titl free turbrllor~t flows are itletit~icalwhich means t,hnt A, ant1 A,, are nss~ltnr~l c:cl11:11 to each other. The messuretncnt pcrformctl by A. 1i'nge anti V. M. I~:ilkticr1.50) in t.hc wake behind a row of heat,ctl bars have showtl that t,l~e t,cmprmtrrrc prolilo is \vitlcr than the velocity profile antl that, by way of approxi~nat~iorl, mn.y assrtritc wc A, = 2 A,. This rcsrllL agrccs with Cr. I. T:cylor's tlicory which was t1isc:rrssctl in Scc. X I X c , and according to which brlrl)rtlcnt mixing ~not~ion c:~,tlscs:LII t.xc:ltnngc: of vorticity rather than m o i n e n t ~ ~ m . problem of t,llc tliIFrlsiorl of tetnprratnrc The in free t,rlrbttlcnt flows was also consitlcrctl I)y It. 1tciclta.rtlt 1301, who tn:~.tl(> I)ot.l~ tlicorctical ant1 cxpcrirnont,al contribrtl,ions. 'J'he thcorctir:d work is closoly rol:~~ctl to t.ltat tlcscribed in tiic prccecling scctioti. First, empirical rt:lat,ions have bco~l tlrtlr~cctl for the temperature profile from exp~rimcnt~al results in the same way as was tlonc previously for the velocity (ni~ment~rtrn) distsribution, I~ypothescson turbrtlcnt flow having been avoided. On the basis of an argument which we sl~allomit. l~cre, Rcichardt s~tceecdedin ticriving a rcn~arlrnble rclat.ion I)ctwecti l,hc t~ctnl~c~~.;~I.~trc and the velocity clistribution. This is given by
T
Tmnz

= (ufn:)Ar'Aq

(24.60)

Hers, the subscript m a s refers t,o the n~aximntnvalues, and the sc:llt:s for 11. :111(1 7 ' must I)c so rcrrattgctl ns l,o rcntlnr Ll~c~)oinl,s W I I ~ C I I TC r 0 n ~ ~7' l . - 0 t . o i ~ t ( . i < l v ~ ~ t . . li)r t Iteichartlt's experimental results for the two-tlin1cnsion.21 jct (Fig. 24.13) :~.tltlli)r the two-dirncnsional wa,ke show good agrccnlcnt wit11 t,hc law TIT,,,,, -- (~II/~I,,,,,)'/~ whiclr implies A,/A, = 2 in n.grccrncnt,wit,l~ G.1. l'nylor's tllcory 1601. Menstlrc~nlc~~ts on thc tcmperatr~retlisLril)rrtion in n Ilcal,ctJ, circrrlar t r ~ r b ~ t l cjot,t 1tt1.v~ r~ I)rc:t~~ w r formed by S. Corrsin and M. S. Uberoi [a], as well as by J . O . Winze and 13. G . van tlcr IIegge Zijnen [20]. The temperature distribution behind a plane row of bars was also measured by R. Gran Olsson as was reported in a paper already quotcd [l!)]. Mixing of coaxinl turbulent jets issuing with differerrt velocities and temperntr~res
in a pipe: Theoretical and experimental investigations concerning the mixing of co-

I hc proccss of turb~tlenttnixirtg caltscs a tlransfcr of the proprrt,ics of the flr~itl

7

in a tlirot:l,ion at, right angles to thc main stream. On the onc hantl the mixing ntotiori enltsrs ~nottlcttlicmto flow awny from Llto tnriin sl,rc:tm, on the otllcr I~:it~tl, p:rrt.iol(:s srts~x:ntlt:d in the Ilrtitl (1lo:cting particlrs of dust, chcmical adtlit.ivcs) arc tlirectccl into the stream, and in atltlit,ion there is a transfer of heat, that is a diKrlsiotl of a tempcrature field. The intensity of the transfer of a given property in turbulent motion is asctally tlcscribctl I)y a suitjal~le coefficient. Denoting t,l~e coefficient for momrntrtm tmnsfcr by A , ant1 that for heat I)y A,, we earl define them (sccScc.XX11Ia) k. writing 1y

Ilere 11, ant1 r , T tlertofc morncl~tuma,rltl hcat per unit mass, respectively, and t and q clcnotfe the lltlx of momentum anti heat ( = quantity of heat per unit area ant1 tinic) rc~pecl~ively. t,his conncxion 14 and T denote temporal means. Since the In mechanisms for the transfer of momeritrtm and heat are not iclent,ical the values of A , ant1 A, arc, generally spealring, different. However, accortling to Prantltl's

axial trirbulent jets issuing wit11 different velocitics and temperatures in a pipe wcre carried out by S . R . Ahmed [I] in tllc incompressible case, Fig. 24.12. In this case, the inner jet moved with a moderately larger temperature and velocity than tlitl the outer jet,. The most important pnranictcr wl~icllgovcrns tllc mixing prooc>ss I.III.IIS out L bo the ratio U* = I L ~ of the two jcts, ~wllcrc u~~ f o o ~ ~ / ~ untl tlonot(: 1 . 1 1 ~ velocities in the inlet cross-section of the inner and outer jet, rcspcctively. l'hc ctlualization of momentum as well as of temperature depends on this parameter. Tlte diagram in Fig. 24.12a reprcscntx thc variation along t.hc pipe axis of t,lto mtio ulr/ueo cleterminetl theoretically by S . R . Ahmctl (I] in t c r ~ n s t,Itc: volocil,,y ol' ratio U* = uIro/uso. The diagram in Fig. 24.121) depicts tltc snmc tluanl,ity in tc'r~ns of the t,emperature ratio @* = Olro/Oso Both diagrams contain cxpcrimcnt~al point,s for comparison. H.ere Oeo and Oso denote the tctnperatr~re the i~iner outcr jet. of or in the pipe inlet. The agreement between theory and measuremenf is gootl. 'l'hr. influence of the temperature ratio @* on tile mixing process is insignificarit in t.llr range covered by the measurements. Natural convectiot~,i. r. the difi~sionof t,emperat,ure in a st,rrn~n erentc.d Ijy tl~ermal In~oy,zncy, was investigated I)y W. St~hmitlt, who cotlsidcrctl tltr followitlg [36]

754

XXJV. Frce turht~lentROIVB: jets and wakes

Exp.

Rcfcrenccs

755

a
0 0

A
A

"..

1.0 ;

a
O.gO

bl

.
2

X
~

r
6

lhewy

--

x
d

10

Fig. 24.12. The tnixing of coaxial turbulent jets of different velocit~ies and temperatures in a pipe, after S. R. Ahmcd [la]. Variations of the velocity along the nxis of the pipe n) for vnrious velocity rntios U* = u r r o / ~ s o t a constant value of the a tetnperntr~re rntio O*; b) for vnrio~ta values of t.lie temperature ratio Q* = Olro/Oso a t a constant value of the velocity. F* = frro/fso der~otes the nrea ratio of the inner jet L the whole jet o

two cases: 1, two-dimensional [low above a lincar sorlrce of heat placed on a horizotlt,al floor and 2. &xi-symmetrical flow above a point-source. I n both cases thc width of the velocity and temperatmureprofilc increases in clircct proport.ion to the height abovc the floor, x. I n the two-dimensional cnsc thc voloait-y rcmains constant a t all heighbs, whereas the temperalure dccreeses as x-1. I n thc axially symn~etricxl casc the velocity is proportional to 2-113, the temperature being p r ~ p o r t ~ i o r ~ a lx-514. to The two-dimensional case was treated theoretically on the basis of Prantltl's mixinglength theory (transport of rnomcntum) as well as on thc basis of G. I. Taylor's vorticity tmr~sporttlteory. The nxially ~ymmetricnl casc corild bc invcst~igntcd only with the aitl of Prarldtl's t,hcory bccausc (. I. Taylor's tlicory brcnlts clown in thig : case. Measurements performed for thc axi-syn~met~rical conf rm t.11~ enso tl~corrl,ical cslculations. The diffusion of temperature behind a point-source atit1 behind n Linear source placed in the boundary layer on a flat plat,c were investigatetl experi~ucntslly by I<. Wieghartlt [56].I n the case of the point-source i t is found t h a t the transfer of lrcnt is much largcr sideways than a t right anglcs to thc wall. The paper oont,nitls equations which allow us to transpose thc experirncntal results to sirnilnr cnscs. 111 this connexion the paper by B. Frost [12] may also be consulted. Temperature fluctuations in a turbulent wake have been measured by D. W. Schmidt and W. J. Wagner [45].

References

ant1 in & jet. [Fig. 24.18. 'I'c.~nl)crat.~~rc volocit,y dis(.ril)~~t.io~i two-di~iicnsional Mcasurcntent.s arc (lnc to Jtricl~:~r(lt, 1291
Cllr<*. ( I ) : curve ( 2 ) :

alrr,,,,,
vt/~,,,,,~

-- r x p (--- I - t

tt'):

- l ~ t ~ l ~ CIIII. t( Z~ . ~ 5 ,) ; ~ ( 4 1

r v r r r (3):

TIT,,,,, = c.rv (-- ) '19 = (~l~,,,nr)l/qr,ln. (24.r,,,r

[I] Abrnmovicli, G.N.: The theory of turbulent jets (Trnnslntion fiorn the Russiort). MI'I' P r c ~ , Cambridge, Maas., 1963. [In] Alnned, S.R.: Die Vern~ischt~ng konxinlcn und Lrtrbtllcttte~iStrnhlcn verscliicrlrttcr von Gescli~sindigkcit und Tentperatur in einent ltohr. Disu. Braunscllwcig 1970. VI)I-l'orscl~u~igsheft 547, 18-30 (1971). [Ib] Albcrlson, M.L., Dai, Y.R., J ~ n n o n ,R A . , and Itortsc, H.: l)iIT~tniottof R I I ~ I I I I P ~ R Pjets. C~ Trnns. Am. Soe. Civil Rtigrs. 115, 639-606 (1050). 121 Andcrlik, E.: Math. termeszett. E r h 52, 54 (1935). Antonia, 1E.A.. ant1 Rilgcr, R. W.: The h e ~ t c d round jet iti n collowing strcnrn. Al AA J 14, 1541 -1547 (1976). [3] Barke, P.: An experimcntal inveatigntion of a wall-jet. JFM 2, 407-472 (1957). [4] Bradshaw, Y.,and Gee, M.T.: Turbulent wall ]eta w ~ t h and without an external strcnrn. ARC RM 3252, 1-48 (1962). [5] von Bohl, J.G.: Daa Verhalten parnlleler Luftatrahletl. 1ng.-Arch. 11, 295-314 (1040). [6] Bourque, C., and Nswmann, B.G.: Re-attachment of a two-dimensional inco~nprcasiblc jet to an adjacent flat plate. Aero. Quart. 11, 201-232 (1960). [7] Cordes, G.: Statischc Druck~nessung torbulentcr Striimung. 11ig.-Arch. 8,245-270 (1037) in [8] Corrsin, S,, and Uberoi, M.S.: Furt.hcr expcrimcnta on the flow and heat transfcr in n heated turbirlortt air jot. NACA TN 998 (1060). [9] Davies, I1.R.: Thc problctn or dilTusion into n turbulotil. bonntlary lnyer front n plnne area source bounded by two straight -perpendicular edges. Quart. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 7,468471 (1954). [lo] Dvorak, F.A.: Calculat.ion of titrbulent bonndnry layers nrtd wall jets over ct~rvcd nnrfacea. AlAA (1973). .-- J. 11. 517-524 [ l l ] Fiirthmann,'E.: u b e r krbulento Strnhlnnsbreitung. Dim. Gijttirigcn 1003; 1ng.-Arch. 6 , 42-54 (1934); NACA TM 789 (1936). [I21 Frost, B. :Turbulence anddiffusion in the loner atmosphere. Proc. Roy. Soc. A 186,20(1946). [13] Eichclbrenner, E.A., and Dumargue, P.: Le prohli.tnc du "jet pnribtnl" plnrt en r6gitno turbulent Dour un Oconlement extkrieur do vitcsse U, constanto. J. Mbcnniqrte I, 109-122 and I, 125-134 (1962).

[k]

756

XXIV. Prrc torl)ulent flows; jeta and wakes [36a] Schrreider, W. : Uber den CinfluB dar Schwerkreft anf at~iuother~~i, t~~rbrltcnto Ifrc.intrnl~lo~~. Abh. Aerod. Inat. T.H. Anelion, No. 22, 69- O5 (1976). 137) Sigalla, 8.: Menaurernentn of skin friction in plane turbrrlent wall jot. J. Jtoy. Acro. sot. 62, 873-877 (1958). 1381 Squire, H.B., and ~touncer,J.T.: Itound job in a general sl.rontn. AltC ItM 1!)74 (1!)44). 1301 Sqttirc, I1.U.: Itoconsidoration of the theory of free k~rbule~ico. Mag. 3) 1 20 ( I ' J , ~ H ) , I'hil. !, 1401 Squire, I1.B.: J e t flow and ita effect on aircraft. Aircarft Enginraring 22, 62-67 (1950). [41] Swain, L.M.: On the turbulent wakc behind a body of revolutiort. I'roc. Roy. Roc. Jmndott A 125, 647 --059 (1929). [42] Sforza, P.M., and IIerbat, G.: A study of three-dimcnsiond incompremiblc turbnlont wall jet. AIAA J . 8, 276--283 (1970). [43] Swnmy, N.V.C., and Clowcln, Il.I1.1~.:Cl~nrnchrisLic~ tlrrc:o-din~otiuiotrnl of wnll jot^. % I P \ ~ , 22, 314---323 (1974). [44] Swamy, N.V.C., and J3andyopadhyay, P.: Mean and turbolcncc characteristics or tlireodimensional wn.ll jets. JFM 71, 541-562 (1075). [45] Sclunidt, 1).W., and Wagtier, W.J.: Mcnarlrenlenta of the tctnpcrature lIrlct.unt.ionn in turbulent wakes. ZPW 22, 10- 14 (1974). [4G] Sznblcwski, W.: Zur Thcorie der tr~rbulent~en Strij~nnn von Gwen &ark vrriindrrlicher Diclrto. I h n . (.:iittingcn 1!)47; T~rg.-Ar.c:l~. 67--72 (1852). 20, [47] Szablewaki, W.: Zeitlicl~eAnlliiaung einor ebcnen Trcnnlrng~fliiclictlcr Ccscl~wintligkcit und Dichte. ZAMM 35, 464-468 (1955). [48] Szablewski, W.: Turbulente Vcrmischung zweier ebener LufL~kalllcn vor~fast glcicbcr Geachwinrliglccit rand utrirk ~ltlt~rsc:l~iotlli~:lim 're1111)crrittlr. 111g.-ArcIi.20, 73 80 (1952). [49] Tnnl!cr, M.: J':itlflnqsdcu I<cilwirllccls RIIC don A l i ~ i l i c l ~ k c i t ~ ~ ) ~ ~ r ~ ~ l ~ i c ~ n r \'ordor (.ttrl~t~ltrll(.c!t~ -,'.-l~otr~prcarril~lcr St,ri)tnltng. IPor~cIig. I t i ~ . - W m .!, 121 -12.5 (l!)7:1). 31 n (.r~ir~n~~orL of vor(.i(:iI.y nncl hcnl l.hro11~11~ r i ( I n it1 I.II~IIIIII!III.~ # > I i o t ~ . fI ~l Page and V.M. l'alkncr. L'roc. Roy. Soc. A 135, 085--706 (i!):~). ~.erstichongcn uher die Grcnzschicht an eincr Wand al.ro~r~abwiirts citrcni volt "rhnndl. Wisa. Gea. Brnnnnch\\~cig 1-17 (1903). 1.5, .,crccl~nung I.urbulctitcr Atlnl)rrit~lngsvorgiitige.ZAMM 6 , 468~-478(1!)2(i): 4 5 (1945). ./.: Die von J<(rr~nhnschc Ali~~licl~koital~~~~otllcse in der Turbolcllz-'Tl~aoricr111d drlc Windschattcnproblcn~.11ig.-Arch. 4, 1- 15 (1933). owns send, A.A.: Momentrlln and enrrgy tliKiroiorl in the t ~ ~ r b ~ ~ l c r i t of n oylintlor. wakc I'roc. Itoy. Soc. Lontlon A 197, 124-140 (1949). [55] Vikloril~,I<.: ~lntcwtrclt~lttgcn t~trl~ltlc:rr(n!r Mis~ltvorgiittgc.1'10r:9c/tg. 111g.-Wca. I2. I(; .-:I0 (1!)4l); NACA 'I'M 10!)6 (1!)46). (561 Wicghardt, I<.: Ubcr Atral~miltlngsvor~t~ge in Inrbrrlo~tcn Itcibur~g~ncl~icl~t~o~~. 28, XAMM 346-355 (1948). [57] Wille, It., and Ferr~ltolz,H.: Report on the Iriwt Mcchnnics Colloqnium on t,he Conncla e h c t . JPM 23, 801-819 (1965). [58] Wille, It.: Beitriige zur l'liiinolnenologic (lor Frcistrablon ('I'hird Ott,o-Lilientl~nl-Lecture 1962). ZPW 11, 222--233 (1903). 1591 Wucqt, W.: T u r b u l e ~ ~ Mischvorgnnge in zylindriachen 11nd kogcIig.cn Pnngdiiscn. Z. VI)I tc 92, 1000- 1001 (1950). [(iO] Yan~agrrcbi, Tt~rbuler~te S.: Verrnisc1111ngrincs ebcticn Strnlrlcs in glcic:ltgcric:hlot,er A~tsscnstriirnr~tig.1ng.-Arcb. 35, 172- 180 (1!)6(i). [OOnJ Yonng, 1). W., nnd Zonnru, I).: Wintl t.t~r,t~cl trstn of 1 . 1 1 ~ (~oancln~airig nrrd 110%7,1c-. IJSA I? 'Scchn. J<eport,GI!)!) (1!)50). [Gl] Zin~ni,W.: Ubcr die St,riin~~~ngnvorgiinge frricn LuftaI.ralil. V1)I-l~orncliungnl~db in) 234 (1921). I621 noports of the AVA Gottingcn, Ergcbniwe tlcr Acrorlynamiscl~en Verstlcl~sanst~nlt Oiittingen. R. Oldenhonrg, blunclien, Vol. 2, GO-77 (1023).

[14] Gartnhore, ,J.S.,end Newman, B.G.: The turbulent wall jet in an arbitrary pressure gradient. Aero. Q,uart. 20, 26-66 (1969). 1151 Gcrsten, I<.: Flow alotig highly crlrvcd aurfaccs. LBct~rre EUROMECH I, Berlin 1966; st - aeo also [57]. [I61 Glauert,, M.B.: The wall-jet. J F M I , 625-643 (1956). 117) Gooderum, P.B., Wood, G.I'., and I3revoort. M.J.: Investigation with an int.erferometer of the turhulcnt mixing of a free supersoriic jet. NACA Itep. 968 (1950). [18] Gort,ler, H.: nerechnung von Aufgaben dcr freien Turbulenz arlf Grrlrid cines neuen Naherungannsalzes. ZAMM 22, 244 -254 (1942). [lo] Grnn Olsson, It.: Geschwindiglrcits- nnd Tcmperaturverteilung hinter einem Gitter bei turbrllc~ltnrStromtlng. ZAMM IG, 257-2G7 (1938). 1201 Minzc, J.O., and vnn (lor Hrggo Zijnon, I%.C.: Trnr~sfer boat and tnnttrr in tlie t~trbnlorlt of nlixine zone of en nxiallv svrnrnctric jct. Yroc. 7th Irltcrn. (Iongr. Appl. Mocli. 2, P s r t 1, .. " " 286-599 (1948). j20aJ Ilirst, 13.: Buoyant jet dixhnrged into qrliencctit stratifictl nnlbienb. J. Gcophys. Rcs. 76, 7375--7384 (1971). [21] IIownrth, L.: Coricerning tlie velocity and teniperature distributions in plane and axially symniet,ricel jets. Proc. Canibr. Phil. Soc. 34, 185--203 (1038). [22] Kcffcr, J.F., and Dnincs, W.D.: The round turhulrnt jet in a cross-wind. J F M 15, 481-496 (1903). [23] ILrnkn, V., ant1 Eskinazi. 8.: The wall jet in a moving stream. J F M 20, 555-579 (1904). 1241 A.M.: ~nvestigationsof tlic turbulent n~ixirig regions formed by jets. J. Appl. - - IC~~clho, Mccb. 2, 87--95 (1!)35L [24n] hlollaml~indian,S., Sailey, M., and I'crrlms, J.: Jclrtid ~nixirlgwith nnequnl freo-rrtreani Lt~rb~tlc~tco intr.~~sit,ion. I'lr~i(ls ICII~. ,I. 'I'ratr~.ASM 1': I, 98, 229-235 (1976). [24l,] List,, 1C. II., nncl I111t1crgc.r.J . : 'T~rrl~itlonl, rnt.r;rin~nrnl n b ~ ~ o y n j ~ t .~ i t r l nntl IIIIIIIICR. ,J. Ityclr. j)iv. ASCl3 99, F Y 9, 1461- 1474 (1973). L [24c] Metral, A.: S ~ t r pl16nolni:ne de cl6vint.iotr tlm vei~lr,.lRnidos e t sea applioalions. Effet un Coantin. Cabinet Tccliniq~rc Minintbre de I'Air (1!)38). (III [24tl] Mct.ml, A,, nntl Zrrncr, I?.: 1,'cFTct Coat~tln.J'nl)licnt,ion Scicntifiqrtcs e t Tcchniqtrcs dtl Minis1hr.c tle I'Air, No. 218 (1!)48). hlOS. 1'1 1$/'1' 4027 (1!)5:3). [25] Ncwmntr, B.G., Pntr.1, It.P., Snvago, S.B., and Tjio, H.K.: Thrcc-dimensio~ialwall jet originnting froni a circular orifice. Aero. Quart. 23, 188-200 (1972). [25n] Nc\\.~nnn,1%. 'l'llc tlcllcctiot~ III~IIIC jets I)y ndjcaent. bo~tntlarics-- Coandn elfcct. G . V. (:.: of I.ncIi~nn~in (~(1.):Ilolrn~lary Lnycr nncl I'low (:otiLrol. I'crgnn~on Prcss. Vol. 1, 232--264 (InGI). 1261 I'ai, S.I.: I'lrtid ctynncniw of jcta. New York, 1054. [26a] I'fcil, 11.. nntl ICillcr, J.: Zur I'rngc clcr RcIlr~bs~)nn~i~~~~gsvcrteilurig cboion frcicn fiir dic t.url)rrlcrlteti Slriirnnngen. l~orsclig.Ing.-\Vea. 41, 105--180 (1975). [261)1 I'fcil, H., and l':ifler, J.: I\lcssnngc?nit11 tt~rbnlcntcnNar!hlarrf des J1:inzelzylinrlern. Forachg. 111g.-WCR.1 , 137-- 145 (1975). 4 1271 PmnclL1, I,.: Tlic ~nec:hanicaof viscous fluids. 111 W.F. Dtlrnnd (or].): Acrodynnmic Theory, I I l , I6 -208 (1!):35); scc also I'roc. Ilntl Intern. (:ongrcas Appl. Mech. Ziiricli 1926. 1281 Rcirlinrtlt, 11.: Ubor cine nauc Thcoric dor fmien Ttzrbcllcna. ZAMM 21, 257-264 (1!)41). 12!)1 Itcicharclt,. H.: (~csetzrniiRsi~kritcn freien Turbulenz. VDI-lporschungsheft 414 (1942). der 2nd ed. 1651. [:301 Itoirhnrclt, 11.: 11111)1tls. I I I ~W i i r ~ ~ i r : ~ ~ ~ ~ illnf~ t si r :rI ~~ ~ r b ~ ~ lZAMM. 24, 268--272 I t, re ~ T et~z (1944). [311 Ikirl~arclt,IT., nnd IErmshn~ts,It.: I~npulsnnd Wiirnloiibcrtrag~lngin tnrbulcnten Windarl~attcn hinter Robtionakiirpcrn. Int. J. Heat Ma Transfer 5, 251-265 (1902). 1321 Itcichardt. 11.: 'rurbulcntc Stmhlaosbreitnng in gleichgerirhteter Grvrndstromnng. Forschg. 111g.-U'os.30, 1f:t- 13!) (IV(i4). 1331 Ilrttlcn, I).: 'l'~trl)~~lcnto Allshrcit,~lng PrcistrahJ. Nat,1~rwimenact1afterer1 itn 21,378-378 (1993). 1341 Sawyer, l<.A.: 'l'hc flow c11~c o 11 two-dirnensional jet issuing parallcl to a flat plate. .JVM L, 0 , 543- 5(iO (I!)(iO). .1x51 Srl~lichtinp,(I0:lo). (Ins cbcnc \?'ir~rlacl~nt,tenproblcm.Diss. (:iit.tingen 1030; Ing.-Arch. - 1 , 5:1:\ --57I 1-1.: Ubor (3GJ Srlra~i(l~.. r l j ~ r l ~ ~ ~~Zl Ir I~S ~ tI ,~ ~ (%it~rsI I ~ \V.: ~ ~ ~ ~ , I St,rotncs erIiit.ztrr ~,~lft.. I ZAMM 21, 205--274 anrl 35 I :)li:3 ( I!kk I).

.-

.,

>

.L -

b. The expcrimetltol method due to nets

759

CIIAPTER X X V

Determin~ation profile drag of

a. General remarks The t,ol.aI tlrag on a 1)otly placctl in a stream of fluid consists of ski~r./;iction (equal to thc intcgml of all slirnrii~gstrcsscs takcn over the surface o ~ ~ ~botly) l i e ant1 of Jorm or pre.T.surc, drag (integral of normal forces). Tho sum of th6 two is called totnl or pro/ils tlmg. 'rlic sltitt frictiolt can bc ~:~1~11lat~od some accuracy by the with rise of the rnct,liotls of the procccling cliaptrrs. The form drag, dhich docs not exist in frictionless subsonic flow, is due to the fact that the presence of (.he boundary layer modifics the pressurc distribl~t~ion t,he body as compared with ideal flow, but i t s on comput~ationis very difficr~lt.Consequently, reliable data on total drag must,, in general, bc obtained by measurement. I n more modern times methods of estimating the amount of profile drag have, nevertl~nless, been established. We shall discuss them bricfly in See. d of the present chapter. 1.11 many cascs the t l c b r m i n a t i o ~of total drag by weighing lacks in accuracy ~ bccarisc, when m e n s ~ ~ r c ~ r i rarcs perforlncd, for example, in a wind tunrlel, the drag nt on the srispcnsion wires is too largc compared with the force to be measured. I n some cases even, such as in frec flight cxperimcnts, its direct determination becomes impossible. In srrclr cases the mctliotl of tlctermitting profile d m g from the vclocit,y clis~rih~t,iott the wn.lzc (I'itot travrrsc met,hod), wliich has alreatly been clescribcd in in Cliap. I X , 1)ccotnrs vcr.y ~uscf~tl. Morcover, i t is often the only practicable way of pcrforrning this kind of tncasr~rctnent. priuciple i t can or~ly user1 in two-tlimenIn be sional and axially symntctricn.l cnscs, but we shall restrict ourselves to the consitleration of tlic two-dimcnsiont~lcasc. Thc formula in cqn. (9.2'7) whic:h was tlcdacer~in Chap. I X and wlii~liserves to dctorn~inc magriitr~tle tlrag from t,hc v ~ l o c i t ~ y t,hc of distribution in the wake is valitl only for co~nl)arat,ivcly largo ctisb~tces from the body. According to it t.he total drag on a botlyt is givcn 11y the cxprcssion:
+m

in t,he wake. The int.egra.1 must be taken a t s~lclt large tlistlancc from Mre body that a tlie static pressure a t the measuring section becomes equal to that in tlic r~ntlistrirbctl ~ t ~ r e a m . practical cases, whet,hcr in a wind tunnel or in frec flight incasr~romcnt,s, 111 i t is necessary to come mucli closer to the body. Consequently it becorncs nroessnry t o take irho acnorint the c~nt~ribution from trhe pressure b r t n ant1 eqn. (26.1) nlctst be inotlificrl. 'l'his correcttion term has an appreciable vhlr~owhcn r n c a s ~ ~ m m c are , ~ t~t performetl close to the body (e. g. a t distances lcss tldan onc cl~ordin tfhc case o f aerofoils) ancl i t is, therefore, important to have a compbrat,ivcly accuratc exprcswior~ for it.. The corrcctiorl tnrm was first calcr~latcclby A. I3ct,z 141 and 1at.or by 1%. Rf. tJorrcs [2G]. At prcsct~t~ most ~ricasuremci~b bcing cvalu:~tcclwi0li t,l~o of t.116 arc :lit1 f o r n ~ i ~ clue to Jones because of its compnmt,ive simplicit,y. Ncvcrihrlcss, wc: prola pose t.o cliscuss Bet,z's formula as well becausc it* cleri~at~ior~ exhibits scvcm.l very irit1crrsttirig f e a t ~ ~ r e s .

b. Tile cxperirner~tnlmethod due to Betz

\Yit.li rcfcmnec: 1.0 I'ig. 25. I we s~lcct. coritrol si~rfacc a arolintl t.11~ 1)ocly:i.s sliow~i. I n tlic rnbry cross-scctio~~in frorit of the body the flow is loaslcss, its total prcssuro 1 bring g,. Tho total 1)rc:ssltrc in cross-soct.iori I1 I)chirttl t.ho l)otly is !j2 , (I,.,. '1'110 : remaining cross-srct,ions of t,he control s11rf;lcc arc imaginocl placed far cnoirgl~from the body for the flow in t81iem to be untlistorbect. I n order to satisfy the condit.ion of continr~ity,tire velocity tc2 in cross-sect.ion I t nir~stin sorile places cxccocl t,l~e ~ ~ ~ ~ r I i s t , u velocity 11,. Applying tlic m o i n e n t i ~ ntlrcorcrn t o the control surf:~c:c rl)~cI ~ gives t.llc following aspression for the drag on a cylinder of length h :

I n order to ntlapt t.11isrq~li~t,ion tile c~nlriat~ion c x p c r i ~ n r n ~rcs111t.s is ~~cc~eswary to of ~ n l it,

1.0 t,mnsfornt l.he above int,cgmls so that trhey necct h r t l y bo cvnlunt.rtl ovvr tl~nt.

sect,ion of the velocit,y cr~rve which includcs the depression of plarlc: I 1 The total pressures satisfy the conditions:
;it.

irt

t,hc 1)rofilc.

inlinit.y:

900 = Pm
Bm = P I

+I

utx?
%2

$1

t cross-section 1 :

+ .K
1

I'

(26.3)

1) = = ~ Q / U ( U , - - u ) d y .
y=
-OD

(25.1)

Tlcro h tlrriot,rs tile Irngt,li of the cylitttlrical body i r t the direction of thc axis of the cylittdcr, I / , is the frcc-st,rcam velocity, and u ( y )dcnotcs thc velocity rlistxibution

I n Cllnp. TX tho totnl drag or1 a l>orly ~.la clrnokd hy 2 I) (for tho two ~ i d of the plate); ~ , 111 this chnptcr Llic sy~llbol is used for iL. U

The first integml already hns the tlcsirrcl form, I ~ c m ~ t s o total prcssrirtx is rt111aIt,o tfhc
g,, rvrrywlierc outsidr t l ~ c tleprcssion In order to transform the s c c o ~ ~inirgml in tl

760

XXV. 1)otcrminnLion of profilo drag

I n order t o determine the drag, D, i t is ncccssary to measure the total prcsslirc, g,, and tho static pressurc, p,, over the cross-scction I 1 bcl~intlt,lrc body. Thus wo also , , vclori1,y IL,' obtain g as i t is equal to g out,sicic tho clcpression. Thc l~ypothct~ical is (lcfincd in cqn. (26.5) from which i t can bc calc:i~l:~tctl. In cascs when the static prcssurc ovcr the measurir~gstation cquals that i l l tllc rrntlist.~lrhcdstrrarn, i. c. whcn p, = p,, wc also have u2' - IJ.,, : ~ n ( rcjn. (25.9) l transforms back into cqn. (26.1). I~cfirlinga tlirnensionlcss cocfficicnt of clrng I)y writing

the same way wc intro(1uce a hypothetical flow u,'(y) in cross-section II which is idCllt,i~al with IL, cvcrywhcrc o~ttsidc tlcprcssion but which differs from u, in the the of tllc dr1)rc~siotl LhaL 111~ in toLal ~rcssllro 1 ~ is~cqllal to gm. ' r h ~ ~ for '
gaJ=p2+

Ze~,'a.

(25.5)

since t,hc actrlal flow u l , u, satisfirs the equations of contir~nity, mass flow of the the hypot,llctical flow r l , 11,' is too largo across scction I[. 'Phis is cquivaleat to the exist,ellee of a source whiclt is locatccl, essantially, a t the body ant1 whose strength is

where qm = 11; denotes the dynamic prcssurc of t,hc oncoming steream nrld 1, x 1 is the reference area, we can rcwrite eqn. (25.9) to read:

Fig. 25.1. 1)ctornlitlntioll 01 profilc drng by tho method due to Bctz [4]

'I'his i~ t3ho tnost convcnior~t~ form for I,llo ovrtlllntiotl of o x ~ ~ o r i r n c ~I.(*HIIII.H. ~ l ~~l.r
doe to Jnues

c. T h e experinicntnl nicthncl

A source which cxists in a frictionless parallel stream of vclocity U, suffers a thrust cq11al to R = - - p u,Q. (25.7)
We now apply the momentc~mtheorem from cqn. (25.4) to the hypothctiml flow, i. e. we assume a velocity u l in sectioll I, and a velocity u,' in section XI. Since g =, ', g and since the r e s ~ ~ l t a n t force is equal to R from eqn. (25.7), we obtain

Some time later, I3. M.Jones [26] indicatcd a similar mcthod for the dctcrn~ination of profile drag. The final formula duc t o Jones is somcwhat simpler t,l~an that due t o A. net,z. The cross-section I1 (Fig. 25.2) in whicl~ measurements are performed is locatctl behind, the body at a short distance from i t ; the static pressure p, a t the measuring station is still markedly different from the static pressure in tlle undisturbcrl st~rcam. Cross-section I is placed so far bel~lndthe body that p, = pm. Applying ccln. (26.1) to cross-section I, we obtain

Subtracting this value from eqn. (25.4) we have

~+~~,Q=b(~(g,-q,)dy+-;e/(u;'-~~?dy).
111

(25.8)

view of eqn. (25.6) we have now

Each of t.hc above integrals necd only bo evaluated over the wake since outside i t ?I,' = r,. Sincc u' - uZ2= (u,' - 11%) ,, (u.~' %), the above can be transformed to f

Fig. 26.2. Dotcrminstion of profile drag by the method due to B. M. Jones [2F]

762

XXV. Determination of profile drag

due to Jones c. The experimental mct,l~od

7 63

I n order t,o confinc the determination of u, to the use of results obtained from measurementa in cross-section 11, we first apply tlhe equation of conbinuity along 8 streamtube euldy, = e u z d y . (25.12) Hence ~ = b ~ / u ~ ( ~ ~ - u ~ ) d y . (25.13) Secondly, accortling to B. M. Jones 1261, we make the assumption t h a t the flow proceeds from section I1 t o section I without losses, i. e. that the total pressure remains constant along every strcnm-line betwcw~the sLat*ionsI and 11:

A. D. Yor~ng1711 extended t.he applicability of Jones's mothod to comprcrrsihlc flows,

Itetracing the steps in that derivation, we apply the continuity cquat,ion for co~nprwsihlc flow.

el u, ~ and deduce the following formula for drag:

Y = I

el

dyt

(25.17)

Fiem, again, i l i8 n c m s a r y t cxprcae u, in torrns of t.lre qrrn~~tit,ic:s o tnmrcnrecl in plnno 11. In ~ l ~ o r m l ~ n w m p r m i b l e flow i t is necrmuary 10 rcplnco Jonra'e nna~~mpLiorl ~ n t = g, hy tito of tl g, mnutnpt,ion thnt the entropy remains constant along a atrcamlinc from plnr~cI1 to plane 1. This lends to the isentropic rclation

lntroil~icingthe total pressures

If, now, the stagnation p m u r e measured by the Pitot tube in cornpro~siblcflow is clonotctl by g, we have

we see from eqn. (25.13) that

= 2 6 1 d g ~ p2 (

--

- i&=-%) ~ z ~ dy ,

(25.15)

and i t can be vcrificd that e n (2.5.19) also lends to tlio rnonmpbion g, -- g,. 1.110 vrlr,rif.y cnn bc doternlined front t ~ h~r n o u ~ l i i c equation for co~~tprcssiblc ,Io,r, nnmnly
I
9-1
1

u.,

where t,he integml extends over cross-section 11. I n this case, as in the previous one, the integrand differs from zero only across the distr~rbwlportion of t h e velocity profile. Introducing a dimet~sionlesscoefficient., in thesame way as in cqn. (25.9a), and taking into account t h a t g, - pm = qm, we have

I n order t solvc the problem in principle, it, is only ncrc.usary to express tlrc vclocit,y 11, i11 terms o , of the measured prrasurea g and p, in plane 11. A mcaaurcmcnt of the totnl and stnlic prcssurcs in plane I1 is again sufficient for tlie determination of the drag of the body. However, the coniplic~ted relation between velocitiea and prewures in the compressible Bernoulli eqatbtion Icndn to a very cun~bemomc equation. For t,his rowon, A. D. Young cxpnntied tho vclocitics ?I., aricl u , into series of the form

also Jones's prccrtling c q ~ ~ n t i o n transforms into the simple equation (25.1) in cases when the static pressure a t the me,asuring station is equal to the undisturbed static pressure, pz = pm. A. 1). Yorrng [75] inclicatacl n transformation of Jones's formula which sirnplifie9 the e v a l ~ ~ a t ~ i o nt,hc intcgral in cqn. (25.16). The resulting equation contains of an ntltfitivr corrertion term npnrt from t,hc ir~bcgral t,he total prrss~lroloss taken of ovrr bhr tlrprcssiorl in t,hc vclocity profile. The correctiorl term depends on the allnpo of the vrlocity profilc in the measuring station, but i t can be computed once and for all. A critiral nppmis:ll of this method is contained in a note by G. I. Taylor [67]. The prcrc(ling two experimental mct,hotls have been used very f r c q u e ~ ~ t lfor y t.hn tlct~enninxt.ionof profilc drag 110th in flight snrl in wind tunnel measurements, [(i, 12, 16, 20, 38, 39, 61, 62, 69, 701, and have l r ~ $0 very satisfactory results. 11. l I)oc.tsc~h derno~~st.mt~cd both the 13etz and the Jones formulae can be uscd [6] that whcn the clist.nncc bctwccn the mcn.suring statmion bel~ind acroloil ant1 the aerofoil the il.sclf is as short as 5 pcr cont. cl~ortl.In this casc thc corrcct.ion term in Betz's formr~la r n o ~ ~ ~ ~RIIOII~, 1)crcent. of t,hc first term, not11 n~cthotls partvicularly a t,o t . s 30 are s~lit.ahle when the i~lfl\~cnc.c:strrfacc ro~~gltncsscs profile dmg is being determined of on as wall as t,o t,hc tlrt.rrrninnt.ion of the vnry stnnll drag of laminar nerofoils.

I n this manner, the terms in eqn. (25.15) derived by Jont.8 for the incomprc~siblccnsc. can now be separated, and tlic remaining terms can be nrrangrd in a jmww scrim in t c r n ~ s 1 110 hlnc.11 of number. T h l ~ s where ca, ( denotrrr t,llo drag coeflicicnt for tho incotr~prcssiblccnue, na given by eqn. (25.16), and the cocfficicnts Al, A,, . . rcpreaent certain integrals w11ich can be calcc~lnktlfrom tllc measured data in plane 11. Rcstxicting one~clfto low Mach nnn~bers,and I~cnceto two k r n ~ s in tlrc oxpansion (2.5.23), one ohtaina

764

XXV. I)ot.crtnin~rtioti profile drag of

Tt~e ndditionnl term which d~po~irls the Mnell nlnnber provides n negntivc contribution on to tllc drag cooffirirnt,. I t is poasiblc t.o cvalnxtc lllis ndditiot~al torrn once and for nll if a stlitable nsst~rnptioti nindc for tho shape of t,lie drpression i n the velocity profile i n tlie wake; this was i4 also (lone by A. I). Young.
'1. C n l c ~ ~ l o t iof ~profile drag o ~

Integrating over z from the trailing edge of the body (sub~cript1) to a stntion sufficiently far downstream, so as t o have U = U, and p = pm, we oblain

Mct~hoclswhich can 11c usctl [or the calculation of profile drag ant1 which arc I~a~sctl t,l~c 011 same principI(:s as t11o abovc cxpcrirncnt:~l mctrhotls, have I)con tlcvisctl by J . Pretscli [40] and IT. U . Squire ant1 A. 1). Young [MI. Thcse are tied in with t,hc calculat,ion of bountlary layers, as described in Chap. X X I I . IIowever, in ordcr t.o bc in a position to calcu1at.c pressure drag i t is necessary in each case to make use of certain additional, empirical rclat~ions.See also H. Goertler [19]. We tlow propose to give a short des~ript~ion 11. B. Squire's and A. D. Young's of mct,ltod of calc~~lat~ion taking into acconr~t some more rcccnt reqults. We shall begin by transforming eqn. (25.1), wliicl~relates the tlrag on a body with the velocity wake behind Chc body. 111t~roducing momentum thickness (j2, from the profile in t l ~ c cqn. (8.31) ~ l l i lthc tlrag coefficient from eqn. (25.9a), we can rewrite it as

At a large distance behind the body we have H = 1, and consequently n-n.

B-I

Here H I = 61/6, denotes the value of the shape factor H = 611/821a t the trailing edge which is known from the calculation of the boundary layer. This equation gives the required relation between BZm a r ~ d 821, provided that TJ1/U, and the valuc of the integral on the right-hand side are known. First we find that

tlcnotcs t l ~ rmomcnt,nrn tl~ickncssof the wake a t a largo distance from the body. On the otllrr hnntl, the calculation tlescribed in Chap. X X I I permits 11s to evaluate t l ~ c ome~tt~~~rn m thickness a t thc trailirig edge, for which the symbol a,, will be used. The cssencc of Squire's method consist8 in relating these two quantities, dz, and dzl, in such a way as to permit the calculation of drag from eqn. (25.25) when the momc:ntum tl~iclrncssa t the trailing edge of the body is known from a boundarylayer cnlc~~lation. 'l'hr ~ n o m r r ~ t l ~ r n integral equation of boundary-layer theory, eqn. (22.6), is valirl also for the wake behind a body with the only difference that the shearing st,rrss s,, must be equated t o zero. Thus we have

I n ortlcr to bc: in a position to cviiluntc the ir~trgml, is ncccssriry lo know L11c rcit, lation between the static pressure in the wake, which determines the valuc of U , and the velocity distribution in the wake which, in turn, determines thc valuc of the sllnpo factjot- If. Tho ~nngriitutloof In (U,/U) docrcascs monolonically along the wake, starting with the valuc In (U,/U1) a t the trailing cdge until i t roaches zero a t a large distance. Simultaneously I1 decreases from the value If1 a t the trailing edge, until i t reaches unity a t a large distance. H. I3. Squire established an empirical relation between In (U,/U) and H. According to experiment:

so that

On substituting into eqn. (25.27), we obtain

or, with the rouridcd-off value of H I = 1.4: whc~rc11 - - Ol/b2 ant! U' = dU/dxt. The symbol,^ denotes now the distance from tllc trailing erlge of the body measurctl along the centre-line of the wake. The last 1 rqnatiori v:tn also be written in the form

On substituting this valuc into eqn. (25.25) wc obt,ain an cxprcssion for t.hc coofficicnt of total drag in the f o r n ~

'I'lir shapr f ; ~ v l o r,Y,/,Y, will now Ivo drnobrtl by If, for uilnplicit.y, rntl~er LIinn hy [ I , , , ns hrfore.

766

XXV. Dcterminat.ion or profile drag

The coefficient of profile drag can be evaluated from the above oq~lat~ion, the moif mentum tltickness a t the trailing edge is known from the boundary-lnyer calculation ant1 if, in adtlition, the ideal, potential vclocity a t thc trailing edge, U1, is known. The latter can be found, for example, from a reading of the static pressure a t the trailing edgc. According t o a method proposed by II. R. IIelmbold 1221 the determination of IJ,/IJ, call also proceed as follows: We begin by evaluating the moa mentum tl~ickncss t the trailing edge, 8,,/1, from eqn. (22.17) using the value 7~ = 4. This valuc is tltcn substiti~tcd into eqn. (25.28), and in thc resulting formula IJ1/U, is raisecl to the power -1 0.2. 'I'hrts this fnctor can bc approximntcd by tlte valuc of unity, because Ul/U, itsclf (Ides not dilTer much from unity, ant1 the valr~e of the coefficient of profile drag for onc side ( R = U,Z/v) can be found from eqn. (25.28) to l)e
i

potential flow. It ww pointed ouf there, Fig. 17.10, that as a first approxinlatiot~i t is possible to assume t h a t the point, of transition coincides wit11 tlte poirtt of nlinilnom prcssrtro ~ ~ r o v l d c d t>licReynolds tinmber is large, say R w lo7. Nutnerical values tllnt obtained on tho basis of this assumption show satisfactory agreemcrtt wit11 measured values. Thc precc(lirtg met.hod was first generalized to incll~deaxially symtlletrical rases by A. D. Young [72]. The met-ltori proposed by N. Scholz [58J Itas been mnsiclernbly clevclopcd and can br, Ix)t-h for t \ v o - d i ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ anrl t for laxially ~ J ~ I I I sio ~n

The subscript 1 rcfers to tho point of transition nnd thc vnlrre of tlte constant C can bc cletcrmincd from the condition t,hat thc laminar and tltrbulcnt momentum thicknesses must be cqilnl to each other a t the point of transitmion, = d z t , ~ b bzt = aZfarn. valnc of dzlatn can be found from cqn. (10.37). For uniform ~ot.entia1 The flow 1vit.h IJ = U,, eqn. (25.20) transforms to the corresponding exprcssion for the flnt plate a t zero incidence, eqn. (21.11), if, in addition, we put C = 0 for fully tleveloprtl t , ~ t r k ~ ~ ~flow.t lett TC. 'l'rrtcl~cnbrotlt [G8] t,ransformcd cqn. (25.20) replacing tho potential vclocity distribut,ion by t,lic coordinates of the acrok)il scction thus, evirle~~t.ly, eCcct.ing a consitlerable simplificat.iort.

Fig. 25.3. Profile drag in terms of Rey~toldsnumber

z dcnote8 the position o l 1l1e point of lrnnsition ,

a~

cvnl~~ated Squire nnd Yorrng [64] by

11. B. S c l ~ ~ in.ntl A. I). Young [64] cvnlr~atcd 11umbcr of cxamplcs by tile use rc a of a tliffcrcnt mctltotl. We shall now tlcscribc somc of tollern, rcfcrritlg to Fig. 25.3, wltirlt csontains n v c a t ~ v t kof thcsc rcsrrlt~. Tltc thickness of t,he acrofoils was vnricti from dl1 0 (flnt platc) to rl/l -- 0.25 nrttl tho Reynolcls nr~rnl)crsR -- I , 1 / v T mnpcd from 10Q,o 108. I t is found that the profilc drag is very sensitive to the position of the point of transit,ion from Iamitlnr t,o tiirbitlent flow. This liitter paramet,cr wns vnricd from x,/E = 0 t,o 0.4. The increase in profile drag with thicltncss is, rssenl~i:rlly,tiiic t,o an incrcnsc in form tlrng. Fig. 25.4 shows the relation bctwccn form ntttl profile tlrng. Annlogolls calculations were performctl by J. Pretsclt [40] in rclation to von I<&rm6n-Trefftz acrofoils. TI* measure of agreemcrlt bctsfeen t-nlo~tlnt,ionn.ncl experiment depcntls dccisivelyi'on the assumod position of the point of t,mnsit.ion. It will 11c recn.llcd from Chap. XVTI that t.lle positlion of the point or t.mnsit.iort is Inrgt\ly t l c ~ ) m ~ l r on the p r ~ s s u r c nt gmrlirnt of the respect.ive

CDform,

Fig. 25.4. Relation between pressure drag atid skin-frictiondrug, c f , at vnrying thickness rntios

. . -

L. Sycidcl [GB] katctl tlrc vnlidi1,y of tl~isnitnplr rqtrntion ngilinnt. n very Inrgc? tltrmbcr ol actual cxnttiplr8.

768

XXV. Determination of profile drag

c. Losses in thc flow through cilclcatl~s

769

Fig. 25.5. Increase in the coefficient of profile clrag plotted in terms of relative thickncas, as calculnted by Scholz [58]
Totnl or proflla drag cl)tOt

The preceding metl~ocl evaluating t,otal drag by the application of tho tnontcnof tum equation was extended by A. I). Young and S. Kirkby [76] to t,hc rnsc of supersonic flow. Some results of their calculations for biconvex profiles of varying tliirlzt~rssrat,io nncl nt zero inciclcncc arc shown plottctl in Fig. 25 G . 'l'hc tlrng roc4'licicrit c,,,, includrs pressure drag ant1 skin friction arltl milst bc nugmclltctl by tho coiitril~i~tion trhe wave drag which exists in supcrsonic, idcal flowt. For 1)iconvcx of profiles, according to the lir~earizcd tlicory, the latter is givcn by
WIZ-

CU form

-1-

C I

16 =T

d z

(T)

(M"-l)'i.

Accortling to tllc results shown in Fig. 26.6, tjhe influence of tho thioltri~ssof t,hc aerofoil on drag is very small, particnlnrly in the supersonic mrigc. The il~ll~rol~c:r of the Mach number is approximately of the same order as in thc case of a fl:~t plnte a t xcro incidence. metrical cases, applied t o rough walls (equivalent sand roughness) as well. From a very large number of calculated examples on aerofoils (two-amensional case) and bodies of revolution, i t proved possible to deduce relations t o describe the influence of thickness on profile drag. 'Sliese are shown plotter1 in Fig. 25.5. The difference Ac, = c, - c,, denotes the i ~ c r c a s ein the coefficient of skin friction, related t o tJie wetted surface, as against, its val~tc rr. flat plate a t zero incitlcnce, for c,,. The curve for t h e two-dimcnsiorial case agrees fairly well with tlie results shown plotted in Pig. 25.3 for the case of a fully turbulent boundary layer (z,/l = 0). I n this conncxion the paper by P. S. Granville [lS] may also be consulted. These calculations give an indication about the effect of friction on lift. The displacement of the external streamlines caused by the bountlary layer modifies the pressure distribution on a n acrofoil arid causes the experimental value to become lower than that givcn by potcntial theory. This loss of lift was calculated by I<. ICracmcr for thc range of angles of inritlcncc brlow the st,alling angle.

Fig. 25.0. Drag cocKcients for biconvex profilca in srlpcrsonic flow and with fully developed turbulent boundary layer, after A. 13. Young and S. Kirkby [76, 771; no heat transfer
Prsndtl nlrmber P = 0.7. The drag coerflcicnt must be sugmcntcd by the contribution from wnve drag. eqn. (25.31)
J

1. Geriernl remnrks. Thc nunloricnl calorllnt,ions of (,tic t.ot.n.1 tll.:tg of' :L witiglv aerofoil which wcrc cxplainctl in Scc. XXVcl have bcor~cxtcntlctl I)y 11. Sclllic:l~t.ing and N. Scholz [40, 491 t,o inclutlc t,hc case of n row, or cascntlc, of ncroli~ilx:bncl can, therefore, be applied to the iiow t.lirongh blacles. When tliscussing axial t,url)inc or tnrbo-compressor stages, i t i~ customary to simplify the prol)lcm by tjalring a co-axial cylir~dricalsection tlirot~ghthe stationary and moving row of blatlcs and to dcyelop the resulting pattern on to a plane. The pattern of aerofoils thus obtaincd is known as a lwo-dimensional cascade. Thc arrangement of blacles in a cascade is usually dcscril)ccl by specifying the solidil?y ratio 111 and the mean blade nn.glc or angle of stagger, P,,, Fig. 25.7. I n contrast to the cwc of flow past a single acrofoil, thc application of potcntial thcory to tho casc of flow piwt a cnscadc leads to t . 1 1 ~ conclusion that, generally speaking, thcre exists a difference in the prcssr~rein front of and behind the cascade. The pressure decreases downstream, whcn thc cascade transforms pressure into velocity (turbine blading). When the cascade performs the reverse (compressor blading), the prcssure incrcsscs in the clircctiori of flow. the This change in pressure, together with the shape of the blade, dctern~irics pressure distribution around the contour of tlie blade and henco also the structure of the boundary layer. Figure 25.7 shows a plot of the pressure distribuLion antl of tlie position of the points of sepnration on two tliffcrent turbine blados. Tn tlic casc of profile 9, Fig. 25.7n, the point of scpamtion is loc'atcd closcly bcl~intllhc prcsslrre minimum for an angle of inflow PI = 90. lIowcver, this occurs only a t hhc low Reynolds number R = 10" a t R = 10Qhere is no separation on citlicr side of the blade in this case. As far as profile 15, represented in Pig. 25.7 b, i$ conccrncd, the point of separation on the pressure side lies downstream of, but very close to, the point of minimum pressure for both angles of inflow. The point of separation on the suction side is very close to the trailing edge in either case.

10'

Here, the pressure drag represents the change in wave drag duo to the displacerncnt cffcot.

770

XXV. Determination of profile drug

e. Lomen in the flow through cascndca

771

mixing loss into account in atltlit,ion to the loss of rnergy in the 11ountl:ar.y layers of the intlividaal blades. Thus a calcrilation of losses in n casc:~tlce o ~ ~ ~ iof t f~1s1 ~ s . following three partial calcnlntions: 1. I)eternminatiot~ of t.lic itlcal, potrlitji:tl prcssure ~list~ribut~ion around tllc contour of the blacles. 2. Calculat.ions of t,llc (1:rminar or turl)rrlo~~t) hoilntlary layer a t a blntlc. 3. DcLcrrninat.ion of t l ~ e losses clrle t o mixing in t.11~ wake bchintl the cnscadc. The tot,al amount, of losscs nssociated with a cascade is best spccifictl by intlicatjing thc tliffcrcncc Ag in t,ltc total prcssl~rcs between the nnclistttrbctl flow in front of I,ltc rascnclo rirltl Ll~c"srnoot,llctl out" nc111nl flow far b o l ~ i r ~ d 'Jll~us it.

where p2' ant1 7nz' denote the pressure and v c l o c i t , ~ ~ the real (i. e. alfcctctl I1.y in losses) flow far bchintl the cascatlr, respcctivcly. 'rhcsc sl~orlldbo cIist.ingrtisl~ctl from thc valrles p, and I I J ~ , respcctivcly, wltich refer t o ideal (losslcss) flow. I t is convenient t o render thn tot.al loss Ag tlimensionlcss with reference t o the dynnmio Ilond formed wit11 the axial velocity component in,, = wl sin P, = toz sin P,, as it tlct.crmines the mass of fluid which passes thro~tgllthe cnscadc. For reasons of rontfillttit,y i B vnluc must be tho same in front of ns bclti~ltltltc cascade. We t l t o ~ il~l.rotlttc:c the following coefficient: t, = - - 9
few,,"
'

Some results of t h e systematic invest,igat,ions on cnscntles, rarrircl oltl :rl t 110 Braunscllweig Engineering University 1601, alao [49], are shown in Fig 25.8 These represent a comparison between 1nea.sured and calculated values of the loss coefficient. All blades were derived from the aerofoil NACA 8410. The variable parameters
I'osition of poinl of nlillimllm prrssllrc ( 4 1 ) nncl n l point or srlmr%biott( S ) : A n t R = 10'; A rrt R = 10'

Pig. 25.7. Prcssrlrc clist,rihulion nnd position of point of scpnrntion or n tnrhnlcnt, houndery l:rycr oil tho I)lntlo of n l.llrl~il~o mscntlo for two tlilTercnt nnglca of inflow, afler F.W. Iticgcla [44]
I\laclt! nngla ( I ,
1 .

07 5 " ; Solldil.). ratio [ ( I

0.8

Fig. 2.5.8. T,ORS co~flicicntt t from eqn. (25.33) in terma of the deflexion coeffiz cient, dn = ' ~ t l * d / f o ,for ttlrhine cnscndes with difircnt solitlity ratios t/1, after [49J. Men.911rc1ncnlaand calculntio~~a by N. Scllolz nnd L. Speiclrl [GO] Itlarlr prolllc. N A r A R l l O Reyeol~ls ea~olrer = ~a,llr - h x 10' R
8..

The work ill rnf. [4G] shows Itow t,o employ the method outlined in Sec. XXVtl it\ ortler t,o c.nlt:nl:~tct.ltr. losscs of n two-clirncr~sionnlcascade a t varying angles of illllow. N. Srllolz allti I,. Spcitlel 1601 syst,cmatixecl such cnlculnt,iolls ancl comparccl t.llt!tn n.it.11 rxl~orin~cntal results. 'I'ltn vrloc.it,y tlisl.ril)t~t,ion irnn~rrlintcly I)eltiric\f t,l~eexit plarlc of t J ~ ccascnrle shows s t . r ~ n g tlc~~,rrssions wllicl~st.c?nl from t,hc borl~~tlary layers of tlto it~tlivicl~lal l~l:~.tins. 'I'url)ulrttl~ntixing rausrs t.I~cscv ~ I o ~ i t tliffernr~ce~ s n ~ o o f ~ l ~ f ~ ~ r t . h e r ,y to out clowrlbl.rcnm, t . l ~ l l sgiving rise t,o an ntltlit.iotlnl loss of energy. 'l'l~c anloctnt o f los.9 t l l t c l o n,il:iltg r:rn IIC t:v:~.I~t:~l,c.tl wit.11 t.ltc nit1 of t.11~ rnomt>nt,llm t,l~rorrm.When t l t ~ t ~ o r r n i ~ ~ i ~ ~ g loss i t 1 t,hc flow t.l~rollgI~ t.t~c t.ot,:l.l cascncl~s,i t is rlcccssary t,o take Chis

.- .- -. -~ .

In t,hc dmign of stcnru turbines it is 11sunl to employ n aelocit?y coc//icient, 111, wl~icllis clrfit~cd as the ratio of thc raal exit vclociLy to its veluc in ideal flow, so tllet y, -- tu',/tc~,. Co:~scq~~rn(ly, thc two cocflieictth snlisfy t l ~ e rcl:~tion = ( I -i/~2)/sinZ Lt P2.

XXV. I)obr~~~inalion of proRlo drag

included the solidity ratio 111 (= 0.6, 0.76, 1.0 and 1.25); the blade angle was Ps = 30" (turbine cascade). The loss coefficient defined in eqn. (25.33) is seen plotted in terms of the dcflcxion cocfficient or deflcxion ratio = Awd/?l~,,, friction coefficient of a flat plate a t zero incidence arid are proportional to R-'12 for laminar flow, becoming proportional to R-lI5 in tJurbulent flow. I n both cases, t,he Reynolds number is formcd with the blatlc length, I . Thc dcpcndcr~ccof loss cocffit.hc cient on Reynolds number in the absence of separation can be determined by calculation with the aid of a method proposed by K. Gersten [15]. A rcsult of this ltintl is seen displayed in Fig. 25.9. The diagram describes thc variation in the loss coefficient,
(12

ad

where A?(?, tlcnolcs 1.l1c t.m.r~svcrsc compor~cntof vclocit,y (i.'e. vclocit,y in circomferential direction) created by the cascade. If we first center our attention on the middle range of the polars (adhering boundary layers), we notice a steep increase in the loss coefficient which occurs as thc solidity ratio decreases. The reason for it lies in the fact that the number of blades per unit of length of the circumference is larger when the pitch is small than when thc pitch is larger. T o a first approximation the loss coefficient is proportiorlal to the number of blades. At the right and left edge of the polar we observc a sudden and large increase in the loss coefficient. This is due to flow separation on the pressure side (left end of curve) or on the suction side (right end of polar) of the bladc. I n the latter case, an increase in the flow angle causes the admissible load on the blade to be exceeded. It is remarkable that the polar curves displace themselves in the direction of largcr angles of deflexion as the solidity ratio decreases. The ~ n c a s ~ ~ r c m ca.nd the calculat.ions were carried out for a Reynoltls nurnbcr nts 5 x 10% .TIC calcr~lat~ions performed on the ass~rmptior~ thc wcrc that I~our~tlnry Ixycr was turhrrlcr~t. along ( $ 1 1 hlatlcs. In the oxpcrin~or~Lal all ~ nrmngcrncnt the boonrlary layers wcrc made turbulent by the provision of tripping wires ncar the leading edges. Thc calculated and measured values of the loss cocfficier~tshow very good agrccmcnt with cnch other. Furthcr examples and comparisons between theory and experiment are givcn in [47,631.
R - to, llv .

Ag ;be4 '

(25.84)

of a cascade consisting of thick, strongly cambered bladcs, over a considcrablo range of Reynolds numbers, that is from Rz = wzllv = 4 x lo4 to 4 x 105. I-Icre Ag dcnotes the loss in stagnation pressure and iuz is the exit velocity. I n order to providc a comparison with mensorcmenta, thc diagram contains a thcorctical crrrvc which tnltcs into account separation losses computed with the aid of Ref. [GO]. As far as the position of the point of transition is conccmed, the calculation was based on the expcrimentally verified circumstance that the boundary layer on the pressure sitle of a blade remained laminar as far as the tmiling edge, whcreaa that on the suction side undcrwcnt transition a t the point of minim~rmpressure. Thc dingmm in Pig. 26.9 demon~t~rntcs thcrc cxist.8 cxccllcr~t t.11nt ngrccrncnt I~cLwccn oalcnlntiotl nnql rtltrclrrilrament. The magnitude of the losses is strongly influenced by t.he position of the point of transition. As thc Rcynolds number is incrcnsctl, tho point of transition rnovcs forward and this lengthcns the turbulent portion of the bour~dary layer and carlscs the losses to increase. The forward movemcnt of the point of transition is cnharlced by increased roughness 1131 or by a n increased turbulencc intensity [a], as one would expect to find in a turbomachine. A t very low Rcynolds numbers the boundary laycr can separate before transition has occurred in it thus causing a large incrcasc in t l ~ c

Wake: A very dctailcd experimental investigation of the flow in a turbulent wake bchind a cascade of blades is described in a paper by R . R a j and B. Lakshminarayana [42]. Mcasr~rementsincluded determinations of the velocity distribution, intensity of turbulencc, and of the apparent Reynolds stresses in the wake a t different distances from the cascade. It has transpired that the wakes are not symmetric u p t o a distance (314) 1 bchind the blades in cascades which turn the flow. The decrease in velocity downstream from the cascade exit section is considerably slower than a t a flat plate, behind a circular cylinder or downstream from a single aerofoil a t zero incidcnce. Jet flnp: The angment,at,ion of the turning angle A,'? = Dl - p2 of colnpressor cascades by a jet flap has been investigntecl by U. Stark,[G4a].
2. 111flue11cr: Reyrlolds nrlmher : Thc chnngcs in the acrotlynan~ic of coefficients of by ~l n cascadc protl~~cctl a chnngc in l,hc itcynol(1s n n ~ n b e rarc i m p o r t , n ~ when it becomes ncccssary to apply the results of tcsts on models to thc design of a fullscale tr~~r1)o~nachine. effect is excrt,etl principally on the loss coefficicr~t,and This can be found discussed in a sizeable umber of publications 15, 41, 651. the From t,hc physical point of view, the cffect of Rey olds number on the loss coefficient of a two-tlimcnsional cascndc is analogous t o that of the slrin friction of a single aerofoil: hccnusc in eit.her case the cffect originates in the boundary layer. The losses sufTcred by the cascatlo stem rnainly from the boundary layer if the pressure distribut,ion along a I)latlo in n cascadc is sl~cllthat rlo imporL3r1t scparntions occur. 'l'hry nro t,hcn ak:rl.otl hy tllc Ttcynoltls number in a h o ~ r t,hc same way as t,l~e t skin-

A"

Fig. 25.0. Loss coefficient of a turbine cascade, eqll. (25.34). in brr~rs the Rryr~oltls of tl~it~~bcr Rz, after I<. Gor~tcn[Ili]

XXV. Dctcrminntion of profile drag

in cnscndos c. L o s ~ e s the flow tl>ro~lgh

775

a ) rrennurc tlintribution for vnriotln Rrynoltl* nrln~beront Mz -- 0.3

loss cocfficient under certain circumstances. This large increase in the loss coefficient a t low Reynolds numbers is illustrated in Fig. 25.10b which refers t o a turbine c w cade. At larger Reynolds n u m b ~ r s , z = 5 x 105, the transition is spontnnear~s R and the losses are small. At moderate Rcynolds numbers, Rz = 1 x 105, thcrc is Inn~inar separation followed by turbulent re-attachement. Thus under the boundary layer there forms a so-called separation bubble and the loss coefficient increases considerably. At very low Reynolds numbers, R = 0.5 x 105, the laminar layer separates z and stays separated to t,he end of the blade. The losses increase by a large amount once more. The details of the separation of the boundary layer are once again mirrored in the pressure distributions plotted in Fig. 25.10a for three valr~csof the Itcynolds number. The extent of the separation bubble depends strongly on thc lteynolds number and on the intensity of turbulence of the oncoming stream. See [8,20,28,37, 43, 57, 601, and the pnpcr by R. Kiock [30]. C/. W.B. IEobcrts 1431. I n conjunction with our discussion of the cffect of thc Rcynolds number, it is necessary to stress that under certain circumstances the surface roughness can have a large influence on the losses. I n addition to enhancing transition, roogl~nesscan also directly increase the losses. This occrlrs whcn thc protubcrnnccs cxccrd n crrlnin admissible value; see [3, 561.
3. Effect of Mach ~ ~ u m h :The preccding results concerning the Loss coefficient of er cascades refer to incompressible flows (M < 0.3). The effect of compressibility can be said to set in a t M > 0.4. An example of this effect is shown in Fig. 25.11b. The plot represents the loss coefficient for a cascade producing a small angle of turn in a subsonic flow. The Mach number Mz is the independent variable and t,he t l ~ r c e curves refer to three different Reynolds numbers. The pressure distribution for M = 0.7, Fig. 25.118, shows that a t Rz = 4 x 105 the loss coefficient increases sharply as the Mach number is increased. The sharp increase occurs as a rcsult of shock formation in region8 where the local value of the velocity of sound, c p , crit, has bcen exceeded in the flow. For the two lower Reynolds numbers, Rz = 1.0 x 105 and Rz = 2-0 x 105, the pressure distribution points to a separated flow. The results displayed in Figs. 25.10 and 25.11 demonstrate t h a t the Mach number exerts a deep influence on the flow through cnacades in the range of Reynolds numbers from R = 104 to 105, in addition to the large effect of the Reynolds number itself. The preccding measurements were performed in the high-specd cascade wind tunnel in Brunswick [54] in which the Reynolds number and the Mach number can be varied independently. The diagram of Fig. 25.12 illust.mt,es the effect of the Mach number on the loss coefficient of a cascade that produces a large angle of turn in the flow. 'rhc cascade was designed for incompressible flow. The loss coefficient remains nearly constant a t the value Ct2 M 0.03 up to M2 = 0.7; it increases sharply as the Mach number is further increased. The reason for this behaviour is clear from Fig. 25.13 in which it is possible t o discern the existence of shock waves on the suction side of the blade. These cause separation of the boundary layer. The effect of the Mach number and of the turbulence intensity on the loss coefficient of cascades has been studied in two theses presentcd to the Engineering University at, Rraunschweig by J. Bahr [2] and 1%.ITcbbeI 1211, respectively. Rcference [50] may also be consulted on this point.

b) Lons cocfficirnt ( 1 2 from cqn. (25.34) nrr n function of tho Reynolds numbcr Rz Fig. 25.10. Aerodynamic coefficients of a turbine cnscnde its a frlnction of t.11~ Itrynoltls number as menanred by H. Sclllichting nnd A. Dns [52, 531

n) I'rcauure rlist.ribt~t,ionfor vnriorln Reytlolds nt~lnberu MI = 0.7 nt

b) 'IJous coerficieut. I r a from C ~ I I(25.34) . as a hlnction or the Mach number Mz tor various vnlura of the ltcynoldu number

vig. 25.1 1. Aplclrlyljnnlir.rorffir*irntnof n t,t~rl,inr~nnrnclrits n f1111rtion Mnvh nrllnhrr nn measrlof

T &

by 11. Schlicl~ting l d A. I)RR[62,53] a

776

XXV. 1)ctormination of profile drag

References [I] Abhott, J.H., v o t ~ Doetihoff, A.E., arid Stivers, L.S.: Summary of airfoil dat,n. NI\(~,\ Itcp. 824 (1945). [2] Unlir, J . : Untersilchungen iiber den Einflt~asder Profildirke nuf die ko~npreusil)lcebcttc Strij~nung durch Verdichtergittcr. D i m Braunsch\veig l!)(i2. Forschg. 1ng.-\\'en. 30, 14-- 25 (1904). [:)I I%ai~~mcrt,, and Milsch, It.: Bottt~tlarylnyers on rough cotnprcnsor bladcs. ASME I'apnr I<., No. 72-GT-48. Gas Turbine Conference, San Francisco, 1972. [4] Retz, A.: Eirt Verfahren zur direkten Erniittlung des Profil\viderst.nnrlos. ZFM 16, 42-44 (1925). [5] L)nvia, H., ICottns, II., and Moody, A.M.: T l ~ c ir~flucncoof llcynoltls n t ~ n ~ l 011c r ~ t.hc formatice of tbrbo-riiachinery. Trnns. AShlII 73, 491)-509 (1951). [GI Doehch, 11.: Profil1~-iderstands111essii11gc1i grossen Windkannl der DVI,. J,t~f(fahrtitn forscliung 14, 173-178 and 370-372 (1937). [7] Dotvlen, C.M.: A shortened method for the calctilation of norofoil profile drng. J. Jioy. Aero. Soc. 56, 109-116 (1952). [R] Dunham, ,J.: Predictions of boundary layer t.mnsition on t.ttrbotnachinery blnclrs. AGA111) ACi-164 (1972). [!I] Ensl.man, N., Jacobs, I':.N., and Shcrtnnn, A,: Acrofoil section clinract.erinticn nn nlli.r~(ctl by variation of the Iteynoltla nunibcr. NACA ItM 586 (1037). [lo] Evans, 1t.L.: Strcntn turbulence effcckq on the turbutent boundary lnyer in n conipressor cnscntle. Brit.ish ARC ltep. 34 587 (1973). [ I l l Il'age, A., k'nlltner, V.M., and Walltcr, W.S.: Expcri~ncntaon n scrics of ny~ntnc(.ricnl Joukowsky ~cctions.ARC RM 1241 (1020). [I21 Pngc, A,: I'rofilc ant1 skin-TricLior~ nirfoil rlnryrr. AIZC ltbl 1852 (10:IX). [13] Feindt,, E.G. : Untersuchungen iiber die Abliiit~gigkcitdes Utnschlagca l a ~ ~ t i t ~ a r - - t u r b r ~ l e ~ ~ t von der OberRiiclienrsuhigkeit und dcr Druckvcrbil~tng.])ins. Brnttnsclrncig 1!)50; J b . Snhiffbn~ltechn.Ges. 50, 180-205 (1956). [14] Gcrstcri, I<.: JCxperitnet~tcllorIjcitrag zutn Ileibungsoinfluss nitf die Striitnr~t~g dttrcl~ cbcno SchaufelgiLter. Abhandl. Wiss. Ges. IIraunschweig 7, 93-99 (1955). [15] Gersten, K.: S>er Einfluaa der Reynolds-Znl~l die Striimungsverlualc in ebenen Schaufelauf gittern. Ablinndl. Wiss. Ges. Brnunscliweig 11, 5-19 (1969). [16] Goett, H.J. : Experimental investigat,ion of the tnotuenturn method for dct,er~nitiing profile drag. NACA Rep. 660 (1939). [17] Giithert, B.: Widerstandsburtirn~ni~tig liolien Untcruchallgesc1i~vindigkcitci~ Impulsbei ans verlustmess~ingen.J b . dt. Luftfal~rtiorscl~i~r~g I , 148-155 (3941). [IR] Granville. P.S.: The cnlculation of the viucorta drng of bodies of rcvolittion. David W. Tnylor Model S3aain. Rep. 849 (1953). [I!)] Gortler, H.: Verdrangur~gswiderstandder ln~ninnrcnGrcnzschicht und Drrtckw.iderstand. 1ng.-Arch. 14, 286-305 (1943144). [20] C;iu?tcr, M.: The structure and bchnviour of lartlinar aeparntion bttbbles. S3ritisl1ARC Itcp. 28 226 (1066). [20a] Hans, H., arid Maglion, H.: Maglielie Wirkungsgradverbc~scrungenbei Dariipf- und (>asturbinen. Conference on technologies for more efficient utilization of energy in elcct,ric power stations a t ICernforschungsar~lage Jiilich, Febr. 1976. Jiilich-Conf. 1.9, 74-80 (1970). [21] ITebbel, H.: Uber den EiilRuss der Mach-Zahl und der Reynolds-Znhl auf die acrodynamisrhen 13ciwcrto von 'Turl~incnsol~a~~folgitter~ivcrscltiotlener Tnrbulcnz drr SI,rii~ntt~~g boi J)iss. 13rau1tscli~r~cig 1!)02; II'orsohg. 1rig.-WCR.30, 66-77 (1!)04). 1223 Hcltnbold, H.B.: Zur Uerechnttng den Profil\vidnrst.a~~cIcR. 11ig.-Arch. 17, 273 27!) (1!)49). [23] JIcbbel, H.: Uber den Einfluss der Mach-Zalil utid der Rcyt~olds-Znlil die nerodynnmiaitf scltcr~Bciwerto \,on Vcrdichlcr-Schanfclgittorn bci vcrscliicclcner Turbnlenz tier Gtriirnnng. Porschg. Ing.-Wes. 33, 141-150 (1967). [24] Horlock, J.H., and Lnkshminarayana, B.: Secondary Rows: Theory, experi~ncnt~, atld application in turbomachinery aerodynamics. Annual lteview of Fluid Meclianics (M. Van Dyke, ed.) 5, 247--280 (1973). [2R] Horlock, J.H., 811aw, R,., I'ollhnrd, I)., and Lewkowioz, A.: Reyr~oldsn~tnibereffect8 in cascades and axial flow compressors. Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Power 86, 236-242 (1964). [26] Jones, R.M.: The m e ~ s ~ ~ r e mof n t e profile drng by tho p i b t trnverse method. ARC RM 1088 (1930).

Fig. 25.12. Loss coefficiet~t a turbine of cascade, t t z from eqn. (25.34) in brnis of the Mach nnmbcr Mp after 0. Lawaczeck [34]

blnclc nnule: Ps
A,

= 56';

ntiulr nl inlet: /1,

0 x 10'

snllclily rnt,lo: 111 -0.81 = 00'; Ileyt~ol<ln nrtmbcr:

Fig. 25.13. Transonic Row through n t,nrbinn cancndc. Pl~ot,ogrnpl~ obtainnd wi1.h the aid of Schlieren tnetlrod by 0. Lawaczeck and H.J. Neinernann [32]. Exposi~re 20 x 10-9 sec. The strong shock waves on the suction side of the aerofoil cause separation and hence large losses, see also Fig. 25.12

I n modern times, the development of steam turbines of increased powcr density has caused the outer blndc sections of the low-pressure stngcs to operate in the trnnsonic vclocitpyrregimc. l'l~is rnnde it neccssnry t o undertslte systernntic investigations into l,hc behnvio~trof t,ransonic turbine blades. Here tho Mach nrimber of the a p pronching stream is lower t,han unity (MI < l), ,whereas that a t exit exceeds i t (Mz I ) ; cf. 1.11 1. Rcfcrcncrs 133, 341 contain a n ~ a c c o r ~ oft t,ransonic flow across n cn.scndc with n Inrgc angle of turn.

11. IInas and IT. Mnghon [20a] give a comprehensive accotlnt of the practical appli~at~ions these research results on flow through cascades ns tiley relate t o of modern devclop~nents steam and gas t,urbines. in

778

XXV. Detcrn~inntionof profilc drag

Jteforenccs

779

[27] J a ~ ~ m o t ~A.I,., and Deviennc, P.: Inflnet~ce nombre de Reynolds snr lea pertes dana te, du len grillm d'nuhea. Technique et, Science AQronautique 5 , 227-232 (1966). [28] Iforton, H.P.: A semi-empirical theory for the gro\<tl~and bursbing of Ian~inar separation bubbles. Hritinh ARC Rep. CP No. 1073 (1060). [29] Jones, B.M.: Flight experiments on boundary layers. J A S 5. 81-101 (1938); see also Engineering 146. 307 (19:IR) anrl Aircraft Eng. 10, 135.- 141 (1938). [30] Kiork, It.: Einfluss dcs 'l'~~rbnlenzgradea anf die nerodynnmischen Beinerte VOII ebenen Verzbgerungsgitterr~.Dies. Brar~nscl~weig 1071; Forschg. 1ng.-Wea. 39, 17-28 (1973). [31] Lawaczeck, 0 . . and An~ccke, Problelne dcr transsonischen Btromung durch TurbinenJ.: Schaufclgitter. VIII-Forschu~~gshcft (1970). 540 [32] Iswaczcck, O . , and Hcincmnnn, tI.,7.: Von K&rmBn vortex streets in t.110 wakes of subsonic and transonic cnacader. Paper AGAltI) Mcctingon U ~ ~ u t r n d y PI~enomenninTurbu~~~acI~it~cry, Monterey, Cal., Scpt. 1075. AGAltD C1'--177, 28-1 to 28-13 (1976). 1331 L o l ~ t , l ~ nI?.: s , ~ ~ J3crecl1nt1ngtlcr trannsoniscllen Stron~nng durch ebene Turbinengit.ter nach dc~n ZciInchrit.t,-Voriahrer~. IIiss. Rrntlnnrl~nrig1977.VDI-Forschnngsheft .586,6-24 (1078). 1341 Lnwaczeck, 0.: Hnlbctnpiriuchr~Rcrecl~nr~t~g~vcrl~~l~rren t,ranssoniscl~e fiir ebcne Torbinenprofile n ~ i t'lattenprofilcn. VDI-Forscl~r~ngshcft 25-36 (1978). t 586, [35] Lawson, T.V.: An investigation into the effect of Reynolds nutnbcr on a cascade of bladea with parabolic arc cnntbcrlinc. J3rit,isl1 NCTE Memo. M 1975 (1953). [36] Lock, C.N.H., Hilt,on, W.P., and Goldstein, S.: Determination of profile drng a t high speeds by a pitnt traverse metllod. AJtC RM 1971 (1946). 1371 Ntim, U.A.: A theoretical and cxperimenhl invcstigntion of sepnrnt,ion bubbles. PI1.D. - Thesis Uoiv. of London 1909. [38] Piercy, N.V.A., Preat,on, J.H., and Whitellead, L.G.: Approxi~rlnte prcdict-ion of skin friction aud lift. Pl~il.Mng. 26, 7 0 - 815 (1938). [39] Pfenninger, W.: Vrrgleich der In~pr~lsmetl~ode tler Wiigung bci ProfiI\vidcrntnndsrnit messunnen. Rev. Inat. of Acrodvnamics 1WH Ziirich. No. 8 (1043). [40] Prctsch, .J.: Z;lr theoretischen Berccltnung des Profilwiderstandes. J b . dt. T,nftfahrtforschr~ng10:$R, I, 61-81; Engl. traasl. NACA TM 1000 (1942). [41] Rhodcn, f1.C. : ICffcctsof R c y ~ ~ o I n ~ i n ~ honr t IIC flow of air through a cascndc of conlpresaor ds e blades. AltC RM 2010 (l!l60). [42] Itaj, It., nnd I,nksl~tninarayat~n. Cltnrnrteristics of tho wake behind a caucade of nirU.: foiln. ,J I 61, 707 - 730 (1973). M ' [43] Robertrr, W.R.: The effect of Reynoltln nrtrnber nnd lanlit~nr scpnrntion on nxinl cascade performnncc. Trans. ASME, Ser A, J. Eng. I'ower 97, 261-274 (1R76). [44] Riegels, P.W.: Porbrhritte in dcr Rcrcclln~tng tier Striimttng durcll Scltnufelgitter. ZFW 9, 2-15 (1!161). [45] Sclliiffer, H.: Untcrsucl~~r~~gcll die dreidimennionnlc St.riilnung drtrch nxinle Schaufcliibor itt tor ,nit zylindriachcn Schn~tfeln. i s ~ . D Brnr~nscll\veig1054. I'orschg. 1ng.-Wes. 21, 9-19 and 4 1- 40 (1!)55). [46] Scl~lichting, H., and Srholz, N.: Ubrr din tl~roretinrheBcrerhnttng der Striitt~ung~verlusLe eines cbcncn Srllauf~lgitters.1ng.-Arch. 19. 42-05 (1951). [47] Schlicl~ting,H.: Ergebnisse und I'robleme von Gittcr~~ntcrsuchungen. ZFW 1, 109 -122 (1953). 1481 Scl~lirhting,)I.: Ucrcc.l~nung tler rei\)ungnlosen inkomprcssiblen Stromrrng fiir ein vorgegcbcnca ehcncs Scl~nrlfclgitt.er.VDI-Porschungsl~eft 447 (1956). 1401 Sc.l~lirlrting.H.: ,ln\vcntlung drr Orenzschicl~tt~lleorie Stron~ungsproblcn~e Turbonuf der ntnscl~inc,~~. S~CIIICIIR 420----438 Z.33, (1969); ace alno: Application of boundary layer theory in turbolnnchincry. 'l'rnns. AShlE Scr. D, J. 13nsic Eng. 81, 543-551 (1959). [5O] Scl~lic.hting,H.: Neuerc Unters~~chungen iiber Schnufelgitteratromt~ngen. Siemens Z. 37, 827 --837 (I!)(;:{). [61] Surng~te. (c~l.): ,I. nortntlnry l n y r clTrcta in turbornnchinrs. AGAR.Dograp11No. 164 (1972)., (521 Srlllicl~ting,II., rintl 1)ns. A , : Ulwr cinigo Rrundlegdnrle Frngcn auf dem Gebiet der Aerodyl~nnrik(irr ' l ' ~ t r l ) o ~ ~ ~ n s v I l i t ~ r ~ ~ . L'Acrotrrnirn 4G, 170- 13 (1906). !4 [RJ]. Srl~licl~t.ing, nnd ilns. ,I.: On t l ~ cinllllence of t,urbulcl~celevel on the aerodynamic 11.. Iossrs of nxinl t,arhotnnc.l~ine~. Flo\v resc~~rclt blnding (L.S. Dzung, ed.), Elsevier, In: on Atnntrrtlntn, 1970. 24:)--274.

[54] Scholz, N., and fIopkea, U.: Der Hocl~gcscl~windigkeitn it,terwindkannl der D e t ~ k c l ~ e t ~ Forschungsanstalt far Luftfahrt Drsunschweig. Forschg. fng..wea. 25, 133-147 (1059). See also Schlichting, H.: The variable density high speed cnacade wind tunnel of the Deutnche I%rscl~ungsanstalt Luftfahrt Uraunschwcig. AGARD Rcp. 01 (IORli). fur [56] Scholz, N.: Aerodynumik der Scl~aufelgittor.Vol. I, Hrattn, I<arlaruhc, 1965. Revised Et~gl. translation by A. IClein: Aerodynnn~icsof cnscndes. AGAItllograpl~No. 220, AGAltL), Paris, 1977. [56] Spcidel, I,.: Einflusa der Oberfliichenrauhigkeit auf die Stromungsverluste in ebenen Schaufelgittern. Forachg. 1ng.-Wes. 20, 129-140 (1964). [67] e y b , N.J.: Determination of cascade performance with part,iculnr reference to thc prcdictlon of borrndary layer parameters. British ARC Rep. 27 214 (1006). [58] Scholz, N.: Ubcr oinc rntionellc Ucreclu~ung dcs Strvt~~u~~gswidcrRta~~tloa scl~lnnltcrl<iirl,qr mit bcliebig rartllcr Obcrlliicllo. Jb. Schiffbauteclln. Ges. 45, 244-260 (1!)51). [69] Scholz, N.: S t r d ~ n u n ~ a t ~ l l t e r s t ~ c h u ~ ~ ~ c t ~ an Schanfelgitbrn. V1)I-Foracht1t1g~Ileft. (1054). 442 [60] Scholz, N., and Speidel, L.: Systemntische Unterauchrlngerl iibcr dic Striin~unguvorluste von ebcnen Schaufelgittern. VUI-Forschungsheft 464 (1067). [61] Schrenk, M.: Uber die Profilwidersh~~cls~r~eesu~~g irn Pluge I I R C ~ I dem Ilnpolsverfallren. Luftfaltrtforsohtlng 2 , 1-32 (1928); NACA TM 557 nnd 568 (1030). [02] Serby, J.E., Morgnn, M.B., and Cooper, E.R.: Flight test,a on tho prolilc drng of 14% and 26% thick wings. ARC 1EM 1826 (1037). [63] Speidcl, L. : Rerechnung der StrGmungsvcrluste von ungeahffelten ebcncn Schnufelgitterrl. Dlsq. Brartnschweig 1053; 1ng.-Arch. 22, 295-322 (1964). [64] Squirc, H.U., and Young, A.D.: The calculntio~~ thc profilc drng of aeroioils. ARC RM of 1838 (1938). [64n] Stnrk, U.: A tl~corcticalinvc~l.igntiorl Lhc jot llnp conll)ronaor rnncnilo in incotnllrensil~lo of flow. Dim. 13ra11nut:I1u~cig 1971; 'l'rnns. ASMId3. J. Rttg t'ouor. !)4, 249----ZOO (1!)72). [65] Sl.nnrt, 1I.J.K.: Analysis of Rcynolds riurnbcr cffects in llrtid flow througl~t w o - t l i t ~ ~ c ~ t ~ i o t ~ a l cwcadca. AltC RM 2920 (I956\. ,. [FG] Tani, I. : Idow awed flows involving bubblc separations. Progress in Acronartticnl Sciences, (D. Kiichornnnn, d.) I'rrgnlnon I'tess, 5, 70-103 (IU64). [07] Taylor, G.1.: The dctern~ination drng by tho pitot trnvcrso rnctl~otl.AI1.C ItM 18O8 ( 1!):17). of [68J Trnckenhrodt, 12.: Die Bcrccltnung den l'rofilwiderata~~dcs der vorgegcbcl~el~ nus Prolilfor~n. 1na.-Arch. 21. 176- 186 II9RXi. --- ,- - - - , " [00] Wanner, A., nnd Kretz, P.: Drt~rkvertcilungs-uttd I'rofilwitler~tnnclstt~esst~t~ge~~ im Iclug an den Profilcll NACA 23012 nnd Giittingen 549. J b . dt. Idtcftfnl~rtforscllrtng , 111- 110 I (1943 1. . . [70] Wcidingcr, 11.: Profil\vitlcrslnt~dRtncss~~t~gt~tt nt~ cinctn .J~~nkrls-'rrngfltigrl. \V(:I, 10%;. .JI). 112; NACA TM 428 (1927). [71] Yottng, A.D.: Note on the clTrct of cornptcssil~ilily Joncs'u ~nonlrntrrn~ hod of rnmon neth suring profile drag. ARC 1tM 1881 (1!)311). [72] Young, A.D.: T l ~ calc~tlat,ior~ t l ~ c r of total ancl skin irirkion rlrngs of bodies of r r v o l ~ ~ t i o n a t 0' inridonce. AltC Ithl 1047 119301. 1731 Young, A.JI., Winterbottnnt, B:A., a h bVintcrbott.om. N.E.: Note on t,ltr cffrct of roll\prc~sibilityon the prolilc drag of aerofoils nt srtbsonic Mnrh nu11111ersin the nhnoncc- of sllock waves. AltC lthf 2400 (1050). [74] Young, A.JI.: Note on n~omcnttlrnmnt.l~otlnof mma~lringprofile tlrags nt. l ~ i g luprotls. ~ ARC 11M 1963 (1940). [76] Y o ~ ~ t iA.l).: Note on n n~cthod tnensrrring profile tlrng by tnenns of nn intcgratitrg cotnb. g, of AltC ItM 2267 (1048). [70] Young, A.U., n.nd I<irltl)y, 8 . : 'l'ho profile tlrttg of 1)iconvcx wing noc~lio~~sn~tl~crsot~ic nt, sprrds. Fifty ycnrs of I)ot~nrlary-lnyrr rrscnrclt (W. Tolltnicn nl~cl1 . (>iirt,lcr,crln.), 13rn11111 sch\veig, 1955, 419--431. [77] Yottng, A.11.: The atlctllntion of t,he profile tlrsg of nrrofoiln anrl botlira o i rcvolrttiot~a t st~pornonic sprc!tls. \V(:l, ,Jb. I953 ([I. ISlcnk, ctl.), (iC,--7R (1954).
\ - - -

Bibliography

A.

Reviews organized in serial publications

Review of Fluid Mechanics, Annual Review Inc., Palo Alto, Cnl. A 1. Ann~tal Vol. 1 (19GS) Goldstein, S.: Flrtid mechanica in the first half of this century. Turner, J.S.: Buoyant plunics and thermals. Brown, S.N., and Stewartson, K.: Laminar separation. Yih, Chia-Shun: Stratified flows. Melcher, J.R., and Taylor, G.I.: Electrohydrodynamics: A review of the role of interfacial shear stresses. Kennedy, J.F.: The formation of sediment ripples, dunes, arid antidunes. Tani, I.: Routidary-layer transition. Ffowca Willian~s,J.E.: Hydrodynaniic noise. Jones, R.T.: Blood flow. Phillips, O.M.: Shcar.flow t~trb~tlcnce. Van Dyke, M.: Higher-order bonndary-layer theory. Levicli, V.G., and Krylov, C.S.: Surface-bnsion-drivel1 phenomena. Sherman, F.S.: The transition from contini~utnto molecular flow. Hawthornr, W.R., and Novnk, 1t.A. : Tho arrodynamica of turbo-tiiachinery. Lun~lcy,J.L.: Drag reduction by addit.ives. Zcl'Divich, Y.B., arid Raizer. Y.P.: Shock waves and radiat,ion. I,ighthill, M.J.: Hytlronicclinnics of aquatic nnimnl propulsion.
Vol. 2 (1870) Inituinnskii, L.G.: The tlcvclop~ncnt boundnry-lnycr throry in thr USSR. of Enittions, H.W.: Criliqttc or nitmrrirnl moclclir~gof fliricl-nicrha~~icn plicnotiiena. Veronis, G.: The analogy betwren rotating ancl stratified fluida. Ncwninri, J.N : Applicatior~n alrtider-body theory in ship hydrodynnn~ics. of ICov~zt~ny, L.S.Q.: The turbulent boritidary layer. Lick, W.: Notilincar wave propzgatior~in flnid~. Brenncr, )I.: Rhrology of two-phnse systcn~s. Philip, J.R.: Flnid in porous media. Hriidcruhott,, M.,and Munk, W.: Tides. 1 Monin, A.S.: Thc atmospheric 1)outidary layer. I'tiillipu, N.A.: Motlcls for wmthcr prediction. Rohitison, A.1t. : I%ortndnrylaycrs in ocean c!ircnlat.ion tnodels. Sprritcr, .J.lt., nntl Alltmr, A.U.: Solar-wintl flow past ohjcch in the solar system. R,irh. J.W., arid 'rrrnnor, Ch.13.: Vibrational rclnxnt,ion in gas-dytiatnic flows. Marble, F.IC.: 1)ynninics of dusty gaucs.

Vol. 3 (1971) Busemann, A.: Compressible flow in the thirties. Jaffrin, M.Y., ant1 Shapiro, A.H.: Peristaltic pumping. Hunt, J.C.R., and Shercliff, J.A.: Magnetohydrodynamics a t high Hnrtmann number. Friedmann, H.W., Linson, L.M., Patrick, R.M., and Petachek, H. E.: Collisionless shocks in plasmas. Vincenti, W.G., and Traugott, S.C.: The coupling of radiative transfer and gaa motion. Rivlin, R.S., and Sawyers, K.N.: Nonlinear continuum mechanica of viscoelaatic fluids. Willmarth, W.W.: Unsteady force arid pressure mensurementa. Willinma, F.A.: Theory of cotnbustion in laminar flowa. Fung, Y.C., and Zweifnch, B.W.: Microcirculntion: Meclianics of blood flow in cnpillnries. Rollsenow, W.M.: Boiling. Wehausen, J.V.: The motion of floating bodies. Hayes, W.D.: Sonic boom. Cox, R.G., and Mason, S.G.: Suspendctl particles in fluid flow through tribes. I<orobeinikov, V.P.: Gas dynamica of explosions. Stuart, J.T.: Nonlinear stability theory. Mikhailov, V.V., Neiland, V.Y., and Sychev, V.V.: The theory of viscous hypersonic flow. Vol. 4 (1972) Villat, H . : As luck would have it - a few mathernntical rcfloctiot~s. Harleman, I).lt.P., nr~clStolzenbach, K.D.: Fluitl ti~eclianics hcat disposal fro111power gcnor. of ation. Turcotte, D.L., and Oxburgh, E.R.: Mantle convection and the new global tectonics. Long, 1t.R.: F i n i b ntiiplitudc distrlrbaricea in tlio flow of iiiviscid rotating ntid sLml.iRctl fl~titls over obstacles. Jahn, Th.L., and Votta, J . J . : Loconlotion of protozoa. Roberta, P.H., and Soward, A.M.: Magnetoliydrodynamics of the earth's core. Becker, E.: Chemically reacting flows. Hall, M.G.: Vortex breakdown. Hunter, C.: Self-gravitating gaseous disks. Wu, Th. Yao-tail: Cavity and wake flows. Barenhlatt, G.I., and Zel'dovich, Y.B.: Self-siniilar solutions as intcrmediatc! :wytnptotics. Berger, E., and Wille, R.: Periodic flow phenomena. Hoult, D.P.: Oil upreading on the sen. van Wijngnardcn, L. : One-clitt~cnuiotinIflow of liqitids cont.ninitig uri~nllgnn I)ubbles. Milgrem, J.II.: Sailing vessels and sails. interaction. Ashley, H., and Rodden, W.P.: Wing-body aerodyt~n~nic Hownrd, L.N.: Bounds on flow quantities.

Vol. 5 (1873) Fliigge, W . , and Fliigge-I,otz, I.: Ludwig I'mrtdtl in t.he tiiticteeti-t,ltirtics: Rc~ni~iisccncm. Penner, S.S., and Jerskey, T.: Use of lasers for local measuretilent of velocity cotnponcnta, upoc,irs, nnd tetnperatures. I Oppenheitn, A.1<., and Soloukliin, 11.1.: Experiments in gasdynati~ics explosions. of Fischer, H.B.: Longitudinal dispersion and trtrbulent tnixing in open-channcl flow. Wegcner, P.P., and Parlange, J.-Y.: Sphcricnl-cap bnbblcs. Mollo-Christensen, E.: Interrnittcncy in Inrgc-scnlc t,~trbulent flows. Nieo\vland, G.Y., and Spee, R.M.: Transonic airfoils: Rcccnt dc~~cloptncnta t,heory, cxpcriin n ~ e n t arid design. ,

782

Bibliography Bird, R.B.: Useful non-Newtonian models. Petorlin, A.: OpLical effects in flow. Davis, St.11.: The stt~bility tittle-pcriodic flows. of Ccrinak, J.E.: Aerodynnntics of buildings. Fischer, H.B.: Mixing and dispersion in estttnrieq. Hill, J.C.: IIomogcneo~tsturbulent mixing with cllctnicnl reaction. Pearson, J.H.A.: Instability in non-Newtoninn flow. Reyt~olda,W.C.: Colnpntntion of turbulent flows. Coti~te-Rallot, IIot-wire anc~nott~ctry. G.: Woocling, R.A., and Morrl-St-ytonx, H..I.: M~tltiphnscfltlitl flow tllrortgh I)t~rons tnrtlin. Itimnti, D.L., Nordstrom, C1i.E.. and Flick, 1t.E.: Currcmtn in ai~htnnrinerntiyons: An nir-seaIntic1 inh.rnction. Rcshotko, E.: Bonndnry-layer stability and tmtisition. Libby, P.A., and Williams, F.A.: Trtrbnlent flow^ involving clierttirsl renctions. Ruannov, V.V.: A blunt body in a sctpersonic slrcani. Vol. 9 (1977) Jones, R.T.: Recollections fmm an earlier period in Americnn aeronnrttics. Pipkin, A.C., and Ttmncr, R.1.: Steady non-vincnmctric flown of vincoclnntic Iiqrtitln. Bradshaw, P.: Cotnprerrsible turbrtlcnt shear layers. Davicluon. .l.Jr., H t ~ r r i ~ o I)., ant1 (?nctIe~ ( ~ t ~ r v ~ ~ l t ~ o , 0 t 1 thtt liq~ti~llikn n, 11e ,J.It.l~.: t111111~vior of Ilt~iclizcdbccln. Tani, I.: History of bonndary-layer theory. Williarn~,111. J.C.: Jncotnpreasible bountlary-layer neparation. Pleaset, M.S., and Prosperetti, A,: Bobble dyna~nics and cavitation. Holt, M.: Underwater explosions. Zel'dovich, Y.B.: Hydrodynamics of the universe. Pedley, T.J.: Pulnionary fluid dynamica. Canny, M.J.: Flow and transport in plan&. Spieltnan, L1.A.: Particle capture froin low-spcetl laminar flows. Saville, D.A.: Elcctrokinotic effocta with atnall particlcs. Brenncn, Ch., and Winet, 11.: Fluid ~necltanics propulsion by rilin and flagella. of Hiitter, U.: Optimum wind-energy conversion ayetenis. Shen, Shan-fu: l'inite-element nletl~odsin fluid mecl~anics. Ffowcs M'illintns, J. E.: Aeroacortstic~. Belotacrkovskii, S. M.: Study of the unsteady nerorlynn~nirx lifting surfaces wine, the r.otrll)rrt.c~r. of
Vol. 10 (1978) Binnie, A.M.: Some notfa on the nt,ttdy of fluid ~neclianicsit1 Canibritlge. Tnck, 1E.O.: I-lytlrorlynantic problonls of ahipa it1 rcst.riclotl 1vnt01.e. Bird, C.A.: Monte Ca.rlo simulation of gnsflows. Berninn, N.S.: Urng roctllction hy polyniers. Ryzhov, 0.S. : Viscons transonic flows. Griffit.h, W.C.: Dust explosions. Leith, C.E.: Objective methods for weather prediction. Callancler, R. A,: River meandering. Dickinson, R.E.: Rosshy waves - 1.ong-periotl oscillatiori~of ocenns ntld atmospl~rrca. Jenkins, J.T.: Flows of nomatic liquid crystals. I,eibovicli, S.: The structtare of vortex breakdown. Lawn. E. M., and I,ivruey, ,l. 1,. : Flow tltrongh Rcrrotts.

and wakes. Fay, J.A.: Bnoynnt ~ l n t n r s Acoata, 8 . J . : Hydrofoils nnd hydrofoil craft. Saibel, E.A., and Mackcn, N.A.: The fluid mechntlica of lubrication. Gebhart, B.: Instnhility, transition, and turbulence in huoynncy-induced flows. Horlock, J.H., and 1,nkshminorayann. B.: Secondary flows: Theory, experiment, and application in t~trl~oinnrhi~tcry acrodynnnlics. MrCune, J.E., and Kerrehrock, J.L.: Koise from aircraft turbon~nchinery. Perri, A.: Mixing-controlled anpersonic combustion. Eicl~elbrcnner,E.A.: Three-dimensional boundary layers. Werlc. 11.: Hydrody~intnicflow visualization. Kognn. M.N.: Molecolnr gas dynamics. Nickel, I(.: I'randtl's bootldary-layer theory from the viewpoitit of a mathematician.
Vol. 6 (1974) Taylor. G . I . : The interaction botwcen experiment and theory in flrtid niechanics. Milea, J.W.: Hnrhor sciching. Turner, J.S.: Double-diffusive phenotnena. Streeter, V.L., and Wylie, E.B. : Watcrhammer and aurge control. van At&, Chaw.: Sampling techniques in turbrtlcnce mcaanremente. Phillips, 0 . M . : Nonlinear dispersive wttves. Truesdell, C.: The meaning of viaconietry in fluid dynainica. Panofsky, H.A.: The atmospheric boundary layer below 160 meters. Roberta, P.H., and Donelly, R.J.: Superfluid mechanics. Batchrlor, G.K.: Transport properties of two-phase materials with random utructure. Benton, E.R., anti Clark, jr., A.: Spin-np. Orzng, St.A., and Israeli, M.: Nunierical simulation of viscous incompressible flows. Korbacher, G.K.: Aerodynamics of powered high-lift systems. Vol. 7 (197.5) R ~ t-r ~ e r .I.M.: Some rnemorica of early work in fluid mechanic8 a t the Technical University of s, I )elft. Willniart,h, W.W.: Pressrtre flrlctnations beneath t~irbulentbonndary layers. Palm, E.: Nonlinear thernlal convection. Lomnx, IJ., and Steger. L.: Relaxation methods in fluid mechanics. Wiegliardt, K.: Experiments in granular flow. Christiansen, W.H., Rumell, D.A., and Hertzberg, A. : Flow I ~ m r s . Widnall. SI1.E.: The structure and dyiianiica of vortex fileinenta. Tien, C.L.: Fluid mechanics of heat pipes. Koh, R.C.Y., and Brooks, N.H.: Fluid mechanics of waste-water disposal in the ocean. Goldsmith, H.L., and Skalak, R.: Hemodynamica. I,adyzlienskaya, 0.A.: Mnthcmaticnl nnalyais of Navier-Stokes equntiona for incontprcsaible liqrrida. Mnxwortliv. 'r., nncl Ilrowand. F.K.: Experinlent8 in rotaLing and stratified flowa: Oceanographic application. I L a ~ ~ f eJ .,: New trends in experimental turbulence rwearch. r Itnichlen. F.: The cflect of wavw on rubble-mound str~~ctorea. Csn~acly.G.T. : llydrodynan~ics largo lakes. of I'ol.8 (1.976) ROIIRR, 11ydrnnlirs' Int*?st gol~lenage. 11.:

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Sherman, I?. S., I~nbcrger, ,ant1 Corcon, G.M.: Turbr~lenco mixing in ntably stratified waters. J ant1 Patkrson, G.S., Jr.: ProspecLq for c o n ~ p u l t i o n a l fluid ~nec~hanics. Taub, A. 11.: Lielntivistic flnirl tnechanirs. Rcethof, G.: 'I'~rrl~r~lr~~rc-ge~~rrntrd pipe flow. tloine in Ashton, G. D.: ltivor ice. mothods in water-wave diKraction and radiation. Mei, Chiang C.: N~t~ncrical IZcllrr, 1-1.R.: N ~ ~ ~ n c r i mrthods in bortntlery-layer theory. cal B ~ ~ s s F.H: Mngr~etol~ytlrodyt~alnicsthe carth'u dynamo. e, of A 2. Advances in Applied Mecl~anics,Academic Press, New York (only ront.ribrttions to fluitl tnechanics listed) Vol. 1 (1948), ocl. by R. von Misea and TII. von Krirn~hn, Dryden, H.L.: ltcront advances in the mcchanics of boondary layer flow. p. 2-40. Unrgcrs, .J.M. : A tnatl~ctnat,ictnodcl illr~rrtrnt.ingtllo theory of tnrhulcnco. p. 171-1!)0. von Mises, R., and Schiffer, M.: On Horgn~nn'ointegration rnethod in two-dimensional compressible fluid flow. p. 240-285. Vol. 2 (1062), ed. by R. von Mises and Th. von I<hrrnQn von Khrtnbn, TI)., and J h , C.C.: On the st,nt.i~t,ical thcory of iuotropic tnrbrrlence. p. 2-19. Kuorti, G.: l'he Intnitlar boundary lnycr in ro~nprc.ssiblcflow. p. 23-92. l~olubarinova-Korhina, Y.Y.: Theory of filtration of liquids in porous media. p. 154-225. Frol. 3 (1953), ccl. by R. von Mises and Th. von Kkrn~&n Carrier, G.F.: I3onndnry lnycr prohlcmn in applied mcchanics. p. 1-19. Znltlnatani, 0.: Tho one-dimonsionnl iticntropic fluid flow. p. 21-59. Frcnkicl, F.N.: T~trbulcntdiffnaion: Mcan concontrat,ior~ distribution in a flow field of homogeneons tnrht~lct~cc. 62- 107. p. I,udloff, H.P.: On aorodynamics of blastn. p. 100-144. Gudcrlcy, G.: On t,l~c prescncc of shock^ in mixcd suhaonic-sopcrsonic flow patterns. p. 145- 184. Rosenheacl, I,.: Vortcx systcms in wakes. p. 185-195. Vol. 4 (19,5G), ed. by 13.1,. Dryden and Th. von IZhrn~hn Cla~iscr,F.H.: Tho trirbt~lent bonndary layer. p. 2-51. Moore, F.I<.: Thrcc-dintensional boundary layer theory. p. 160-228. 1'01. 5 (195R), ed. by H.L. Dryden and Th. von KSrmhn Fabri, J., and Sicstrunck, R.: Srlpcrsonic air ejectors. p. 1-34. Van Do Vooren, A.I.: Unsteady airfoil theory. p. 36-89. Fricman, X.A., and I<ulsrnd, 1t.M.: Problems in hydromagncticu. p. 195-231. Wcgnnrr, 1'. I'., ntttl Mnrk, L.M.: Condonsnl.ion in S I I ~ C ~ R O ~andC 11ypcrs011icwind tt~nt~ols. I~ p. 307 -447. Vol. 6 (IBGO), ctl. I)y F1. I,. Drydcn and Th. von I<&rmhn' Stewartson, K.: Tho ttrcory of unokady laminar boundit* layers. p. 1-37. Lodwig, G., and Jleil, M.: Bonndary layer theory with dissociation and ionization. p. 39-118. Chester, W.: The propagation of shock waves along ducts of varying crosu section. p. 120-152. Oswntikch, It.: Similarity and eqrlivalencc in rompressible flow. p. 153-271. Wille, R.: Jcarman vortox utrech. p. 273-287. I'ol. 7 (1962). 4. hy 1I.L. Dryden and Th. von KBrmbn a e i a t e d with poser-bu shocks. p. 2 - 3 . Ziiwlz. H.: H > p r c n n i r flow over slender

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(only contribtttions to fluid mechanics listed) Vol. I (lSIil), ed. by A. Forri. D. Kiichernnnn nnd I..FT.G. Sterne Mmkell, E.C.: 011t.11~ prit~ciplw acrodynnrnic design. p. 1-7. of Legcndrc, R.: Celcrtl den profils d'nuhcs pour turbo~nachitiest.ranuuoniqnes. p. 8-25. b ctses applications an cnlcttl den S ~ ~ C R Fennin, M.:l,n thkorie den 6conletnrnt~ potent.icl I~omogPnc en rhgitnc ~uperaonique.p. 20- 103. Becker, E.: lrtstationiire Grcnzschiclltct~ hinter Verdicl~tungsat~sscn ontl Expansicna\\~cllen. p. 104- 173. GoldworLl~y.1P.A.: On 1110tlyna~nicn iot1i7.ctl g n ~ 1). 174 --205. of . ~ n r r o n C.l1.E., attd Randall, D.C.: The theory of sonic bnngs. p. 238-274. , Vol. I1 (1962), ed. by A. Forri, D. I<iichemann, nnd L.H.G. Sterne Rotta, J.: Turbulent boundnry layers in incompremible flow. p. 1-219. &oke, .T.C., and Hall, M.G.: Boundnry lnycrs in three-dinicnaions. p. 221-282. Vol. I l l (1962), ed. hy A. Ferri, D. Kiichrninnn, and L.H.G. Sterne Bnglcy. J.A.: Sotno ncrodynamic principles for the design of swept wings. p. 1-83. Sacku, A.H., and Rt~rncll,J.A.: Ducted propellers - a critical review of the state of the art. p. 85- 135. Cox, R.N.: Experitnental facilit,ies for I~yprraonicrescnrch. p. 137-178. Panofsky, H.A., and Press, H.: Mcteorologicnl nnrl ncrona~ttiralwpcctn of ntmosphcrir turlrolcnce. p. 170-232. Vol. 1' (I964), ed. by D. I<iichc~nann and L.H.O. Sterne B r ~ l s l i a w , and I'a~~kli~~rut,, The clrsign of low speed wind tttnnels. p. 1-G9. P., ILC.: Tnni, I.: 1,ow slrectl llou involving I)ubblc separation. p. 70-103. Tcipcl, I.: Erg;bt~isue clcr Theorie schallttnher Stro~nungen.p. 104-142. Gcrtnnin, l'.: 15coulc11ienta t,ranssoniques honiog~ncs.p. 143-273. Estertna, J . , anti Roshko, ti.: Rnrifcd gn.9 dynamics. p. 274-204. F'ol. VI ( l 9 6 5 ) , cd. I)y 1). Kiicl~rtnntinant1 L.1i.O. Sterno Stnoltlcren, J.J.: The evolution of the rqnntiona of gas flo\v a t low density. p. 1--132. Cnsbr, M.: 'rhe role of spntinlly growing waves in the theory of l~ydrodytinn~irs stnbility. p. 251 -270. Kdcl~cnlatt~i, IIypersotiic nirrrnlt and their nerodynatnic problems. p. 271 -353. D.: Vol. I'll (1966). etl. by D . ICiichemnnn Itoy, M.: On thr rolling tty of the conical vorticos above a delta wing. p. 1-6. Lrgrncfre, It.: Vortex sheetn rolling-up nlortg lending-eclgcs of delta wings. p. 7-33. Smith, J.H.B.: 'Ft~corcLirnl \rork on the formntion of vortex slicets. p. 35-51. Hall. M ( : 'l'ltc strt~cturo conccntrntctl rortcx corrs. p. 53-110. .: of Ilotl. N., ant1 I,t~\vellt~~i, W.S.: Boundary lnycrs and their interaclions in rotating flo\r~. p. 111-144. Morton, 1l.lt.: (:rophynicnl vortices. p. 145-104. Willc, 11.: 011t ~ t ~ ~ t r n Aows nnd 1rnnsic.nt r~totions.p! 195-207. rly
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Vol. ZX (I968), ed. by D. Kiichemann Vrics, D.U., and Ueatrix, C.: Leu procbdds gCnOrnux dc tncaurc d r s cnrnt(.riatiqnos. p. 1- 39. Chushkin, P.J.: Numericnl method of cl~arncteristicsfor three-dimcnsiot~nl s~tpersonictlows. p. 41 - 122. Mirllcl, It.: Cnrncti.rintiqtteu tl~crlniquea tlw rottrhrs li~nitcs t cnlcul prntiq~tcdrs tra11sk:rls tie c cltalcur en hypersonique. p. 123-214. Brondbcnt, E.G.: A review offl~tid mechnnicnl rind rrlntrcl problems in Ml-li) gcnrrntors p. 215 -327. ICiichemnnn, I)., and Wrbcr, J.: An analysis of some pcrformnnca n~pectaof vnrio~sst y l m of aircraft dcuigl~edlo Hy over dilTeront rnngra a t diffcrcnL nl)rcds. p. 320- 4li6. Vol. X /1970), ctl. hy I). ICiirltetnnt~n Joromin, 1..0.1'.: Tlic st,atrta of researcl~ in t,~~rhulont bonntlnry lnycrs \vit,l~fl~ricl it~jc:rlior~. p. 65-189. ou Fennin, M.: Cnlcul nun16rique des ailes en rbgimc aupersoniquc station~~aire instntionnnirc. p. 191-259. Enuclmc, M.: Contribr~tioti cnlcr~l nu tlca cnrnrlkrisl,iqt~es drodyt~nlniqi~ru 116ront.f~ * I Pt.onled'nn I ~ncnL supersonique stationnairc ou instationnniro. p. 261 --:DO. Vol. X I (I970), ed. by D. Kiichemnnn Dutton, J.A.: ElTecta of tnrl)nlettce on aeronnrtt.icn1 systems. p. 67 -- 100. Corlpry, G.: Problbtncs t111 vol d'rttt nvion r n turbnlct~cc.11. I I I - - 181. Bttrttltnm, .7.: At.mo~phcrict~~rbr~lcttoo Ll~ccruino nltitttdc~ ntt~~c:rnot~i(: rrl of lrn11411tlrl, rril.crr~f~. p. 18:)-~234. Grcen, .J.R.: Jnternct,ions bctweett sl~ockwnvcs nntl tr~rbulcntI)o~~r~clnry 1nyt:r.s. p. 235 -340. Vol. XI1 (1972), etl. by D. JCiichernntln Jnffc, N.A., and Stnith, A.M.O.: Cnloulnl.ion of Inntinnr hotn~tlnryInycrs by nlcnnn of x tlifir. et~t,inl-dilrcrcnce tnetl~od.p. 49-212. Micltalke, A.: The instability of free shcnr Inycrs. p. 213-2:19. Smith, J.H.B.: Itcmnrks on tltc st.rt~ctrrrc conicnl flow. p. 241--272. of Chevnllier. .T.p.,nnd Tnillct,, J.: Rbccttt 1rrogri.s dnna Icn t c e l i t t i q ~ ~ ~ ~ clc 11tr811rc ~ I Y ~ ( * I . R O I I ~ ~ I I P . rn p. 273 -348. Vol. XI11 (1972), cd. Iry 1). ICiichcti~n~~n Barnntscy, It.(:.: Sorne problctns of gns solid ar~rfriccintcrnct.ion. 1,. 1 ---80. I)rttt~~mond, A.M.: I'crfortnnnce rind stnbi1it.y of l~ypervcloritynirt:rnft Ilying on n t~tinorcirc:lc. p. 137-221. Vol. XI I f (1973) ccl. by I). I < i i c l i e ~ ~ ~ : ~ t ~ t t L11kn.9icwicx, J.: A crilicnl review of dcvcloptnct~~ expnri~ttrnt~r~l e t , l ~ ind IrigI~.~l)rcd of ~t~ o s rrorodynn~nics.p. 1-26. Conor, A.J,.: l'hcory of I~yprrsonicflow I I ~ O I n ~~r~ing. 109. - 175 J p. Tnnncr, M.: Tlicorctirnl ~)rcdictionof I)nsc I)rmsltre for strncly I)r~nt.flon.. p. 177 2%. I'url~s, H.V.. nntl Micl~nllto,14.: I~ttrotl~tclion ncrotlynrrn~icnoise tl~cory.1,. 247 2!)7. to 1'01. X Y (1974), cd. by I ) . Kiiclten~nnn RWtnnssen, 11.: Application of vnrintionnl t)1cthot1s in compresail)le flow cnlr~~ln(iot~.s. 35. 11. 1 Liclit,f~~ss, . J . , nnrl Sbnrkc~t,H.: Sl~prrsonic tI cnscndc flo\rr. p. 37 - ~ 14!). Hacker, T., nnd Oprisiv, C.: A d i s c t l ~ ~ i o n tho ro/I-coupling prolrlc~n.p. I51 -- 180. of Biitpfisch, K.A., and \'ene~iia~in, The electron ben~ntcrltniqt~cin I~jprrrionic.rnrrficd &IS D.: dynnmics. p. 217--255. Vol. X 1 (1117.5), etl. by D. I<tic.ltr~nenn 1 ' Wnzznn, A.R.: Spatial stability of Tol111iic11-Srltlirl~ti~tg ~I'IIVCR p. 90- 127.

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A 4. Advaneen in Aeronnntical Sciences

Vol. I ond Vol. I I . T'roccrdings of the First Intornational Congrcss in Acronn~~ticalCICtlCPR, 9 ' Mndrid, 8 -13 Srptetnbcr, 1958. I'crgamon I'ress, London, 1959.
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Vol. III and Vol. I V Procredings of tho Second Tnkrnntional Congrens in t\cronautical Sciences, Zi~rich,12 - 16 Septe~nhcr,IWO. Pergan~or~ Press, I,ondon, 1962. Vol. IT: Proceedings of t,l~n Tl~irdCongrms the lntornntional Council of the Aeronnnticnl ' rlcllces, of I' Stockl~oln~, -31 Augr~st,1962. Spnrt,nr~13ooks. Wimhington J).C., 1964. 27
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Ribliogrnphy

71) 1

B 2. Collected Works Prandtl, L.: (;ean~nn~clto Abhnndlungen zrlr angcwandten Mechanik, Hydro- und Aerodynamik. etl. 3 Vol~~mcs, by W. Tollmien, H. Schlichting, and H. Gortler. Springer Verlng, 1901. von Khrmhn, Th.: Collected works of Theodore von Khrmhn. 4 Volumeu (1902-1951). Butterworth, London, 1056; Supplcn~ent Volume (1952-1963), von Kkrrnhn Inst,it~ltc Jthode St. Gcni.se, Belgillln, 1075. Taylor, G.1.: The scientific papers of Sir (:coTTrey Ingrnn~Taylor. 4 Volntnes, ccl. by G.K. Bntchelor. Cambridge University Press, 11)68-1971. Taylor, G.1.: Surveys in mechanics. The '2.1. Taylor 70th anniversary volu~ne,ed. by G.IC. 13atchelor, and R.M. Dnies. Can~britlgc,1986.
B 3. Applied Mechnnirs Congrcr~es Uortler, H., and Tvlllnier~,W. (ed.): Fiinfzig . h h r e C.ro~~zscl~icl~tforscl~ung. Fcst.schrift in Eine Originnlbeitriigen. Vieweg, Braunschweig. 1955, 499 pp. Giirtler, It. (ed.): (:rct~zscl~icl~tforschung. IUTAM-Symposium, Freiborg/Breisgnu. 1957. Springer Verlng, 1958, 41 1 pp. MQcnniquede In Tnrhule~~ce, Marseille, 28 August-2 Septen~ber1961. Colloqrtes Internationn~lx du Centre Nntionnl de la HBcl~crcheScicr~tifique,No. 108, Paris, 1902, 470 pp. 10th International Congress of Applied Mecha~~ics, Stresa, Italy, September Proceedings of t.11~ 1900, ed. by F. Rolla and W.F. ICoiter. Elsevier Publishing Co., AmsterdnmJNew York, 1962, 370 pp. Proceedings of the l l t l i Intcrnnt.ional Congrrm of Applied Mechanics, Miinchen, Germany, August 1964, ed. by H. Cortler. Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1906, 1190 pp. 12th Int,ornnt,ional Congress of Applied Mechnnics, Stanford University, Cal.. Proceedings of t . 1 ~ USA, August 1968, ed. by M. IIethnyi nnd W.G. Vinccnti. Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1969, 420 pp. Proceadingu of tho 13th Intcrnntionnl Congrem of Applied Mechanics, Moskan University, Augrtut 11172, eel. t ~ y Bocltc~r~rntl(;.I<. Miltl~nilov.Springor \'orlag, Hcrlin. 1'373, :J06 pp. lC. Procecdingu of tho 14th Inkrnntionnl Congress of Applied Mechnnicn, Delft, Holland, AugustSeptember 11176, ed. by W.1. ICoikr. North-Holland Publishing Co.. Amsterdam, 1976. Prcprints, 260 pp. Procwdings of the Boeing Syn~posiumon Turhnlence, held a t the Boeing Scientific Research 1,nhoratoriea. Seattle, Washington, USA, 23-27 June, 1909. University Press, Cambridge, 1970; reprinted froni the Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 41, 480 pp. C. General Treatises, Snrveyu, Textbooks C 1. Ceneral Treatises IIownrth, I,. (ed.): Moder11 dovelopnicnta in fluid dynamics. High speed flow. Vol. I, 330 pp. and Vol. 11, 478 pp. 2nd ed., Clarentlon Press, Oxfortl, 1956. 'J'hwaiteq, B. (ed.): Incompressible aerodynamics. I'lnid Motion Memoirs. 630 pp.ClarendonPresll, Oxford, 19(i0. Lnchtnann, G.V. (ed.): Bo~tndary layers and flow control. Vol. I and Vol. 11;'1360 pp. Pergamon Prma, Lontlon. 1901. h a e n h e a d , L. (cd.): L a ~ ~ ~ i boundary Inyers. Fluid Motion Memoirs, 687 pp. Clnrendon Proas. nnr Oxford, 190:). ConlriI~tilion.~ by: Jdiglit~hill. M..J.: Int,rod~~ct.ion; and ideal flt~idu.p. 1-45. R.enl 46-113. lighthill, M.J.: Introduction: Boundary layer theory. Whithnm, G.R.: The Nnvier Stokes equat.iona of motion. p. 114-162. !? Illitigworth, C.R..: Plow nt small Reynolds number. p. 163-197. Joti<s, C. W., and Wntaon, R. J.: Two-dimenuiot~al boundary layers. p. 198-257. Gadd. G.E., .Tones, C.W., ant1 Wnhon, E.L.: Approxirnab n~et.l~ods aolubion. p. 258-348. of St.~~art,, J.?'.: U n ~ t ~ a d y bonndnry layers. p. 349-408.

Craht,ree, 1 P.,Kiichemnnn D., and Sowerby, L. Three-dimcnaional boundary layers. p. 400, 491. Stuart, J.T.: lIydrodynnmic stability. p. 402-579. Pankhurst, R.C., and Gregory, N.: Expcrirnrntal methods. p. 580-028.

C 2. Surveys AOARD ( = Advisory Group Acronaut~icnlRcscarcl~nnd Uevcloprncnt) AGARD Conference Proceedings, C.P. No. 30 (1968). Hypersonic boundary lnycrs ond flow fields. Symposirtm Fluid Dynnmics Panel, Lontlon, 1'368. A(>A1tD Confero~~cc J'rocccdirip, C.P. No. 83 (1971). l'ncilit,ios at~clI,ccl~niqr~ro nerotlyn:tn~i~ for testing a t transonic speeds nntl high Itcynolds numbers. Sytnl)orintn Fluid J)ynntnic~ J'nncl. Oott.ingen, 1071. AGAltD Conference Proceedings, C.P. No. $13 (1071). Tr~rhr~lcnt shear ROW.Sg~nprmiun~ lcluid 1)ynnnlics I'anel, London, 1'371. tiGARD Conference Proceedings, C.P. No. I08 (1975). Flow separation. Syniposin~n Iplr~id Dynnmics Panel, Giittingcn, 1975. AGAltDograph No. 97 (1965); l'arta I, 11, I l l , 1V. llccont r~evclopn~tr~~ta in 11011n(l:1ry lnycr resenrch. Symposium Fluicl Dynamics l'nnel, Naples, 1965. AGAItDograph No. 164 (1972); Surnguc, J. (cd.): Boundary lnycr effccta in 'rurbomncliines.
Bradahnw, P. (ed.): Tt~rbulence.335 pp. Springer Verlng, Bcrlin/Heidclberg/Ncw York. 1970. Conlribation~ by: Bradshnw, P.: 1ntroduct.ion. 11. 1-44. Fernholz, 1I.H.: External flow. p. 45-107. Johnston, J.: Internal flow. p. 109- 169. Rrntluhaw. P.. nnd Wootls. ,J.l).: Gco~~l~yuienl trlrb~~lonco I I I I ( I ~ R I I ~ . nnd Ilnwn. p. 171 - 1I12. ltcynold~, W.C., and Ceboci, T.: CnIcuIaLio~~ t , ~ ~ r b ~ t l o t ~ t ~ 193-228. of flow#. p. l.nunder, RE.: Hent and mms transport. p. 231-287. I.~~mley, .J.I..: Two-phnse ant1 non-Newtonian flows. p. 289-328. Brndshaw, P. (cd.): Turhulcnce resmrcll. Progrew nnd problems. l'rocrctlit~gs of t l ~ c 1!)7ii Heat Transfer and Fluid Mcch. Inst. Stanfortl Ilniversiby Press. 1!)76. Kline, S.J.. Morkovin, M.V., Sovrnn, (:., Cockerill, D.J., Colcs, D.E., nnd Ilirst.. 1S.A. (cd.): Proceedings: Comput,at,ion of turbulent bo~indarylayers. Vol. 1 nr~dVol. 11: AFOSIb-IFP Stanford Conference, 'I'hermosci. Div. 1)ep. Meclt. Eng. Stnt~fordUnivcrsit,~,IDiiD. Vol. I , ed. by Kline, Morkovin. Sovran, Cockerill: Methods, preclict.ions, cvaluition and flow struct,ure. 590 pp. Vol. 11, ed. by Colcq and Hirat: Cotnpiled dntc. 519 pp. of VOI. Ficdler, ?I. (ctl.) : Struclurc and 1110chnnis1n8 t ~ ~ r h ~ ~ l e n c eI, an(! 11. Procwdings, Ilrrlin, 1!)77. J,act.r~reNotes in I'hysics, Vol. 75 nnd 70. Springer Verlag, I%crlin1'378. Scl1111ir1t.F. W.: Syrnposil~rnon Turl~nlentSltenr Flows, I8 Sessions, i\pril 18- 20, 11)77. The l'cnnsylvania State University, University J'nrk, llennsylvnnin.

pl

~ \ l ) r n m o \ ~ i rO.Ii.: The tllrory of t u r b ~ ~ l e n t (Trnnnlntrtl fro111 Ib~~rminn) l~, jets. Ml'r I'rc.9~. ( ! ~ I I I bridge, Mass., IO(i3. Bnt,rl~elor, (:.I<.: An introd~~ction f l ~ ~ d~-nnrnics. to id Calnbridgc Unirrrsity Pcesn. I,ot~tlon/Nc~v York, 1907. 13atchelor, C.I<: '~11c theory of l ~ o ~ n o g r r ~ rtttrhr~lrnrr.2ntl rd.. Cnn~bridgcI J n i ~ r r ~ ~ t y o~ts I'r(*ss, London, 1070. 13at.chelor. C..JC.: ,\n introtltlction to t r ~ r l ~ u l e t nnd it* n ~ r n s r ~ r r ~ n rI'crgn~no~~ ~re ~~ta. I'rrsn. OxTortl/ x e a York. 1!)71. Betrhov. I{., and Cri~ninalc. 1V.O.: Stnbility of parallel flow. r\cntlrt~~ic I'rrss, Nra. York. l0G7. Bctz, A.: I<onforn~c i2bhiltlrtne;. 2ntl rtl.. Springrr Vrrlng. Ilrrlin. IQ(i4.

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Bihliography Lantl), [ I . : Hydrod~tlntnics. ed., Cambritlgc, 1957. Gcrr~ian 6th t,rn~\olntiot~: Lolirbocl~ Hydroclrr tiynnntik. 2nd cd., 1931. Lieptnnnti, H.W., and Rosltko, A.: Elenienta of gnsdynntttic-s. John Wiley, New York, 1!)57. Lin, C.C.: The tlteory of hydrodynatnic stability. Cntrlbridgo Univrrsity I'rcss, 1055. Lin, C.C.: Turbulent Rows and heat transfer. Princeton Univcrsity l'rew, 1059. Lengloia, W.IE.: Slow viscous flow. Mnctnillnn, New York, 1904. Loitainnski, L.G.: Laminnre Grenzschichten. Trar~olntedfrotn Russian by W. S%nb\e\vski. Akademie-Verlng, Berlin, 1967. Leslie, D.C.: The clcvclopnient of the theory of turbulcncc. Clnrct~donl'rc~s, Oxford, 1973. Meksyn, 11.: New tncthocla in lnnlinar bol~ndnrylnyer tllcory. I'crgs~ltotl Prcss, I,ondutl, l!)(il: Miillrr, W.: Einfiiltru~ig dic Thcoric der ziil~ct~ in Fliisaigkeilcn. Akndcnrische \'orlngsgrnellscltnft, Lcipzig, 19332. Oswatitacl~,Ii.: Orundlagen der Gasdynamik. Springer Verlng, Wicn/Ncw York, 1970. Pai, S.I.: Viscous flow theory. Vol. I : Laminar flow. Vol. 11: Turbulent flow. Vnn Nostr;~tlcl, Princeton, N.J., 1950 nnd 1957. Pai, S.I.: Fluid dynntnics of jeta. Vnn Noslrnnd, Ncw York, 1054. Patnnknr, S.U.. and Spnlding, D.B.: Heat and mnus transfcr in horttldsry Ingcra. 2nd ctl., Inlcrt,ext Rook, London, 1!)70. Plnte, E.J.: Aerodynatnic cllarecteristics of ntn~osplrcricboundnry Inyers. Atorriic Energy COIIItnission, 1971. Prandtl, I,., ntld Tietjnns, 0 . : Hydro. und Aeronlechanik, 2 Vols. Springer, Berlin, 1929 nncl 1931. Vol. I: Fundntnentnla of ltydro- and aeromochntiics. ICnglisll trtiti~lntionby I,. Jlo~onltoncl. McGrnw-Hill, New 'iorkllmr~don, 1924. Vol. 11: Applied hydro- and ncro~nechnnics.1Cnglisll translation by J.P. Den Hnrtog. McCraw-Hill, Ncw York/hndon, 1934. Prnndtl. I,.: Fiihrer durch die Stromungslehre. 7th ed., Vicweg, Braunacliweig, 1969. English trnnslat,ion by W.M. Denns: Ewcnt,inls in fluid dynnmics. Ulnckie t\nd Son, I,onclot~, 1!)52. ICeyt~olds,A.J.: T ~ ~ r b u l c tflows in cnginecring. John Wiley, London, 1974. lt Riegela, F.W.: Aerodynnn~ische Profile. Oldenboorg, Miinchcn, 1958. English trnnslation by D.G. Randall: Aerofoil sections. Butterworths, London, 1961. Rohaenow, W.M., and Choi, H.U.: Heat, mass and momentum tranafer. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1961. Rotta. J.C.: Turbulente St,riimungen. Teobner, Stnttgart, 1972. Rouse. H.: Advanced tnechnnics of fluicla. John Wiley, New York, 1959. Sovrnn. G. (ed.): Fluid mecltanics of intarnal flow. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1967. Schmidt, E.: Eiofiihrung in die technische Thcrmodynatnik land die Grundlageti der chernischcn Thermoclynatnik. 9th ed., Springer, Berlin, 1962. English trnnslntion by J . ICcstin. Clarcrtdon Press, Oxford, 1949; also Dover reprint. flow. Vols. I and 11. ltonald Shnpiro, A.H.: The dynclmics and tltertnodynn~nicaof cotnprca~ible Press, New York, 1953 and 1954. Schlichting, H.: Grenzschichttheorie. 5th ed., Braun, Karlsruhe, 1065. Schlicht,ing, H., and Truckcnbrodt, E.: Aerodynamik des Flugzeuges. Vols. I attd 11, 2nd ed., Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, 1967 and 1009. Schubnucr, G.B., nrtd Tccn, C.M.: Turhulent flow. Princeton Aeronauticnl l'npcrbacka No. 0, Princeton, New Jersey, 1961. Stenwrtson, K.: The theory of laminar boundary layers in comprcssihle fluids. Clnrendon Prcss, Oxford, 1964. Townsend, A.A. : The structure of turbulent shear flow. 2nd cd., Cambridge Univcrsity Press, 1976. Truitt, R.W.: Hypersonic aerodynan~ics.Ronald Prcss, Now York, 1959. Truitt,, R..W.: Ft~ndamentnls nerodynnnlic Ilcnling. R.onnld Prcss, New York, 1060. of Trnckcnbrodt. E.: St.rottlungstuechanik; Gr~nldlaget~ tacltniuclte Anwendungen. Spritlgcr und Verlng. Berlin/Heidelbcrg/New York, 1068. cd., Van Dyke, M.: Pertitrhntiori tncthods in fluid tttccltnnicn. 211~1 Acndetnic Prras, New York, I975 Wirgltnrclt~,I<.: Tltcorrt.isclto St,riitn~tt~~slcl~re, 'I'clth~irr,St,tttlgnrt., I9M.

13ird, R.R., Slewnrt, W.l<., and I,ightfoot, E.M.: Transport phenomena. John Wiley, New York, 1960. 13run. E.A., Martinot-Lngnrde, A., and Mnthieu, d.: MQcaniquedca fllridcs, Vol. I and 11. 2nd ed. Dttnod, Paris, 1008. Ceberi, T., encl Ilrndahnw, P.: Mornentutn trnnsfcr in boundary Inyers. McGraw-Ilill, New York, 1977. Ccheci, T., and Srnibh, A.M.O.: Analysis of t.rtrh~tlrntbot~ridnrylnycrs. Academic Press, New York, 1974. Cha~ldrsrkliar, Hydrodynnrnic and hydromagnetic stability. Clarcndon Press, Oxford, 1961. S.: Chang, P.K.: Sepnrntion of flow. Pergnmon Prcss, Ncw York, 1970. Cltang, P.K.: Cmtltrol of flow sepnrntion. Hemisphere 1'11blisl1ing Corporation, Wnshington, 1j.C. 1970. Cl~aptnnn,A.J.: -1Ient trnnafcr. 2tid ed., Mactnillan, New York, 1967. Curle, N.: The lnrninnr boundnry lnycr equations. Clnrendon I'resa, Oxford, 1962. Curie, N., and Dnviea, H.J.: Modern fluid dynnniics. Vol. I: Inco~npreasible flow. Vol. 11: Compresaible flow. V a l Nostrnnd Reinhold Comp., London/New York, 1968 and 1!)71. Dorrnnce, W.H.: Viscous hypersonic flow. Theory of reecting and hypersonic boundary layers. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963. Dryden, H.L., Mltrnagnn, F.P., and Baternan, H.: Hydrodynamics. Reprint, Dover Publications, New York, 1956. Duncan, W.J., Tltotn, A.S., and Young, A.D.: An elctnentary treatise on the mechanics of fluids. Edward Arnold Publ., London, 1st ed. 1960; 2nd cd. 1970. Stsrijn~ttngslchre. cd., Springcr, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, 1966. 7th Eck, 13.: Tcchni~che Eckert, E.R,.C.: Eitifiiltrung in dett Wiir~neutld Stoffaustauach. 3rd ed., Springer, Berlin, 1966. Eckert, E.R.G., nnd Drake, jr., R.M.: Heat and ntws transfer. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959. Eckhaus, W.: Stl~dics non-litlcnr stability theory. Springer, New York, 1065. in ICvnns, 11.: Lntnittor boundnry layers. Addison-Wesley I'nblishing Comp., Rending, Mass., 1968. Pavre, A., Kovnaznny, L.S.II., Duinnn, R., Gaviglio, J., and Coant.ic, M.: Prefnce de E.A. Brnn: l a trtrbulencc en m8caniq1te dcs fluidcs; bases tl16oriqucs c t exp6rimentales, m6thodes statistiqucs. Gnnthier-Villara. Pnris, 1976. Gcrstcn, Ii.: Eirlliilirrtng in die St.romungstnechn~iikDiisseldorf, 1074. Goldstein, S. (ed.): Modern developnienta in fluid dynnmics. Vols. I and 11. Univcrsity Preas, Oxford, 1938. in Goldatein, S.: Lect~nres flnid mechnnics. I n : Lectures in applied mathematics, Vol. 11. Interscience Publ., hndon/New York, 1960. Gostnati. A.0. c t al.: Heat and mass trnnsfer in recirculntina flows. Academic Preas. London1 Now York. 1969. Grigt~ll, (ccl.): Grocbcr, I[., Erk, S., ntld Grig~rll, Die Grrlndgcsctze dcr Wiirmciibertragung. U. U.: 3rd ed. 1955, 3rd prirltirlg 1963. Hansen, A.G.: Flrrid tnerhnnics. Wiley Press, New York, 1967. Hayes, D., and Prohstein, F.: Hypersonic flow theory. Academic Press, New York, 1950. Hinze, J.O.: Tt~rbnlcnco.2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1075. Iloorncr. S.F.: I'lrticl-dyrrnmic drng. 2nd cd., Wnullington l).C., 1!)65. Kays, W.M.: Convrctivc hcnt nnd mnss tzanafer. McCrew-Hill, New York, 1966. Ka~~fmnntt, Tcrl~niacllo W.: Hydro- und Aerodynamik. 3rd'cd., Springer Vcrlag, Berlin, 1963. Vol. 1: Invisritl flow. 2nd rd., 1966. I Iinudsen, ,J.G., nnd Kntz, D.L.: Fluid dynnmics and heat' trnnsfer. McCraw-Hill, New York, 1958. Kuct,ltq, A.M., nnd Srllnotzlrr, ,J.D.:Fo~intlnt~iotts ncrodynamirs. John Wiley, New York, 1959. of ICutablncIze, S.S., and 1,cont'ev: Turbulent 11oundary layers in compressible gmw. Tranaluted from IZi~~sinrt 1l.P. Spnlding. Edward Arnold Publ., London, 1964. hy

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706

order) D Bench-mark publications (in cl~ronologicnl . bei Prandtl, I,.: Uher I~lii~nigkeit~hewegung schr kleiner Rcibung. Vcrhnndlungcn IIIrd Intern. Math. Kongrem Heidelberg 1004, 484-491 (1904), Teubner, I ~ i p z i g , 1905. English trana1aLion: NACA Menlo No. 452 (1928). Reprinted in: Vicr Abhnndlungen zur Hydro- und Aerodynamik, Giittit~gcn,1927; Coll. Workn, Vol. 11, 575-584. Blmir~n,I-I.: Grcnzsc11icht.enin I~liissigltcitcn nit, klcincr Rcibung. Dins. Cottingcn 1907. Z. Mnth. 11. I'hya. 56, 1-37 (1908). Englinh trannlntion: NACA TM 1256. Iloltze. E.: Orcnzscl~ichten I~otationskiirpern.Dins. Gott,ingen 1908. nn IIierncnz. K.: Dic Grcnzschicht an cincm in den gleichfiirn~igcnFluasigkeitsst.ro~n einget,nr~chtrn gcrndcn Kreiszylinder. Diss. Cot.t,ingen 181I . Ijingl. I'olytechn. J. 28, 321 -410 (191 1). Prandtl, I,.: Der L~~ftnidcrotand Kugeln. Nnchr. Ges. Wiss. Giitt,ingcn, Mnt,h. Phys. Klmsc, von 177---I90 (1914); Coll. Works, Vol. 11, 597-608. von Khrnm&n, Th.: Ubcr lnn~inareuntl turbulcnte Rcibr~ng.ZAMM I, 233-262 (1921). NACA 'I'M 1092 (1946). Pohlhnusm, K.: Zur nriherungsweisen Integration der Diffcrcnt~inlgleicl~u~~g der lamineren Gretizacllicl~t.ZAMM 1, 252-308 (1!)21). Prantltl, L.: Uc~nrrkungeniiber die IP~~tatehrlng T~~rbnlcnz. tler ZAMM I , 431 -436 (1921); Coll. Works, Vol. 11, 687-690. Tietjens. 0.: Beitriige zur Eut,stehung dcr Tr~rhr~lenz. Disa. Giittirigen 1922. ZAMhf ti, 200-217 (1925). surfnre. Proc. Burgers, J.M.: Tho motion of n flnid in the bortndnry layer nlong n plnne s~nooth First Intern. Congress p\ppl. MccII., T>clft, 113- 128 ( 1924). Betz, A,: 15in \'crfnhren znr direktcn Ermit,t,lrnlg ties Profiln.idcrstnndcs. ZFM 16. 42 (1925). Prnndtl, L.: Uher die nrtsgcbildctc Turbr~lenz.ZAMM ., 136-130 (1925); \'erl~nnrllungen 11. 5 1nt.crn. Kongrcsn Angew. Mcchnnik. Zurich, 02-78 (1926); Coll. Workn, Vol. 11, 714-718. Tollmien, \V.: Ilercchnung tr~rbrllent,cr A~~shrcitung~vorgnr~ge. 6 , 468-478 (1926). ZAMM Prnndtl, I,.: The generation of rorticcn in fluids of small viscosity. 15th Wilbur \Vright Efemorinl I~cture, 1,ondon 1927. J. Roy. Aero. Soc. d l , 720 (1927). Sce also: Oie Entstcl~ung\.on Wirbeln in einer Fliisoigkcit mit klciner R e i b ~ n ~Z.. lil~~gtcchn. g Motorluftscl~.18, 489 -4!)(i (1927); Coll. Workn, Vol. 11, 752.-777. Toll~nien,W.: Uber dic Entstehung der Turbrtlenz. I. Mit,teilr~ng Nnchr. Geu. Wiss. Giittingen. Mat.11. Phys. Klnsse, 21--44 (1929). NACA 'L'M 609 (1031). Schlichting, H:: Ubcr dns cbene Windschnttenproblem. Dim. Gottingen 1930. 1ng.-Arch. 1, 633-571 (1930). Niknradnc, ,J.: Gcsctz~~~iiBigkciten t u r b ~ ~ l e n t e n tler Stromung in glntten Rohrcn. Forsell.-Arb. 1ng.-Wen. Heft 350 (1932). Taylor, (:.I.: 'The t,rnnsport of vorticity and heat througl~ fluida in turbulent mot,ion. Appendix by A . Fngc and V.M. Fnlkncr. Proc. Roy. Soc. 135, 085-705 (1032). Prnnclt.1, 1,:: N c ~ ~ c 15rgrhnisveder 'I'r~rbnlcnzforscl,rrng. Vl>t 77, 105-114 (1933); Coll. Workn, re Z. Vol. 11, 81!J -845. Nikr~rntlse,J.: Strii~nungsgesrt,zein rncthcn Rohrcn. Forsch.-Arb. 1ng.-Wes. Heft 361 (1933). Schlirliting, H.: Z r ~ rEntRtcIntng dcr Turhrrlenz hei dcr Plnt,tet~stijr~nnn~. Nachr. Ges. Wiae. (:iittingen, Math. L'hys. Klasec, 182-203 (1933); s q also ZAMM Id, 171-174 (1933). I'rnntl1.l. r.. : Tho ~nrrl~nnics viseous flr~ido. \V. IT.i)rirnn:l (ed.) ,\crodynnmicn Theory. V6l. IIT. of In Springer \'crlng, :),I (I!)35). 208 'roll111icn. W. : Ein nilgemcines Kritcrion~ Inst,nbilitiit lan~inarcr der Genc11n.indigkeitRverteilungen. Nnchr. Ocs. \iriss. Giitli~~gcn, Mnlh. Phyn. I<lnssc, Fnchgruppc I, 1, 7:)-114 (1!)35). Srl~lic.hting,f l . : tl~~~~rlitt~tlc~~vertrrilr~r~g I I I I ~1Snr.rgiebiInnz der klci~len Storungen bei tlcr P l a t b n nlrii~nrn~g. NncI~r.(:cs. C\lisu. Ciitti~~gcn, Mnth. Phys. Klnsue, Fnchgrr~ppe 1, 47--78 (1938). 1,

Busemann, A.: Gaastromung mit lnminarer Grcnzschicht entlnng einer Platte. ZAMM IS, 23---26 (1935). Joncs, B.M.: Irlight experiments on the borlndnry laycr. Firnt Wright llrothcrs' Memorinl 1,cctnro 1937. .I. Acro. Sci. 5, 81 - 101 (1938). von KQrmQn, Tit., and Tsien, 1I.S.: Boundary laycr in comprcasiblo fluids. J. Aero. Sci. 5. 227-232 (1938). See also: Th. von Iihrmhn: Report on thc Voltn Congrcs8, Rome, 1035. Gortler. 11.: llber einc drcidimensionalo Inatnhilitiit lan~inarer Grcnzschichten an kor~knvcn Wiindcn. Nnchr. Gca. Wim. Oottingcn, Mnth. Phya. Iilnesc, New Scrim 2, No. 1 (1940). Schr~bnucr,G.B., and Skrntnstnd, H.K.: Lnn~innr o ~ ~ n d n rlnycr oncillntion~ b y ant1 st,nbilit,y of lnn~innrflow. .J. Aero. Sci. 14, 09-78 (1!)47). NACA Ilcl~.I109 (1948). Tollmien, W.: Asyn~ptotischc lntcgration dcr Stijru~igsdiKerent~ialgIcichung cbcncr I I L I I I ~ I I I L ~ ~ Striim~~ngen I~ohcnReynolds-Zahlen. ZAMM 25/27, 33-50 and 70--83 (1!)47). bei Mangler, W.: Z~~~arnmerthang z\vincher~chencn rintl rot.at.ior~nsyn~~nrt.riscl~cn Orcnz~cl~icl~tcn in komprcasiblcn Fluwigkciten. ZAMM 28, 97-103 (1948). TruckcnbrodL, E.: Ein Qnndrot~~rverfahrcn Bcrcchnung (lor Inminnrcn untl trrrhrllcr~ten zur Ileihr~ngrrschichtbci rhener rltld rotntionssyr~~nlctriscl~cr i i ~ n ~ ~111g.-Arch.20, 21 1-228 Str ng. (1952). Dryden, H. I,.: Fifty ycnrs of houndnry layer thcory ant1experin~cnt. Scicncca 121.375 ---380 (1955). Schlichting, H.: Application of boundary layer thcory in t.~rrbon~ncl~incry. llarric l h g . 81, J. 543 -551 (1959). Kcatin, J.: Tho cITcct o l free-ntronm t.r~rl~~llonccI~ent. on t,rnnnfor rnlos. Atlv~rncocl Iforrf. 't'rrtnnfor ill 3, 1-32 (lfl66). I%rarlnlinw, 'I'hc untlcrat,nntling ant1 ~)rodict.ion t ~ ~ r l ~ r l lflow. 61.11 Ilc~y~~olcln.I'r;rr~cl~.l P.: of cnt IA:~.(.III.c. .I. Roy. Aero. 80c. 76, 403-418; acc nlso J)(:LIt J b . 1972, 51 -82. Schlichting, 11.: Recent progrcss in hor~ndnrylnyrr research. 3(iI.l1 Wright Ilrothcrs' Mrtnorinl IecLurc 1973. AIAA -7. 12, 427-440 (1!)74). Smith, A.M.O.: 11igl1lilt nerodynnmica. 37th Wright Brotl~crn'Mr~norinl lert,urc 1!)74. .I. Airrrnft. 12, 501 -530 (1975). Schlicht,ing, 11.: An accoi~nt the scientific life of 1,urlwig Prnndt,l. Invited h c t . r ~ r c of prtz~cnlcdn(. the Symponium on Plow Scpnrntion of the A(:AIED k'lnid I)yna~nics I'nncl at (:fittingon, May 27 to 30, 1975. ZFW 23, 297-316 (1975). Tani, J.: Ifistory of boundary layer thcory. Ann. ltevicw Fluid Mcclr. 9, 87- 111 (1977).

E. Ludwig Prnndtl Mcrnorinl Lectures (sincc 1957)

Betz, A.: Lchren eincr fiinfzigjiihrigen Striin~u~~g~forschung. ii, 97- 105 (1057). ZFW Drydcn. L.: Gcgcnwnrt.sprol~lc~nc L ~ ~ f t l n l ~ r t l o r s c l ~ u ~ ~ g . 217 --233 (19fiS). dcr Z1W 6 , Roy, M.: Ubcr die llildnng von Wirbelzoncn in Striitnungcn rnit gcringcr Ziil~iglzcit.ZlpW 7, 217-227 (1959). SclrcnidL, E.: Thcrtnischc tt~~ftric~tsntriil~lrlr~gcnWnrr~ioiihcrgnng.ZFW 8, 273-284 (1960). rind Lightl~ill,M. J.: A technique for rendering npproxirnnte sol~~tionn phyuirnl prohlrn~s to 11niforn11y vnlitl. ZFW 9, 267--275 (ID(i1). Tolltnicn, W.: Aspektc tlrr Strorn~n~gsphysilt 1902. Z I W 10, 403-41:) (1902). S G I I ~ .It.: I)ir A t ~ f ~ ltics hlntl~rn~atilccrs tlrr rlrroclynn~~~ik. 11. 349 357 (In(;:)) ~. )c in ZFW rlckeret, .I.: ,\nacntlongen d r r Aerodjns~nikit11 13nr1arnen. ZF\V 13, 109- 122 (1965) Ilnsrn~nnn,A,: Minilnnlprohlernt. tler L ~ f trlntl Rnn~nfnhrt.ZVW 13. 401 -41 1 (1965).

Kdchr~~rnnn, Eirtnicklrn~gr~~ D.: in dcr Trttgfliigcltliroric. 1)(:I,11 .llr. 1907, 11 - 22 (1908). Witfnleycr. 1: ~\croclnstnrr~rt~l~ar~i~c.I~r 1 Unt~rsr~c*li~tt~gen F l r ~ g z ~ ,$,\,In 37 .,\II(:(:EN". nn drrn r~g nc:r,n .rl1. I!)n8. I I 23 (I!m).

Oswatitach, I<.: Moglichkeitm~und Grenzen der Linearisierung in der Striimr~n~emechanik. DOLIE J b , 1908, 11 - 17 (1970). Germain, P.: Progrrsuive waves. DOLR J b . 1871, 11-30 (1972). Magnos, I<.:Forlschritto in der Itinetik von Mehrkiirpersyutemen. DGLR db. 1872, 11-26 (1973). 13ecker. E. : StnBwellcn. l)(:I,R .Jb. 1973, 11-40 (1974). Olsznk, W.: (:rtlanlten zur Entmickli~ngder Plnst,izitaktheorie. ZFW 24, 123-139 (1976). . . Schultz-Or~~now, Exaltto Zngiinge ~ I I F.: hydrodynamiachen Problemen. ZFW 23, 175.-183 (1975). Trockcnhrodt, I<.: Niihcr~t~gcrliju~~~~gen dor Strii~~lungnmccl~e~iikillre pl~yuikalisol~e c l ~ t i ~ n g . IIII~ D ZFW 24. 178--187 (1!)70). Young, A.11.: Sonic special boundary lnycr prol)lernu. ZFW 1, 401--414 (1977). Ziercp, J.: Inst.abilitLten in Striimungcn ziihor, wiirmeleitcnder Medien. ZFLV 2, 143-150 (1978).

Inclex of Alill~ors
Al)l)ol, J . 11. 544, 575, 777 Al~t.11111l IE. I I. li:)o, (i:l:l I)$', I \ ~ ) ~ : I I I ~(4. \N. I (730,, 755, ~ ~ ~I 7!)1 A l r r n o itz h 110 Acl1cnbnc.11,13. 23, 44 Ackrret, J. 73.82, 359, 360, 372, 3!)7, 403, 028, Ci29, 031, (Xi5, G!lt), 7!)5 Adlrr, hl. 626, 631 ACAJtD 791 Ahlnrd, S. 1%. 753, 754, 755 All)crtson, hl. I,. 755 Allcn, ( 2 . I). N. tle 75, 82 Allrn, t1. ,J. 308, 321 A1111>rolc, S. :)O!), 321 G. Anderl~k,1':. 755 Antlc~son,A. D. 313, 322 Anrlratlr, 1':. N. 18:). 198. 260, 430. 445 A n l o ~ ~ iIt., A. (57, (i(i5.755 a Aprlt, (. -1. 75, 82 : Applcton, .J. 370, 372 Artlnirli, C. 445 ArnsI, 1). 484, 724 Ashkrnau, II. 200 At,lrt, (. vrrn 557, 576 : Att~iclgr, I,. 372, :J74 .I. At\\rll. N. 1'. 5!)2, &!I4 13abhcr, It. 1':. 726 Uahr, .J. 775. 777 13nilcy, A. 13. 18, 23 13nincn, 1). 750, 751; I<nirst,ow,1,. 137, 148 13a111111crt. 245, 260, (3i3, I<. (if%, 777 13nl1tlyol1ntll1j~ny,. 752, 1'
757 . .

13atik8, \V. 11. 11. 245, 200 I3nnner, hl. I,. (iO5 J3nrthlcy, 0. 3fi5, 372 Bsrkc, P. 751, 755 13arnw. 1 H. 487 " Barnes, 11. T. 484 13nrry, hl. I). .J. 484 13iltcIiclor, C. I<. 107, 110, 657. 574, 575, 7!)1 13a11cr,13. 62.5. (\:!I

Ilecltcr. .I. V. 552 B c c l t n ~ n ~\V. , 310,317,325 ~n 13cckwitl~, 1. 1':. 352, 357, 372. 37G. 592, 5!)4 136nnrtl, t1. 544 I3cnctt., \\'. A. 575 Hcnja~iiin,'r. H. 505, 516, 544 T3cti1iy, I). .I. 481, 484 l3crg, 11. van tlrn 6!)2, (i!)8 13crgcr. 1. 44 : Bcrgli, 11. 481,484 13crlter, 1%. 83, 110 J3crlna11, N. S. 031 IlcrI.hltc, N. 11. 372, 876 1Jcrt,r:t111, t l . 710, 724 hl. 15ctc:l1ov,Ib. 457, 468. 701 l<t!l>x, I\. 4, 21, 22, 2:). l(i2. :37!), 40:j. 504. 690, O!)li, (i97, 75!), 760, 761, 777, 791, 794, 795 I3icltlcy. \,\I. 180, 1!J8 13icnort,, 1'. 0!)7 l3ilgrr, I<,.\I1. 755 13inni0, A. hf. 230, 200 I3il'lws. I I. 5:)5, 545 13ircl. I<. 13. 792 13irlrcl)n~~k, 309. 322 11.. J3jorg11r11, . 5!)4 0 Hjorklr~ntl.(. S. 321 : 13lst:It, .I. 253. 200 Blnlte. \V. I<. 570, 575 BI:rsins, I f . 26, 27, 44, 109, 110. 135, 137, 140, 148, 168, 415, 417, 423, 424. 445. 597, 631. 7!)4 H l c ~ ~ lH,. 31, 44, 173, 065 t I3loon1. hl. 520, 544. 545 I3lotlnrr. 1'. ( 2 . I98 I3lil111cr. 13. 502, 540 C.

---.

I l o t l ~ ~ n r c ~R1.t ~ ~ ~ , n l<ot:(l~:\v~~tl '1'. T25, 22!). l., [J. 2(iO, 422 I3ogitr. 'r. . J . 728 Ilogclor~oll', S. Al. :10:3, 372. 376 130111, .J. ( i . VOII 755 l%olllr~~. 40G. 20!), 212. T. 213, 214, 224, :I5(i [hison, J. C 522, 524 .: I3olcy, U.11. 141 Iloltze. 15. 236, 260,417. 420 421, 422, 445, 7!)4 13o11tl.I<,. A. 2:!8, 203 I<on(:l~, Tcw 321 M. 131)11f~r~l. 75, 82. 125. 415 It. I3oi111iol. F. :!:!!I, 372 13o111.1io, 1':. :10!), 32 1, 724, D. 725 I I o t t s s i ~ c. ~ 755 13o11rq110,r .I.q , 578, 57!). 5!)4 ~ I3011tlticr,M. 484 I3ritclshn\v, 1'. 557, 575, 592. 5!)3, 594, 642, 605, 672, 087, 090, (1'32, 6117, O!)!), 724, 752, 755. 791. 7!)5 13r1tincrt1,, I , (:. 334. 37:) I3rllnlo\v. A. I,. 545 l3rc11or,\V. lli2 13rcvoort. H. J. 7:)!). 756 Ilriley, \V. R. 223 Ilri11ic11,1'. F. 540, 541, 545, 724 13rooko-Bcnjn~nin.1'. 545 ' Isrown, A. 1'. Mi7 I3ro1v11, 1%. :)!)I, 403 "%ro\vn. S. N. 820. 22:) l3ro\\s11,\I. 13. 51!1. 545 j$r1111, A. 315. X2l. 7!Y2 IC. Isrynon, A. IE. 484 Untlingcr, R. I<. (i!)!) Br~ll, I<. 570, 575 M. I311rgcm, J. hl. 40, 44, 141. 148, 260. 453, 473, 484, 557, 575, O:I(i, (;65. 7!)4 Unrggr:tf, 0.It. 372, 744 J3i1ri, A. 673, 678. (i7!), (i97 1311rriu,.J. (. 487 ; I ~ I I S ~ I I I A.I I I:1:!0. :!(Xi, 373, ~ I, 795

B11~1itirIl. M. 5!12 1). I111ss1nn1in. K. 218,223,989, 390, 406, 500. 500, A45 Riiyiiktiir, A. I t . :I21

('iltriet, C. 1'. 141, 148, 258. 2liO ("t~t~i'rr,E .' 088, 0!)8 (':~rler,J . C . 3IiA. 373 (::try, A. hl. 524, 545 (':~tlicrnll, 1). 1 IO (:nz8(-11,Bl. 1). 420, 445 ('cbcci,'r. 188, 1!)8.515,545, 5!)4, (i72, (i!)8, 724, 792 t'er111:~k. I<. 44, 4fi .I. (!rqs, Jt. J). 325 (%a, M. I{. 728 (:ll:~ll, Y. Y. T2:l (:li;~ntlrnsr~kli:rr, . 792 S (:ll:~ne. O. %. X2 ( ' l i n l ~ ~ i n nI). lb. JO!), 321, , :l:18, (ili5,7 15.720.724.726 ('linl~~iinn, 'l'. 545 (:. (~liqi1iIc!,1'. ,J. I10 (!l~:tr~tcy, G. 574, 575 ,J. (211t?ll, I<. l(ili, 1!)8 I<. (!l~cri,'I'. S. 488, 548 ( ! l ~ r ~ i g , .I. 459, 484 S. (!l~i,S . W. 715. 727 (3ini, 11. U. 7!U (!lio~v, 11. 148, Id!) (~lirisl~i811. .j. 184, 1!)8 \V. ( ! ~ I I I , 8. 'r. 245, 21i0, 2fi:l. :10!), :l2(i, 357, :57:1 ('it,l:~k, Z.PI. 4 4 ; (!inottn. .I. .I. 18, 2:s t'lnllser, 1'. ti. !i:lR, 545, 005. 63 I, fi7 I 672, 1i!)8 ('lc*~~sl~nw. C. \V. 480, 484 ('1c.r~. 11. (IPS :1:l5, 37:) ('0:ilit~n.0 . 11. 752, 751; ( ' O C ~ I ~ : L\Ir., (:. 104. 110, II 422 ('ockrrll. 1). .J. 62!), 672. Gf)!) ('olicn, (:. 11. 345. :14!), :l50, 35 I . 373 ('ollr.n. N. I%. 448. 723. 724 ('wkrr. 1: (:. 451,484 4 . ('ol:it.-;\;~tir.. 1'. A45 ( ' o l c l ~ ~ o o('. .17. l~ f '*II(-s. I). :l:l!), :17:l, 522, 523. 324. 52:). (i43, G44, (i(i5, (i72, (;!)!I, 71!). 724

Corrrrin, S. 557, 574, 575, 753. 755 (:ost,c:llo, (:. R . 201 (:onc(.t,e, hl. 484 CousLcix. .I. (i!)9, 724 (:or~ln~~cr:b~~, 75, 82, 425, M. 445 Cmbl~c,It. S. 250, 203 Crl~l~l.rcc, 1'. 240, 21i0, 203 I,. Crn~~drbll, 1-1. 408, 48(i S. Cri~lli,1'. 223 (:ri~i~i~inln. 0 . 484, 486. W. 70 1 (;rocco, I,. :l:10. :1:l5, 3:l(i, :t:l!), 340, 373, 7 I!), 724 (?ro\vclcr. H. .J. 545 (h~lic.lc,I". lb. (. 725 : C ~ ~ ~ i ~ 11.t (. g , (27, 631 ii ~ : ( ? I I I I I ~ S ~ A. , li!)2. 0!)8 N. . ~ t:~~rlc, :l30, 352. :15:17 :l70, N. 371. 373, 374. 480, 484. 7!)2 (:;r.n.rcir-cki. I<. It. 524, 545

T)c,nison, M. It. 108 I)t\nni~. C. R. Hz S. I)cl.rn, It. W. 628, 031 I)rvnrt, L. 1118 I>cvcrcux, A. N. 405 I)cvir~t~ic, 778 P. I)t.\vry, C. 1 16li. 321 . ' I)li:twnn, S. 143, 148, 301, :169, :175. 484, 725 I)~:~(<ollis, S. R24, 548 N. l)i:~g:~il:i, A. -1. 322 I)icr~rrtirin,1. 541; ' 1)irIil. Z.bV. 5(ili, 57fi I)i~ilcrlnclecr,A. 575 I ) i r ~ ~ c n ~ n nW. 252, 200, n. 305, 306, :!08, 321 l)icp, A. 321 I)ililitcy, U. F. 712,713,725 I)iPri~nx, (. 481,484,545 It. : I)ornclt, F. 008, (;!I8 I)or~iliri(f, A. 1':. von 544, 540, 073, (i!)8, 777 I)ocI~e11,11. 484, AO:l, 504, 546, (i(i5, 777 I)oti~rri.I. T 45 I ) o r ~ o ~ ~ g 1'. r , 305, 321, l ~ I,. :l!) 1, 403 I)o~~ovnn, 1.". 111 \V. I)orr:r~~cr, W. 328, :i7t I). I ) o ~ ~ ~ l i r r t,Jr., N. S. 522, y. I)o\vlct~, M. 777 I<. I)r:ike, It. hl. 321 l)r:tiii~~, C. 4G5, 484, 540 1'. I)rc\vitz, 0. 297, 308. 321 I)rinst*, 15. J1. vrui 321, 328, 373. 374, 502, 520, 522, 524, 540, 546, 5!)!), 604, ci:$l, 717 I)ry(lt:~~, . I,. 3, 4. 449. 453, H 457, 4(il, 474, 470, 484, 5:l:l. 537, 540, 541, 546, 572, 573, 575, 677, 7!)5 I ) I I ~ I ~ , 38, 45, 484 \\'. I)l~~alnrg~tc, 245, 2(i0 P. 1)1111111,4, 11. 56!), 575, 044, (ili5 I)l~~~iitrc.nc~c, 420, 445 1. ) I ) I I I I ~ \V.I ~ . 7!)2 ~ J. l~tlltll:~lll, 777 .I. l)llllll, \v. I ) 540 . I ) I I I ~ I I It. IW., 540 ~I ~ I ) I I ~ : I I I\\I. ,17. 4 I~ . ; 1)11rgili,I\'. \V. 30, 45 , , I)IIIIOII. 11,. A. (i42, G(i5 * 1)vcir:tk. IT. A. 752. 755 1)wjt!r, 11. A. 258, 260 I)jltc, hl. van 2, 144. 149, 187,1!)4, 190, 198, 200, ti!)!)

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E m t , 1,. 17. (i92, 698 ICib~t~nii~~,777 N. Rrkcl~nn~iii, 5114 11. ISckrrt, II. Jb. (. 273, 207, : 29!J, 308, 309, 312, 313, 318, 320, 321, 322, 516, 54fi, (i14, fils, (i31, 0:12,725 Ecklln~~n, (: 484 It. ICtlr, A. -1. 315, 322 lCrI\v~~rtl~. 2!)!), 315, 322 A. lCIlrr*(,1,. I!)!) 14:ian. C. S. 725 lCii*licll)rr~i~irr. A. 254. I<. 255, 260, 261, 33!), 372, 448, 045, (35, 688, (i!)R, 752, 755 lCiclil~orn,It. 313, 322, 325 Jbiflcl, (:. 41, 45, 453, 484 Eiflcr, .J. 756 Eidelcl, P. 402, 408 Ekninn, V. W. 451, 485 I<ltlrr, J. LV. 2(i1, 644, Mi5 IClgirr, 1':. C, 531, 54!) l<lin.r, P. 2!)!), 022 Elliot,, I). 2:1!), 2W, 480, 484 Elsc~lnar,A. G!I2, 698 E I ~ I I I I ~ I ~ ~ , 334, 373, Jl. W. 389, 403, 454, 462, 485 Etigll:~rtlt~, K. 697 lbtiglert, ( W. 723, 725 : . 15pl)lrr. R. :l!)3, 403, 504, 546, fi87, 0!)8 R r ~ i i l t n ~ It. . 743, 750 ~s ISrtcl, 11. 546 Ikdorn, t i . 322 ICakilmzi, S. 752, 756 Etki~iu,15. 32, 45 JCv:llls, I1 1,. 1!)8, 301. :l22 Evanr, It. L. 777 Kvcrllnrt., P. 13. 546 I<ve~li~ig, 125 12.

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1.i11, 'r. Y, 550 Idivillgnotl. .I. N. 13, 308, 30!), 321, 522, 3!)1, 403 I.loytl, J . H . 650 1,obb. Jt. l<. 721, 726 Ir)clc, (:. N . If. 778 Lock, 11. C. 184, 18.5, 200 J.orl~~ It. .I. 483, 48(i kt., Lt~esrr..J. 2fi:I I,oikqin~~skii, (!. 21!), 223, I,. 224, 793 Look, ll. C. 308, :HI I,oon, 11. G . 254. 2(i2 l,oposrr, J. I). I , o r r ~ ~ l z , . A . 457. 486 H J,orcllz, 11. I#. 319, 324 In>vc, A. IF. 11. (i8 Lovil~g,G . I,. :3liO, 367, 375 Low, (:.M. 391,404 l,oarll, It. I,. 515. 550 Lowcry, G. W. 315, 324 L~tckrrt,H. d . 158, 162 I,ttcl\c.ieg. H. 243, 262. 5:30. 54!), 673, (i!)!), 707, 726 1,11gt, H. ,I. 420. 44(i L~lknsicwicz,J. 3i5, 375 I,utoley, .J. 1,. 547,557, 577, 032 I , ~ ~ I I ~ I 'r. S. I I 2 ~ : 1 ~ ~ ~ . L ~ t t l ~ a n d cS. 2433, 2(i2 r, I , I ~ X ~ O I I 1':. :,na. 375 11. , Ly111:111, \I. 0!)8 MxcCortnnclc, I<. \Y. 3(i5. 373 hlnck, I,. M. 48G. 48!), 514, 510, 5l!l, 521, R22, M:1, 524, 550, 714, 726 h l ~ c k r r H.A. 123. 125 ~, h l ~ ~ r k r o t l1'., A . 54:I. 550 t hlnrltl:~lo~~, V. 024, 550 I). h1:1r(lrr, 1'. I?. 2!1!), 31 I . 314, 3 15. :121.3321. 43(i,44(i,553 Magcr, A . 2(i2, (i!)5, ti!)!), 7 I!). 7%; ~f:lglllls. I<. 7!)0 hli~gl~o~~, 11. 776. 777 ~ I I I I I O II.I ~ ~ ,(i!)!) I. h l : ~ i ~ , A. :1(i5, 375 \I. hI:~isi*I,I). S. 324 hli~jolz, 0 . 701 0. hl;lllgl(~r, I<. \v. lo!), 1lo. 153, 162. 246. P(i2, :152, 376. 7!)5 ~ I I I ~ C V I -1. I I ,57fi II M:IIkl:l(I<l. 11;. W!) hlnrtr. .I. I<. ma2

M:irt,in, .I. ( 256, 262 : . Milrvin, tJ. (. 550 : Mnlccr, (:. (:. 525, 550 Mnlllicl~,.I. 575 hlntl.il~g, W. 720, 72(i 1". M:tCl,i~~gly, 15. 48G (:. Mnzt~r,1'. 63, 68 Mt,Cx~~lcy. I). 546, 54!) \V. Mrl)o~~nlcl, 11. 223 I). Mc:(:or~~~i(.lc, 12. 455, 48(i ill. MrCttllo~~gl~,1%. 322 (:. hl(.ICillop, A. A. (;!)7 Mt:lr~lli~rt..y. 11. 7%; (:. Mclltn, 1'. I$. 446 Mcicr, [I. U. 574, 576, 722, 726 hlric!r, (1. I<. 11. 575 kI(>ixl~cr, (i3, 68 .J. M O ~ R Y I1). , 137, 14!), 217, I 224,2!)7, :124,:370,:)75,560, 79.1 hlcllt~r,G.1,. 110, 5!):1, 5!)5, (i!lO, (i!)!), 701 . Mclt~ik,I t . 15. 148, 14!) Melville, \*V.JC. li(i5 hlrt1g111,11rIc, 550 hl. Mcrc:clitl~,1'. W. 405 Mcrk, 11. J. 3308. 3124 M C ~ O I I It.~N. (;!)(I, (i99 R , Mcsct,l~,,J. 486 Mounikr, A. i' 147, 14!) (. Mcl.rnl, A. 752, 7%; Mcycr, 11;. 015, (i:U Mirl~nlkc,A. 2G2, 480, 481, 486 Mic:l)al, It. 484, 501, 550, (;!)!A. (iO9, 724 Micl~rll.A. ( i . hl. I25 Mioklcy, 11. S. 405 Miller, J. A. 482, 486 Milliknr~, C. 11. 2:3!), 262. 573, 576, (i!Y2, I;!)!) Mills, It. 11. 200 Millunps, K. 108, 110, 281, 324, 155I , Mif; Milscl~,It. 777 Mirrls, H. 441,442,4433,446 Misrs, 11,. van 157, 158, lfi2, 465. 486 MiI,~tisi, S. 5:1li, 553, 1\67 Mi;l)i118, tl. (i23, (i:1:3 Miiller, I<,. :Hi, 45 Miillcr, W. 241, 262 M o l ~ n . t ~ ~ ~ r ~ S.d i a r ~ , 7,hn n 747, MOII:I~~IIIII, 11,. ,J. :33!), 375 hlootly, A. M. 777 Mootly, I,. 1'. 624, 625, 633 hloorr, Jr., (:. I\. fit%:) Moovc. 1'. I<. 25!), 262, 357. 375, 414, 427, 435, 44fi

Moore, L. 1,. 399, 375 Mortll~cllo\c;, M. 362, 375 hlorynn, A. J . A. 280, 324 Morgnr~,(1. W. :124 Morgan, M. 13. 771) Jlorgnn, V. '1'. 321. hlorkovil~, M. V. 44!J, 483, 48(i, 525, 550, 072, 099, 705, 726 hltlrrin, I). N. :153, 375 hlt~scr,A. 724 Moscr, 1'. 357 Mosil~riltis,'1'. (i!)8 hIol t,srtl, I?. ,I. G(i6 Molzfrld, TI. 576, 066 hliillcr, 1':. 11. 370, 375 Miillcr, W. !)3, 110, 793 Miillz, 1-1. RO(;, 545 ~IIIUIIIILIIII,6!Ni, 700 11. Mltlhrarll, 1'. .J. 570, 576, 657, 000 Mrlnson, U. 1%. 550 h f ~ l r p l ~ .I. I). 365, 370 y, hlrlr~)l~y, S. 52:3, 524, 546 .J.

Ul~ror~lski, H. 482. 486 ,J. 0'l)01111cll, 11. M. 337, 338, 373, 720, 725 O ~ ~ : I I I I'I.. I ~ I ~ , 548, 554 I 516. U ~ I I I I O , 1'. (i88, 700 A. Olclroytl, -1. (!. 324 Olsxnk, \V. 706 O I I I ~ IIt. 2(i2 I, 0111l~eclc. (in3 H. O ~ ~ ~ l ~ r c ~ v ~ G. , ,471, 486, lci lI. 4!)a o r r , LV. M. I". 487, O ~ x n g S. A. 700 , Osaka, tl. 326 Osbor~lr,M. It. 4(i8, 486 0.mc11, (:. W. 90, 110, 115, 125 Ost,rncl~,S. 310, 324, 414, 440 OswnI.il.sc11,K . 012,6:%3,793, 7!)0 O~~clnrt., 254, 255, 200 A. O\verl, M. 45 0\vc11, 1'. It. 712, 713, 727 Ozt.rovri. IC. Y. 224 Pack, D. C. 233, 203 I'nracl~kc, W. 054, 000 I'iti, S. 1. 200, 730, 750, 703 I'nillct, 1'. L. 84!) I'at~kl~urat, C. 300, 405 1%. Papcnfnus, 11. 1). 200 P n p p a ~ C. C. 524, 548, 688, , 7 0 , 727 Pntr, 0. 244, 263, 094, 700 I':rInnknr, S. V. 793 J'IL~c, JZ. 551 S. l'ntsl, It. P. 750 Pntcl, V. C. 496, 551, 692, 700 Pntcrson, R. \V. 030, 633 Pc:iraon, .I. It. A. 472, 487 l'cr11n11, W. 3!)4, 405, 687, 700 Pctlley, 'C. .J. 543, 551 I'ekeris, (. 1,. 542, 551 : l ' r ~ry, A. I$. 656, 660 ~ ' ( ~ ~ R I,.I I , 315, 323, 726, c N. 727 l'clrrl~, ,I. 487, 552, 721, 726 l'cnbe. J. 1,. 110 I'fciffrr, H . 23 l'fcil, 11. 743, 740, 750 P f r n n i ~ ~ g r r W. 397, 403, , 405, 778 Pflritlrrcr. C. 230, 203 Picrcy, N. A. V. 535, 551 Pipkin, A.C. 324 Plnte, E J. 263, 793 .

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Plnlt, 11. (>. 573. 570 Pol~ll~n~lscn, 310, 324 E. I'olllhnllum, I<. 108, 168, 201, 20(i, 207, 8011, 21 1, 213, 215, 223, 224, &:)!I, 258, 281, 324, :)50, 4!U. 051. (Wi, 794 Poiac~~illc,. 12, 23, 110 J Poiason, S. I). (i(i, fi!) l'oisso~~ I I ~ I I ( ~11. , 405 Q 1' I I I'olnlc, A. 372, 370 I'olllttrd, I). 777 l'ollir~, .I. (iU8, 700 P0ot.q. G. 353, 376 Popplcton. 15. U. :I!)(;, 405 Pol.tcr, .I. I,. 522, 525, 551 I'ottcr, 0. IF. 200 l'rngor, W. 09 l'rtb111, J. M. fill;, 55:) I'rnndtl, 1,. 1, 2, 3, 4, 24, 25, 32, 4 1, 43, 45, 7!), 80, 1l I, 113, 125, 127, 144, 158, 162, 221, 224, 251, 250, 262, 3V24, 373. 381, 3!Y2, :1!)4. 405, 42G, 44!). 453, 457, 405, 40(1, 475, 487, 812, 551, 580, 583, 587, 591, 508, 608, GO!), 020, 027, 033, 636, 0:19, 040, (i52, GOO, 708, 7011, 727, 731, 735, 756, 790, 793, 794, 795 Prealey, L. 1,. 305, 370 Prcston, J. H. 224,637,544, 547,642,607,692,700,778 Prctach, J . 217, 224, 2633, 4511, 4(i8, 487, 4110, 508, 542, 544,551,700,7(i4,7lili PI igogitte, 1. 63, 0s) Prober, 1%. 320 Probstcin, 11. 1". 239, 262 I'ro~lcllnnl~, 418, 440 1. I'IIII, LV.M. 3% I'unnia, 11. (59, 111, 241, 263

It.nn, M. :1!)7, 40:) Jtanpct, I\. 3188, 405, li88, 700 11~nylci~I1,\I. s., l,ortl !I:!. .I. I l l , 44G, 4,l!l. 457, ,l(i;!, 4G4,4(i5,480, 487,525, 551 Itny~llcr,\V. (:. 405 Ibccvcs, 11. I,. I(i8, 200, 223, 282, 324 ltt~gllll,*I. I). :i5!), 374 I<.cg(?t~~t!l~c~it,.I!). 11. :! ,105, l<rgirr, A . I I I Jtciel~nr(lt,, 51 3. 551, 5li5, 11. 576, 583. 590, 5!)l. 5!)5. 601, li(Y2, 603. G22. (i:%:3, 754, 756 ltcicl, \V. 11. 57G IX.cik, 11. ( 7 . 68 ltclf, I<. 14'. :V2, 'I5 ltcsl~otko,1':. :34!), :l50. 35 I. 352, 373, 44!), 487, 48!), 510. 518. RZO, 550, 551. 5R2. 723, 727 I<.cy~~olds, 3, 14, 23. :I!), 0. 45. 72. 117, 281;. 288. :I?*!, 440, 450. 457. 487, 5.12. 57li, 672, 706 Iteynolds, \Y. C. 468, 480, 670, 5!l3. &!IT,. 604. 700. 713, 727 ltinbo~tclii~~sky, 10(i, 11 1 1). Itibncr, H. S. 32, 45, 571; liicl~nrrla,B. E. R24, 552 lticl~arrlao~l, G . 324, 437, E. 438, 44G, 5:15, 551 I t i c l ~ n r t l s o I,.~1'. 512, 551 ~ , Itirl~nrtluo~~.1). 707. 726 1'. Jticl~ter,Jl. 626, (;:I3 Iticl~t,~ncycr, I). ]!)I, 200 It. ltidcll, P. It. 2(i0 Iticgcls, P. \V. 124, 125, 1V2, 327, 490, 551, 770, 778, 7V3 Jtilcy, N. 445, 441; Itit~glcb,P. 393, 405 Ito, J. C. 712 I<.oberta, S. M. I1 1 H.olicrt.q, \V. 13. 775, 778 J t o l ) i ~ ~ nIt.~ 1%. 6/15 o ~, Itogcru, M. (:. 107, 1 11 ~ ~ ~ I I R C I I OL.~ , 7!):1 W. I IZoae, W. C. :I(i6, Itoue, It. C. 405 37(i I<.onct~blnt,l,, 557, 570 At. ltosc1111cad. 1,. 32, 41;. 158. 162, 21!), 224. 260, 4 17 Itosc~~zwcig, I.. 4311. 446 M. 11.os11k0, A. 18, I!), 21, 23, 31, 32, 45. 173. :1G1, :Hi!), 375

S:rl~c.rsk?;, 11. 11. 712, 713, 725 Sacl~dcva,R. C. 092, 700 Snclvl~,\\'. %. 44, 4(i. 5:15 S:ltllrr. S. 550 Sage, Is. 11. 324 Saillcl, I(. A. 123. I25 Saint. \'nl~ant,,I%. elf! Mi S:1llcr, c. 577 Snl\vnn, I I . 543. 552 SIIIIIIR. . 545 N s ; l ~ l l l 1'. ti:1:1 , S;~rg('~if, hl. 486 1,. S:rtpt.t~f.,I<,. 3fi5, 374 S;~ric:,\I. S. 468, 487 S : ~ r p I w y : ~ , 32, 46, 543, 'I'. 552 S ; ~ l o .l I . 552. 553 s:tI.~.. 324 li S:t(c~.'. '1 :!i?(i s:lll(~r.1:. 7!)5 s:1\.;1p,., S. It. 7%; S : I :~~ y , l < i ,0 . 245, 263, 531. l 55:s S : I \ \ ~ I Y . ,\. 75fi 11. 8 ~ I l ; l r l C . . 11. 480, 4x1; Sc.l~ii(i.r, hl. 577 Srltii 1li.r. I I . 778 S~.II;IIIII. ,\. 57(i I?.

Scl1cr1):trl,l1, I<. ($4, Mi7 St:l~illrr. 1,. !K3, 1 11, 173, 200, 241. 242. 2li:3, 451, 473, 487, 552, (i12, (i:l:l S e l ~ l i c ~ l ~ t ~. i ~ ~ g4, 4li, !I:!, II I, , 1 1 I, 180, 185, 200, 21 7, 224, 2:30, 292, 243, 259, 2(i3, 276, :lo!), 315, 324, 325. :153, :17fi, 38!), :3!)0, :1!):1. 405, 4'28, 431, 447, 44!). 457, 471, 473, 478. 487. 4!t:$, 513, 521. 552, 57(i, li24. (i2!t, ti:%:!. G41. (i44, 645, c i s , (inti, ( 5 7 , 6(i(i, li(i7, 687, 700, 730, 741, 756. 7(i!). 773, 774, 778, 794, 795 SCIIIII~III, A. 447 12. S c l ~ ~ ~ ~ i t l h1 Ii. ~ ~ r r , 700 : (i!)O, Srlir~~itlt., \I. I). 755, 757 S r h ~ ~ ~ iI<. t , 273, :305. 31 1, d :11(;,:317, :3l!), 325.793 ScI~t~ricl(,, 144, 149 11. S r l ~ l ~ ~ i t\Ir., , 106, 111, 5!)5, ll (id!), 753, 751; S c l ~ ~ ~ ~ i cC.l c ~ l , fi(i7 t (i50, S c l ~ ~ ~ r i c J\Ar. , 750, 75(i cr Scl~ol~ciri, 'I'. I 1 I hl. Scl~odor, H . (i:1:1 11:. Sc.l~oc.r~, 245. 2liO .I. S(:lloc.~~:~~~rr, \V. 21(i, 224 S c ~ l ~ o r ~ ~ I<. c1':. r r 641, 642, l~ ~ . Mi7 Scl~cjlit'lcl, \V. I I. 657, Mil;, 6(i7 S r l ~ o l l t e ~ ~ i r i .r r\4'. 237, 1' , 23!), 241, 20:s Scl~olz, N. (?!(I, (i21, (i:3:3, 701, 71i7.7li8, 7(i!), 770,77!) S c ~ l ~ r c ~ f~ l t .77!) A . Srl~t.c.l~k, . 4li, :$HI, :1!)5, 0 40fi Scl~riiclrr, I<. 141, 14!), l(i2 S c l ~ ~ r l ) a t ~(I. r ,11. 217, 224. v 454. 455. 456, 458. 4G2. 473. 471;. 477, 478, 47!). 481, 487, 4!)1, 4!)5, 5:38, 552, 5lifi, 572. 575, 577, (i7 1, li85. fi87. 700, 701. 727. 7!):1, 7!)5 SVIIIIII. H . 157. lfi2, :30!), :125, 415, 447 S ( , l ~ ~ t l (!.. .I. 551 rr S c ~ l ~ ~ ~ l I z - ( ~I".r ~ r ~ o \ ~ . r 153, I fi2, 200, 51 I , 527. 533. 534. 552. l?2!), (;:1:1. G14, (i4:1, (i.50, (i54, li5(i, 667. 7%; S c ~ l ~ ~ ~ l t ~ . - 13. ; ~715, r728 r , .l ~~ l~ S c , l ~ \ \ ; ~ lhl. , 425. 427, 447 )t sf~ll\\;lrlx.I+'. 701

Yonrs. W. It. 251, 250, 263, 427, 447 Schnn, 12. A. 238, 203, 325 Scclncy, 11.. 25li, 2631, 357, 370 Scgc, L. A. 484 Seifcrth, It. 034 Scifl', A . 727 Srirllr, 1'. W. 522 Srllarn, .I. I<. 542. 545 Srrl)y, #I. IC. 77!1 Stl l.l~.s.(:. S. 372, 371i Seal, ' r l ~ . 4:1(i, 447. 55:1, (i42 Scyb, N. d . 77!) Sforze, J'. M. 7.52, 757 Sl~alir, hf. 697, 701. S11:ittcbrook. .I. It. 701 Shno. \\I. Y . 325 Slinpiro. A . H . 7!)3 Sl~npiro, A l . 552 N. S l i a r ~ ~I,. nI(? 728 ~ , Sllnw, I<. 777 Sl~cct,z, 14'. 525, 553 N. Sl~cll, 1. 325 ,I. S I I ~ I I. , C. 'r. 4G8, 488 1' S~IC:II, 1'. 44!J, 487, 552, S. 595 Sl~ol)pnrd, M. !)I 1). S l t o r r ~ ~ nA.~ , 548. 777 r Sl~cr\r~ootl, I<. 324 'I'. S ~ ~ ] N I I -1. S. , I 1 1 :~II S l ~ i v n p r a ~ : ~ t l (;. (i!lO, 700 I<. , S i l ) ~ ~ l k i ~ ~4!)(i, 553 M. , I , S ~ ~ ~ ~ I I .I.; I I:3~ I ,I 325 I Signlln, A. 751, 757 Silvcrnt.ri~~, 552 A. S~IIIIIIOIIS, 1'. (:. 32, 45, I,. 568, 577 S i ~ n p s o l 1-1. 158, 162 ~, S~IIIIIII~, I,. M. 224 S i ~ l ~ l n iA ., 1t. 524, 545 r Singli, 1'. 1 . 543. 540 Sir~glr, N. 32.5 S. S ~ I I I I II<. ~I). 1'. :1!)l, 406 L , S l t o ~ c t ,M . 13. 3125 ~ S l t r n ~ ~ ~ s t nF1. .I<. 473, 476, el 477, 478, 47!1, 481, 487, 401, 4!)5, 5:38, RFS. 7!)5 S111il11. (i. :108, :325 I\. S111il.11, A. hl. 0. 188, 200, 601, 515, 545, 548, 552, 554, 584. 594. 672. (i!)O, 095, rinx, 701, 724, 792, 79.5 S m i t l ~ .I). \V. (i42, 667 S n ~ i t , l.I. , \I. ~ 953, 375 h'~~iit,l~, G. 728 I<. S n ~ i t l M. H . 30!1. 406 ~, Sl11it.11. . 1). 724, 728 1' S ~ ~ ~ o l t l c v c:.n . 194. 200 1'

So, R . M. C. 701 Sobcy, .l. 8. (328, 034 Sorllngt.11. 1 . : 320, 321, 510, 54; Sf11 l l ~ l ~ lIC., (Xi7 r l Sogirl, I I . 11. 314, 323 Soltolov, hl. 488 S o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r r I\.c . l t121, 126, f l, 4li5, 488 Solltll\lc.ll. 11. V. 75. A2 So\,r:u~, (!. li72, fi!)!), 7!):1 So11r r 11.y. I,. 2li0 S l ) : ~ l t l i ~ ~1). 13. :!OR, 30!), g, 325, 5!)5, fi05, 634, 713, 715, 727, 7!)3 S1>:111gr11bcrg, (. 687, W. : 701 S~):trro\v, 15. M. 104, 105, 107, 111, 241, 263, 318, :%I!), 325, 326, 414, 422, 447, 550, 553 Spridcl, L. 504, 552, 002, 667, 701, 766, 770, 779 S p r ~ ~ rJ). I\. 7 I!), 727 e, Sl~iell)rrg, I<. 542. 652 S~~l~.t1slc)rssc~r,402, 40fi \I. Slwengrr, H. 028, 634 Squire, H. R. 2X1, 2li3, 308, :jO!), .*12fi, 400. 488, 525, 750, 757,7li4,7(i5, 7(i(i,77!l Squire, I,. C. 447, 647, (ili7, 70 1 Sqrrirrs, t\. I,. 405 Srccniv:~snn,I<. lb. 4!)(i, 551 St:tlclcr, .1. It. 552 s t ; l l l t ~ ~ l l , I<, 607. (i34 'I'. S t ; ~ r k U. 772, 77!) , Xl:1rr, It,. I+'. 18 S t c i ~ t b a c l ~ , 6!)1, (in9 1). Slrir~beck, C 553 P. .: S l c ~ i ~ ~ l ~ .r .t ~ c r , 111, 138, I !12, 166, 185,200,2(i:3. :1R!), 402 Stcrldrr, \+I. 552 S l r n ~ ~ i t tA., If. 434, 446 g Stort~l)rrg, J. 335, 374, 494, 496. 553 S l c t s o l ~ I<. I?. F25, 554 , Slc\v:lrl,, \I. 14;. :12ri, 405 Sto\v:irtson, I<. 107, 111, 147, lfi5, 200, 220, 223, 258, 264, 3:30, 340, 376, 43!). 447, 480, 488, 793 Slivers, 1,. S. 544 Stojn~~o\ric. 320 I). Stoltcn, (:. (:. 60. Mi, 69, 77, !)O, 93, I l l , 113, ll(i, l2fi Stokes, \'. I<. 110 Stollcry, J . 1,. 524, 552 Str:rt,fortl, 13. S. 220, 224, 674, (i87, 701, 727

Strazisnr, A . 510, CA i3 Stroeter, V. 1,. 023. 034 Stroul~nl, V. 40 Stn:ut, 1). .f. I<. 779 S t , ~ ~ ~ t.J. t > , !)5, 107, I l l , r 'r. 3!):J, 406, 436, 447. 440, 472, 481, 488, 489, 513, 528, 535, 536, 547, 553 Sliipcr, J. 3!)5, 406, 530, 663, li70, 071, 701 H~lgn\vnr:r., S. 320 S I I I I I I ~ I ~+I., 701 W. ~ M I I ~ I I .I.~ C , ~ 778 Sotorn, S. P. 320 Sotllrrln~~cl. AI. 328 1). Swnili, 1,. hl. 743, 757 Swnl~iy, N. V. i?. 752, 751, 757 Sznblc\vslti, W. 602, 634, 007, 701, 757 Szeckcnyi, C. (i67 Szcri, A. A. 591, 504 S z c ~ ~ c z y lI\.i . 510, 563 S z y ~ ~ ~ n l".~ s!)2, 111 ~ l~i,

'I'nka~t~i, 75, 82 ff. 1'all>ot, 1,. 241, 264 'r:lll, s. 2(i4 'Tallrcln. S. 18, 23, 427, 447 ' ~ : ? I I I , 4, IT:), 178, 200, 1. 217, 220, 224, 447, 449, 481, 488, 489, 535, 538, 553, 667, 779 Tar~llcr, M. 757 Tno, 1,. N. 111 T n t s l ~ ~T. ~ i , 488, 553 ~ 480, 'Cnr~ber,A I . E. 554 Taylor, (:. 1. 122, 126, 230, 264, 473, 488, 511, 612, 513, 526, 528, 594, 557, 507, 51i8, 509, 571, 574, 575, 570, 584, 595, 008, 034, 708, 709, 728, 731, 757, 700, 704 'rnylor, J . 11. 712 .mylor, nr. 11.' 725 'L'vl~t-11, A l . 727 C. 'l'clio~~in, 1'. 427, 447 1). Tenllekcn, I t . 557, 577 l'rtervilt, N . 204, 673, 698 'I'l~rodo~ SPII, ' ~ I I . I I I, 400, 554 T l ~ i ~ i oI<. 11. 422, 447 t, 7'11o111, '4. 75, 82, 173, 200, 792 'J'l~o~n:~s, G. 720, 726 ti. 'L'l~o~~ins, 701, 752, 750 1'. 'rl~oll~nq, 11. 480, 488 1,.

Tl~olllns,1t. M. 577 'rllolllpsoll. M. J . (i4ci, (;(it; 'I'llol118o11, W. It. 712, 7131. 727 'I'l~\vrtitrs.H. :I!)!), 4Oli Titlrrt,ro~li,I<. 1). 4X(i, 540 'L'iel~,C!. 1,. 326 ,.iet,jens, 0. 45, 465, 4(i(i, 1 467, 488, 793. 704 'l'iffortl, A. N. 200, 242, 245, 260, 21i4, 30!1, 31 I, :32l;. :I:)(;, 3357, 373, :37(i ' ~ ~ ~ I ~ I I I ~ I I\V. . li(i7, (i73. (;!)!I II 'I'i~ntnan,R. 256, 264 ' ~ ' ~ I I I I I I ~A. . 31. 4 ; . !)0.I I 1 'rjit~,11. I<. 75ii l.'ijpfcr, C. 137, 140 'I'oll~~~iet~. I . 3, 4, fi7. 09. \Ir. 102, 177, 17!), 'LOO, 2Ci:l, 419, 448, 44!). 4Ii:l. 464, 466, 467, 4(i8, Jfi!), 473, 479, 480, 488, 556, 574, 577, 737, 743, 748. 757. 7!)4. 7!)5 '1'0111ctt ik:~.S. 2:1!). 2.1 I . 2l;:1 'l~Ol113, A . (;:%I It, Topprr. I,. 575 Tortla, 'r. 1'. 3!):1, 4O(i 'rorillo. I). ,J. 553 ' r o ~ r l o ~ ~ l z i : ~ ~ ~:32(i Y. S. , 'To\\.~lsr~id. A. 557, 575. A. 576, 045, (i(i7. li74, 684, 687, 743, 793 'Con-nsentl, FI. C!. Fi. 488 'rrict~~rn, (i65 'rriOt~s,A{. :{(I!), 32:) 1-1.

'rrillirig, L. :1!):1, 406 I ' r i ~ l ~ p i , 1,. 448 11. T r o u ~ ~ c cJ ., 750 r ' ~ r ~ ~ r k e n I ) r o i I<., , 201, 2'24. lt 380, 9 ) , 40G. (iCi8. (i72, 242, 243, 244, 26:). 204, !3 073, 077. 1\81. (;!Is. 701, 676, 793. 795. 7!)li Trr~itt,. \I. Ib. 7!):1 Iknl~alis,1). 1'11. 447 T s i r ~ H., S. 2li0, :3:$!1, 374 ~ 'I'sIIJ~, 11. 444, 4,tS 'I':I(.I~CF, nl. 571;. 723, 727, 72R -TtrIil>, hi. 1'. 575 'J'~~rrotto, L. 688, 701 I). 'rylcr, 13. 437, 44(i

Vnrlloti, 11. ,J. 315. 324 Vnn, I . I(. 372. 376 Vmatlln Itatn, V. 257, 26:1, 302. 326, fi87. 701 VnLqa, V. N. 3172, 3176 \'rrollrb, 13. 644. O(i5 Viktorill, I<. 74!). 757 Virk, 1'. S. 030, 634 Vinrotlbi, 1 545 . ' ~rl~ll)lll, 121. 122, 126, (i. v\PO, 264, 270. :IPl; Voinit~c.t.,It.. 1,. 1'. 7%; Volllt~rrs,Ii. 5!)5 Vr~I~:ilovic~l~, 520, 549 T. Wadltwn. Y. 1). 422, 448 Wagnrr, W. $1. 755, 757 Wnlkcr, ,J.Il. 18, 19, 23, :S!)7, 404, 642, 667 IValkrr, \V. S . 5:15. 536,547, 777 \lrnlz, A. 213, 224, 3931, 672 074, 701, 723, 728, 7!)4 Wntlp, 11. 12. 2!)!1, 315, 32:). 43fi. 440 \Vantlc.r, A. 77!) IVartlrr, \V. 11. 324 W:rrs:%p,,l. 11. liii4, (ilk5 \VtiL8t)11,I(. .I. :l!)O, 40(i, 425, 4:W, 448 \\'trtno11, -1. !)5, !)!I, I I I . 224, 4 48 \Vn~mt~l~Iz:tl~r~. 1'. 637, 701 \\'nrd:~t~. Jb. 472,488, 4!)2 11. 515, 554 \Vrl)rr, 11, I{. 2:10, 2114 \Vrdrlnryrr, 15. 32. 40 W1ridingcr, 11. 77!) \\'rillnln.ill, 1,. M. 525. 547 \!'risr. \!I. 2!)7, 2!)!1, :%08, : 12, :12 I ! \Vc-izn:rrl<t.r. (:. 1'. vorl 570, 572, 577, 5!)5

Wrtitlt, li. 335, 339, 357, 374, 554 Wcllnc-r, I<. 305, 31 I, 325 Worltr, M. ,1. 372, :S7(i Wcnlnrvrlt, 1'. .1. 448 Mlllcclcr. A. , J . 6!)9 Wllitc, (. nl. (i2fi. 627, 634 : Whilr, 1'. M. 41i8, 473, 483, 488, 672, (;!la, fi!XS, 701, 7!)4 Illl~it.t!l~v:~.(l, (:. 778 I,. Wl~il,cl;i\v,,l. lili2 Wl~it,liclcl, J. 11. 522, 525, 65 1 Wirtlcrl~oltl,\\'. 634 \I1iephn.rtlt,. I<. I(i0, 102, 21!), 224. 204, :3!)2, 399, 406, 554. 577, (i01, 034. 044, 055, 650, O67, 07:S, 075, 701, 757 Wicsclsl)crgnr, C. 42, 46, 243, 204, 488, 64 1, 607 Wijkcr. 11. 554 Wilt.lzc.11. 11. (i!)O. 701 Wi1rot.k. 1). 1'. 123. 120 Wiltl, .l. M. 2P2, 2(i4 Wilki~ls,M. 11:. fi54 Willo, J t . 44. 445 \ V i l l i a t ~ ~ ~ ,11. 657, G(i7 I). \\!iIli:~t~~s,. 4 0 6 , fi87. 701, ,I 728 \Yilli;r.~~~s, .I. (>. 223, 224 \ V i l l ~ ~ ~ : r r l l ~\\I. 570, 577, \\I. . (i!f5, 728 W ~ ~ S OI<..I .1':. I 718, 728 Wiltkrl, I<. 1.: 728 \Vi~~lzl~:r,M. 721, 720, 728 16. \Yitllcr, I<. (:. 728 \Vi~~ld:rl)nl,f,o~~~, 770 11. A. \Yir~Lrrl~ot.t.o,~~. 77!) N. 1';. Winlnrnitz, I?. A. I,. 627, 1;:14, (ifins 728 \Via~~it~~rslti, 524, 548 11,. .I. WiLI.illg, 11. 200, 481, 485

Wollinrtlt,, W. 1). 253, 263 Wollg, .I:' Y. 1'. 687, 697 Woo(1, I). I I . (Xi5 Waocl, (:. 1'. 73!), 75fi Wood, It. 'l'. 54!) WorL~nnnn,1'. X. 399, 407, 495, 603, 535, 554 WIIIM~, W. 378, 384, 388, :!!)I, 401, 407, 422, 4:lli, 448, 510, 554, 701. 757 Wl~t~tIl., 422, 448 If. Wygt~:~t~sIci, 455, 488 J.

Subject Index
tiI)l:itio~t 382, 30!) nccclcr:rtio~t 47, 42:) -, sudden scc i i n ~ n ~ l s i s c tnotion sco~lat~ics428, 4 V 38 ndl~esioti .we 110-slipco11tlit.ion ~ d i n b a t ~ cor~~prassion268, 327, 763 ic - tc?tnpcrnture 270, 279, 280, 832, 717 -- wnll 279, 280, 332, 354, 358, 717 nrrorlynan~irs 2 --,structural 37 xeroioil 22, 23, 37, 38, 213, 219, 221, 358, 397, 399, 499, 500, 503, 057, 684, (i90, 769 -, Ianlit~nr ace lnrtlinnr ncrofoil -, t ~ ~ n x i n l l llift (i9O; rne rtlro %I111 tl~ ko\~lzii norofoil; NACA nororoil -- t,llcory 2 nir 8, 2fil) nircrcw G96 d'Alctnhcrt,'~~)iirntlox 5, 20 i ~ ~ l i l i i t i o458, 460, 47 1, 472, 4!)1, 508, t~ 530 -- factor 4g9, 532 alralogy .gee llcy~~oltls's :\llnlt>gy nrlglc o f i~lllow 7(i!) - of st.aggcr 70!) annrllar r:llct 438 approxitltnto 111(!t.Iiodn lo!), 1 12. 127, 158, 201, 214. 2 I!), 2:l!), :10,i, :1m, :S!)2, (;:15, 67 I nsynlptotic nuc:l.io~rprofile :185, 50fi attack snc i t ~ c i ( l c ~ ~ c e natocorrclat,ion frlnction 569 nxinl synllnctry 420; neeo1.w l)otly of rcvo111t,io11; (!ylintIt:r; pipe; s1111cro bavk-flow ans rovrrsc flo\r,

-.
-.

. -

,c o ~ ~ ~ ~ w ~ ~ n s i i l 70% 327. l c
wnll 532

YRIIIR~R, 311, 357, 370, P. Y~rt~~.zg.z, 245, 204, 320 .l. Yanlag~~chi, 757 S. Yanlamoto, I<. 553 Yan~nsltit.n, 202 I. Ynng, I<. T. 326, 353, 377, 415, 448 Yih. C. S. 309, 3'23 Yor~ng, 11. 220, 224, 257, A. 264, 330, 3152, 353, 360, 377, R!fl, 444, 6-54, 667, 728, 702, 763, 706, 707, 708, 76!), 77!), 7!)2, 796 Yotltlg, 1). W. 752, 757 Yolltlg, (;. 1). \v. :5:1!), 374

---, collrrpt. 24 --, control 43. 378, 379. 400. 5Oli, 687
-- , c o r ~ v c r g < * ~ ~ t :111tltliv(;rg(*l~l, (i!)(i
.-

--,rorlcnvr

%ant, .7. A. l(i2, 264, 353. 377 Zntllir, M. 257. 264 Zcrllcr, I?. 750 %icri:p, ,I. 531, 553. 7!)6 Zilntll, W. 747, 757 Zimmcrmann, D. R. 575 Zimmcrlnnnn, G. 505, 554 %otl:irs, 1). 757 %IIIII~)IIS~~I, 0. fi5O

, cortlcr : O, 6.1-4, (;!I7 S: ! cqrraI,io~~s44, 128. 1:10, 151. lfi:!, 201, 282, 284, 285, :S:)O, 40!), (i71i. 704. 70ri, 7t 0 -- - f(:tl(:c 25:1 .--. Iligllcr ortlor 14.1, 1!)4 - -,t~o~~scrl)t~rt~t,it~g 687 --- -- , tt~)tlel(?:rtly 408, 40!) -- - -- , l~crioclic: 4 1 1, 428. 4:) I . .I:I2 - - - l)rolilc flee vclorilly ~Iist,ril)~tt,io~i - - rc-:ittaol~~~~rnt 088 -- - - , rotiil,it~g l~otly 695 -- - ., si11ti111r o I ~ ~ t , i o t ~ s st4l'.sit11il:1r~ I I I . s 11t1tI tiotls I:)(;. 151. 152, 203, 2:1l. 287, 2!):1, :Joe, :144, :1S!l. 4 15, 4 16, .4!10, w o , 735 -- s i ~ i l i i o ~ 123, 282; .POC (II.TO 80, Iroll~ltl:iry lnyor -- - t,llcory 2, 24 -- -, l11t(rr~1~:i1 265, 2M. 292. :10:1. :1O!l. 3, :S 15 - -- t.l~ickt~cns25, 21;. 40, 4'2, IPS. I:ll, 140, 230, (i:Hi, G4!). 673, - -, tl~rco-clin~msionnl 225, 23s). 247. 52.5, 535. 0!)2 - .- I , I I ~ ~ I I I I ~ I I 635, Mi8, G7 I, li77. 7(P2.72!) , L - - I I ~ I I I I O I I II o ~ r t i l l 702 hulk visconil:y (il b ~ ~ o y a n c y 1, 285, 48!) 27
--

I%C~,"R 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 0 ~ ~ 75!3 binary I~iycrs 400 IIjcrkr~cs'spolar front 512 blade angle 7(i0 I%lnsirtssrries 108, 236, 250, 251, 303 1)lowing 379, 380, 382, 400, 687 hotly force 48,71, 102,22fi, 258,285,489,510 I)otly of revollrtion 235, 086,092; see also cy li~lclcr pi1,c; sphere ; - - -. rot,aIir~e 6!)4 r, I)o~~~iclnry layer 2, 3, 24, 78, 127, 131, 035, fi(i8, 702

805

S l ~ l > j r clntlrx t 209, 354, 385, 637, 673 tlissipnt,ion (;:I, 74, 207, 705 -- f ~ ~ l r c t i o n267, 705 ctinlort.ion 54, 57 t l i n l ~ r ~ r b n ~nrt.ifirinl 477 r~~c, - cquntiolr see Orr.So~i~~r~rr.frlcl rqllntiorr -,nnt,ur;rl 45!), 477 , spiral 530 , tlrrc:e-di~rrc~rsional 460, 481, 525 ~lisl.r~rl>a~rccs. ~r~otlrotl stlr;tll 457 of tlr;\g 2, 5, lli. 20, 25, 27, 2!), 114, 176, 202, 7 I ,7 7 7 .vccrrIsoff~r~~~rlrag; slzi~rfric4io11 -, :rcrt~foil 22. 7(i7; scc olso :rc>roli,il - irc111ar l i ~ l c r 7 4 4 8c.n rllso c~.lirlder,circ:r:lar -, flat, plat,c 2(i, 138, 6:17,641,644, li5:1, 716; sen n1.w fl:rt. plate - , rllol.or vrh:cla 35 - , pressrrrc? 758 --,prolile 758, 764 - rerIt~rt,io~rli:!O - - , t,ot.nl 758 tlyc cxl)crirr~errt. 38, 449
-

cornpti1)ility corrtlitior~( ; ~u~nll) 133, 172 t corrrl)rrsnil)ility !). I!), 327, :!!)I, 430, 514, 516, 70'2 co~r~~~rnssiorr. ntlial)nt,iv 2(i8, 327, 7(i:) vor~~~)rc:ssor 0!)5, 7(i!) rotrrl)trter 187 r o ~ ~ c r n t r ; i t . ioq~~:rIiorr400 ol~ c~orrrl~~ctivity, r r r ~ ~ 2li!) Il~ nl ~~or~stitrctivt: ~ ~ a I i o lil cr( r~ c.orrtir~uilg, rtll~:rtiorr of 47, 74. WiI, 704 1.4)lltrO1 sltrr:lco 175, 202, 759 27 1. 285, 2!)2, 7 : 0! r,or~vrc(int~ , II:LI,II~ILI 285, 315, 7V2 cnoliug 278. 2!)4. 382, :)!)I, :1!):!. 515 eoortlinntrs, cr~rvili~rrnr(i7 , cylirrtlricnl (ici tm~rriforr~~nlio~r188, 245. :140,715, 718 of ( 'oriolin force (;!I5 cvrllor Ilon. :10:1, 04.1, li!)7 corrrl;rliot~ 560 t:orfliciorrt f,lM, 51i(i, (i72 ('or~c,ttc. flo\\r 6 , 70, 84, 91, 277, 5!)0, 64!) rrrcpir~g~rrot.iorr 76, 1 12 rrit.irnl lnyrr 464 rross-flolv 252. 312 c.rrrvnt,~~rc vrlot.ily ~ ~ r o f i l r )I:$:!. 207, 221, (or 4!)1. 515 rglinrlcr, circ,~rlnr 17. 20, 25, 2!), :!I, 38, 41, I(;#. 170, 17 1. 215,:!05, 320, 378, 418,424, (ili.1 - , rlliptio 41, 217, 418, 407 oncillnt~ir~g428 rotrating 43. 72, 87. 525 ,ynwrtl 248 c,ylir~~Irir:rl~ r ~ o r d i r r ; ~ I ( ~ .227 ( (it;, ~

IEc.kcrt rt11111Lrr 273 rtlrly coeffirirtrt.s 579, 5!)1. liO9, 70(1. 708, 731, 752 - -,t , ~ ~ r b r ~ I e Mi!) r~L ctlgr: clTrrt (i44 rigtv~va.luc r o l ~ l c ~ r ~ 5:1:1 p 4(i0, clorlgnt,ioll 54, 57 cnrrgy rIistril)r~t,io~r (t,r~rl)rrlr~it) 571 cIissi~~:~~,inrr t,l~it!l<lrons354. 673 c:cl~~nt,ior~ 265, 400 li5, int-c!g'.:tl ~ ~ I I :in11 158, I (i0, 201,:)5:1,:150, LI (i75, (i80, 723 ill t,crtr:~l 2(i7 - t~rctlrorl 457, 677, 680 Ll~icl<rress 304, (i73 e~rI.lralpy 267, 354, 400 tlrickrress 354 erl11at.innof state !), 65, 271, 705 1':11lrr's cqr~nt.iorrs 1, 66 rxclr:~rrgecooClicic~rts scr, ctlcly rocffirierrts r?cl~:r~rniorr fan 440
-

f1exil)lc wall 505 flow asc bnuntl:rry layer --, cot~rl)rcssihlr 47, 264. 327, 514, 61 1, 702. 71:). 7(i9 - , fren, I ~ ~ r l j ~ ~ l r720 , rrt , i ~ ~ t ~ n r ~ ~ l ) r c s s47, II%, 285 ilr e ilrlct 185 . . , I I I ~ ~ I 557 . I , rro~rslrncly 8!), 408 11atlc>r11, sr~l,r:riticnl 41, 42 1 ~~criorlic~ 4 I, 428 rvv(.r~:~lli70: SPC ( r l ~ o~ v ( - r s c r Ilo\v s1111rr<~riIic~:il 42 41, - , stvirlilrg 230 57. Ni7, s I l ~ ~ ~ ~ t ~ ~ ~ r t i n r r 072, 702, 705 --,tIc~rnit,y 7 0 3 - , Ir~rrl~c*rnlr~rc 702 Ilr~id.irIr:rl I , 5 l'l.i(,l t ) r r I . 5 ; 4cc rrlxr) frict iolr~il11r:il i - rtrcc~ll:rr)ics 1, 47 -, hTcn.lor~i:tr~ 47, 48, 58, (il --,~ ~ o r r l r ~ , ~ r r o g e ~ ~ e o r ~ ~ 512, 73!) -. , ~ r o r ~ \ . i s r ~ oI~ ~ s , t.c:r l 7,s itlc:rl I , 5, 20 - V ~ S C O I I S 51 ~ t l ~ l t ll l ' : l ~ 2. 21). :: !! For~ri(v's 111s 2(iii, 705 1 frcc colrvrc:tiorr scc cotrvcct~ior~, flat,nri~l :! f r r q t ~ c ~ ~ cI. y !)3, 134, 428, 459, 6!10, 758 - . s~":':t~r"lll 570 f r i c l i u ~ ~Ir l : 268, 2!)2, 2!):1, 2!)6, 2!)7, 514 fciclion vnlocity 537, 585, 600, 641, (i59 I ~ r r ~ r ~ ~ l c r ~ I 6~ r r ~ I ~ r r ~

-.

11y[)crno11ic floxv 328, 4325 iclcnl gas ROC pcrrct:t g n ~ Illi11gwort.l1-St~c~vnrt8011 s f ~ r ~ ~ r : ~:140~ t r trnr~ I.i ilrrpt~lsivcr ~ l o l i o l ~ 416 no, ir~tritlc~~cr, o f 23, 37 nrrglc! i ~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ ~ Illlid u 47, b l c 285 ~ r c ~ i 65, inrlices, ~rrct~lrodf I 5 o irrcrt,in forco 14, 26, 71, 112, 127 ir~flrxion acc poirrt, of il~(lrxic)tr i~rllr~c~~cc ful~ct.iorrs (i8:) il~jrrt,iolr sre blo\virrg irllct, Ilow 185, 2:1!), 241, :IHli, 5.12. Tr!)ii i~rrrlnl~ilil~y 4lY2, 4li5, 4iiIi. 472. ,I!l:1 45(i, -, 1)oirlL of 455. 4G6, 4!1:1, 4!)li, 4!17, 4!1!) i ~ ~ l c r f c ~ r o ~ r rp tir i t ~ ~ r r s r vc :$I:$, 3'20 irrtrrrlril tc!lrcy 451 --- f:rct.or 452, 544, 5li8

grin nec 1)crfrc:t g:m; rc::~l gnn (:iirllrr vortices W2(i, 532 (:r:rnIlof 11tr1111)rr273. 315 I~:I~PII-l'oine~tillo 11, 85, 280, 512; .we flow 1r1,To 1)il)e Ilo\v, li~rrlirrnr J~cnt-rnrrrl~~r:tiorr nq~lntion 157; see rclso 1'ollric:r cclrtnt.iorr -- lllrx 275, 703, 706 -, frict,ionnl sce frict,io~r:~l lrrnt - - t~rar~sfrr 2fi.5, 286, 2!)6, 315, 514, li8!), 3, 70'2, 707; ace also corrvc:ct,iotr; tlrrrlrrnl 11ot1nd:rt.y 111.yor -- :rlialogy 286, 707 rolrgh nnrf:~cc 712 Ilclc-Slrnw flo~v 123 Irrliropter rotor 254 1%it'lll~ll7. flow !IS, 194; See ~ l 8 0 ~t~~gllfL(~iol1 flow 11ytlrn11lir:tllys r ~ r o o t l~.rgirrrc dse r o t ~ g l ~ ~ r c s ~ ~ heiglrt,, crilical hydralrlic: dinlrrrter GI2 hyrlrar~lics 1 Irytlrost~nt~ie sl,ress 51 Inrrrirr:~~. ncrofoil :!82. 45fi, 502. 57:I - - IlO\Y :1, 1 I s111)Iaycr 563, (iO:1, 708 I,:r~)l;rct:'srqr~n.Iif)rt 10 Inm of (,Ire \s'II 640, li4:1; n c r nlso ~ ~ r ~ i v r r n n l vrlocity (list.rib11ti011 In\\' lift 16, 23, :!(;, 43, 394 -- , I I I : I ~ ~ I ~ I I I I I 4:). 380, 687 2, 35, IAirr9n llod 41 1, 432 nrol Iov:rl xt.t~Io. ~)rilrr.il~lc: 58 or I,ortl I(:aylr~igl~'~ ~ ~ ~ i l ~ i o r r c~q 4(i2 tlrcoro~rrs 4li3, 4(i4 loss cwcClir:iclrt. fcnnrntlrs) Ii(i:!. 77 1

--

firtilt* clilli~rt:~~ccs ', 187, 194, 671 - olcrrrcrrl.n 672 liirst. I,aw of tlrcrn~ocly:~n~~rics 265 Ilap li89 lI:il, p1:r.I.c 24. 26, 32, 40, 135, l:l9, 156, 175, 201, 214, 250, 2!)2, 2!15, 392, 333, 383,443, 4531, 4li5. 468, (inn, 07!), 707, 711; -, oscill:it.ing !I:!, 432, 4314 --, ror~glr fi52, 720 - --,yntvctl 250 I~lctt,rror's rotor 380

-.

ct Index
-- --, turbnlcnt 13, 39, 85, 449, 544, 59(i IJil.ot t,rnversc niethod 758 plntc ace flat plate ---,rong11 (i5 -t.l~ern~on~ctcr 333 286, poitit of inflexion 1:I2, I65 -- - -- ~:ritcrit>ti 463. 4!)0, 514 - itint.nbility 41i2 .- - tant~nit,ior~462 I'oiucnillc llow see flagen-I'oi~crtilln;see nlao pipc flow, I:brninnr; ~ ~ o l y t ~(i:IO r ~c ~ ~ ) l , c t ~ tflow 71, !)ti, 128 i;il po\vcr law (117-tlt) RW IiOO, 637, 648 ! , I'rnntltl I I I I I I I I ) ~ ~ 26!), 273, 274, 283, 289, 330 - --, t~lrhnlcnt 70(i, 708 Prsu~tltl-Scl~licl,Li,~g forrnuln 641 I'rnntltl'u pijlc rcsiatnnce lsrw 01 1 prossurc 51, GI - distril)rtt.ion 2, 20, 21, 22, 40, 114, 117, 122, 49!), 504, 770 -- drag see fortn drag - (lrop 12, 37, 92, 241, 596, 612 -- grnrlicnt 33, 132, 206, 340, 456, 463, 48!), lili8; see nlso wetlgc -, t , I ~ c r t ~ ~ o t l y t ~ ~ i t ~lil, t03 51, ~ i : prit~cipalaxes 57 prolilc dmg sect ctmg pro11cller 6!)4 1)rol)crl.irs (L:rbloa of) 8, 9, 269, 662 ])rotlr~~uion r o u g l ~ n e ~ .we

- --, extended 709, 710 - dye expcrin~cnt 12

-- eq~tnlion Inbrir:~t,ion 121 of - ~)rinciplc siniilnrity 12, 70 of llicl~artlsonnutnber 512 Il,icl~:irtlson'unnnr~l:iroffnct 4:18 rigid-l~orly rnt:btion 55, 56, 57 rotnting l)otly 242, 005 - flow 225 r ~ l l g l l l l 5:10,~(il9, 624, 652, 712, 723 ~~ -, tirlt~iisnil~leli57, 660 --,tlistril)rrt~cl 540, 6.52 -- c l c n ~ o ~ t537, 655, (M!) , - f:~ctor (i 1 (i, li52 - heigl~t,, rriticnl 537, 663 -, l~ydrnnlicnllystnootl~ 016, (I50 -, int,er~nectinto rnngc (transition rcgitnc) 537. (i17. 622, 650, 713 -, rrlntive 015, 652 -, stnntl:~rtl 623

slat 380 slipprr (of hmring) 117 slit 68!) solidity mtio 7110; see nlso cnsc~rtlr flo\\sorltid velocity SPF Mnt.11 I I I I I I I I I ( - ~ specific lieat 269 sl)ertr~itn see f ~ r q ~ ~ c ~s pc -c t r u ~ ~ i tl c y ~ l i l ~ c r e 10, 21, 25.4'2, I I:!, 237. 24:). :)20, 17,
42 1 .-.

NACA norofoil ROO, 502, (i!)l, 707, 771 Nnvier-Stokm cq~lntion 1. 44,47,04, 70,84, 320, 561 . . - in con~l)rtwiI~lc flow (M nentrnl ~tnl)ilit~y rnrvr 4lil, 4li!), 470, 47 1, 472, 479, 4!)2, 493. 507. 530, 534 Newt.onin11 flnid scr flttitl, Newtonian Newton's law of friction 7, 26 - Srrotid Lnw 48 no slip contlit ion 5, 20, 72 nnincric.nl n~rtllotl 187, 219 Nussrlt nnnibcr 275. 296, 708 orf*:in c ~ r r r c n t ~ I3 5 Orr-Sotnntcrfeld rqctntion 459, 400, 462 onnillnlions see tlistr~rhnnms, tnctliotl of sn~nll; poriotlio flo\s; I>o~~ntl:iry Inynr, pcrioclic oucillogrnn~(t,~lrl)nlent. tlow) 452, 477, 4!)1 Osccn's in~provcmcnt 1 I5 11"rnflox S/!C d'Alrn~l~rrG's) R ~ B I ~ O X ~ 1'i:clot nnrnl~nr 273 perfcc:t gas 10, (M, 267, 271, 327, :$!)!I, 705 ~~criotlic flow 41 1. 428, 432 j~rrt~trl~~~l~iot~ 413 11ipn llow .tne rrlso inlett flo\v; nt~rlr~lrrr effect; rcsinl.nnce cocflioictit,; rcsistnnce forlnul:r - --, r:urvcd (i26 - , it~lct 92, 241, 560 .~. , lentinxr -. 1 1, 12, 85. 92 - , nonnhirtly !)2, (i2!) - --, osr:illntjitig 436 - --, st.nbi1it.y of 542 - . , st.nrl, of tnot.ion !)2 - - , t,ran~iI it111 :)!I, 44!)

rnrcfnc:t,ion wnvc aer! expnnsion fnn Il:iylcigl~'s cqnntion see Lortl Ikyloigli's cqnat.ion -- l l ~ r o r c n ~ s .tee J ~ ) r d JtnyloigI~'~ theorelnu -- prohlciii 8r.e Stokcn's first prohlcm rr:il gns 327 rocovcry fnclor 355. 713, 714 rcfcrrncc t r ~ i ~ l ) n r a t t ~715, 716 re rcsisltrnce see drag - cocfficicnt. (of pipc) 12,86,507,607,012, 613, 617 - fi>rnillln (RIa.Ui11s'u) 597, 6 0 , 61 1 - - , nnivcrsnl 609 rcvcrnc flow 2,25,28,85, 108, I 2 ; see a h o scpnrntioti rcvc?rsil~lc proc:csu 62 Itoytiolds nt~ri~bcr12, 14, 72, 128, 150, 772 - -, criticnl 3. 461, 480, 514, 573 - -, - (ncrofoil) 490, 500, 502 - -, - I(cylir~tlcr, splicre) 173 - ,(I>II)O) 37.80.450

-.

st.resscs 559, 703 lteynolcls's analogy 286, 706, 707

--

- cffoct on loss coefficient 772 -, retltrcntl 117

sand ro~tgt~ness 615, 623, 654, 663 - ---, eqt~ivnlrntr,23,(i54; ncertlaoro~~gl~nrsu Srlilic:rctt !ric.t.nrc :120, 3(iO, 3(i:), 364, 3(i5, :!(in, :III!) Scliobnucr-Skm1114tattcxpcritnellt 470 sccontlnry flow 102, 226, 230, 248,428,431, 432, ($12, 613, 626, 644, 657 self-sitnilsir solr~tinns see bonntlnry layrr, siniilnr nntl aclf-siniilnr solutions se~ni-sitnilar solutions 415 scl)nriition 2, 25, 28, :I:), 43, 131, 152, 172, 215, 220, 243, 253, 254,258, 259, 382,378, 417. (Xi!), 674, 687, 769 --,prevenI.io~~ honntlsrry-lnycr control sec sl~tipc f:lct.or 208, BO(i, 4!l2, 675, 678, (i79 - .., ~notlificcl 674 slic?xriti,q s1.1.c~~ !r.~tll) 26, 134, 138, 143, (nt 147, 202, 20!), 600, 037, (i54, 670; see nlso skin fricl.ion ship 054, 062 sl~ooktlll~c 4:%0 - wnve 358, 3(i0. 3(il, :3li3, 314, 365, 368, lltj!), 43!) sitnilnr nnd self-ain~ilnruolnliona 90, 101, 107, 13li. 151, 152, 164, IMi, 203, 2D3, 300, 316, 344, 38!), 415,48!), 735, 737, 740, 746, 751 ; see rrlso I)onntlnry I~iycr, ui~nilnr nntl srIf-ui~nil:tr ~0111lionu siniilnrity 12, 70, 151, 271, 450, 597; see also bonntlary Inyer, si~nilnr solllt,ions nnd self-sitnilnr solut,ions - in lientot.mnsfcr 271 -, von I<hr~niit~'s l~~.potl~csis 608 585, siniilit.ntlc sre sitnilnrity singnlnr pert,nrhntion 80; ace nlso honndnry Inyer, I~igl~er order skirt friction 2, 32, 134, 138, 143, 204, 286, 035, 637, 630, 654, 07(i, 758

spots aee tnrl~nlc?nt upots sqrtnlinmu 557 st.nl)ility c q ~ ~ n t i o n O r r - S o ~ ~ i t ~ ~1~c111:i- l c I aec! ~~rf~~ tion - -, frictioi~lc~s 462 -- , l i ~ n i of 460, 4!)7, 502 t -, nei~trnl 4(i6; aer. nlso ~tcntralstnliilit,y cnrvc - t.l~eory :I, 451; stngnntion cnt 11nll)y 3533 - flow, tl~rce-tliti~cl~siot~nl Ili5, 250 100, - -, t\vo-dinicnsiot,al 33, 35, !)5, 0!), 156, 165, 214, 250, 252 - lonl)cntt.~~ro :PP8 208, st,~intlnrtl ~ l l g l l l lsec mugl~nrsn ~ t~~~ 1 1 1 r~ i v t r o i ~ r li72 i StnnI.on 11111nl~er (is!).708 state see eqnnl.ion of sknte; locnl slcilc stotilll tnrbinc, losses clllc t,o r o t ~ g l ~ nIiW2 ~ ~s SI,okcs's tlrng fortnnla (spl~cro) 114 - IirsL prol)lc~n !)O - sccontl problen~ 93 - l~ypotliesis (if) - In\\ of friction 2, 7, 48, 58 - secontl lwol)lrtn !)3 nl.r~iin 48 --,mtc of 7, 52. 58 stmtilicntion 512, 73!) st,rcaln function 74, 133, 136, 15:I. 157, I(i3 ~t.renn~ing nrcontla.ry flow ace s t r e i ~ ~ ~ i lI~otly 22, 42 inc ut,rrss 48, 4!) -, nppnrcnt or Jlcynoltis's 3, 55!), 5li0, 704 --,tlcvintoric: 48, 41) --,l~ytlrontnt,ic 50 - tennor 50 Slrol~linltiunlbt?r 31 snblayrr ace lsrtriitlnr slibt:iycr substnntivc dcrivnt,ive 47 snction 43, 379, 381, 383, 506, 645, ii87 -, nsylnpt,ot,ic profile 385, 506 --,c k c t on t,rtiilsit,ion 506 -, I I I ~ ~ I ~ ~ I(1110st fnvornhle) 388, 501; II~II Sut,llerland'a f o r n ~ ~ t l n 328 s\virlirig wake 543

vorl.irrs 526, 527 tc~~~pcrat.~lro, tlill't~sio~r 752 of licltl 8P.c Ll~crnrnlbou~ltlnry Inyor - - rise, :~dinl)ntic 270, 27!), 286, :1R2, 717 t,l~eorcticnlI ~ y d r o t l y ~ ~ n ~ n1 c s i I,l~errn:~l barrier 3 - hon~~tln.ry l:ryer 3, 78, 265, 327, 3:10, 514, 702, 712, 713, 754 co11d11c1ivit.y 2(ili, 2(i!), Mi2 -- d i f l ~ ~ ~ i v i t : ~ 273 2(i!). t , l ~ c r l ~ ~ o t l y t ~prcss~~rt!51, 61, 6:s :t~~~ic: 'I'oll~~~ictl-Srl~lic:l~ti~~$ 45!), 474, 4!)5, \VILVCR see nl.so tlist,~~rl)a~~cos, of slnnll n~c!l.l~otl t,orqr~e 105. 24'2, 647, 649 l.mce (of nt.rcs~, tensor) 51 trnn~forn~ation, c*o~~~l'rcssiblc r b l ~ l e n t tt~ flow 7 18; ace r~lno I l l i ~ ~ g t v o r ( . l ~ - S l c n . ~ r t m trn~~sfor~nnt,iol~ t,ra~~sforn~rcl vnri:r.l)l~~s n ~ ~ n ~ c r i11reLhot1) (Tor cnl I87

--

-- bellind bars 741, 744 - , cl~nnnel 84, 107, 168, 277, 668 - --,cilitldor 171, 21(1 - -, jet see jct
. -

-,

-, pipe see pipe flow

.-, W
C ~ I ~ O165

l~rbricntion 117, 121 142, 205, 385, 454, 0:%9

- . , ~'lnto -.

-, wing 249, 085, (i8!), 690 grntlicnt :!:I, 128, 132 --- ofprol)ngntio~~ (ofclist~lrl)n~~re) 460, 459, SRC ( r l x ~ 0t~r-S0111111t:rfel11 ~ i i l . i o ~ ~ tq~ - of sonntl aec Mac11 ~ i n n ~ b c r - t)~iclc~~cso 356 viscosity 6, 6, 8, 9, 60, 2n9, 328 - , convcraion factors 8 -, I c i ~ ~ e l ~ ~ n t i8, 9, 269 7, c - ~ ~ ~ c n a u r c n ~ 12, t88 en - tnbles 8, 9, 269, 662 vortex f l n n ~ c n t 89 - for~nnt,ion 2, 19, 25, 28, 425, 427, 525, 529 - sliedtling freqtlcncy 91, 173 - so~~rco 230 spirnl 529 - st.rccb (von 1Cdr111rll11's) 18, 28, 17:) vort.icily 58, 73 -- t r n ~ ~ s f cqunt,ion 73 er -- - t,l~cory . 1. 'l'nylor) ((: 584, (i08, 755
---

Abbreviations
The following nl)breviat.ions l ~ n v ebeen un(d t l ~ r o ~ ~ g l ~ o book . tllc ~ ~ t AIAA J. ARC

Journnl o/ the American Inslilale of Aeromc~ticsnnrl A..lronlrrr/ir.~. New York, pr~bliahetlaince 1903 (nee J A S nnd JASS) lnontq, rncll r ~ ~ ~ t n b c rucpnrntnly ctl ARC RM ARC C P
-

= Aeronnuticnl Rc.senrch Cooncil, Jmndon. P~~l)lint~r.s 8rrir.s of (lot-11two

Iteporta nnd Memornndn C~lrrent Pnprm

ARSJ ASME J . iIpf11. hfrc11.

.-An~rricnr~ of hlccl~nnicnlKnginrors, Now York Socict,y

- Jm~rn111o/ Appliril ,Ifrr/trt?tir,v, l'vit~g pnrl, C of L11o 7'rc~tta1r(l~on~ h ~ I ,I/ !
ASME (see nbove) .lourmzl o/ IIrnl Trnn.~/cr.Oring part
( :

Jor~rnnlt1111erirn11 Rocket Sorirty

.I. Ment Transfer

of t l ~ r Trrtn.~arliona Ihp AShll': o/

I I I V I I ~ I I ~7li!). 77G
- l ~ l a ~ l 7li!) ~s l u r l t ~ ~ l r ~ ~ c , c , on Ilrnt. 1.ransfcr 3 1:) ~1li.c.t~ , frco li35, 72!) , llolllog~~llctllln 571 , i ~ ~ t c ~ t ~ s i t y 475. li72 31:s. , isot,rol)ic 475, 57 1, 5!1 1 , origin of 44!l. I S ! ) : scc rrlso I.rnl~sition st.iilc of 5liX. li72; see rtlno I)o~c~~tlnry l:ly(T, tllrl'llll~llt~ t u r l ~ ~ ~ l llo~v l 3, 3!l, 555, 5!)li; .~CC (rlso t-~~ , tri~nsil io11 452. ~ ~ l l ~ ~ r l ~ ~ : ~ l i o477, n557, 504, 705 sj~ol.~ 4%;. 4X:1

I I I I ~ V ~ lI I o i Iislri111io11 v \Y;III 721 : srr: rrlso I:L\v of I.l~o

607, 640,

\v;iko 25, 175, 234, 729, 733, 741, 758 - behind b l ~ ~ t ~ t 738 body -- - c,nsmrle 772 - - row of bnrs 744 -single l)otly 7:1!) - , oiror~lnr 733, 743. 747 , t ~ w o - ~ l i ~ ~ r c ~ ~ n i o7:1:1, n745 175, ~ ~ l ~ m l lncliebetic 268, 277, 28li, 2!)4, :1:!2, 333, , 335, 337, 344, 517, 5l!), 718 --,c ~ ~ r v r r 510, 525, 526, 6!)0 l -, flexible 505 - - jct 750 \v:ivc tlrng 7(i!) n ; ~ v c l c ~ ~ g t l ~ 532 459, rrctlgc 156, 364; see n1.w si~nilara ~ self~ d s i ~ ~ ~ isoll~t.ions lar n.i~~d (i54 w i ~ ~ d - l . ~t ~ ~ r~r n ~ ~ ~ l572 ~ r o , ~ l cl c~ wing 24!). 685, fix!), li!)O - ~ slolt,otl 381 -, -- s\cept, 253 --,ynwod 248 I
-

IIFVLIZ

-=

13eotsche F o r s c l ~ ~ ~ r111c1g s '-r r s i ~ c ~ l ~ s : ~ ~ ~ s t1,11rt.. I I I I ~ l Z ; i t ~ ~ ~ ~ L t l ~ r t , , ~~ \ fiir ; ~ l t Kiiln (nincc I!)(;!))

DV I,
D(:l,lt ETI1 Forncl~g.111p.-Wrn.

I)c~~t.scl~c Vcrsr~cl~sn~~sl;.II 1,11ft- I I I I ~ I I ( : I I I I I I ~ I ~ I ~ (l .i i i l t ~ . I : ~ . ~ I I I : I I I ~ fiir (till l!)li!)) = l)cl~tsrhe(:cscllsrl~aft. fiir I,llft,- I I I I ~I~~ : L I I I I I ~ ; I ~ I ~ ~ , 1Ciil11 Fedcrnl Ir~st,itutc Trc~lu~olopy (of (1Ciclgc~11or~ssisoIlr Tcrl~nisol~co c I I ~ ~ ~ I I I I I c ) II Xl~ricll,S\vit.zcrlnntl Scie~~tific j011r11nltb~~t.it.lc(l Forsehung a i ~ / dctn G'chiclc dn.s Inyen i ~ : ~ Il'csens, V 0 1 (I:P~III:III rrSo(.iet,,y of l':ttginrcrs), 13rrlin :tntl I)~~osscltlorf (sillre 1!)48) 1tmt~nrrl1 I I ~ I I I P I I I C I I ~ 10 ITora(~I~g. R 111g.-\\'cs. (src nllovc)

Forachungnhrft.

JAS

Journal of /he A~ro~~(tzrtirrrl A"j'icncc*. N1.w York, (1!)32 replnced in I959 by ,].ASS
=

1!)58);

J ASS
JElI
J. Iloy. Arro. SO(,.

Jonrtutl of Anro/Space S c i e n r ~ . ~ , Ncn York (1!)5!) l!)T,2): rcplnced in 19G3 by AIAA .I. .lolcrnnl of E'luul Mrrhntctca, Cn~nl)~itlgt-, lC11glir1111 Journal o/ the Ilo!/~tl Arro?nr~~!ic*cl Sortct!l. I,o~~clon, IC~~gliu~cl

814
NACA

- Tho Nntionnl Atlvisory Co~nnlittcc-for Arronautica, Wrurhingtan D. C.

[rrplncctl in 195'3 by NASA (nrc below)] tlorumenk, ear11 nnnihrrrcl srpnrntcly: NACA Itep. NACA TM NACA 'I'N Rcportn Trclinic.~tlhlr~nornritln 'I'rcl~nic~~~l Notcn P ~ ~ b l i s h rthree nrrica of d

List of most commonly used synlbols

I n ortler not to clepnrt too drnat~icnllyfrom tdlc convent.iona normnlly c~nyloyrtl pnpcrn in on the srll~ject, was follncl neccannry 1.0 rtw t.hr anrnc aymbol to tlcnota ucvcrsl dilTcrrnt, clrlnllit titics. Thus, for vxnmple, 1 clrriotru tho rcniat.ancr cocfficictit of pipe flow, k ~ o t lI:aniin~rrant1 ~ turhr~lent,, and in the tlieory of stability of ln~ninnrhorrndnry lnyera i t denotes tlic r\~nvrlc-ngl.l~ o[n clintnrbnnco. Sirnilnrly, k tlenotes t.her~nal conclnctivity it1 the theory of t,hcrtt~nl bo~~nclttry Iayera, nntl llic licigllt of n prot~lbcrnncein thc discussion of the i ~ ~ f l u d ~of cr o ~ ~ g l i n c ~ ~ s ic (XI turbulent flow. 'I'llr follorving in n lint of ~ y n ~ b o l n o s t n ~ ro~nnlotllyused in 1,110book.

NASA

- Nntionnl Aero11~11tica Spacr Adtninintrntion (crenbd in 1'359 in ancJ

rrplnrrmcnt of NACA)
= Nntio~~nl (inn 'l'l~rl~inr 15nl:cl1lisl111irrit, (Irrnt Rritnin

Proc. Roy. Sor. A

Office Nstionnl d'fit~ltleae t do IErchrrrhc~A1Zdronpntinlen, CI~BtiIlon-ao11813ngncux. Frnnce

I'rr~ccc~lirr!l.~ /he Ro!lnl Socirl~y.L o n d o i ~ ncricn A of ,

Itoynl Aircraft I'~nt:~l~linl~l~~r~it.(:rrnt I%rit,~~iri Unitctl Stntrn Air Irorcr Vcrein Drr~tsclirr Ingrnicr~rc (German Society of Engineem), Dueascidorf. Publial~es:Poruchg. 1ng.-Wcs. with its supplement Fomchrtngsheft (aro nbovc) J n l ~ r l ~ ~ t r l\Vissc:nncl~nft~lic.he~i rlor ~ (:cncllnchnft fur I,r~lt.f:iI~rt, - l!)(Y2; 1952 fiir I,11ft- rrntl IZ.ar~nifal~rt,, lf)liJ--1975 ( H . J%lenkarltl W. SCIIIIIZ, ctls., Vicweg, Ilrn~it~ocliwcig)

I? I\ I<
USAF V Dl

I. General

symbols

. -- wcl.tccl nrcn, or fronlnl nrca 1

c: - vc:lorit,y of R ~ I I I I C ~ , d, L) = dintiictcr g nrcclcrntiotl (IUC t grnvily n h rhnniirl wirlt h I, 1, lrng611 p = I)rranllro (Torco prr rinil nrm) T = 4 e V 2 = tlyrian~ic l~rntl r, 4, 2 = cylindricnl coordinntea r, R radiun a - nirnn velocity (in pipc) Urn =. free-ntrcnni velocity U(z) -- velocity in potrnt.inl flow u,v, cu = velocity coniponcnta 72 = tempornl mean of velocity (pipc or bonnrlary Iayrr) z, y, z = cnrtcsinn coordinntes V = frcc-strcnnl velocity e = dcnsit.y ( 1 1 1 ~per unit volume) s w = nngulsr velocity
E

ZAMM ZAMI' ZFM

Zcibchrifl fiir nngnt~innrllr:Mnlheninlik sm! Phy,vik, nasrl. Switzerland Zoitschrifl /iir Flqtechnik und rlfolorla/lschi//ahrt, Munich nnd Ilerlin. Gersnnriy

eddy viacoaity width of jet or wake drag coefficient akin-friction coefficient c,' locnl akin-friction coefficient D drag force l l l z -- t51/,3z first nhnpr fnetor of \~rltwityj~rofilr
= = = = =
5

A, b c~ c,

List of most cornmor~lyused syliibola

I.int, of tnost commonly rtscd syrnhols

IV. Thermal and compre~oibleboundary layers

If,,

= d,/rl, = uecond eltape factor of velocity profile M = (rrlc) = Mnch nu~nbcr k = l~eiglitof rorrgllnrss elemcnt (protuberance)

ks = lieiglit of grain for eq~iivalentaand rougl~ness K = sl~npcfactor of velocity profilc in boundary layer 1 = mixing lcngtll R = (VLIl! or ridlv or Ud/v) = Reynolds rluniber Rr = Riclinrdson numbcr S = Strorlhnl nnlnl>cr T = turbnlcncn intensity (also dcgrce or level of turbulence) u', v', w' = colnponcnt.9 of turbulent, velocity . ~ .. ~ ' 2 v'*, u v' . . . = teniporal means of tnrbr~lentvelocities , ' U = ~naxintr~tn vclocity at bipc centre U = free sLrenin velocity , E'* = <G 7 friction vclocity ?/ = dintnncc from wall tj = boundary-layer tllickncss dl = dinplacc~ncrtttllickness 6, = m o ~ n r n t n ~thickness n 6, = energy thickness E~ = a1)parent (virtual) kincrriatic viscouity in turbulent flow ("erldy viscosity") t] = yv+/v = dirnrnuionlcss distance from wall flow; 1 = xy x = empirical constant in tl~rbulcnt 1 = rcuish.nce cocfficictit of pipe flow A = uhapc faotor of vclocit,y profile in Ialninar 1)onndary layer 1 = absolnte viscosity ' v = /c/e = kinclnatic viscosit,~ r = shearing stress (force per unit area) 7,. 7," = ullearing stress a t a wall 9 Z L / V * = di111cnsio111cssvelocity y~ = st.rrani ftlnction

kle c,, = tl~rrmaldiS11oivity I/jyije) velocity of sortnd c,,, c, spccific I~cntsn t constant presutlre antl volume. rco~~cctivcly E = Umz/c,, A T = Fhkert number G = qPP AT/iv2 = Crasltof nnnihrr h cntl~olpy k t.hrrn~alcontlnrtivity M -. Ir/r - AIILCII 1111tt11)er N = ul/k N~lsscltI I U I I I ~ C ~ P v/n - 1'randt.l nr~~nl)cr (1 - lleat llrix (qrlant.ity of Itrat prr tanit. :rrc% and Lintc) r = rccovrry factor 11' = gns conntant = Ri - - -- {(qle)(rlQ/tly))/(d(l/dy)2rv. Iticl~ardsonrturnlwr S N/RP = St,:ulhn nnn~l)rr S, Srltniirlt. 1111nll1rr I = Lcln~)eraLurc T,, = ndia1)atic \\.nil lon~l>rr:~t,r~rc (rec:ovc!ry I.enll~orat.~~n!) 'I1,,, tc~nl,rr:it.~~rc Lhn wall = :~t a cocllirirnt of 1ic:rL t.rirnsfr:r /I coefficient of t l ~ c r ~ n a l ex~)atlsior~ c,,/c, incnt.rol)ic rxl)oncnt rjY Lhicknc.ss of t.l~c.rn~nl I~onnrl~rry 1:ryc.r A 7 = ternprrnll~rcclill'crcncc ' rD = dissip~~Lion fnnrt,io~i rr, = exponcnt. in visrosit,y-tcl~ipcdr~rr r~*l:lLiol~
n =I =

- ; -

- -

- 7

111. Transition from lnnlinar to turbulent flow

RCriL -=

c = /I/a = r , 4- iri cr = a~nplifimbion (or damping) factor c, = wave propagation velocit.y of disturbance ( l J , n ~ ~ l / ~ ~ ) r critical Itcynolds nn~nber = ril T, Ttlylor nt~rnbcr u', 11' vrlority co~nponc~ltrl disttirbnncc of IT(!/) vr1ocit.y profilc in boundary layer , U,,,(T) vcIocit.y in potential flow I /I /I, -1- i/It pi = alr~plifirat.ion(or damping) factor p, = circnlar frcqecncy of disturbance y = inkrrnit.t*ncy factor A = 2nla = wavelcngt,h of dist,urbattce +(y) = amplit,udc of nt.rcam function of disturbance