Glass and ceramic

a) Introduction
1. The main component of both glass and ceramic is silica or silicon dioxide, Sio2.
2. In silicon dioxide, every silicon atom is bonded covalently to 4 oxygen atoms in a
tetragonal shape. Every oxygen atom is also bonded to 2 silicon atoms to from a
gigantic covalent molecule.
3. Both glass and ceramic have the following properties:
a) hard but brittle
b) inert toward chemicals
c) insulators of heat and electricity
d) withstand compression but not tension ( stretching)
e) can be easily cleaned
4. Both glass and ceramic used widely in our daily life replacing metals because of
the above advantages.

b) Type of glass and their properties

Type of glass Properties

Fused glass Very high softening points

Transparent to ultra-violet and infra- red
light
Difficult to be made into different shapes

Soda Glass Low softening points

Breaks easily
Cracked easily with a sudden change of
temperature.

Borosilicate Glass High softening points

Does not crack easily with a sudden
temperature change
Transparent to ultra- violet light

Lead Glass Low softening points

High density
High refractive index
Reflects light rays and appears shinny.
 c) Uses of glass

Type of glass Examples of Uses of Glass

Fused glass Mirrors, lenses and laboratory glass wares

Soda Glass Bottles, window-panes, light bulbs. Glass-

plates and bowls

Borosilicate Glass Laboratory apparatus, cooking utensils,

electrical bulbs

Lead Glass Decorative items, crystal glass – wares,

lens prisms and chandeliers.

d) Properties of ceramics

1. Ceramic is a manufactured substance made from clay that is dried and then baked
in a kiln at high temperature.
2. The general properties are as follows
a) Very hard and strong but brittle
b) Inert towards chemicals
c) Very high melting point
d) Good electrical and heat insulator
e) Resist compression
3. the main constituent if clay is aluminous silicate which consists of aluminium
oxide and silicon dioxide

e) Uses of ceramic

Ceramic can be used as car engine block:

Presently, car engine blocks are made of metal. Materials for making car engine
blocks must be able to withstand very high temperatures. This is because at high
temperature, the combustion of fuel becomes more efficient and produces more
energy with less pollution.

Clay heated with magnesium oxide produces type of ceramic that has a high thermal
resistance. This type of ceramic is used for making car engine blocks because it can
resist high temperature.

f) Specific uses of glass and ceramics that have been improved on their qualities.
There are examples of new uses of ceramics and glass after them being improved.
Examples of new uses of improved glass and ceramics can be seen in the making of
superconductor and car engine. Following are the examples of it:

Photochromic Glass

1. Photochromic glass is a type of glass that is sensitive to light intensity. The glass
darkens when exposed to sunlight but becomes clear when the light intensity
decreases.

2. Photochromic glass is produced when a dispersion of silver chloride, AgCl or silver

bromide, AgBr and a little of copper(I) chloride is added to normal glass.

3. When exposed to ultra violet, AgCl or AgBr decomposes to form silver and
halogen atoms. The fine silver deposited in the glass is black and the glass is
darkened.

Conducting Glass

1. Conducting glass is a type of glass that can conduct electricity.

2. Conducting glass is produced by embedding a thin layer of conducting materials
in glass
3. A type of conducting glass is produced by adding a layer of indium tin(IV) oxide
(ITO) that acts as an electrical conductor. This type of glass is act as electrical
conductor.

Superconductor Glass

1. Superconductors are a class of ceramics that conduct electricity without

resistance and without lost of electrical energy
2. Superconducting ceramics are used to make light magnets, electrical generators
and electric motors.

g) Conclusion
The need for high performance materials has helped to speed up the development of
glass and ceramics. New improved glass and ceramics like photochromic glass,
conducting glass, glass ceramic, bioceramics and superconductor can be widely
used.
Composite materials
a) Introduction
Since the old days, human beings have been using clay, wood, stones or metals as
building materials. These substances either corrode or decay easily. Otherwise they are
too heavy, bulky or difficult to be shaped or carved.

Many of our modern technologies require materials with unusual combinations of

properties that cannot be met by the conventional metal alloys, ceramics and polymeric
materials. Therefore, continuous research and development have been done in search of
new structural materials. To fulfill the needs, there building materials must have
properties like low density, strong and resistance to heat and corrosion. Today, many of
such materials are created and used for various fields.

b) Meaning of composite materials

A composite material is a structural material that formed by combining 2 or more diff
substance such as metal, alloy, glass , ceramics and polymers. The resulting material has
properties that superior than those of the original components. Composite materials are
created for specific application.

c) Examples of composing materials

Reinforced concrete
When concrete is reinforced with steel wires, steel bars or any polymer fibers, the
resulting combination is a very tough material with more tensile strength. Steel and
concrete have about the same coefficient of expansion. They make vary good composites
and are essential for the construction of large structures like high – rise buildings, bridges
and oil platforms.

Superconductors
Superconductors are capable of conducting electricity without any electrical resistance
when they are cooled to extremely low temperature. Most of them are alloys of metal
compounds or ceramics of metal oxides. However, some superconductors are made from
composite materials. Superconductors also used in building Jap’s bullet trains.

Fiber Optic
It is a cable consists or a bundle of glass or plastic threads that are surround by a glass
cladding. Fiber optic is a composite material that is able to transmit data, voice and
images in a digital form.
Fiber Glass
It has high tensile strength, can be easily coloured and low in density. It can be made into
thin layers, yet very strong. Fiber glass is also easily molded and shaped. It has be used to
make household product to make household products like water storage tanks, badminton
rackets , small boats , skis and helmet.

Photochromic Glass

1. Photochromic glass is a type of glass that is sensitive to light intensity. The glass
darkens when exposed to sunlight but becomes clear when the light intensity decreases.

2. Photochromic glass is produced when a dispersion of silver chloride, AgCl or silver

bromide, AgBr and a little of copper(I) chloride is added to normal glass.

3. When exposed to ultra violet, AgCI or AgBr decomposes to form silver and halogen
atoms. The fine silver deposited in the glass is black and the glass is darkened.

d) The component of Composite materials

Reinforced concrete Concrete

Steel
Superconductor Copper (II) oxide , yttrium oxide and
barium oxide
Optical fibers Glass of low refractive index
Glass of high refractive index
Fibers glass Heavy , Brittle , non – flexible
Light, weak inflammable.
Photochromic glass Glass

e) Uses of Composite materials

Reinforced concrete Construction of framework for highways,

bridges and high – rise buildings.
Superconductor To make more efficient generators,
transformers, electric cables, amplifiers.
Computers stronger and light magnets
Optical fibers Transmits data in the form of light in
telecommunications
Fibers glass Boat hulls, swimming pool linings, fishing
rods car bodies, roofing, furniture, pipes
and container.
Photochromic glass Photochromic lens that becomes dark in
bright sunlight and becomes clear when out
of the sun.
f) Justify the uses and the need to produce other advanced materials
1. Continuous research and development is required to produce better materials used
to improve our standard of living.
2. New technologies developments are used by scientists to make new discoveries.
New materials for clothing, shelter, tools and communications to improve our
daily life are developed continuously for the well being of mankind.
3. The understanding is the interaction between different chemicals is important to
prevent environmental pollution. The recycling and development of
environmental friendly synthesis material should be enforced.

g) Conclusion
There are so many synthetic materials being produced and used in our daily lives.
Synthetic materials have improved our standard of living but at the same time, they may
cause adverse effects on human beings and the environment.
Synthetics Polymers
a) Introduction
Polymers are something that rock the world of mankind,. Plastic are polymers too.

b) The meaning of Polymers

Polymers are large molecules made up of many repeating sub-units called monomers
which are joined together by covalent bonds. Monomers are joined into chains by a
process of repeated linking known polymerization

A polymer may consist of thousands of monomers. Some polymers occur naturally.

Starch, cellulose, wool, protein, silk and natural rubber are some examples of naturally
occurring polymers

c) Lists of natural polymers

1. starch
2. cellulose
3. wool
4. protein
5. silk
6. natural rubber

d) Types of synthetic polymers and their uses

Polythene Plastic bags , shopping bags , plastic

containers and insulation for electrical
wiring

Polypropylene Piping , bottle crates , carpets , car batteries

and ropes

Polyvinyl chloride , PVC Artificial leather , water pipes and records

Perspex Safety glass , reflectors , traffic signs and

lens

Terylene Clothing , sails and ropes

Nylon Ropes , clothing and carpets

e) The monomers in the synthetic polymers

Polythene Ethane
Polypropylene Propane
Polyvinyl chloride , PVC Chloromethane
Perspex Methylmethacylate
Terylene Hexane-1, 6-diol
Benzene -1 , 4-dicarboxylic acid
Nylon Hexane-1 , 6 –diamine
Hexane-1 , 6 –dioic acid

f) Uses of synthetic polymers in daily life

1. Synthetic polymers have been used widely to replace natural materials such as
metals wood cotton animal skin and natural rubbers. It is
a) Strong and light
b) Cheap
c) Corrosion resistant
d) Inert to chemical attacks

2. Therefore, it is widely used to produce plastic bags , shopping bags , plastic

containers and insulation for electrical wiring

g) Different types of household polymers

1. Polyethylene(PE)
Used for plastic bags at home
2. Polypropylene(PP)
Used for plastic bottles and tables
3. Polyvinylchloride(PVC)
Used for water pipes and rain cloths
4. Polystyrene(PS)
Used for packaging materials

h) Conclusion
Although synthetic polymers pose environmental problems, we can still using them but
in a wiser manner. We should reduce, reuse and recycle synthetics polymers as much as
possible.