Earths

5
5.0 10 B T

=
>
w

= =

1 = 1.6 10
19

=

= 6.63 10
34
= 4.14 10
15

= 6.63 10
34
= 4.14 10
15

Review of Light and Waves
All waves involve energy being transferred from one
location to another, without any net transfer of matter
The period, T, is the time taken for one cycle to be
completed. The frequency, F, is the number of cycles of
completed in one second:

The wave equation:


The wave model vs. the particle model
1. Wave model: This model was proposed by Christian
Huygens and suggests that light behaves like a wave
2. Particle model: This model was proposed by Sir Isaac
Newton and suggests that light consists of a stream of
particles being emitted at high speeds by a source
Thomas Young performed experiments with double slits
showing that an interference pattern can be formed and that
light undergoes interference. The particle model could not
explain interference, but the wave model could.
Jean Foucault showed that light travels slower in water.
Newton had predicted that light should travel faster in water.
The Wave model of light
Interference in water waves
Water waves undergo interference in the same way as light.
Light shows properties of interference and diffraction.
In-phase means that when one source is producing a crest so
is the other source, and likewise for a trough.
Constructive interference a place where two waves are
arriving in-phase (also called antinodal line)
Destructive interference a place where two waves are
arriving exactly out-of-phase. Occurs when a trough meets a
crest from another wave (also called nodal lines) This
produces a nodal point and no light is seen.

Path Difference: the difference in length from a point in an
interference pattern to each of the sources. It is used to
determine a node or an anti-node.








The central maximum is n=0







Thomas Youngs double slit experiment
Thomas Young demonstrated the wave nature of light with his
double-slit experiment to obtain an interference pattern. He
used sunlight through a narrow slit as the light source and then
through the double slits. Lights through the double slits are
coherent because they are split from the same wave trains from
the single slit; therefore there is an interference pattern. The
observed fringe patterns support a wave model for light.

The interference pattern for light
The sequence of constructive and destructive interference effects
produces an interference pattern of regularly spaced vertical
bands or fringes on the screen.

Diffraction: Is the bending of a wave when passing through a
barrier. It also shows the wave nature of light
- Diffraction is only significant when
- Little or no diffraction would occur if
- Too much diffraction may cause a blur image
Single Slit diffraction:
Extent of diffraction, depends
- If >1 appreciable diffraction
- If s1 not observable diffraction
Light exhibits diffraction property. From the interference pattern,
when light passes through the double slits, it must diffract and
therefore interfere with each other.
If light cannot diffract, there will be no interference and we expect
two bright bands on the screen only
Particles do not diffract. When passing through the double slits,
the two particles cannot interfere with each other. Thus, for
particles, there will be no interference. But we would expect two
bright bands formed on the screen only.
Summary The interference pattern for light can be explained
by:
- When a light beam of a particular wavelength passes through the
double slit it diffracts
- Diffraction causes the interference of light resulting in an
interference pattern
- Nodes(dark bands) and anti-nodes(bright bands) are produced
- If light cannot diffract upon passing through the slit, interference
will not occur.
Hence diffraction and interference support the wave property
of light

The photoelectric effect
Is the emission of electrons from a clean metal surface when
illuminated by light.
Work function: is defined as the minimum amount of energy
required to emit electrons from a metal or an atom. The frequency at
which the photoelectric effect starts to occur is referred to as the
threshold frequency. For frequencies greater than the threshold
frequency, can free some electrons



Incident energy: When light falls onto a clean metal surface, the
light itself carries energy. This refers to the incident energy.


Kinetic energy:
When incident light falls onto the surface of the metal, the energy
from the photons of the incident light is transferred to the electrons
from the surface of the metal, causing them to emit from the metal
surface. If the energy from the incident light is greater than the work
function, some energy is used to overcome the work function and
the remaining would become the kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons.



E is the max kinetic energy, V is the stopping voltage and q is the
charge of an electron
Important factors:
- If the frequency of light is increased, more energy will be
transferred to the electron and thus the emitted electrons will have
greater kinetic energy i.e a larger retarding voltage is required
- If the intensity of light is increased, there will be more photons
striking the surface of the metal => emitting more electrons from
the metal surface (but the kinetic energy remains the same)























Summary
The wave model failed to explain the results from the photoelectric
effect. For waves, when there is an increase in intensity, its energy
would increase. Thus if light is a wave, an increase in its intensity
would increase the incident energy and this would lead to an
increase of the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons. This was not
the result observed for the photoelectric effect.
The photoelectric supports the particle for light. The particle
model predicts that energy is dependent on the frequency of
light. This was observed to be true from the experiment.

Photon Model
A beam of light is a stream of particles called photons.
Energy of each photon of light:




The relationship between frequency and wavelength:




Plancks Constant:



Calculating the number of photons( n = number of protons)



Photon momentum








The two models (wave and particle) of light appear to be
inconsistent with each other but both have been shown to be
valid depending on the circumstances. This dual nature of light
is known as wave-particle duality.

De Broglie wavelength or Matter Waves
Light has both wave and particle properties. If light has both
wave and particle behaviours, then matter (i.e. particles) should
also have wave properties in it. This suggested that everything
around us had a wavelength provided that it has mass and speed.





Can only use = 6.63 10
34

This formula can be used for both light and particle

The diffraction of electrons from the surface of a metal crystal
confirmed the wave nature of matter. An electron with the
same wavelength as a photon has the same momentum as the
photon, p = h/.
Electrons exhibit waves called matter waves. These matter
waves of the electrons produce the interference pattern. Within
an atom, the motion of electrons can set up circular standing
wave. To do so, the circumference of each allowed orbit must
contain a whole number of wavelengths of electron waves only.
If not, destructive interference will occur, resulting in no
formation of standing waves.
The concept of circular standing waves of electrons around the
nucleus associate with the energy level of the electrons or the
quantized state of the atom. This explains the wave nature of
electrons.
Atoms and spectra
- In an atom, there are discrete energy levels that the electrons
could occupy
- The different energy levels that exist in an atom are the
ground state (this is the state an atom is normally in), above
this are the excited states, 1
st
excitation level, 2
nd
excitation
level etc. If an atom is given enough energy then the electron
may escape completely from the atom, these level of energy
is called the ionisation level.
- An atom can only absorb (or emit) fixed amounts of energy.
This means that from the ground state an electron could jump
to certain energy levels and then return from these levels
back to the ground state
- Emission spectrum
- When a gas or metal vapour is heated, the gas or vapour
glows and emits a characteristic diffraction pattern called an
emission spectrum. Emission spectrum is produced from the
emitted light when electrons return from higher to lower
energy levels.
Each discrete coloured line in the emission spectrum
corresponds to the difference between two particular energy
levels within an atom
=
1

=
An anti-node will occur if the Path Difference =
0, 1, 2, 3, n i.e P.d = n where n is the
number of the anti-nodal point from the centre
(whole or integers). A fringe of bright light can
be seen.
A node will occur if the path difference equals
an odd number of half wavelengths = 0.5, 1.5
, 2.5, 3.5 i.e P.d = (

). No light is seen

Absorption spectra
When light passes through a gaseous sample of an element,
some of the energies in white light are being absorbed by
electrons in the element and the gas takes it out of the
spectrum, but only wavelengths that exactly match the
differences in the energy levels inside the gas atoms. This
shows up as black lines that are missing in the spectrum.
Metal Vapour lamps
Metal vapour lamps such as sodium and mercury are
commonly used in street lighting, because they are very
efficient and can produce bright light.
The lamp consists of metal vapours such as sodium and
mercury vapour. Electrical energy is used to excite these
gases. When the gas de-excites (i.e. electrons return lower
levels), light is emitted.
The light emitted consists of certain wavelengths only. These
wavelengths correspond to the difference between energy
levels in the metal atom used.
Light produced from metal vapour has small narrow
combinations of wavelengths only. Light from Incandescent
globes have a very wide range of wavelengths. These globes
are very low in efficiency since most electrical energy is
being wasted as heat.
These spectra are evidence for atomic energy levels.
Electrons move around a nucleus with discrete energies.
When an electron jumps from high to low energy level, it
loses energy in discrete amount equal to the difference
between the two levels and results in emission of a photon of
the same energy.
Electric Power
Magnetism
Like poles repel each other. Unlike poles attract each other.
Magnetic field: a region being affected by a magnetic
force.
The direction of the magnetic field is from North to South.
Induced Magnetic Field
When a current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field
is produced. This is known as an induced magnetic field.
The direction of this induced magnetic field can be obtained
using the Right hand grip rule
- Thumb is the direction of the current
- Fingers is the direction of the induced field
Increasing the size of the
Current will increase the
Strength of the magnetic field.

Induced Magnetic Force
This force results from the magnetic field created by the
current carrying wire interacting with the external magnetic
field that the wire is placed into. The flow of current
through a magnetic field generates an induced force. The
direction of this force is found using the right hand slap
rule.







sin F nBIL u = F nBIL =

-u Angle between current and field
Force on a moving charge
B
F qvB =
To find the direction of the force on the moving charges/
use the right hand slap rule.
- Fingers represent the field, B
- Thumb represent the velocity, v, of positive charge q
- Palm is the direction of the force. If negative charge, it is
opposite to the face of the palm
Magnetic Flux and induced currents
Magnetic flux () is defined as the number of field lines
passing through a given area. In simpler saying, it is the
measure of the amount of magnetic field passing
through a given area




Magnetic flux is quite different to Magnetic flux density.
Magnetic flux density (B) is another phrase used to describe the
strength of the magnetic field.
A magnetic field is represented by many lines of force, the
closeness of the lines representing the strength of the field.
Electromagnetic Induction is the generation of an electric current
in a loop of wire by changing the magnetic flux. The generated
current is called induced current I; the generated voltage is called
induced EMF.
Relative motion between wire and magnetic field
nBlv c =

Faradays Law:
-The magnitude of the induced c in the coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux passing
through the coil.
Induced EMF:
B
n
T
|
c
A
=
A

Lenzs Law
Lenzs Law is applied to determine the direction of the induced
current (being produced for a short time)
If

, the direction of the induced flux will be opposite to

the applied flux
If

, the, the direction of the induced flux will be the same

direction to the applied flux
In other words, Lenzs Law states that any induced current in a
loop will be in the direction so that the flux it creates will oppose
the CHANGE in the flux that produced it.
DC Motors
A DC motor is a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical
energy i.e. it uses current to produce rotation.
It is identical to a DC generator. However, instead of creating an
induced current from rotating the coil, it uses current to rotate the coil
(the reverse of a generator)
Principle of a motor:
- When a current flows through a coil, the flow of current creates its
own induced field surrounding the coil
- When the coil is placed in a magnetic field (also called the
external field), the induced field created by the flow of current will
interact with the external magnetic field to create a force. This
force is responsible for the rotation of the coil or the motor
- Since F = NIBL sin, the size of this force can be increased by
increasing the flow of current, the number of turns of wire in the
coil, the strength of the magnetic field and the side length of the
coil
However, when the coil is in the vertical position, the coil will still
have the same forces acting in the same direction and will oscillate
backwards and forwards until it eventually comes to rest in this
position. The current will need to change direction in order to work.
The split ring commutator is therefore used to spin the motor coil
continuously in one direction. The function of the split ring
commutator is to reverse the current direction every half a cycle
hence the direction of the force produced will also be reversed in
association with the flow of current. This allows the motor coil to
rotate continuously in one direction. Throughout one half rotation,
there will be two split rings, one touching the positive terminal and the
other touching the negative terminal. When the coil crosses that vertical
point, the rotation of the commutator means the split rings is touching the
opposite terminal as before.
AC Generator
An AC generator or an alternator produces AC current or
alternating EMF by rotating a conductive coil in a magnetic field
or by rotating a permanent magnet (or electromagnet) positioned
inside a coil. When the coil rotates, AC current is produced. This
is because the induced current flows in one direction in the first
half rotation of the coil in the reverse direction in the second half
of rotation of the coil.
Slip rings are always used with AC generators. Slip rings keep
each end of the coil attached to a particular terminal in the external
circuit. Every half-turn the current in the coil reverses, and by
keeping the same connections using slip rings, it allows an AC
current to leave the coils of an A.C alternator.
DC Generator - in order to produce DC, the slip rings are replaced
by a split ring commutator. Identical to AC generator
Transformers are used to step up (increase) or step down
(decrease) the value of supply voltage
How does a transformer work?
When an AC current is connected to the primary side of the
transformer, the changing current produces a change in a magnetic
field. This change in magnetic field propagates through the iron core to
the secondary side. The secondary coils will induce an AC current
which corresponds to an induced field or flux that opposes the change
in the applied field created by primary coils.
Transformers only work for AC not DC. When connected to the
primary side of a transformer, DC current does not induce a change in a
magnetic field or flux. Therefore, there is no opposing field or flux
required for the secondary coil, hence there is no induced secondary
current.
p p
S
S S P
N V
I
N V I
= =

in out
p p s s
P P
V I V I
=
=

Ideal Transformer (100% efficiency)

Sound
Sound is a form of mechanical energy transferred by the
vibration of the molecules within the medium. Sound
requires a medium in which to travel.
Amplitude indicates how much energy is present in the
wave. This relates to the loudness of the sound
Period the time taken for one wave to pass
Frequency the number of waves that pass in one second.
It is a physical characteristic of a sound wave
Pitch is a subject response to frequency by the human ear.
It is a psychological sensation which depends on the listener
The wave equation:


Sound Intensity and Sound Intensity Level
Sound Intensity is the actual loudness if a sound. The
intensity of sound depends on the amount of power that
passes through a given area of a sphere




Sound Intensity Level
Some range of values are too
large, therefore Sound Intensity
Level scale is used



Diffraction of sound
Diffraction is defined as the bending of a wave when passing
through a barrier or an obstacle
- Diffraction is only significant when
- Little or no diffraction would occur if
- Too much diffraction may cause a blur image
Extent of diffraction, depends
- If >1 appreciable diffraction
- If s1 not observable diffraction
Standing waves in strings




Open-end

Closed-end

Resonance occurs when two objects are vibrating together in phase. It
happens when the frequency of the one object matches with the natural
frequency of the second object. The pressure variation between the two
objects adds constructively, hence increasing the overall amplitude of the
sound.
Forced vibrations occur when the vibrations from one object are transferred
to the second object and both are vibrating at the same frequency i.e. the
sound object is vibrating at the frequency of the first object since it has been
forced to vibrate by the first object.
causing more air molecules to vibrate hence able to produce louder sound
The fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency that can be formed from
standing waves
The overtones are the harmonics above the fundamental frequency

>
w

Sound Intensity Level = decibels
=

1

=

4
2

= 10log
10

2
=

=
2

=

2