Rayleigh flow

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Rayleigh flow refers to diabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of
heat addition or rejection is considered. Compressibility effects often come into
consideration, although the Rayleigh flow model certainly also applies to incompressible
flow. For this model, the duct area remains constant and no mass is added within the
duct. Therefore, unlike Fanno flow, the stagnation temperature is a variable. The heat
addition causes a decrease in stagnation pressure, which is known as the Rayleigh effect
and is critical in the design of combustion systems. Heat addition will cause both
supersonic and subsonic Mach numbers to approach Mach 1, resulting in choked flow.
Conversely, heat rejection decreases a subsonic Mach number and increases a supersonic
Mach number along the duct. It can be shown that for calorically perfect flows the
maximum entropy occurs at M = 1. Rayleigh flow is named after John Strutt, 3rd Baron
Rayleigh.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Theory
• 2 Additional Rayleigh Flow Relations
• 3 Applications
• 4 See also
• 5 References

• 6 External links

[edit] Theory

Figure 1 A Rayleigh Line is plotted on the dimensionless H-ΔS axis.

The Rayleigh flow model begins with a differential equation that relates the change in
Mach number with the change in stagnation temperature, T0. The differential equation is
shown below.

Solving the differential equation leads to the relation shown below, where T0* is the
stagnation temperature at the throat location of the duct which is required for thermally
choking the flow.
These values are significant in the design of combustion systems. For example, if a
turbojet combustion chamber has a maximum temperature of T0* = 2000 K, T0 and M at
the entrance to the combustion chamber must be selected so thermal choking does not
occur, which will limit the mass flow rate of air into the engine and decrease thrust.

For the Rayleigh flow model, the dimensionless change in entropy relation is shown
below.

The above equation can be used to plot the Rayleigh line on a Mach number versus ΔS
graph, but the dimensionless enthalpy, H, versus ΔS diagram is more often used. The
dimensionless enthalpy equation is shown below with an equation relating the static
temperature with its value at the choke location for a calorically perfect gas where the
heat capacity at constant pressure, cp, remains constant.

The above equation can be manipulated to solve for M as a function of H. However, due
to the form of the T/T* equation, a complicated multi-root relation is formed for M =
M(T/T*). Instead, M can be chosen as an independent variable where ΔS and H can be
matched up in a chart as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows that heating will increase an
upstream, subsonic Mach number until M = 1 and the flow chokes. Conversely, adding
heat to a duct with an upstream, supersonic Mach number will cause the Mach number to
decrease until the flow chokes. Cooling produces the opposite result for each of those two
cases. The Rayleigh flow model reaches maximum entropy at M = 1. For subsonic flow,
the maximum value of H occurs at M = .845. This indicates that cooling, instead of
heating, causes the Mach number to move from .845 to 1. This is not necessarily correct
as the stagnation temperature always increases to move the flow from a subsonic Mach
number to M = 1, but from M = .845 to M = 1 the flow accelerates faster than heat is
added to it. Therefore, this is a situation where heat is added but T/T* decreases in that
region.

[edit] Additional Rayleigh Flow Relations

Figure 2 Various Rayleigh flow properties graphed as a function of Mach number.

The area and mass flow rate are held constant for Rayleigh flow. Unlike Fanno flow, the
Fanning friction factor, f, remains constant. These relations are shown below with the *
symbol representing the throat location where choking can occur.

Differential equations can also be developed and solved to describe Rayleigh flow
property ratios with respect to the values at the choking location. The ratios for the
pressure, density, static temperature, velocity and stagnation pressure are shown below,
respectively. They are represented graphically along with the stagnation temperature ratio
equation from the previous section. A stagnation property contains a '0' subscript.
[edit] Applications

Figure 3 Fanno and Rayleigh Line Intersection Chart.

The Rayleigh flow model has many analytical uses, most notably involving aircraft
engines. For instance, the combustion chambers inside turbojet engines usually have a
constant area and the fuel mass addition is negligible. These properties make the
Rayleigh flow model applicable for heat addition to the flow through combustion,
assuming the heat addition does not result in dissociation of the air-fuel mixture.
Producing a shock wave inside the combustion chamber of an engine due to thermal
choking is very undesirable due to the decrease in mass flow rate and thrust. Therefore,
the Rayleigh flow model is critical for an initial design of the duct geometry and
combustion temperature for an engine.

The Rayleigh flow model is also used extensively with the Fanno flow model. These two
models intersect at points on the enthalpy-entropy and Mach number-entropy diagrams,
which is meaningful for many applications. However, the entropy values for each model
are not equal at the sonic state. The change in entropy is 0 at M = 1 for each model, but
the previous statement means the change in entropy from the same arbitrary point to the
sonic point is different for the Fanno and Rayleigh flow models. If initial values of si and
Mi are defined, a new equation for dimensionless entropy versus Mach number can be
defined for each model. These equations are shown below for Fanno and Rayleigh flow,
respectively.

Figure 5 shows the Rayleigh and Fanno lines intersecting with each other for initial
conditions of si = 0 and Mi = 3. The intersection points are calculated by equating the new
dimensionless entropy equations with each other, resulting in the relation below.

Interestingly, the intersection points occur at the given initial Mach number and its post-
normal shock value. For Figure 5, these values are M = 3 and .4752, which can be found
the normal shock tables listed in most compressible flow textbooks. A given flow with a
constant duct area can switch between the Rayleigh and Fanno models at these points.

Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!

Fanno flow
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

Fanno flow refers to adiabatic flow through a constant area duct where the effect of
friction is considered. Compressibility effects often come into consideration, although the
Fanno flow model certainly also applies to incompressible flow. For this model, the duct
area remains constant and no mass is added within the duct. The Fanno flow model is
considered an irreversible process due to viscous effects. For a flow with an upstream
Mach number greater than 1 in a sufficiently long enough duct, deceleration occurs and
the flow can become choked. It can be shown that for calorically perfect flows the
maximum entropy occurs at M = 1. Fanno flow is named after Gino Girolamo Fanno.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Theory
• 2 Additional Fanno flow relations
• 3 Applications
• 4 See also
• 5 References

• 6 External links

[edit] Theory
The Fanno flow model begins with a differential equation that relates the change in Mach
number with respect to the length of the duct, dM/dx. Other terms in the differential
equation are the heat capacity ratio, γ, the Fanning friction factor, f, and the hydraulic
diameter, Dh:

Assuming the Fanning friction factor is a constant along the duct wall, the differential
equation can be solved easily. One must keep in mind, however, that the value of the
Fanning friction factor can be difficult to determine for supersonic and especially
hypersonic flow velocities. The resulting relation is shown below where L* is the
required duct length to choke the flow assuming the upstream Mach number is
supersonic. The left-hand side is often called the Fanno parameter.

Equally important to the Fanno flow model is the dimensionless ratio of the change in
entropy over the heat capacity at constant pressure, cp.
The above equation can be rewritten in terms of a static to stagnation temperature ratio,
which, for a calorically perfect gas, is equal to the dimensionless enthalpy ratio, H:

Figure 1 A Fanno Line is plotted on the dimensionless H-ΔS axis.

The equation above can be used to plot the Fanno line, which represents a locus of states
for given Fanno flow conditions on an H-ΔS diagram. In the diagram, the Fanno line
reaches maximum entropy at H = 0.833 and the flow is choked. According to the Second
law of thermodynamics, entropy must always increase for Fanno flow. This means that a
subsonic flow entering a duct with friction will have an increase in its Mach number until
the flow is choked. Conversely, the Mach number of a supersonic flow will decrease until
the flow is choked. Each point on the Fanno line corresponds with a different Mach
number, and the movement to choked flow is shown in the diagram.
[edit] Additional Fanno flow relations

Figure 2 Various Fanno flow properties graphed as a function of Mach Number.

As was stated earlier, the area and mass flow rate in the duct are held constant for Fanno
flow. Additionally, the stagnation temperature remains constant. These relations are
shown below with the * symbol representing the throat location where choking can occur.
A stagnation property contains a '0' subscript.

Differential equations can also be developed and solved to describe Fanno flow property
ratios with respect to the values at the choking location. The ratios for the pressure,
density, temperature, velocity and stagnation pressure are shown below, respectively.
They are represented graphically along with the Fanno parameter.
[edit] Applications

Figure 3 A supersonic nozzle leading into a constant area duct is depicted. The initial
conditions exist at point 1. Point 2 exists at the nozzle throat, where M = 1. Point 3 labels
the transition from isentropic to Fanno flow. Points 4 and 5 give the pre- and post-shock
wave conditions, and point E is the exit from the duct.
Figure 4 The H-S diagram is depicted for the conditions of Figure 3. Entropy is constant
for isentropic flow, so the conditions at point 1 move down vertically to point 3. Next, the
flow follows the Fanno line until a shock changes the flow from supersonic to subsonic.
The flow then follows the Fanno line again, almost reaching a choked condition before
exiting the duct.

Figure 5 Fanno and Rayleigh Line Intersection Chart.

The Fanno flow model is often used in the design and analysis of nozzles. In a nozzle, the
converging or diverging area is modeled with isentropic flow, while the constant area
section afterwards is modeled with Fanno flow. For given upstream conditions at point 1
as shown in Figures 3 and 4, calculations can be made to determine the nozzle exit Mach
number and the location of a normal shock in the constant area duct. Point 2 labels the
nozzle throat, where M = 1 if the flow is choked. Point 3 labels the end of the nozzle
where the flow transitions from isentropic to Fanno. With a high enough initial pressure,
supersonic flow can be maintained through the constant area duct, similar to the desired
performance of a blowdown-type supersonic wind tunnel. However, these figures show
the shock wave before it has moved entirely through the duct. If a shock wave is present,
the flow transitions from the supersonic portion of the Fanno line to the subsonic portion
before continuing towards M = 1. The movement in Figure 4 is always from the left to the
right in order to satisfy the second law of thermodynamics.

The Fanno flow model is also used extensively with the Rayleigh flow model. These two
models intersect at points on the enthalpy-entropy and Mach number-entropy diagrams,
which is meaningful for many applications. However, the entropy values for each model
are not equal at the sonic state. The change in entropy is 0 at M = 1 for each model, but
the previous statement means the change in entropy from the same arbitrary point to the
sonic point is different for the Fanno and Rayleigh flow models. If initial values of si and
Mi are defined, a new equation for dimensionless entropy versus Mach number can be
defined for each model. These equations are shown below for Fanno and Rayleigh flow,
respectively.

Figure 5 shows the Fanno and Rayleigh lines intersecting with each other for initial
conditions of si = 0 and Mi = 3. The intersection points are calculated by equating the new
dimensionless entropy equations with each other, resulting in the relation below.

Interestingly, the intersection points occur at the given initial Mach number and its post-
normal shock value. For Figure 5, these values are M = 3 and 0.4752, which can be found
the normal shock tables listed in most compressible flow textbooks. A given flow with a
constant duct area can switch between the Fanno and Rayleigh models at these points.
[edit] See also
• Rayleigh flow
• Isentropic process
• Gas dynamics
• Compressible flow
• Choked flow
• Enthalpy
• Entropy

[edit] References
• Zucker, Robert D.; Biblarz O. [2002]. Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics. John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471059676.
• Shapiro, Ascher H. [1953]. The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible
Fluid Flow, Volume 1. Ronald Press. ISBN 978-0-471-06691-0.
• Hodge, B. K.; Koenig K. [1995]. Compressible Fluid Dyanmics with Personal
Computer Applications. Prentice Hall. ISBN 013308552X.

[edit] External links

• Purdue University Adiabatic and Isothermal Fanno flow calculators
• University of Kentucky Fanno flow Webcalculator

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanno_flow"

Categories: Fluid dynamics | Aerodynamics

Views

• Article
• Discussion
• Edit this page
• History

Personal tools

• Log in / create account

Navigation

• Main page
• Contents
 • Featured content
• Current events
• Random article

Search

Interaction

• About Wikipedia
• Community portal
• Recent changes
• Contact Wikipedia
• Donate to Wikipedia
• Help

Toolbox

• What links here

• Related changes
• Upload file
• Special pages
• Printable version
• Permanent link
• Cite this page

• This page was last modified on 19 July 2008, at 14:11.

• All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.
(See Copyrights for details.)
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a U.S.
registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
• Privacy policy
• About Wikipedia
• Disclaimers