INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MODERN MANAGEMENT (IIMM)

Registration No. :- IIMM/DH/1/2007/5516

Name :- Shekhar Sharma

ASSIGNMENT :-ORGANISATIONAL -BEHAVIOUR

Answer 2. (a) Fundamental Concepts of Organizational Behavior:

Every discipline of study has certain set of fundamental concepts. These

concepts are a priori. The do not lend themselves to the question ‘why so’. They are something,
which have to be accepted and not questioned. They are the foundation stones on which the
entire edifice of the discipline is developed. In the discipline of Accountancy the fundamental
concept is “for every debit entry there will be a credit entry”. In the natural sciences the
fundamental concept is the concept of uniformity of nature. The concept states that if a certain
phenomenon takes place under certain situations in Pune it should take place under the same
situations anywhere in the world.

The discipline of Organizational Behavior has fundamental concepts revolving

round the nature of people and the nature of the organization.

The concepts dealing with the nature of individual are four. They are:

i) Individual differences;

ii) Whole person;

iii) Motivation i.e. caused behavior.

iv) Human dignity.

Individual Differences:

Inspite of all the humans being similar every one is different. Every one has a
different gift of the nature; different quality of intelligence, different perception and the
different ways or behaviour. The concept tells that every person is an entity in him. When it
comes to human behavior there can not be a prescriptive solution. Every individual is to be
treated differently even though two persons may have the same behavioral problems. The
concept also tells the manager that he had better be aware of his own stereotypes. A stereotype
is a tendency to attribute the traits of a group to an individual because he belongs to the said
group. The Jew genocide can be attributed to this stereotyping. Unfortunately one is not aware
as to how these stereotypes influence his behaviour. This concept, therefore, not only tells that a
manager should treat every person as an entity in himself but he should also examine his own
stereotypes.

Whole Person:

In the olden days employees were referred to as ‘hands’, implying that the
organization hires only the hands of man. Nothing can be farther from the truth. An
organization hires not only the hands of an employee but hires complete men with all his pluses
and minuses. At the same since a person performs may roles at the same time the happenings in
one role are bound to affect the behaviour in others roles of the person. The concept tells the
manager than when it comes to behavioral problems, he must also take into account the other
roles of the person. If the whole person is to be developed then only the benefits will extend
beyond the organization to the entire society. In which the employee lives.

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Caused Behaviour (Motivation):

The concept reminds the manager of the law enunciated by Newton that every
action has an equal and opposite reaction. This means the manager, by his own behaviour, can
cause and employee behave in a particular way. If he is respectful to his employees they are
bound to be respectful to him not otherwise.

Human Dignity:

This concept is of a different order from the other three because it is more an
ethical philosophy than a scientific conclusion. It confirms that people are to be treated
differently from other factors of production. Because they are of a higher order, they want to be
treated with respect and dignity. When every one, the employee, the manager as the CEO of an
organization are engaged in the same pursuit. The pursuit of enabling their organization to
achieve the objections for it has come in existence. Thus they are on the equal footing. The
concept tells that very person should be respected simply because he happens to be an
employee just as the manager is.

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Answer. 2 (b) Freud reasoned that human behaviour is like an iceberg; only a small part of which is
visible. However, the part of iceberg, which is not seen, controls the seen part. So is the case of
human behaviour. To Freud human is constantly in conflict with the self, the three constructs of
human personality are always conflicting. The final outcome, which is the observable
behaviour, is the product of this conflict. According to Freud this is the reason why many a
times a human can not verbalize his motivations.

Modern psychologists are prepared to recognize the existence of unconscious

behaviour, but not in the sense implicit to Freud. They believe human behaviour is sparked by a
motive. A motive is a felt need. Human behaviour is directed to satisfy these needs or motives.
They have five characteristics. They are

(a) the need having the highest strength dominates the human behaviour;

(b) a need once satisfied ceases to influence behaviour;

(c) when a need is satisfied, it gives rise to a new need;

(d) needs are recurrent in nature;

(e) needs are ubiquitous.

Psychologists do not totally agree on how to classify various human motives. However,
some psychologists tend to classify motives according as to whether they are unlearned or
learned and whether they are psychologically or physiologically based. The following is the
classification.

The Power Motive – n pow

The leading advocate of this motive was pioneering psychologist Alfred Adler. Power
motive essentially is the desire to control others; to direct others’ behaviour. The power attaches
to one’s personal competence. In an organization because of his competence a person comes to
acquire power. His say influences the decisions of his superiors. In other words he comes to
acquire extra constitutional powers. Person who has acquired such power must use it for the
good of the organization. It is necessary that he recognizes that the power he has is because of
the organization. In other words he be high on social inhibition also.

The Acievement Motive – n ach

David C. McClelland is most closely associated with the study of achievement motive.
Out of his extensive research has emerged a clear profile of characteristics of the high achiever.
Achievement motivation can be expressed as a desire to performing in terms of a standard of
excellence or to be successful in competitive situations. The specific characteristics of a high
achiever are a) moderate risk taking b) need for immediate feedback c) satisfaction with
accomplishment and d) preoccupation with the task

Affiliatin Motive – n aff

This motive is indicative of the need belong to and be accepted by the others. The
consideration of this motive is important in the discussions of group dynamics. The higher the
need for affiliation among the members of the group; the higher is the group cohesiveness.

In our discussion of the characteristics of motives we had said that motives are
ubiquitous. If that is so the questions arises as to how a human satisfies his motive. The concept
of coping behaviour says the human changes his behaviour until he gets what he wants. The
behaviour continues on the way leading to need satisfaction.

However, human life is not bed of roses. Many a tines situations arise in such a way
that human being does not understand as to what he should do’ or many times his self image is
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likely to be criticized by the world; or the need fulfillment gets continually blocked. When this
occurs a phenomenon known as ‘intra personal conflict arises. Intra personal conflicts are
three. They are a) Role conflict; b) goal conflict and c) frustration.

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Answer. 3.(a) Defense Mechanisms :

1. Rationalization is giving pseudo justification to explain one’s failures. The common

examples are sour grapes or a bad workman quarreling with his tools.

2. Regression is sliding back in terms of one’s chronological age, certain patterns of

behaviors are learnt during the childhood that are subsequently, in the adult age,
replaced by the behaviors acceptable by the society. At an unguarded moment, in the
adult hood, in the flush of emotions, however, these childhood behaviors take charge of
the personality of the person. A superior getting angry with his subordinate and
throwing files at him or a person throwing a pen because of the ink not flowing, are the
examples of this defense mechanism.

3. Aggression is also known as emotional transference. This is giving vent to the pent up
feelings by an offensive behaviour towards a third object or a person unconnected with
the source of frustration. The offensive behaviour is, almost always, against the third
object or the person that can not retaliate. A superior scolding his subordinate because
of something happening at home is the example of this defense mechanism.

4. Fantasy is building castles in the air with a view to escaping form the problem
situation. Fantasy is temporarily removing one self, mentally, from the problem
situation and losing oneself in the imaginary world where things happen at his behest.
As long as a person is in his imaginary castle he is happy but some time or the other he
has to come down to the mother earth. When he comes out of the imaginary world the
problem starts pinching him again. The increased frequency of fantasizing is a signal
that one had better seek some help from a psychiatrist.

5. Resignation, flight or withdrawal is a complete surrender to the problem situation. This

is accepting a situation and ceasing any effort to deal with the problem.

The table on the page gives behavioral descriptions of various defense mechanisms.

Defense Mechanism Psychological Process Illustration

Rationalization Justifying inconsistent or Padding the expense account

undesirable behaviour, beliefs “because everybody does it.”
etc. by providing acceptable
explanation for them.

Regression Individual returns to an earlier a A manager shouting at his

less mature level of adjustment subordinate.
in the face of frustration.

Aggression i.e. emotional Re-directing pent-up emotions Roughly rejecting a request

transference. towards persons or the objects from a subordinate after
unconnected with the source of receiving a rebuff from the
frustration. boss.

Fantasy Daydreaming or other forms of Employee daydreams of the day

imaginative activity provide an in the staff meeting when he
escape from the reality and corrects the boss and is publicly
imagined satisfaction. acknowledged as the real brain
of the company.

Negativism Active or passive resistance A manager saying that the

operating unconsciously. recommendations of a
committee are not
implementable because he could

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 not become a member of the
committee.

Resignation, flight or Leaving the field where anxiety A student who could not pass an
withdrawal. or conflict is experienced. examination quitting the course.

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Answer.3(b) The content theories are concerned with identifying the needs that people have and how
needs are prioritized. They are concerned with types of incentives that drive people to attain
need fulfillment. The Maslow hierarchy theory, Fredrick Hertzberg’s two factor theory and
Alderfer’s ERG needs theory fall in this category. Although such a content approach has logic,
is easy to understand, and can be readily translated in practice, the research evidence points
outs out limitations. There is very little research support for these models’ theoretical basis and
predictability. The trade off for simplicity sacrifices true understanding of the complexity of
work motivation. On the positive side, however, the content models have given emphasis to
important content factors that were largely ignored by human relationists. In addition the
Alderfer model allows more flexibility and the Herzberg model is useful as an explanation for
job satisfaction and as a point of departure for job design.

The process theories provide a much sounder theoretical explanation of work

motivations. The expectancy model of Vroom and the extensions and the refinements provided
by Porter and Lawler help explain the important cognitive variables and how they relate to one
another in the process of work motivation. The Porter Lawler model also gives specific
attention to the important relationship between performance and satisfaction. A growing
research literature is somewhat supportive of these expectancy models, but conceptual and
methodological problems remain. Unlike the content models these expectancy models are
relatively complex and difficult to translate into actual practice, and, consequently, they have
generally failed to meet the goals of prediction and control of organization behaviour.

The process theories are concerned with identifying the variables that go into
motivation and more importantly how they are related to one another.

Abraham Maslow theory of need hierarchy:

It was Abraham Maslow who thought that human needs that spark off an activity can be
arranged in a hierarchy of pre-potency and probability of occurrence. Maslow based his theory
that a need that is not satisfied dominates the behaviour sparking off an activity for its
satisfaction. This need, when satisfied, in its turn activates the higher need. This sequence can
be denoted as under.

Deprivation – Domination – Gratification – Activation.

As a theory of motivation Maslow reasoned that needs can be structured in a hierarchy.

Self Actualization i.e Self

Realization needs

Self Esteem i.e.

Self worth needs

Social i.e. belongingness

needs

Security Needs

Physiological Needs

Physiological Needs:

The fulfillment of physiological needs, such as thirst, hunger, sex, sleep, etc. takes
precedence over all other needs; nay, on the satisfaction of these needs, is dependent the very
survival and continuance of the human race. Unlike other needs, the physiological needs have a
tendency of recurrence. An individual may postpone the fulchers alike. Since a motivated
employee is highly productive and highly quality oriented, the managers are also interested the
cis one of the dimensions of money motive. Physiological needs are finite but are recurrent.

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Safety Needs:

Once physiological needs are met, ‘safety’ needs become important. While
physiological needs have a reference to the present, the safety needs look to the future. The
needs for food, clothing, etc. are satisfied today. But what about tomorrow? A man, so long as
he is young and working and earning, is able to satisfy the physiological needs as and when
they occur. But will he able to satisfy needs and fend for himself when he gets old? He must
have reasonable ‘safety’ in his old age too. Implicit in the fulfillment of these safety needs is
the origin of many labour enactments in India today. The pension plans, the payment of gratuity
Act, the provident funds Act etc. and other retrial benefits, go, basically, to ensure security for
the man in his old age.

Too much security makes a man reckless and careless or lazy disobedient and under-
productive. At the same time insecurity also makes a man under-productive. How much enough
is enough security is an ever-present dilemma before the management providing security of
jobs to their employees.

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Answer.4 (a) Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation:

Herzberg extended work of Maslow and developed a specific content theory of work
motivation. In 1950’s he conducted a study nothing responses of Accountants and Engineers
employed by the firms in and around Pittsburgh. In collecting data he used the critical
incidental method. In this method, the respondent was asked to narrate one incident from his
work life about which he was particularly unhappy and another incident from work-life about
which he was particularly happy.

On analyzing the data thus collected Herzberg came to conclusion that there are two
sets of factors at the work life; one set he called “hygiene factors” while the other was called
the “motivators”. The following are the hygiene factors and motivators.

Hygiene Factors i.e. dis-satisfaction Motivators i.e satisfaction

1. Company policies and administration; 1. Achievement;

2. Technical Supervision; 2. Recognition;

3. Inter Personal relations with superiors; 3. Advancement;

4. Inter Personal relations with Peers; 4. Work itself;

5. Inter Personal relations with Subordinates; 5. Possibility of Growth;

6. Salary; 6. Responsibility

7. Job Security;

8. Personal Life;

9. Working Conditions;

10. Status.

Hygiene factors are those factors that by their absence inhibit performance but any
addition in them does not increase efficiency or productivity. These are the job context factors
that occur at the time of doing the job. Thus they are extrinsic to the job. These factors are also
called as dis-stisfiers.

Motivators are those factors, which by their absence do not inhibit performance, but
any addition in them increases efficiency. These are the job content factors that make the job
itself a tool of motivation. These factors are also called as ‘satisfies’.

The Horizontal job loading is known as “job enlargement” while vertical job loading is
known as “job enrichment”.

Job Enlargement:

The following are the principles of job enlargement:

1. Challenging the employees by increasing the amount of production expected of him;

2. Adding other tasks to the job;

3. Removing the more difficult parts of the assignment in order to free the worker;

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 4. Rotating the assignments.

When talking about the theory of job enlargement in his article “one more time, how do
you motivate your employee”, [Harvard Business Review; Jan-Feb’68] Herzberg talks in
arithmetical terms and ultimately comes to conclusion that the theory of “job enlargement”
does not gives dividends not for a long period of time. He, therefore, advocates job
enrichment.

Job Enrichment

Principles of Job enrichment according to Herzber, are as under:

Principle Motivators involved

1. Removing some control while retaining Responsibility and Personal Achievement;

accountability;

2. Increasing Accountability for individual’s own Responsibility and recognition;

work;

3. Giving a person a complete natural unit of Responsibility and recognition;

work [Module, area etc.];

4. Granting additional authority to an employee Responsibility and recognition;

in his activity

5. Making periodic reports directly available to Internal recognition;

the worker himself;

6. Introducing new and more difficult tasks not Growth and learning;
handled previously;

7. Assigning individuals specific or specialized Responsibility, Growth and advancement.

tasks, enabling them to become experts.

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Answer. 4. (b) According to Morris Viteles “Morale refers to the condition of a group where there are
clear and fixed group goals that are felt to be important and integrated with individual goals:
where there is confidence in the attainment of these goals and the confidence in the means of
attainment in the leader, associates and finally in one self.”

Morale indicates the happiness of the employees with the organizational environment.
It also refers to the preparedness of the groups of the employees to subordinate the individual
and the group goals to the goals of the organization.

Morale essentially is akin to job satisfaction. It represents the integration of an

individual with the team and the organization itself. Generally it can be said that morale has a
positive relationship with productivity. The higher the morale the higher is the productivity.
However, this need not always be so, as can be seen from the following graph:

High Line A Line B

Line A- High Job Satisfaction only

Line B- High Job Satisfaction Productivity
Line C- High Productivity only

Line C

Low Productivity High

In the above graph

Curve-A represents high morale; Low productivity;

Curve-B represents high morale and high productivity; but low morale. And

Curve-C represents high productivity.

High productivity involves a combination of ability, training, work habits, performance

goals etc. Curve ‘A’ above where morale is high but productivity is low indicates the
management’s failure in the proper discharge of management functions: - chiefly the planning
function.

Productivity can be high in spite of morale being low because of the rigid systems and
controls imposed by the management.

The situations where productivity is higher inspite of morale being low or productivity
being lower inspite of morale being high do not last long. In the first situation productivity is
high because of the strict management controls and close supervision. It also happens in an
atmosphere where the people are treated as machines. In this situation the management is
apparently creating discontent in the organization which may blow up in its face. When this
happens the productivity also dips.

In the second situation when morale is high but productivity is low, slowly people
distance themselves from the Organization because of the disillusionment about the
management abilities. In this situation after sometimes the morale comes down. Thus in both
these situations ultimately morale as well as productivity are at their nadir.

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 Every manager is always interested in curve ‘B’ indicating high morale as well as
productivity. But morale is not a static phenomenon. Today the morale high but something may
go wrong and the morale might start coming down. In words a manager must have his fingers
on the morale in the Organization. No doubt a manager can know the level of morale in his
organization by morale surveys. These morale surveys involve drafting of questionnaires,
interview people, tabulate and analyze the data. This may be time taking process. Instead he
may pay due attention to some of the morale indicators that give an idea about the status of
morale at a particular time.

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Answer. 5.(a) The Parent Ego State

Sometimes parents treat their children in a loving way, speak kindly to them, offer
shelter and protection or take care of them in other ways. All this is coming from the nurturing
parent Ego State. It helps children grow. At other times parents criticize, make rules, give
commands or punish their children. Since the main objective of these behaviors is to control the
child, they are known to be coming from controlling parent ego state.

Because children repeatedly see parents be having in these two major ways and they
unconsciously copy these behaviors, their parent ego state also develops these two major
aspects. We call these two aspects the Nurturing Parent (NP) and the Controlling Parent (CP).

The Ego State:

In this ego state the person acts like a mature adult. In the adult ego state people attack
problems in a “cool-headed,” rational manner. They gather relevant information, carefully
analyze it, generate alternatives, and make logical choices. In the adult state people do not act
impulsively or in a domineering way. In dealings with other people, fairness and objectivity
characterize the adult Ego State. Thus adult Ego State is that part of the human personality that
makes him take decisions on the basis of facts, data and analysis of these facts and data. As a
result we want all executives to be high on adult Ego State. Because it is only when they are
high on adult Ego State that their decisions will be more objective and considered.

The Child Ego State:

Just as the parent Ego State has different aspects, so does the child, Ego State. They are
Natural Child; Little professor also known as creative child and Adaptive child.

The Natural Child is spontaneous, energetic, curious, loving uninhabited. It’s that part
of us that feels free and loves pleasures.

When we are in our Natural Child, we transact freely and openly with others. The
Natural Child is the Ego State we came into the world with as a newborn baby. It’s what comes
naturally. A person high on natural child is extrovert. He likes to make friends. He makes a
success when put in charge of the work involving contracts or the dealings with the public. The
Natural Child is not entirely without fault, however, It can be self centered, impatient and
greedy.

Behaviors associated with these feelings are also typical of the Adaptive Child. As a
child we probably learned to adapt in different ways. For example, sometimes we may have
done what we were told; at other times we may have sulked or avoided the situation (by
withdrawing or procrastinating). As a grown up, we may still occasionally react the same way
to a project deadline. From their Adapted Child, people often react to external demand by;
complying; sulking, or creating unnecessary stress for them.

It is the Adaptive Child that may;

Try to please everyone in department;

Turn back on people with problems; or

Procrastinate by putting off work until the deadline passes.

These actions can stand in the way of choosing success.

Transactions between ego states:

One thing must be borne in mind that there can never be a standard personality mix.
Individuals always oscillate between these ego states depending on the situation. They
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confront. We always change ourselves to suit the situational requirements. Introspection; and
putting the Adult in charge of the personality and deciding the behavioral requirements of the
situation can do this. This is what is known as putting the Adult as the Executive of the
personality.

Although we know that people generally exhibit all three Ego States, but one state may
dominate the other two. The strong implication is, of course, is that the adult state is far
superior to the child or parent state, at least for effective interpersonal relations. However, the T
A authors generally stress that all three ego states are necessary for to a healthy personality.

More important than the Ego State per se is how one Ego State matches or conflicts
with another Ego State in interpersonal interaction the transaction. The transactions between
ego states are at the heart of TA and can be classified into the following.

 Complementary Trasactions:

 Crossed Transactions:

 Ulterior Transactions:

 Strokes and ganes in TA:

 The Games People Play:

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Answer.5.(b) Personality factors are extremely important in organizational settings. Often the
‘wrong’ kind of personality proves disastrous and causes undesirable tensions and worries in
organizations. The costs of such tensions and worries are enormous when we interpret them
from the point of view of employee-employer relations, peer relations and superior-subordinate
relations. Sometimes, the personality difficulties are the root cause of organizational conflicts
and often lead to turnover and job dissatisfaction. A consideration of personality differences of
focal persons is important for at least three reasons;

Some people arouse hostility and aggression in their associates, while others invoke
sympathy and supportive responses because of their personality features. Likewise, some
people encourage and others discourage free and open communication in view of their
personality traits as perceived by their subordinates and associates;

Personality characteristics tend to produce differential emotional reactions to stress.

Some people tolerate severely stressful situations, while tensions and anxieties and similar
circumstances swamp others.

Determinants of Personality:

The major determinants of personality of an individual can be studied four broad headings

(a) Biological,

(b) Cultural

(c) Familial

(d) Situation.

Biological Factors:

Biological factors may be studied under three heads-

(a) the heredity

(b) the brain,

(c) Physical features.

Heredity:

The relative effects of heredity comprise and extremely old argument in personality
theory. Certain characteristics, primarily physical in nature, are inherited from one’s parents,
transmitted by genes in the chromosomes contributed by each parent.

Research on animals has showed that physical and psychological characteristics can be
transmitted through heredity. But research on human beings is inadequate to support this
viewpoint. However, psychologists and geneticists have accepted the fact that heredity plays an
important role in one’s personality. The importance of heredity varies from one personality trait
to another.

Brain:

Another biological factor that influences personality is the role of the brain of an
individual. The psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of human brain
in influencing personality. Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)

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research gives indication that better understanding of human personality and behavior migh
come from the study of the brain.

Physical features:

Perhaps the most outstanding factor that contributes to personality is the physical
stature of an individual. An individual’s external appearance is proved to be having a
tremendous effect on his personality. For instance the fact that a person is short or tall, fat or
skinny. Handsome or ugly, black or whitish will undoubtedly influence the person’s effect on
others and in turn, will affect the self concept. A person’s physical characteristics may be
related to his approach to the social environment, to the expectancies of others, and to their
reactions, to him. These-in turn may have impacts on personality development.

Cultural Factors:

Culture is traditionally considered as the major determinant of an individual’s

personality. The culture largely determines what a person is and what a person will learn. The
culture within which a person is brought up is very important determinant of behavior of a
person.

Family and Social Factors:

In order to understand the effects of a family on individual’s personality, we have to

understand the socialization process and identification process.

1. Socialization Process:

The contribution of family and social group in combination with the culture is
known as socialization. In the words of Mussen “socialization is the process by which
and individual infant acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioral,
potentials that are open to him at birth, those behavioral patterns that are customary and
acceptable according to the standards of his family and social group.” Socialization
initially starts with the contact with mother and later on the other members of the
family.

2. Identification process:

Identification starts when a person begins to identify himself with some other
members of the family. Normally a child tries to emulate certain actions of his parents.
Identification process can be examined from three angles: (a) it can be viewed as the
similarity of behavior between child and the mode, and (b) it can be looked as the
child’s motives or desires to be like the model

Researchers have developed a number of personality theories and no theory, at

the outset, it must be pointed out, is complete in itself. Personality theories can be
grouped under the five heads:

I. Intrapsychic theory;

II. Type theories;

III. Trait theories;

IV. Social Learning theory;

V. Self-theory.

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 These theories differ markedly in the constructs they propose as forming the structure
of the personality, and also the way they relate these constructs to behavior. They also differ in
the methods they use to assess or measure an individual’s personality.

Answer.6.(a) Perception

Perception is much more complex and much broader than sensation. The perceptual
process can be defined as a complicated interaction of selection, organization, and
interpretation of stimuli. Although perception depends largely upon the senses for raw data, the
cognitive process may filter, modify or completely change the data. A simple illustration may
be seen by looking at one side of a stationary object, for example, a statue or a tree. By slowly
turning the eyes to the other side of the object, the person probably senses that the object is
moving. Yet the person perceives the object as stationary. The perceptual process overcomes
the sensual process and the person “sees” the object as stationary. In other words, the
perceptual process adds to, and subtracts from, the “real” sensory world.

A few definitions of perception are given below:

[1] “It is the process of receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking, and
reacting to sensory stimuli or data”.

[2] “I perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory
impressions in order to give meaning to their environments.”

[3] “Perception includes all those processes by which and individual receives information
about his environment-seeing, hearing, feeling, testing and smelling”.

Kolasa defines perception as the “selection and organization of material which stems
from the outside environment at one time or the other to provide the meaningful entity we
experience.”

There are two basic elements in this definition:

(1) perception is a process of selection or screening which prevents us from processing

irrelevant or disruptive information; and

(2) There is organization of stimuli implying that the information that is processed has to be
ordered and classified in some logical manner which permits us to assign meaning to the
stimuli situations. The individual tends to recognize the information, assemble it is a well
as compare it with earlier experience. This involves the entire history of events, which have
taken place with him over his life span. It is the organization of inputs through a dynamic
inner process, which shapes what comes in from the outside environment. Again, what
comes in changes what is inside the individual. Thus, unlike the sensation process, which is
concerned primarily with basic elementary behavior largely, determined by physiological
operation, perception is a highly complex and comprehensive process. It involves a
complicated interaction of selection, organization and interpretation of data.

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Answer.6.(b) Attitude, Belief & Ideology.

A belief is a judgment about something. For example, a belief that the world is round is
a judgment about its form. Many of our beliefs, of course, are emotionally neutral; others are
definitely favorable or unfavorable toward some object. For example, a favorable attitude
toward the religion may involve beliefs that the religion helps to curb delinquency, those
worshippers are better citizens than are non-devotees, that people who stay away from temples
are unhappy and immoral, and so on.

When beliefs become organized into systems, they are called ideologies. The capitalist
ideology, for example, is a set of beliefs that a free enterprise economy is maximally
productive; that competition in the long run brings down prices and raises quality; and those
events in the marketplace do and should determine what is produced.

Related to this is a disbelief system the set of beliefs, which one rejects. An individual
committed to capitalist ideology would disbelieve that industry can be run efficiently without
the profit system; that people will work primarily out of a desire to serve others; or that public
ownership of all utilities is necessary for the common good.

There are ideologies pertaining to all the major institutions of society, such as the
family, the law, the government, and the economic system. Although these ideologies are
difficult to verify, we feel strongly about them and, as long as things go well, have great
confidence in them. They give us an interpretation and a justification for our practices. Like
religion, they are matters of faith. They give us an interpretation and a justification of reality. It
is a interesting thing about human behavior that some of the beliefs that we hold most
tenaciously with the strongest feelings are not readily subject to proof or disproof.

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Answer.6.(c) Stress & State of Exhaustion.

Adaptation energy is exhausted, signs of alarm reaction reappear, and resistance level
begins to decline irreversibly the organism collapses.

A diagrammatic view of these stages is shown in the figure below.

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 Level of
Resistan

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 One of the major shortcomings of this theory is that thte related research was carried
out on animals where the stressors are usually physical or environmental and this is not always
the case in relation to human organisms. The concept of General Adaptation Syndrome is,
therefore, not given weightage in relation to human organisms. The concept of General
Adaptation Syndrome is, therefore, not given weightage in the present days.

Whenever a superior scolds a subordinate, the latter’s body chemistry acts in the same
way it did in the cave man when he was threatened by a tiger. Even all his body functions race
up to meet the emergency. However, physical emergency there is none. This additional burst of
energy is not only useless for him but is harmful. He can neither fight physically with the
superior nor leave the place of work. The adrenaline in metabolized. These metabolic changes
act on various balancing and self-correcting mechanisms of the body. The result is the
psychosomatic diseases.

Stress Definitions:

Different definitions of stress occur. Dr. Seyles, an expert in stress management, gives
the best definition an expert in stress management. According to him “stress is a non specific
response of the body to situation”.

It is important to remember that the body chemistry does not distinguish between the
anxiety causing, pleasant or unpleasant situations. In any of these situations, the body response
is the same, resulting in fight or fly mechanism.

The other definitions of stress are

“Stress is a physiological abnormality at the structural or bio-chemical level caused by

overloading experiences.”

“Stress is an adaptive response to and external situation that results in physical,

psychological and or behavioral deviations.”

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Answer.6.(d) Leadership & its styles.

Leadership Styles:

Leadership is practiced by leadership style, which is the total pattern of leaders’ actions
in relation to followers. It represents their philosophy, skills, and attitudes. The styles that are
discussed hereunder are used in combination, not separately; but they are discussed separately
to clarify differences among them.

Negative leadership gets acceptable performance in many situations, but it has high
human costs. Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. To get work done,
they hold over their personnel such penalties as loss of job, reprimand in the presence of others,
etc. They display authority in the false belief that it frightens everyone into productivity. They
are bosses more than leaders.

Autocratic, participative, and free rein leadership styles:

The way a leader uses power establishes the type of style. Each style has its benefits
and limitations. Leader behaviour is the mixture of all three styles over a period of time, but
one style tends to be the dominant one.

Autocratic leadership style:

Autocratic leaders centralize power and decision making in them. They structure the
complete work situation for their employees, who are supposed to do what they are told. The
leaders take full authority and assume full responsibility. Leadership behaviour typically, is
negative, based on threats and punishment; but it can be positive, because an autocratic leader
can choose to give rewards to employees, in which the style becomes “benevolent-autocratic”.
Some employees have expectations of autocratic leadership. The result is that they feel a
certain amount of security and satisfaction with this type of leader.

Participative leadership style:

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 Participative leadership style is expression of leadership style is expression of leader’s
trust in the abilities of his subordinates. The leader believes that his people are as desirous of
contributing to the organizational efforts as well as they have requisite capacities. Participative
leaders decentralize authority. Participative decisions are not unilateral, as with the autocrat,
because they arise from consultation with followers and participation by them. The leader and
group are acting as one unit. Employees are informed about conditions requiring decisions,
which encourage them to express their ideas and suggestions. Whereas autocratic leaders
control through the authority they possess, participative leaders exercise control mostly by
using forces within the group.

Free-rein leadership style:

On the continuum of leadership style free rein style is the extreme. Free-rein leaders
avoid power and responsibility, They depend largely upon the group to establish its own goals
and work out its own problems. A free rein leader is the one who abdicates all his decision
making responsibilities and prerogative in favor of his follower; The leader plays only a minor
role. In an organizational setting such a leader happens to be a bystander, He happens to be
there because of his organizational appointment. He fails to guide, motivate and develop his
subordinates.

Managerial Grid Styles:

One very popular approach to identifying leadership styles of practicing managers is

Blake and Mouton’s managerial grid. The following figure-shows that the two dimensions of
the grid are concern for people along the vertical axis and concern for production along the
horizontal axis.

Answer.6.(e) Path Goal Theory of Leadership.

Robert House, of the University of Toronto initially developed this theory, and House
and Mitchel later refined it. It is called ‘path-goal approach’ because its primary concern is the
leaders ‘influence on his followers’ perception of their work goals, personal goals and paths to
achievement of these goals. It is based on the notion that a leader ‘behaviour motivates and
satisfies his followers to such an extent that it promotes the attainment of the follower’s’ goals
and clears the path to attainment of these goals. It uses expectancy framework work from
motivation theory of Vroom. Leadership, according to this path-goal theory is closely related to
motivation, on the one hand, and the power, on the other. In essence, the theory attempts to
explain the impact that leader behaviour has on followers’ motivation, satisfaction and
performance.

According to the authors of the theory there are four basic or major styles of leadership
behaviour:

1) Directive Leadership:

Here the subordinates know exactly what is expected of them and the leader gives
specific directions. There is no participation by the subordinates. When the demands of task on
hand are ambiguous or when organizational procedures, rules and policies are not clear, a
directive leader may complement the task by providing the necessary guidance and
psychological structure for his followers. When the demands of the task are clear to the
followers, high level of directive leadership may impede effective performance.

2) Supportive Leadership:

The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine interest for subordinates.
This style of leadership has its most positive effect on the satisfaction of followers who
perform tasks that are full of stress, and are frustrating and unsatisfactory or unsatisfying.

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3) Participative Leadership:

The leader asks for and uses suggestions from subordinates but takes the decision by
himself.

4) Achievement-oriented Leadership:

The leader sets challenging goals for subordinates and shows confidence in them to
attain these goals and perform well. For followers performing ambiguous, non-repetitive tasks
the higher the achievement orientation of the leader the more confident they would be that their
efforts would pay-off in effective performance. Contrary would be the case, when followers
perform unambiguous and repetitive tasks.

The path goal theory suggests that these various styles can be and actually are used by
the same leader depending on the characteristics of the subordinates and the environmental
pressures.

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