UNIT 2 ANALOG ELECTRONIC METER 2.

.0 INTRODUCTION In all electronic voltmeter circuits the principle involved is that an indication on a permanent magnet moving coil instrument (normally abbreviated as PMMC or DArsonval movement) proportional to the input voltage is obtained by means of amplification in one or more stages with high input impedance. Although electronic instruments are usually more costlier than electrical instruments but are becoming more and more popular because of their numerous advantages over conventional ones, as discussed below : 1. A moving coil voltmeter draws a large current, hence a large power from the test circuit during measurement. Generally current drawn by the voltmeter does not make much difference in electrical circuits but when measurement is involved in electronic circuits, current drawn by the voltmeter load the test circuit, and therefore, voltmeter shows an error in the reading. 2. In electronic voltmeters power required for deflection of a permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) movement is not drawn from the test circuit but supplied from the amplifier whose output is proportional to the test circuit voltage i.e. input to the amplifier, so power drawn from the test circuit becomes almost negligible. So electronic voltmeters draw very low power from the test circuit and it can be said that it has very high input impedance. This feature of electronic voltmeters is indispensible for voltage measurements in many high impedance circuits such as encountered in communication of the order of micro-volts. 3. Voltages of the order of micro-volts are measured in electronic circuits which is not possible with the sensitive PMMC voltmeters but these voltages can be measured with I electronic voltmeters by using its amplifying properties 4. Electronic voltmeters measure voltage both at audio as well as radio frequency power level, as the action of thermionic valves or transistors can be made independent of frequency up to 10 Hz 100 MHz or even higher. Hence such an instrument has an extremely wide frequency range (from direct current to frequencies of the order of hundred of MHz), if the circuit is properly designed. The high frequency range may also be attributed to low input capacitance (of the order of a few pF) of most electronic devices. An electronic voltmeter calibrated at power frequency of 50 Hz can be used at radio frequency without any error. 1

Transistor voltmeters can be designed for measuring very high voltages such as hundreds or thousands of volts. Owing to amplifying properties electronic instruments possess very high sensitivity and because of high sensitivity, their input impedance is increased. It results in reduced loading effect while carrying out measurements. Electronic voltmeters give faster response and flexibility. Such instruments can monitor remote signals. Electronic voltmeters may use either vacuum tube or transistor. Later one is called transistorized voltmeter (TVM) and former is called the vacuum tube voltmeter (VTVM). Transistorized voltmeters have numerous advantages over vacuum tube voltmeters and hence replacing them in almost every field of electronics.

The advantages of TVMs over VTVMs are given below:

A TVM does not require any warm up time because of absence of heating element. Use of transistor makes the instrument portable because of its light weight. A transistorized instrument can be operated on low voltage i.e. on battery so TVM is well suited for the field work where power source is not available. VTVM cannot measure current directly because of its high resistance whereas TVM can do. TVM consumes very less power because of absence of heating element. The only disadvantage with TVM is low input impedance which it offers in comparison to VTVM. But this short-coming is overcome by using field effect transistor (FET) in input stage of voltmeter because FET offers input impedance almost equal to vacuum tubes.

The difference between Volt-Ohm-Meter (VOM) and Electronic-Volt-Meter (EVM). VOM Sensitivity Input Resistance Error Low Low (k) Input resistance low, error at the load is high EVM High High (M) Input resistance high, error at the load is low

The types of d.c Electronic Volt Meter : 1) Emitter Follower Voltmeter 2) Practical Emitter Follower Voltmeter 3) FET- input 4) Differential Amplifier Voltmeter 5) Operational Amplifier Voltmeter 6) Voltage to Current Converetr Op-Amp

2.1

EMITTER-FOLLOWER VOLTMETER

Figure 2.1 : Basic concept of Emitter-Follower Voltmeter The Load at voltmeter can be reduced using emitter-follower because its provide higher input resistance to the measured voltage. This will give lower output resistance to increased the current through the coil at a deflection meter.

Figure 2.2 : Basic Emitter-Follower Voltmeter. Emitter-follower gives an input resistance for voltage measurement and low ouput impedance. VBE gives an error to the measurement. So, voltage drop across meter is

where VBE is base emitter voltage ~ 0.7 for Si Voltage, E at a positive terminal is connected to the transistor base and negative terminal is connected to the similar terminal with negative source voltage. Transistor base current, Ib is lower than meter current. Transistor base current, I b I m / hFE where hFE = transistor current gain (Typical values ~ 100 200) and Meter current =

So, the circuit input resistance is

The base-emitter voltage drop (VBE) introduces some limitations in using emitter follower as a voltmeter: o The circuit cannot measure the input voltage less than 0.6 V 4

o a non-proportional deflection: error For example, if we apply Vin with 5 V, the meter should read half of full scale I.e. Im = 0.5 mA. But, the simple calculation shows that Im = 0.46 mA Example: A basic emitter-follower circuit (Diagram 2.1) has Vcc = 20V, Rs + Rm = 9.3 k , Im = 1mA at full scale and hFE = 100. (a) Calculate meter current if E = 10V. (b) Determine the voltmeter input resistor with transistor and without transistor. Solution: (a) Ve = E-Vb1 = 10V 0.7V = 9.3V I b I m / hFE 9.3V / 9.3 k

10 A. (b) With transistor : Ri E / Ib 10V / 10 A 1M Without transistor : Ri Rs + Rm = 9.3k

2.2

PRACTICAL EMITTER-FOLLOWER VOLTMETER To overcome the problem in basic emitter-follower circuit, practical emitterfollower cicuit is created.

Zero adjust

Use negative supply also to measure Vin < 0.6 V Figure 2.3 : Practical emitter-follower voltmeter 5

Bridge configuration V m =V E1 V E2 V E1 =V in V BE1

and

V E2 = V P - V BE2

Transistor base of Q1 is connected to the ground through resistor R1 and voltage devider (R4, R5 dan R6) give the variable biased voltage (Vp) to the transistor base of Q2. Resistors R2 dan R3 connect the emitter terminal to the negative source voltage (VEE), and the meter circuit is connected between two transistor emitter. Practical emitter-follower voltmeter using second transistor Q2 and voltage divider R4, R5 and R6 to eliminate VBE error in Q1. At the condition of Vin = 0, voltage at base of Q2 , Vp should be set to give zero meter reading, Vm = 0. Therefore, the potentiometer R5 is for the zero adjust. If transistors Q1 and Q2 are identical, VBE1 = VBE2

At Vin = 0 -> Vm = 0, give Vp = 0 Consequently, if Vp is set properly, Vm will be the same as Vin If the base input of Q1 is 5V, the meter voltage is V = V E1 V E 2 = ( E V BE1 ) V E 2 = (5V 0.7 V ) (0.7 V ) = 5V Example: An emitter-follower circuit (Figure 2.2) has R2 = R3 = 3.9 k and Vcc = 12V. (a) Determine I2 and Is when E = 0V. (b) Calculate meter circuit voltage when Vin = 1V and Vin = 0.5 V. Assume both transistor have VBE = 0.7V Solution: (a) VR2 = VR3 = 0V VBE - VEE = 0V 0.7V (-12V) = 11.3V I2 = I3 = VR2 / R2 = 11.3 k / 3.9k = 2.9 mA. 6

(b)

When Vin = 1V, VE1 = E VBE = 1V 0.7V = 0.3V VE2 = VP VBE = 0V 0.7V = -0.7V V = VE1 VE2 = 0.3V (-0.7V) = 1V When Vin = 0.5V VE1 = E VBE = 0.5V 0.7V = -0.2V VE2 = VP VBE = 0V 0.7V = -0.7V V = VE1 VE2 = -0.2V (-0.7V) = 0.5V

2.3

FET INPUT VOLTMETER Voltage Range Changing: Input Attenuator

Figure 2.4 : Input Attenuator The input attenuator accurately divides the voltage to be measured before it is applied to the input transistor. Calculation shows that the input voltage Vin is always 1V when the maximum input is applied on any range Example on a 5V range

The addition of FET at the input gives higher input resistance than can be achieved with a bipolar transistor. Base terminal of FET ususally can achieve 1M .

Figure 2.5 : A FET inputVoltmeter Base on the above Figure, when E = 0V, FET base also at pada 0V. But a base to n-channel FET must always in negative compared with source terminal ( Source always positive compared with FET base) If Vgs is -5V, and Eg = 0V, the source terminal voltage must at value of +5V. It means that if Q1 voltage base is +5V and Q2 voltage base is similar with Q1 voltage base, +5V. Now consider what will happen when measured voltage is given to the input. Input attenuator is always 1V maksimum as shown before. This can cause FET source incresed until Vgs achived -5V where Vgs is changed from +5V to +6V and permanently to -5V. An increment of Vs with 1V also will increase the Q1 base voltage to 1V. All the increment is across the meter circuit.

Example: Determine the meter reading for the FET input voltmeter in the previous figure, when E = 7.5V and the meter is set to its 10 V range. The FET gate-source voltage is 5V, VP = 5 V, Rs+Rm = 1 k and Im = 1 mA at full scale Solution:
EG = = E x ( Rc + Rd ) ( Ra + Rb + Rc + Rd )

7.5V x (60 k + 40 k ) (800 k + 100 k + 60 k + 40 k ) = 0.75 V VS = EG VGS = 0.75 V ( 5V ) = 5.75 V VE 1 = VS VBE = 5.75 V 0.7 V = 5.05 V

VE 2 = V p VBE = 5 V 0 .7 V = 4 .3 V V = VE1 VE 2 = 5.05 V 4.3 V = 0.75 V Meter readings, I m = V ( Rs + Rm ) 0.75 V 1 k = 0.75 mA = If 1 mA = 100% 0.75 mA = 100 x 0.75 mA 1 mA = 75% of the full scale readings

2.4

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER VOLTMETER

+ VCC RL1 Rs IC1 Q1 V Q2 Rm Im IC2 1k

R1 R2

IE1 1k

IE2

- VEE Figure 2.6 (a) Differential Amplifier Voltmeter In above Figure, transistor Q1, Q2 ,RL1,RL2 and RLe show the differential amplifier or emitter-follower amplifier (in transistor design). The circuit is known as differential amplifier voltmeter because when voltage at base Q2 is zero and an input voltage (E) is given to base Q1, the difference between both bases is increase earlier before it go through the meter. When a small positive voltage given to base Q1, current flow through transistor Q2 will be decreased. The increment of Ic1 will inreased the value of Ic1Rc1 and produced the small drop at voltage Vc1. In other words, the decrement at Ic2 will caused the increment at Vc2. As a result, the voltage across the meter will positively increased on right side and negatively incresed on left side of the circuit. The voltage difference at meter (V) is depends to the input voltage(E).

10

+Vcc

R3 RL1 RL2

Figure 2.6 (b) Zero Controller By referring to above figure, reostat is an alternative way to calibrate the meter to zero. When R3 moves to the right, part of R3 dan RL1 will incresed and part of R3 and RL2 will decreased. When R3 moves to the left, the condition become otherwise. Then Vc1 and Vc2 can be changed differently to regulate the meter to zero. boleh diubah secara berasingan untuk melaraskan meter supaya menjadi sifar. VDD

Rx RD // rD Rs Im , Rm RD // rD

Figure 2.7 Differential Amplifier with FET The function of resistor Rx is as zero regulator eventhough both FET have different characteristic in gm and rD value The calculation that involved in Differential amplifier voltmeter are as follows:

11

RTH = 2 ( R D // rD ) R x rD =2 D R + r D D VTH = I fs ( Rm + RTH ) Vout = VTH = g m ( R D // rD ) Vin Av = Vout R =1+ 1 Vin R2

2.5

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER VOLTMETER

Figure 2.8 : Op-Amp voltmeter The non-inverting amplifier gives very high input impedance and very low output impedance. Therefore, the loading effect can be neglected. Furthermore, it can provide gain with enabling to measure low level input voltage. Input voltage, E is given to the positive terminal and the output voltage is devided to resistor R3 dan R4. Then R3 is feedback to negative terminal of opamp. The amplify voltage in op-amp will make sure that VR3 is always have similar value with E.

12

Or the output voltage is Vo = E (R3 + R4) / R3 The circuit also known as non-inverting amplifier because the ouput will positive if the input is positive and the output will negative if the input is negative. The non-inverting amplifier have the voltage gain: Av = (R3 + R4) / R3 To design the op-amp voltmeter, the current I4 that go through R3 and R4 must be determined to get higher value than op-amp biased current (Ib). Then the required value of R3 and R4 can be calculated as follows: R3 = E / I4 and R4 = (Vo E) / I4

Example: Design an op-amp Voltmeter circuit which can measure a maximum input of 20 mV. The op-amp input current is 0.2 A, and the meter circuit has Im = 100 A FSD and Rm = 10 k . Determine suitable resistance values for R3 and R4 Solution: To neglect the effect of Ib, the condition of I4 >> Ib must be satisfied. The rule of thumb suggested I4 should be at least 100 times greater than Ib Select I4 = 1000 x IB = 1000 x 0.2 A = 0.2 mA Im = 100 A Vout R3 R4 = I4 x Rm = 100 A x 10 k = 1V = E / I4= 20mV / 0.2 mA = 100 = (Vo E) / I4 = (1V 20mV) / 0.2 mA = 4.9 k

At full scale: And

13

2.5

Op-Amp Voltmeter Voltage to Current Converter

Figure 2.9 : Op-amp voltmeter Voltage to Current Converter Input voltage, E is given to the positivr terminal and output voltage is devided to Rm and R3. R3 is feedback to the op-amp negative terminal. The amplified voltage in op-amp will make sure that VR3 is always equal with E. Output voltage given as

E ( R3 + Rm ) R3 The circuit also known as non-inverting amplifier because the ouput will positive if the input is positive and the output will negative if the input is negative. The non-inverting amplifier gives very high input impedance and very low output impedance and voltage gain given as Vo = Av = ( R3 + Rm ) R3

The current that go through the meter and R3 must greater than op-amp biased current (Ib). Since I3 >> Ib, therefore Im= I3 . The current that go through the meter is given as
Im = I3 = I FSD = E R3 E R3

14

And the meter voltage is Vm = (Rm/R3)E

Example : Calculate R3 as shown in previous figure if E = 1V gives FSD to the meter. The meter moving coil has I = 1mA FSD and Rm = 100 . Find the maximum voltage at amplifier output terminal. Solution: R3 = E / IFSD = 1V / 1mA = 1k Vo = IFSD (R3 + Rm) = 1mA (1k + 100 ) = 1.1V

2.6

Rectification Method For AC Electronic Voltmeter a) Voltage to Current Converter With Half-Wave Rectifier.

Figure 2.10 : Voltage to Current Converter With Half-Wave Rectifier.

The function of the above circuit is to convert an ac wave to dc wave with only positive half cycle affected in current flow to meter. During negative half cycle, diode D1 is in reversed biased and no currrent is permitted flow through the meter and resistor R3. The meter peak current is Ip = Ep / R3 and meter average current is Iavg = 0.5 (0.637 x Ip).

15

(b) Voltage to Current Converter With Full-Wave Rectifier.

Figure 2.11 : Voltage to Current Converter With Full-Wave Rectifier.

During positive half cycle, diode D1 and D4 is forward biased, so current flow through the meter is from positive terminal to negative terminal. During negative half cycle, diode D2 and D3 is forward biased, and current flow through the meter is from positive terminal to negative terminal. Either the input wave is positive or negative, the meter peak current is Ip = Ep / R3. And the average current is Iavg = 0.637Ip

16