Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dr. Van de Graaff (MIT Professor) designed and built this generator as a research tool in early atom-smashing and high energy X-ray experiments. This is the standard of excellence we should aspire to.
Course Outline
Section 1: Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics Section 2: Basic Circuits Section 3: Motors, Generators, & Power Distribution Section 4: Advanced Electrical Circuits Section 5: Electronic Communication & Data Systems
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Interest
The great end in life is not knowledge but action. Take your knowledge and use it as soon as you can. Use technology as a blessing to mankind and not as a curse. Einstein 1879-1955 Improvement ideas: tomsic@hawaii.edu Website: http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/~tomsic 12 labs, 2 projects (audio amplifier & PS) 3 exams
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Introduce Yourself
Where are you from? How do you like Honolulu Community College? What experience do you have in electronics? What is something interesting about yourself? What do you want to learn in this class?
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Safety Precautions Basic Electrical Terms and Circuits Basic Measuring Instruments Basic Electrical Circuit Materials Energy Sources of Electricity
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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Shock Victim
Do not become part of the problem. Use non-conductive belt and break free shock victim. Call for medical assistance. (911)
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Review CPR
Check for response. Have someone call 911. Clear airway. Look, listen and feel for breathing. Give 2 full breaths. 15 compressions (1 and 2 and 3) Continue till medical help arrives, you are relieved or are too tired to continue.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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Questions
Q1. Who is responsible for safety? A1. Everybody is responsible for their safety. Q2. What protects electronic circuits from ESD? A2. ESD packaging & wrist straps. Q3. What is the worst electrical shock you have heard of or experienced? A3. Various.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Prefix
Symbol
Scientific Notation
Decimal
Power of Ten
tera giga mega kilo basic unit milli micro nano pico
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T G M k m n p
Ohms Law
E I
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R
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Questions
Q4. Given a 1 Megohm resistor with a 120 volt potential applied to it, what current will pass through it? A4. .12 milliamps Q5. Can this current kill you if you touch it? A5. No. .1 Amp for 1 second can be fatal. Q6. How many students know CPR? A6. It is a good thing to be qualified in CPR when working on or near electrical circuits.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Questions Continued
Q7. Given a 1.5 Amp battery charger with a total circuit resistance of 8 ohms, what supply voltage is generated? A7. 12 volts Q8. What amperage is present when you place the new chip in your cellular phone? A8. micro amps. Q9. What amperage is present when you put leads on a new car battery? A9. milliamps
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Definitions
Atomic Theory Foundation for Solid State Devices Atom - Smallest part of an element that retains the characteristics of that element. Molecule Smallest part of a compound. Compound - 2 or more elements chemically combined.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
The Atom
Atom Parts:
Electrons: Negative part of an atom. Protons: Positive part of an atom. Neutrons: Negative part of an atom.
E E P N N P E E E E E E E
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Static Electricity
Like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other. Walking across a wool or nylon rug , you can generate a static charge of electricity, discharging several thousand volts of electricity to a metallic object like a door handle.
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Definitions
Coulomb: Practical unit of measurement of the amount of electricity. Used to describe the flow of electricity.
1 Coulomb = 6.24 X 1018 electrons.
Electrostatic or Dielectric field: The field or force surrounding a charged body. Charge Transfer
Direct Contact Induction: Electron flow due to charged object in close proximity.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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Valence Band
Forbidden Band
Conduction Band
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Bonding
Covalent vs. Ionic Bonding Octet Rule and Covalent Bonding
N and P Crystals
Base Material - Silicon or Germanium Doping - Process by which impurity atoms are added into a pure base material to create a compound with improved electrical properties. This process is used when making semiconductors.
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Oil Mist
Clean Air
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Types of Current
AC: Alternating Current
+ 0
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Circuit Flow
Conventional Current Flow: Hole flow.
Electron Flow
Series Circuit
Simpson 260
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Fluke 177
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Interest
One of the first meter instruments was used by the Greeks (0 BC) and was the Sun Dial.
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Outline
Types of meter movement Types of meters
Voltmeter Ammeter Ohmmeter
Electrical diagrams
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Basic Multimeters
A meter is a measuring instrument. Ammeter: measures current. Voltmeter: measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points. Ohmmeter measures resistance. Multimeter: combines these functions and others into a single instrument.
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Ammeter
Measures current in amperes, milliamperes, microamperes depending on the meter scale. The coil in the meter movement is wound with many turns of fine wire. If a large current was allowed to flow the coil, it would burn it out, so a shunt or alternate path is provided for current. Most of the current flows through the shunt. Safety: Connect an ammeter is series with a circuit device. Never in parallel!
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
A shunt must carry 90% of the current for the 010mA scale.
Rs =E/I = .1/.009 = 11.1
Voltmeter
To ensure voltages across the coil never exceed . 1V, multiplier resistors are placed in series with the meter movement coil using a switch. Voltage ranges 0-1V, 0-10V, 0-100V, 0-500V .1V can be placed across meter at any one time, therefore a resistor must drop .9V to use a 0-1V scale. Full scale current deflection is 1mA or . 001A Rm = E/I + .9V/.001A = 900 Calculate multiplier resistors for other scales.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Ohmmeter
Uses non-linier scale: zero-infinite. Calibrate prior to use for analog meter. Check leads at 0 for good lead connections. Electrical leads safety story for finger stop.
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Questions
Q. What is the difference between diode testing and resistance checking? A. The diode check is more sensitive with an audible sound for continuity. Q. What are some experiences that you have with different meters? A. Various
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Electrical Diagrams
One line Diagram Wiring Diagram
i. e. Ceiling Fan
Antenna Speaker RF AMP Detector AF AMP
L1 M
Not Connected Connected
L2
Block Diagram
i. e. Car Stereo
Schematic Diagram
i. e. VCR player
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RC RB Q1
Schematic Diagram
INPUT FROM LOGIC
10K
1K
LOAD
115 VAC
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Wiring Diagram
A>B A=B A0 A<B A1 A2 A3 B0 B1 B2 B3 U300 A=B A<B A>B A2 A3 A=B A<B U301 U300
U304 +12V
A0 A1
U302
S300
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 C Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q 10
B0 B1 B2 B3
A=B
D S Q
Q 11 R Q 12
U306
C Q R
D S Q M305B C R Q1
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Conclusion
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Interest
Optical fiber is a long, cylindrical, transparent material that confines and transmits light waves. Carries information in the form of light giving the fiber thousands of times more information-carrying capacity than copper, which uses electricity to transmit signals. 3 LAYERS:
1. Core: carries the light (silica glass) 2. Cladding: confines the light to the core (silica glass) 3. Coating: provides protection for the cladding (plastic)
Carries information so fast that you could transmit 3 television show episodes in just one second. This is impossible with copper wire.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Basics
Conductor: Pathways that allow electrons to flow through an electrical circuit.
Electron flow Hole flow (+ charge flow, opposing viewpoint). Materials:
Copper: Most common. Silver: Better conductor, more expensive Aluminum: Used in high voltage lines because of its light weight. Center core is steel for strength. Brass: Used in electro-mechanical parts like relays and contactors.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Conductor Sizes
American Wire Gauge System
The larger the gauge number, the smaller the cross-sectional area the wire will have.
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30
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Conductor Insulation
Insulation: Conductor protective coating.
Materials: Rubber, plastic and other synthetic materials Factors: Extreme heat, cold, chemicals, and oil. Codings:
R: Rubber H: Heat C: Corrosion resistant
Types: High voltage, Coaxial, multiple conductors, stranded conductors, solid conductors, 3 conductor lighting cord.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Conductor Resistance
Factors that effect resistance.
Cross-sectional area of the conductor: Larger diameter, lower resistance. Type of conductor resistance: Aluminum 1000 feet = 2.57 ohms. Copper 1000 feet = 1.619 ohms. Length of conductor: Longer conductor, higher resistance. Temperature of material: Higher temperature, higher resistance.
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Safety Standards
National Electrical Code (NEC) is a collection of electrical standards that must be followed to ensure safety of personnel and prevent electrical fires.
Maximum voltage drop for branch circuits (i.e. breaker panel to outlet) is 3%. CMA = (K)(I)(L)/VD where CMA = area in cmil, K = constant (K=12 for copper and 18 for aluminum), I = current, L = length of conductor, VD = voltage drop.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Questions
Q. Given a copper conductor for a 20A drill 75 feet away, what size wire is needed? W. Length = (75)(2)=150 VD = (120)(.03)=3.6
CMA = (K)(I)(L)/VD CMA = (12)(20)(150)/3.6 = 10,000 cmils or No. 10 wire.
A. No. 10 wire
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Breadboards
Copper strips are run in parallel under the rows of holes and are used as conductor pathways. Jumper wires are used to connect all the solid state devices. Used to prototype a circuit.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Breadboards
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Connection Pad
Edge Connectors
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Chassis
Chassis: Circuit using metal frame providing conduction path for the negative side (ground)
i.e. Tail light being supplied by car battery. i. e. Power supply using chassis resisters.
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Switches
Classified by the actuator which is the mechanical device that causes the circuit to open and close. SPST: Single Pole Single Throw
Single Pole: 1 path for electron flow to be turned on & off. Single Throw: Switch controls only one circuit.
Toggle Switch
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Slide Switch
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Rocker Switch
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Rotary Switch
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Wafer Switch
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Limit Switch
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Dip Switch
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Questions
Q. What is something that uses a limit switch? A. Computer, Camera, Shredder, etc. Q. What is something that uses a dip switch? A. Back of computer to switch 120 to 240 VAC Q. What is something that uses a rocker switch? A. Light switch
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Switch ratings
Current: Maximum amperage rating to handle current safely. High current causes high heat. Voltage: Maximum voltage rating so that electromechanical circuitry will not fail.
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Connectors
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80
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Incandescent Lamp
In 1879 Thomas Edison developed the 1st incandescent lamp. The tungsten replaced the carbon filament. The heat produced from current flow is usually what burns out the filament with time.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Tungsten
Fluorescent Lamp
When the tube is energized, the filaments at the end will glow producing heat and little light. The heat vaporizes the mercury in the tube. Once the mercury is vaporized, electrons flow in the mercury vapor. Ultraviolet light is produced. The light strikes the phosphor coating and causes it to glow creating phosphorous light. (very little heat)
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Ballast
Starter
Light Clip
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Neon Light
2 Electrodes inserted in the ends of a long glass tube. Tube is filled with neon gas. A neon light transformer (10,000V) is used to create current through the neon gas. After the light is energized, the neon tube will glow. To create a variety of colors, other gasses are added. (i.e. argon and helium)
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
LED Light
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Halogen Lamp
A tungsten filament is inserted through a glass tube filled with halogen gas. Produces more light. The halogen gas returns boiled of tungsten particles back to the filament making the filament last longer. Creates high heat. Filaments can be damaged from oil on fingers.
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light
filament
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FL: Flash
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Resistors
Demonstrate resistor software.
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Chip Resistors
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Potentiometers
Rotary knob varies resistance. Can use an eraser to clean carbon deposits between arm and resistor. Uses: voltage and speed adjust.
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Variable Resisters
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Conclusion
Q. When do a use a resistor in a circuit? A. provide opposition to current flow or develop a voltage drop. Q. What can cause a potentiometer to no longer work? A. Loose or broken arm.
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Sources of Electricity
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Interest
Solar power device use is on the increase. Devices include cars to radios.
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Battery History
Luigi Galvani (1790): Frog supported on copper wires leg twitched when touched with a steel scalpel. Alessandro Volta: Invented electric/ voltaic cell by placing 2 dissimilar elements in a chemical building an electric potential creating electricity from chemical action.
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Battery Experiment
A grapefruit can be used to produce enough electricity to operate a small radio.
Nickel Penny
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102
+
H2SO4 + H2O
Primary Cells
D Cell C Cell
AAA Cell
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AA Cell
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Primary Cells
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Primary Cells
Can not be recharged. Chemical action can not be reversed. Defect: Polarization: H2 blanketing around electrode. Depolarization agent is added to prevent the H2 blanketing around electrode . Compounds rich in oxygen (i.e. MnO2) are used. The O2 in the depolarization agent combines with H2 to form H2O. (2MnO2 + H2 2MnO3 + H2O): Local Action: Does not contribute to electrical energy.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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AA Alkaline Cell
Anode: Manganese Dioxide Cathode: Zinc Powder Electrolyte: Caustic Alkali Separator: Separates + & -
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Mercury Cell
New type of dry cell. 1.34 VDC from chemical action between zinc (-) and mercury oxide (+). Costly to make Creates 5 times more current then other dry cells. Maintains terminal voltage longer. Uses: field instruments & portable communications.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Lithium Cell
Lithium is bonded to a thin layer of conductive metal and has a porous separator between it and the cathode. This design allows for a large surface area, providing a large reaction surface & higher discharge rates compared to other Lithium cells.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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Secondary Cells
Can be recharged or restored. Chemical action can be reversed.
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Battery Chargers
Used to restore the charge on rechargeable batteries. Used for: AA batteries and car batteries.
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Battery Charges
Normal: Done when battery is discharged Equalizing: Done to drive sulphates off of positive plate. Float: Keep at full charge. Freshening: New batteries
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Incidents
Battery fire due to charging battery.
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120
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H2 SO4-2
H2 O
Electrolyte Separator
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Se pa ra to r
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Pl
at es
Battery Safety
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Nickel-cadmium Cell
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Nickel-cadmium Cell
Chemical Reaction:
2 NiOOH + 2H2O + Cd
Oxy-Nickel hydroxide charge discharge
2 Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2
Nickel hydroxide
Cadmium hydroxide
These batteries contain a Ni(OH)2 cathode, Cd anode and aqueous KOH electrolyte. Ni(OH)2 has a layered CdI2 structure, and NiOOH is apparently a complex, multiphase material. Advantages: High cycles (often 1000's) and long shelf life (possibly months without significant self-discharge). Disadvantages: Relative to Pb acid include lower power densities, greater cost, and a "memory" effect.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Nickel-cadmium Cell
Memory effect: Unused capacity of a cell cannot be utilized if the cell is not fully discharged. Related to the formation of a passive surface on the electrodes that forms a barrier to further cell reaction.
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Nickel-cadmium Cell
Applications:
Cassette players and recorders Dictating machines Instruments Personal Pagers Photoflash equipment Portable communications equipment Portable hand tools and appliances Shavers Tape recorders Toothbrushes
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Questions
Q. What do you use batteries for? A. Radios, lights, fans, cars, toys, calculators, cameras, laptops. Q. What is the largest battery you have seen? A. Submarine battery. Q. What is the difference between rechargeable and disposable batteries? A. Rechargeable batteries are made of NiCAD while disposable batteries are alkaline because NiCAD can be cycled more.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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Cell Damage
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Questions
Q. What is the chemical reaction for a lead-acid battery? A. Pb+PbO2+2H2 SO4-2 2PbSO4-2+2H2O+5 e-.
charge discharge
Q. What is a button battery made of? A. Silver Oxide. Q. If your battery is grounded, how do you repair it? A. clean it & retest or take it to Sears to check the internal resistance.
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Batteries in Series
Physical Description _
1.5V@1A 1.5V@1A 1.5V@1A 1.5V@1A
Electrical Schematic _ + _ + _ + _ +
Output 6 VDC 1A
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Batteries in Parallel
Physical Description +
1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A
_ Electrical Schematic _ _ _ _ + + + +
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Batteries in Series-Parallel
Physical Description
1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A
_
1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A 1.5V @1A
Electrical Schematic _ _ _ _ + + + + _ _ _ _ + + + +
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Output 6 VDC 2A
Battery Capacity
Look at manufacture chart for specifications. Capacity in Amp-Hours (AH) is the ability to produce current over a period of time. Rate of discharge must be considered in order to get maximum AH out of battery. Factors effecting capacity of battery:
Number of plates per cell. Kind of separators effect capacity & battery life. General condition of the battery. (i.e. age, grounds, state of charge).
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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Photovoltaic Cell
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Photovoltaic Cell
Schematic symbol
_ +
Physical description
L _ +
Sunlight
Cells can be connected into arrays. Arrays are build with cells in series and parallel.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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Questions
Q. What are some applications that you have used a solar cell for? A. Cars, calculators, heat new houses. Q. What is the current and voltage of 6-6 volt, 2 amp batteries placed in parallel in a spotlight? A. 6 Volts and 12 Amps.
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Photoresistive Cells
Schematic symbol
143
+VOUT AC OR DC
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Thermocouple
Schematic symbol
_ +
Physical Description
Iron Wire
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Piezoelectric Effect
Definition: The property of some crystals (i.e. Quartz) that when a pressure is exerted on one axis, a proportional voltage is present on the other axis. Physical Description:
pressure electrical waves eSound waves Quartz Crystal Output
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Fuel Cells
Schematic symbol
FC
Operation
H2 gas supplied develops a potential on electrode & ionizes the electrolyte. O2 gas supplied develops a + potential on electrode & ionizes the electrolyte. H2O is waste product of chemical reaction with no heat loss. Used in the space program. Ratings: 1.23V, 2KW
Physical description
L Electrode Electrode
Hydrogen Gas
_ Potassium +
Hydroxide KOH
Oxygen Gas
Electrolyte
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Magnetohydrodynamic Generator
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) electricity is generated when ionized gas is passed through a magnetic field. MHD converter
Gas heated by solar power > 2000F + _ Coil for Magnetic Field _ + Output Anode Plate Cathode Plate Ionizing Gas (Argon or Helium)
Ionizing Gas
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Generator
Schematic symbols
G
Output waveform
Phase A Phase B Phase C
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Generator
Generates 450 VAC, 60 Hz, 3 phase electricity.
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Conclusion
Q. Explain a way to produce electricity? A. Various Q. What is the output waveform of the Hawaiian Electric Company? A. 3 Phase Sine Wave.
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Series Circuits
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Interest
Knowing how to do calculations in series circuits is one of the basic building blocks in electronics. Electronics software products let you download software to run on your computer testing your knowledge of circuit calculations. Demonstrate in class. Resistor calculator software.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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Determining Power
ER1 = 2V R1 IT = 3A ER5 = 6V R5 ER4 = 5V R4 R3 ER3 = 4V ER2 = 3V R2
Given: Power = EI
Q. What is the total power in the circuit? W. (2V)(3A) + (3V)(3A) + (4V)(3A) + (5V)(3A) + (6V)(3A) = 6W + 9W + 12W + 15W + 18W = A. 60 Watts
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Questions
ER1 = 1V R1 IT = 5A ER5 = 2V R5 ER4 = 9V R4 R3 ER3 = 3V ER2 = 2V R2
Q. What is the total power in the circuit? W. (1V)(5A) + (2V)(5A) + (3V)(5A) + (9V)(5A) + (2V)(5A) = 5W + 10W + 15W + 45W + 10W = A. 85 Watts
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Questions Continued
ER1 = 1V R1 ET = ?VDC ER5 = 1V R5 ER4 = 2V R4 R3 ER3 = 5V ER2 = 3V R2
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Questions Continued
ER1 = ?V R1 ET = 2, 555VDC ER5 = 500V R5 ER4 = .001MV R4 R3 ER3 = 45V ER2 = 1KV R2
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Given: E = IR
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IL1 =4A L1 R1
D1 24VAC T1
Q. RI has an open (is damaged), what will be the rating Of the new resistor? W. 24/4= A. 6
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D2
Using a Voltmeter
Voltmeter 1 = 6 VDC Voltmeter 2 = 0 VDC
_ 6VDC +
F1
_ + SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3
Open
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_ 6VDC +
F1
_ + SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3
Shut
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R1 Shorted
Voltmeter 1 = 0 VDC Voltmeter 2 = 2 VDC
_ 6VDC +
F1
Shut
SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3 +
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R1 Open
Voltmeter 1 = 6 VDC Voltmeter 2 = 0 VDC
_ 6VDC +
F1
Shut
SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3 +
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Questions
Voltmeter 1 Voltmeter 2
_ 6VDC +
_ F1
Shut
SW1
10 R1 10 R4 +
10 R2 10 R3
Q. Fuse 1 has blown, what will be the voltage across it? A. 6 VDC Q. Fuse 1 has blown, what will be the voltage across R1? A. 0 VDC
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Conclusion
Q. How is E, I, R calculated in series circuits? A. 1. ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + EN 2. RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + RN 3. IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = IN Q. What voltage is read across a shorted resister in a series circuit? A. 0 V
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Parallel Circuits
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Interest
2X scale
10X scale
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ET = 24VDC
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Q. What is the current passing through R2? W. IR2 = IT (IR1 + IR3 + IR4 ) = 16 (5 + 8 + 1) A. 2A
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RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RRT = 1/(1/RR1 + 1/RR2 + 1/RR3 + 1/RR4 ) = 1/(1/34 + 1/17 + 1/8.5 + 1/4.25) = 1/(1/34 + 2/34 + 4/34 + 8/34) = 1/(15/34) = 34/15 A. RT = 2.27CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
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RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RT = R1R2/(R1 + R2) = (34)(17)/(34 +17) = 578/51 A. RT = 11.33
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RT = R1R2/(R1 + R2) = (7500)(250)/(7500 + 250) = 1,875,000/7750 A. RT = 241.94
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
RT = ?
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RRT = 1/(1/RR1 + 1/RR2 + 1/RR3 + 1/RR4 ) = 1/(1/3.4 + 1/2.1 + 1/1.6 + 1/2.1) = 1/(.294 + .476 + .625 + .476) = 1/(1.871) A. RT = .534K
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
RT = ?
T2
L2 ET = 24VAC L1 R1 R2 R3 R4
Fuses Removed
T1
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Questions
Q. What law can be used to do calculations in parallel circuits A. Ohms Law Q. Given a total resistance of 12K, what would be the equal parallel resistance for 4 resistors in parallel? W. R = RRT/N = 12K/4 A. 4K
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
T2
L2 ET = 24VAC R1 R2 R3
RR4 = 250 R4
Fuses Blown
T1
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T2
RR4 = 12 R4
Fuses Removed
T1
RR3 = 12
Q. What fault is present in this circuit and why? A. R4 is open. Rt should be 3 for 4 parallel equal resistors. R4 is visually open.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
T2
RR4 = 4 R4
RR3 = 2
T1
L1
Conclusion
Q. How must an ammeter always be connected in a circuit? A. In series Q. What is a fault condition that can cause fuses to blow or circuit breakers to trip open? A. Shorted circuit component.
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Interest
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190
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RR1-R2 = R1R2/(R1 + R2) = (6)(.4)/(6 + .4) = 2.4/6.4 RR1-R2 = .375 K RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2 + R3 = .375 + 1.6 A. RT = 1.975K 191 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
R3 RR3 = 12
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RR1-R2 = R1 + R2 = 4 + 20 = 24 RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2 R3/(RR1-R2 + R3) = (24)(12)/(24 + 12) = 288/36 = 8 RR1-R2-R3-R4 = RR1-R2-R3 + R4 = 8 + 12 A. RT = 20
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Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
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Step 4 Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RR1-R2 = R1 + R2 = 3 + 6 = 9 RR1-R2-R3 = RR1-R2 R3/(RR1-R2 + R3) = (9)(9)/(9 + 9) = 81/18 = 4.5 RR5-R6 = R5 + R6 = 18 + 9 = 27 RR4-R5-R6 = RR5-R6 R4/(RR5-R6 + R4) = (27)(12)/(27 + 12) = 324/39 = 8.308 RR1-6 = RR1-R2-R3 + RR4-R5-R6 = 4.5 + 8.308 A. RT = 12.808
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Determine individual values using series & parallel rules. ER1-R2-R3 =ITRR1-R2-R3 ER1-R2-R3 =ER3 ER3 /RR3 =IR3 IT-IR3 =IR1-R2 IR1 =IR2 =IR1-R2 ER1 =IR1 RR1
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Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4 Q. What is the total current in the circuit? W. IT=ET/RT=10/ 12.808 A. IT=.7808A Q. What is the current passing through R4? W. ER4-R5-R6 =ITRR4-R5-R6 =(. 7808)(8.308)=6.487V ER4-R5-R6 =ER4 =6.487V IR4 =ER4 /RR4 =6.487/12 A. IR4 =.5406A
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the current passing through R5? W. IR5 =IT-IR4 = (.7808)-(.5406) A. IR5 =.2402A Q. What is the current passing through R6? W. IR6 =IR5 A. IR6 = . 2402A
196
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the voltage passing through R5? W. ER5 =IR5 RR5 = (.2402)(18) A. ER5 =4.3236V Q. What is the voltage passing through R6? W. ER6 =IR6 RR6 = (.2402)(9) or ER6 =ER5-R6 -ER5 =6.487- 4.324 A. ER6 =2.1618V
197
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4 Q. What is the ammeter reading in the circuit? W. IT=ET/RT=10/12.808 A. IT=.7808A Q. What is the current passing through R3? W. ER1-R2-R3 =ITRR1-R2-R3 =(.7808)(4.5)=3.5136V ER1-R2-R3 =ER3 =3.5136V or Et-ER4-R5-R6 =10-6.487=3.513V IR3 =ER3 /RR3 =3.5136/9 A. IR3 =.3904A
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Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the current passing through R1? W. IR1 =IT-IR3 = (.7808) - (.3904) A. IR1 =.3904A Q. What is the current passing through R2? W. IR1 =IR2 A. IR2 = .3904A
199
Step 2
R4 RR4 = 12
Step 3
R5 RR5 = 18 R6 RR6 = 9
Step 4
Q. What is the voltage passing through R1? W. ER1 =IR1 RR1 = (.3904)(3) A. ER1 =1.1712V Q. What is the voltage passing through R2? W. ER2 =IR2 RR2 = (.3904)(6) or ER2 =ER1-R2 -ER2 =3.513-1.171 A. ER2 =2.342V
200
A RT = ? ET = 12VDC
Sample Problem 1
R1 RR1 =6 R2 RR2 =2 R3 RR3 = 6 R4 RR4 = 4 R5 RR5 = 8
Q. What is the total resistance in the circuit? W. RR4-R5 = R4 + R5 = 4 + 8 = 12 RR3-R4-R5 = RR4-R5 R3/(RR4-R5 +R3)=(12)(6)/(12+6) = 72/18 = 4 RR2-R3-R4-R5 = RR3-R4-R5 +RR2 =4+2=6 RR1-5 =RR2-R3-R4-R5 RR1 /(RR2-R3-R4-R5 +RR1 )=(6)(6)/(6+6) A. R = = 36/12 3
T
201
Q. What does the ammeter read in the circuit? W. IT=ET/RT=12/3 A. IT=4A Q. What is the current passing through R1? W. ET=ER1 =12V IR1 =ER1 /RR1 =12/6 A. IR1 =2A
202
Q. What is the current passing through R2? W. ET=ER2-R3 =12V IR2 =IR2-R3 =ER2-R3 /RR2+(R3,R4,R5) =12/(2+4) A. IR2 =2A Q. What is the voltage drop across R2? W. ER2 =IR2 RR2= (2)(2) A. ER2 =4V Q. What is the voltage drop across R3? W. ER3 =ET- ER2 = 12-4 A. ER3 =8V
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Q. What is the current passing through R4? W. ER3 =ER4-R5 =8V IR3 =ER3 /RR3 =8/6=1.3A IR4 =IR2 - IR3 =2 - (1.333) Kirchhoffs Current Law A. IR4 =.6667A Q. What is the voltage drop across R4? W. ER4 =IR4 RR4= (. 6667)(4) A. ER4 =2.667V Q. What is the voltage drop across R5? W. ER5 =IR5 RR5= (. 6667)(8) A. ER5 =5.333V
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Q. Explain Kirchhoffs Current Law. W. IT=Ipoint1 + Ipoint2 + Ipoint3 =2 + (1.333) + (.666) = 4A A. Total current in circuit = current out of circuit. Q. Why isnt the voltage drop across R3 = 12VDC? W. ER2 =IR2 RR2= (2)(2) = 4VDC A. 4 VDC is subtracted because of the nature of voltage in a series circuit within a combination circuit.
205
A RT = ? ET = 9VDC R1 RR1 =3
Questions
R2 RR2 =9 R3 RR3 = 9 R4 RR4 = 6 R5 RR5 = 3 R6 RR6 = 18 R7 RR7 = 9
Q. What is the current passing through R2? W. RR6-R7 =RR6 + RR7 =18+9=27 RR5-R6-R7 =RR6-R7 R5/(RR6-R7 +R5)=(27)(3)/(27+3)=81/30= 2.7 RR4-7 =RR5-7 + RR4 =2.7+6=8.7 RR3-7 = RR4-7 R3/(RR4-7 +R3)=(8.7)(9)/(8.7+9)=78.3/16.7=4.689 RR2-7 =RR3-7 + RR2 = 4.689 +9=13.689 RT = RR2-7 RR1 /(RR2-7 +RR1 )=(13.689)(3)/(13.689+3)= 41.066/16.689 =2.461 IT=ET/RT=9/2.461= 3.657A A. IIR12=ER1 /RR1 =9/3=3A IR2 =IT- IR1 = 3.657- 3 R =.6667A
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Power
Power = Work/Time = (Force)(Distance)/Time P=EI given: Power (watts), E (volts), I (current) Watt: 1 volt of electrical pressure moves 1 coulomb of electrons past a given point in a circuit in 1 second.
207
I E
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
EI E/R 2 P/E IR
P/R E /R E/I IR 2 PR E /P 2 P/I P/I
2
208
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
P I RE
A RT = ? ET = 9VDC R1 RR1 =3
Questions
R2 RR2 =9 R3 RR3 = 9 R4 RR4 = 6 R5 RR5 = 3 R6 RR6 = 18 R7 RR7 = 9
Q. What is the total power in the circuit? W. PT = IT2RT = (3.657A)2(2.461 ) = (13.274)(2.461) A. PT = 32.913 W Q. What is the minimum power rating for R1? W. PR1 = ER1 RR1 = (9V)(3 ) A. PR1 = 27 Watts
209
Troubleshooting
Eliminate parallel paths when checking electrical components.
210
Conclusion
A G ET = 120VAC
R1 RR1 =2.4K
Q. What is the total power in the circuit in KW? W. W. RR2+R3 = RR2 + RR3 = (3600)+(1200 )= 4800 RT=RR2+R3 RR1 / RR2+R3 +RR1 =(4800)(2400)/4800+2400= 11520000/7200=1600 PT = ETRT = (120V)(1600 ) A. PT = 192KW
211
Tuned Circuits
Series Tuned Circuits
1 . Theory
a . Ideal Series resonant circuit contains no resistance. It contains only inductance and capacitance that are in series with each other and with the source voltage.
2 . Operation
a . At Resonance ( XL = XC ); therefore, XL + XC = 0. The resultant reactance is equal to 0. Impedance ( Z ) is minimum. b . Since Z is minimum, current is maximum for a given voltage. Maximum current flow causes maximum voltage drops across individual reactances.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
212
Questions
Q. What is the formula for XL? A. XL = 2 II f L. Q. What is the formula for XC? A. XC = 1 / 2 II f C. Q. What is the resonant frequency in a typical tuned circuit? A. XL = XC, Fr = .159/Square root LC.
213
214
C1 GEN
L1
R1
215
XL
o
XC
RESONANCE
XL - XC
o
XC - XL XC
o
XC
ABOVE RESONANCE
BELOW RESONANCE
100
200
300
Fr
500
600
700
216
Z=R
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
217
3 . Application
a . At resonance, the circuit has a maximum impedance which results in minimum current drawn from the source.
218
L1 GEN C1 R1
219
5 . Circuit analysis
IC IC
IMPEDANCE CURRENT
o
IC
RESONANCE
I o
IC - IL
o
IL
IL - IC IL
Z
100 200 300
BELOW RESONANCE
ABOVE RESONANCE
Fr
500
600
700
220
RB C1
VIN
+VCC
L1
IM X A
CC
RL
221
Questions
Q. What are some examples of a parallel tuned amplifiers? A. Antenna tuners, air signal tracker, ham radio, transponders (ID aircraft etc). Q. What crystal can replace the RLC circuit to make it last longer? A. Piezoelectric Crystal.
222
Pulsed Amplifier
b . Pulsed Amplifier: 3 main sections
+
0
C1
VIN
OUTPUT SIGNAL C2 L1
223
Pulsed Amplifier
T0 INPUT GATE
T1
T2
T3
OUTPUT SIGNAL
224
Tuned Amplifier
c. Tuned Amplifier: 3 main sections 1. Gain Amp 2. Positive +V Feedback Circuit 13. Frequency Determining R Device
C C
+
0
C1
VIN
225
Overdriven Amplifier
SATURATION CUTOFF
C1 Q1 R2 C2
R1
INPUT
-VEE +VCC
OUTPUT
SATURATION CUTOFF
226
Overdriven Amplifier
a . The input signal drives the transistor into and out of saturation and cutoff. b . When the transistor is in saturation and / or cutoff, that portion of the input waveform is clipped and the output is distorted.
227
228
Interest
229
230
231
Magnetic Poles
South Pole North Pole Magnetic lines of force exist between the north and south poles. Like poles repel. Opposite poles attract. Each magnetic line of force is an independent line. None of the lines cross or touch a bordering line.
Natural Magnets: Lodestones were used by mariners for navigation. The Earth is a large magnet surrounded by a 232magnetic field. (i.e. degaussing coils).
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Questions
Q. What are some uses for magnets? A. Relays, Levetron, hold things in place. Q. How can a magnet loose its magnetism? A. Pounding or dropping magnets upsets the molecular alignment and weakens the magnet. Heat sources also destroy magnets by causing increased molecular activity, expansion and a return to the molecules random positions.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
233
Magnetic flux: The many invisible lines of magnetic force surrounding a magnet. B=/A
B=Flux density in gauss (webers per square centimeter) (phi)=Number of lines A=Cross sectional area in square centimeters
Magnetic Flux
235
Magnetism in a Coil
Q. What is the direction of flux in this coil? W. Use LHR for coils. A. Thumb points right.
236
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Fingers: Wrap around coil In direction of circular magnetic Field. Thumb: Points in direction of current.
237
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Magnetism Tools
Magneprobe
238
239
Reluctance
=F/R
= Total number of lines of magnetic force in gilberts. F= Force producing the field. R= Resistance to the magnetic field. (Reluctance)
240
Electromagnets
Parts of Electromagnets
Iron Core Coil
Residual Magnetism:
Retentivity of the iron core.
241
Electromagnet Diagram
Q. What type of diagram is this? A. Wiring Diagram.
242
Magnetic Relay
243
Relay Maintenance:
Burnishing tool cleans contacts Silver plated armatures should be replaced if there is exposed copper.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
244
245
Timing Relay
Timing Relays energize contacts for a specific amount of time based on the adjustable setting. Contacts are timed on and off.
246
M2
20A
M1 E M2
TR2 TR1
A B TR C D E
A E
C D
Start Button
Reset Button
Stop Button
M
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
247
Manual Breakers
Manual breakers are shut locally at the switchboard. Magnetic circuit breakers are shut remotely from a control station.
249
Doorbell
250
Buzzer Circuit
251
Shielding is done using the permeability of some other substance. Magnetic lines of force flow through the path of least resistance.
Magnetic Shields
Shield
252
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
253
254
Conclusion
Q. How does a relay work? A. Coil energizes, armature engages, secondary contact shuts/opens. Q. When would a use a magnetic circuit breaker? A. Used in electric plants to parallel generators and switchboards. Q. What is the LHR for conductors? A. Fingers: wrap around coil. Thumb: points in direction of current.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Diodes
Impurity Atoms: Trivalent: Boron (B), Aluminum (Al), Gallium (Ga), Indium (ln). Has three (3) valence electrons. Known as an Acceptor Impurity. Pentavalent: Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi). Has five (5) valence electrons. Known as a Donor Impurity.
256
PN Material
N - Type Material: Pure base material doped with a Donor Impurity. Majority Current Carrier: Electrons Minority Current Carrier: Holes P - Type Material: Pure base material doped with an Acceptor Impurity. Majority Current Carrier: Holes Minority Current Carrier: Electrons
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
257
Construction
Old Method: Grown Crystals. Newer Methods: Alloy Fused: N & P material made using heat / pressure. Diffused: N & P gas and heat. Both methods are used to produce a PN Junction.
258
Questions
Q) What is meant by a donor impurity? A) 5 valiant electrons in outer shell. Q) What are 4 examples of a donor impurity? A) Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony and Bismuth.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Diode Definitions
Potential Hill (Junction Barrier) : Electrostatic field set up across a PN junction which prevents further combination of majority current carriers. The value of the voltage of the potential hill depends on the type of base material used during diode construction. 1. Silicon (.5 - .8V) 2. Germanium (.2V) Rated for up to 1500A / 3000V. Used primarily in Rectifiers.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
- - - N - -
Cathode
P + + +
Anode
Cathode
263
- - - N - -
Cathode
P + + +
- - - N - -
Cathode
Characteristic Curve
+I (mA)
Forward Bias
-V a -c
+V a -c
Reverse Bias
-I (uA)
Zener Diode
The Zener diode is a heavily doped diode which, as a result of doping, has a very narrow depletion region. This allows the diode to be operated in the reverse biased region of the characteristic curve without damaging the PN junction. Zener Effect: The area of Zener diode operation (<5V) where the Diode maintains a constant voltage output while operating reverse biased. Avalanche Effect: >5V applied to the diode while reverse biased which tends to cause the diode to eventually breakdown due to heat generation within the lattice structure of the crystal.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Anode
Cathode
268
Characteristic Curve
I (mA) Operating Region -Va-c Forward Bias
+Va-c
Reverse Bias
I (uA)
269
Zener Operation
Ratings: .25V to 1500V Used in SSMG / SSTG AC voltage regulator for the reference circuit.
When a higher constant voltage is desired, the zener diodes will be Stacked together in series and their voltages will add together to make the higher desired voltage. This is the case in the SSMG / SSTG AC voltage regulators where four (4) 6v zener diodes are stacked to provide a 24V reference to the comparison circuit.
270
271
Signal Diode
Same construction as the Rectifier Diode except that it is designed to operate with a very short reverse recovery time to allow it to rectify high frequency AC inputs.
272
Power Supplies
Components and their function
Transformer - Receives the AC input from the distribution system and either steps up or down the voltage. Rectifier - Converts the AC input voltage from the transformer to a pulsating DC voltage. Filter - Smoothes out the DC pulsations or ripple received from the rectifier. Regulator - Receives a smoothed DC voltage from the Filter Stage and produces a steady DC voltage to be used by electronic circuitry.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
1:1
CR1
VIN T1
R1
VOUT
274
275
VIN T1
R1
VOUT
CR2
276
277
T1 R1 VIN
278
VOUT
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
279
Filters
A filter uses the characteristics of Inductors and Capacitors to smooth the pulsating DC waveform supplied by the Rectifier. Types
High Pass - A series RC filter whose output is taken from the resistor. Series / Parallel - A filter configuration which uses combinations of capacitors and inductors to smooth the voltage and current pulsations from the rectifier output.
280
281
C1 VIN RB VOUT
282
C1
284
RC PI Filter Configuration
RC PI Filter Schematic Diagram
Charge Path Discharge Path VIN R1 VOUT RB
C1
C2
VOUT(C1) 286
VOUT(C2)
RC PI Filter Operation
First Capacitor provides most of the filtering action. Second Capacitor Provides additional voltage filtering. Resistor limits current flow to the desired value and establishes the RC time constants for both filter capacitors.
287
LC PI Filter Configuration
LC PI Filter Schematic Diagram
Charge Path Discharge Path VIN
L1
C1
C2
RB
VOUT(C1) 288
VOUT(C2)
LC PI Filter Operation
First Capacitor provides most of the filtering action. Second Capacitor Provides additional voltage filtering.
Inductor opposes changes in current flow to reduce current spikes and establishes the RC time constants for both filter capacitors.
289
Voltage Regulators
Series Regulator
Acts as a variable resistor in series with the load.
290
Vin
R1
Vout CR1
VIN
VOUT
291
Vin
Vout
292
Vin
Vout
293
294
Interest
In 1947, Bardeen & Brattain at Bell Laboratories created the first amplifier! Shockley (boss), came near to canceling the project. The three shared a Nobel Prize. Bardeen and Brattain continued in research (and Bardeen later won another Nobel). Shockley quit to start a semiconductor company in Palo Alto. It folded, but its staff went on to invent the integrated circuit (the "chip") & to found the Intel Corporation. 295
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Tetrode Tube
(+) Plate
Control Grid: Controls amplification rate & electron flow with bias voltage. Shield: Screen gridincreases electron speed cathode to + plate. Heater: Heats gas to gas amplification state. Inert Gas: Mercury or Argon gas.
Grids
Conductive Coating
The cathode is a heated filament (like light bulb filament) in a vacuum inside a glass tube. The ray is a stream of electrons that naturally pour off a heated cathode into the vacuum. The + anode attracts the electrons pouring off the cathode. In a TV's CRT, the stream of electrons is focused by a focusing anode into a tight beam and then accelerated by an accelerating anode. This tight, high-speed beam of electrons flies through the vacuum in the tube and hits the flat screen at the other end of the tube. This screen is coated with phosphor, which glows when struck by the beam.
297
Bipolar Transistors
History Created in 1948 in the AT&T Bell Laboratories. Scientists were performing doping experiments on semiconductor material (diodes) and developed a semiconductor device having three (3) PN junctions.
298
Emitter P N P Base
Collector
299
FB
RB
Emitter
Collector
Base +
301
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Emitter P
Collector P
Base +
302
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Amplifier Operation
The transistor below is biased such that there is a degree of forward bias on the base - emitter PN junction. Any input received will change the magnitude of forward bias & the amount of current flow through the transistor. The magnitude of the output will be on the order of 1000x larger depending on the value of +VCC . RC +VCC Q1 +
0
+
0
RB
Input Signal
304
Output Signal
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
IB Q-Point
Cutoff
VCE
307
Transistor Maintenance
When troubleshooting transistors, do the following: Remove the transistor from the circuit, if possible. Use a transistor tester, if available, or use a digital multimeter set for resistance on the diode scale. Test each PN junction separately. ( A front to back ratio of at least 10:1 indicates a 308 good transistor).
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Transistor Maintenance
This chart shows the readings for a good transistor.
Test Lead Connection (+/ - ) Base- Emitter Emitter- Base Base - Collector Collector- Base Emitter- Collector Collector- Emitter
309
NPN PNP Resistance Reading Resistance Reading (High / Low) (High / Low) LOW HI GH LOW HI GH LOW HI GH HI GH
310
Questions
Q) What is the 7 step troubleshooting method? A) Symptom recognition, symptom elaboration, list possible faulty functions, identify faulty function, identify faulty component, failure analysis, repair, retest. Q) What was the most difficult problem you ever troubleshot? A) Various
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Operation
312 Amplifier Electronic Switch
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
+
0
Output Signal
313
314
Input Signal
RB Q1
Output Signal
315
+
0
Base becomes less (+) WRT Emitter FB IC VRC VC VOUand ( More + ) CENT-112 Fundamentals of ElectricityT Electronics
RB
RC
+
0
+VCC
RE CC
RB
RC
Base - Emitter Circuit IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0 Collector - Emitter Circuit ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0
+VCC
317
RE CC
+VCC
+
Input 318 Signal 0 0
RB Q1 + RE
0
Output Signal
319
320
Av = Voltage Gain Av = Voltage Gain Zo = Output Impedance Zo = Output Impedance Ap = Power gain Ap = Power gain Zin = Input Impedance Zin = Input Impedance Ai = Current Gain Ai = Current Gain
322
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
323
324
++ o
Self Bias Feedback + o RB
RC + Q1 o VOUT
=
325
+VCC RC RB
+ ++
+ Q1 o VOUT CE
+ o Initial Input
326
RE
+
+VCC RC
++ +
+ o Initial Input
RB1 RB2 RE
+ Q1 o VOUT CE
327
IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA
IB
Q-Point VCE
20 uA 10 uA 0 uA
Cutoff 329
IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA
IB
Q-Point VCE
20 uA 10 uA 0 uA
Cutoff 330
IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA 20 uA
IB
Q-Point
Cutoff 331
10 uA 0 uA
VCE
IC
Saturation
90 uA 80 uA 70 uA 60 uA 50 uA 40 uA 30 uA 20 uA 10 uA 0 uA
IB
Cutoff 332
VCE
Q-Point
RC2
RC Coupling Schematic
+VCC 2 +VCC 1 RC1 CC Q1
335
RC2 RB2 Q2
RB1
RC2
Q2
RB1
RC2
T1
Cathode
338
Vin
Vout
339
SCR Schematic
Anode
Cathode
Gate
340
SCR Bias
When the SCR is forward biased and a gate signal is applied, the lightly doped gate regions holes will fill with the free electrons forced in from the cathode.
FB Anode FB Cathode P N RB P N Gate
+
341
SCR Operation
Acts as an electronic switch Essentially a rectifier diode which has a controllable Turn - on point. Can be switched approximately 25,000 times per second. Once the SCR conducts, the gate signal can be removed. The difference in potential across the anode & cathode of the SCR will maintain current flow. When the voltage across the SCR drops to a level below the Minimum Holding value, the PN junctions will reform and current flow through the SCR will stop.
342
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
343
The actual voltage value at which the UJT fires is determined by the amount of source voltage applied.
344
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Equivalent Circuit
Base 2
Emitter
Emitter
Base 1
Base 1
345
Base 1
346
UJT No Operation
When VE is less than or equal to the voltage base one to emitter requirement (VE-B1 ), the UJT will not fire.
Base 2 Depletion Region Emitter
++
No Current Flow
Base 1
347
UJT Operation
When VE is more than the voltage base one to emitter requirement (VE-B1 ), the UJT will fire.
Base 2
++
UJT Fires
Base 1
348
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Q1
B2 B1 SW1
VBB
349
+
1
R1 Q1 VOUT
1
RB2 VOUT
2
VBB
+ 2 +
3
VOUT
C1 RB1
VOUT
SW1
3
351
Lessons Learned
Video Card ruined from ESD < 20 V (Improper Handling). Bad Inductor in a regulator detected with Huntron Tracker. Slightly different oval.
352
Summary
Q) What is the phase relationship between input and output voltage in a common emitter circuit? A) 180 degrees.
353
Summary Continued
Q) What type of transistor bias uses both self and fixed bias? A) Combination bias. Q) What is the frequency response range of an RF amplifier? A) 10Khz 100, 000 Mhz.
354
J1 P N
J2 P
A1
A2
A2 G
355
A1
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
b . Schematic Symbol
Anode 2 A2
Anode 1 A1
Gate
356
c . Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Reverse Breakover Voltage Breakback Voltage
V A2-A1
Forward Breakover Voltage
357
d . Characteristics
1 . More vigorous switching characteristic. V to almost zero. 2 . More temperature stable. 3 . More symmetrical wave form output. 4 . Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits.
e . Theory
1 . Lower breakover voltages than Diac. (+/- 8V is most popular). 2 . SBS has more pronounced Negative Resistance region. 3 . Its decline in voltages is more drastic after it enters the conductive state.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
f . Operation
1 . As shown below, if a zener diode is placed in the gate circuit between G and A1, the forward breakover voltage (+VBO) can be altered to approximately that of the zener voltage (VZ).
a . -VBO is unaffected. SBS A2 A1
G 359
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
2 . Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Reverse Breakover Voltage Breakback Voltage
V A2-A1
Forward Breakover Voltage
360
Anode
Cathode P N P N
Gate
361
b . Schematic Symbol
Anode
Cathode
Gate
362
c Theory
1 Similar to the four (4) layer diode except the +VBO can be altered by using the gate terminal voltage.
d Operation
-V A-C
V A-C
363
6 . Varactor
a . Construction
364
b . Theory
1 . For testing purposes, a front to back ratio of 10:1 is considered normal. 2 . The size of the depletion region in a varactor diode is directly proportional to the amount of bias applied.
a . As forward bias increases, capacitance (Depletion region) decreases. b . As reverse bias increases, capacitance (Depletion region) increases.
3 . In the capacitance equation below, it is shown that only the distance between plates can be changed.
C=
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Where: A = Plate Area k = Constant Ak d = Distance between plates d CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
a . An increase in reverse bias increases the width of the gap (d) which reduces the capacitance of the PN junction and vice versa.
4 . Advantage: Allows DC voltage to be used to tune a circuit for simple remote control or automatic tuning function.
c . Operation
1 . used to replace old style variable capacitor tuning circuits. 2 . They are used in tuning circuits of more sophisticated communications equipment and in other circuits where variable capacitance is required.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Depletion Region 20 F P 3V N P 6V 5 F
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RC (2) RB (2)
VIN (2) Q2
RE - VEE
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b . Operation
+ VCC
+
0
VIN (1)
RC (1) RB (1)
++ +
Q1
VOUT
RC (2)
+
RB (2)
++ +
0
VIN (2)
RE - VEE
-Q
+
VOUT
(+) / (-) ARE ASSIGNED BY WHICH VOLTMETER LEAD IS USED AS THE REFERENCE
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(IE =
Emitter of Q2 becomes less (-) with respect to Base => FBQ2 => ICQ2 => VRC2 => VCQ2 (more +). Due to the
polarities assigned by our voltmeter, the difference between Q1 and Q2 is becoming less => VOUT (Negative Going).
b . On
negative going signal, Base of Q1 becomes less (+) with respect to emitter => FB Q1 => ICQ1 => VRC1 => VCQ1 (more +). Since ICQ1 => IEQ1
(IE =
=>
Emitter of Q2 becomes more (-) with respect to Base => FBQ2 => ICQ2 => VRC2 => VCQ2 (less +). Due to the
370
polarities assigned by our voltmeter, the difference between Q1 and Q2 is becoming larger => VOUT (Positive Going).
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
c . With the resulting output achieved, it can be said that a positive going input on the base of Q1 caused VCQ1 to be inverted => the base of Q1 is called the Inverting Terminal. Since the positive going input caused VCQ2 to increase in a positive direction, the base of Q2 is called the Non-Inverting Terminal. d . If my voltmeter leads were changed, the output of the amplifier would also change. The Inverting and NonInverting terminals would also change.
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INVERTING INPUT
NON-INVERTING INPUT
+
- vEE
OUTPUT
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c . Types of OPAMPS
1 . Linear (Output is Proportional to Input) a . Inverting
RF
+ +
0
+
VOUT
0
VIN R1
+ -
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b . Non - Inverting
RF
+
R1
+
VOUT
0
+
0
VIN
+ -
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c . Summing
+
0
+
0
+
0
+ + -
+
0
VOUT
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d . Difference
+
0
R1 VIN 1 VIN 2 R2 RF
+
0
+
0
+ + -
+
0
VOUT
+
0
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VREF ATTACHED TO EITHER + OR - TERMINALS (EXAMPLE SHOWS OUTPUT WITH VREF CONNECTED TO THE NON-INVERTING TERMINAL.)
+
VIN
0
VREF
+ +
VREF VOUT
+
VOUT
0
VIN
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b . Differentiator
RF C1
+ +
R1 VOUT
+
0
VIN
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c . Integrator
C1
+ +
0
+
VOUT
0
VIN R1
+ -
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381
N Channel JFET
--
N P
++
N P
382
Gate
Channel
P Channel JFET
++
P N
--
P N
Channel
383
Gate
Source
Drain
Source
Drain
Gate
Gate
N - Channel
384
P - Channel
VSD
JFET Operation
The voltage applied to the gate of a FET is reverse bias in nature and determines the size of the channel. When gate voltage (VG) is large enough, the depletion regions touch and drain current (ID) is cut off (Channel is Pinched Off). This is called the Pinchoff Voltage. With Gate Voltage (VG) held constant, as VSD increases, Drain Current (ID) increases and vice versa. This assumes that the FET is operating in the ohmic region of the characteristic curve.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
JFET Operation
ID VG = 1 VG = 2
VG = 0
0
388
VSD
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
MOSFETs
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) MOSFETs where originally called IGFETs due to the insulated gate portion of the the FETs construction. MOSFETs are extremely susceptible to damage from electrostatic discharge.
389
++ Drain
+ Source
+ Gate
P N
-Drain
390
P - Channel
Drain
391
NChannel
Gate
VG
392
394
- Gate + Source
++ Drain
N
+ Source
Gate
-Drain
N P
P N
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P - Channel
396
NChannel
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Gate
VG
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398
399
+ Source Gate
++ Drain
N
+ Source
Gate
-Drain
N P
P N
400
+ RD
G
++
D
RG
VOUT
401
RS
++ RD
+
0
RG
+VDD
VOUT
402
++
D G
+
0
+ RG
0
RS
VOUT
403
Lessons Learned
MOSFET ruined from ESD < 20 V static electricity. Computer laptop not working anymore when soda spilled on keyboard. Computer motherboard overheated when cooling fan seized due to accumulation of dust over the years. New computer BIOS chip ruined upon installation because not using the proper tool.
404
Logic Circuits
A . Boolean Algebra
1 . Developed by George Boolean, a 19th century mathematician.
a . His theories were used to develop an assembly of gears and pulleys to be used to drive a grain elevator. b . A Boolean expression is nothing more than a description of the input conditions necessary to get a desired output.
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Logic Gates
f Logic Symbols (Gates)
1 . Logical functions can be expressed in one of four (4) ways.) a . English Statement b . Boolean Expression c . Truth Table d . Logic Symbol 2 . AND Gate a . The AND function is considered to be logical multiplication. b . Any multiplication symbol can be used to express the AND function. (X, *, ( )( ), etc)
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AND Gate
c . English Statement - A and B equals Z d . Boolean Expression - A X B = Z, AB = Z, (A)(B) = Z, A*B = Z etc. e . Truth table A B Z
0 0 1 1
f . Logic Symbol
0 1 0 1
0 0 0 1
A B
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
OR Gate
a b c d . The OR function is considered to be logical addition. . English Statement - A or B equals Z . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z . Truth table
e . Logic Symbol
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Z 0 1 1 1
A B
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
NOT Gate
4 . Inverter NOT gate a . The NOT function is considered to be logical inversion. b . English Statement - NOT A equals Z c . Boolean Expression - A = Z d . Truth table
A 0 1
e . Logic Symbol
Z 1 0
A
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
NOR Gate
5 . NOR gate a . English Statement - NOT A or B equals Z b . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z c . Truth table
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Z 1 0 0 0
d . Logic Symbol
A B
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
6 . NAND gate a . English Statement - NOT A and B equals Z b . Boolean Expression - A X B = Z, AB = Z, (A)(B) = Z, A*B = Z etc. c . Truth table A B Z
NAND Gate
0 0 1 1
d . Logic Symbol
0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
A Z B
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
XOR Gate
7 . XOR gate a . English Statement - A exclusively ord to B equals Z b . Boolean Expression - A + B = Z c . Truth table
A 0 0 1 1
B 0 1 0 1
Z 0 1 1 0
d . Logic Symbol
A B
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
FLIP-FLOP
a . Logic - NAND logic
SET Q SET RESET FF OUT NO CHANGE (HOLD) Q=1 Q=0 AMBIGUOUS
RESET
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
415
1 . Set = Clear = 1: This condition is the normal resting state and it has no change of the FF output state. 2 . Set = 0, Clear = 1: This will always cause the output Q to equal 1 where it will remain even after set returns to a 1 value. 3 . Set = 1, Clear = 0: This will always set the Q output to a logic 0. It will remain there until the clear in[put returns to a logic 1 value.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
FLIP-FLOP
4 . SET = CLEAR = 1: This condition tries to Set and Clear the FF continuously and can produce an ambiguous result. Do not use. b . Logic- NOR logic
SET Q SET RESET FF OUT Q=0 Q=1 AMBIGUOUS
RESET
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
NO CHANGE (HOLD)
416
FLIP-FLOP
c . Set - Clear Flip Flop 1 . High Input Responding (Logic High)
SET FF CLEAR Q Q
SET CLEAR
0 1 0 1 417
0 0 1 1
FLIP-FLOP
2 . Low Input Responding (Logic low)
Q FF CLEAR Q
SET
SET CLEAR
1 0 1 0 418
1 1 0 0
FLIP-FLOP
d . JK Flip - Flop 1 . Logic Symbol
J CLK K
PS
FF Q CLR
419
FLIP-FLOP
2 . Truth Table
INPUTS PRESET 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 CLEAR 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 CLOCK X X X 0 J X X X 0 1 0 1 X K X X X 0 0 1 OUTPUTS Q 1 1 0 Q 1 0 Q 1 0 1 Q 0 1
1 TOG GLE X Q Q
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
Oscillating Circuits
429
Transistor Oscillators
1 . Tickler (Armstrong) Oscillator
a . Schematic Diagram
FEEDBACK
L1
Q1
3 4
NPN RC
C1
OUTPUT
T1 VCC
CB
RB
RE
CE
430
431
OUTPUT
RB C1 L2 L1
Q1 C3 RE CE VCC
C2
432
c .) Operational Characteristics
1 .) Ordinary Operation: Class C amplifier with self-bias. 2 .) When output waveform must be constant voltage of a linear wave shape => Class A amplifier is used.
433
435
Colpits Oscillator
Schematic Diagram
RB
L2 (RFC) Q1 VCC
C3 RE L1 C1 C2 CE
436
Colpits Oscillator
b . ) Operational Characteristics
1 .) Both the Armstrong and Hartley can be unstable in frequency due to inter-junction capacitance. 2 .) The Colpits has good frequency stability, is easy to tune, and can be used over a wide range of frequencies. 3 .) The large value of split capacitance (C1/C2) is in parallel with the PN junction and minimizes the effect of interjunction capacitance on frequency stability. 4 .) Two capacitors are used in the tank circuit instead of a center tapped transformer. 5 .) can change the frequency of oscillation either by changing the capacitance or inductance values. 6 .) No coupling capacitor is used. 7 .) Voltage across C2 is used as the regenerative feedback. 437
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Piezoelectric Effect
5 . Piezoelectric Effect Crystals
- A crystal is used as a frequency determining device and can act in both series and parallel tuned circuits. - Crystals used in oscillator circuits are thin sheets, or wafers, cut from natural or synthetic quartz and ground to a specific thickness to obtain the desired resonant frequency. - Crystals are mounted into holders which support them and provide electrodes by which a voltage is applied. - The holder must allow the crystals freedom for vibration.
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CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
CRYSTALS
a . Theory QUARTZ CRYSTAL
ELECTRODES
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT R CP L CS
439
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
CAPACITIVE
INDUCTIVE
CAPACITIVE
IMPEDANCE
FREQUENCY
SERIES RESONANCE
PARALLEL RESONANCE
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
440
b . Theory
CRYSTALS
1 . Property of a crystal by which mechanical forces produce electrical charges and, conversely, electrical charges which produce mechanical forces. 2 . Voltage applied to a crystal produces mechanical vibrations which, in turn, produce an output voltage at the natural frequency of the crystal. 3 . Crystals have a much higher frequency stability than an LC circuit => theyre used in sine - wave generators. 4 . Crystals are capable of producing highly stable output at a precise frequency. 5 . Crystal types: - Quartz - Rochelle Salt - Tourmaline
441
RF VCC
442
A0 A1
U302
S300
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 C Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q 10
B0 B1 B2 B3
A=B
D S Q
Q 11 R Q 12
U306
C Q R
D S Q M305B C R Q1
443
C
444
Improvement to SCR Gate Control D SCR Gate Control Circuit using a Circuit in B above Four-Layer Diode CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
R3
VOUT
Summary
Q. What solid state component in the UJT Oscillator is used for wave shaping? A. Capacitor
446
Multivibrators
Monostable (One Shot) Multivibrator
-VCC
R1
R2 C1
R3
R4 OUTPUT
Q1
C2 INPUT
R5 +VBB
Q2 0
447
1 .) Uses
Monostable Multivibrator
a .) Used for pulse stretching b .) Used in computer logic systems and Communication / Navigation systems.
2 .) Operational Characteristics
a .) +VBB is connected to the base of Q1 which places Q1 in cutoff. b .) Q2 is saturated by -VCC applied to its base through R2. c .) C1 is fully charged maintaining approximately -VCC on the base of Q2. d .) A negative gate signal is applied to the base of transistor Q1 which turns Q1 on and drives it into saturation. e .) The voltage at the collector of Q1 is then attached to the base of Q2 which turns Q2 off. f .) C1 is discharged to attempt to keep VC at Q2 constant. This maintains Q2 off. Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics CENT-112
448
Monostable Multivibrator
g .) When C1 is discharged, it can no longer keep Q2 off. h .) Q2 turns on and saturates which causes its VC to go to approximately 0V. i .) This 0V is applied to the base of Q1 which turns Q1 off. j .) Q1s VC goes to -VCC and C1 charges to -VCC. k .) The multivibrator will remain in this original state until another gate triggering pulse is received. l .) Output from the circuit is taken from Q2s collector. m.) Only one trigger pulse is required to generate a complete cycle of output.
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
449
Bistable Multivibrator
-VCC
OUTPUT 1
R5
C3
C4
R6 0
OUTPUT 2
R3
Q1 C1 R1 R2 +VBB
R4
Q2 C2 0
450
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
INPUT
Bistable Multivibrator
1 .) Physical Description
a .) Multivibrator that functions in one of two stable states as synchronized by an input trigger pulse.
2 .) Operational Characteristics
a .) Circuit is turned on. b .) One of the two transistors will conduct harder and thereby reach saturation first. (Assume Q2) c .) The 0V at the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 which drives Q1 into cutoff. d .) The -VCC at the collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2 holding Q2 in saturation. e .) An input trigger pulse is applied to the bases of both Q1 and Q2 simultaneously. Since Q2 is already in saturation, there is no effect on Q2.
451
Bistable Multivibrator
f .) The trigger pulse turns on Q1 and drives the transistor into saturation. g .) The 0V on the collector of Q1 is coupled to the base of Q2 driving Q2 into cutoff. h .) The -VCC on the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 holding Q1 in saturation. i .) This process will continue as long as there are trigger pulses applied to the circuit. j .) The output frequency of the waveforms will be determined by the frequency of the input trigger pulses.
452
Astable Multivibrator
c .) Astable (Free - Running) Multivibrator
-VCC
OUTPUT 1 OUTPUT 2
R1
R2
R3
R4 0 C2 Q2
Q1
C1
453
Astable Multivibrator
1 .) Physical Description
a .) Circuit has two outputs but no inputs. b .) R1 = R4, R2 = R3, C1 = C2, Q1 & Q2 are as close as is possible in their operating characteristics.
2 .) Operational Characteristics
a .) Circuit is turned on. b .) Assume that Q2 conducts harder than Q1 and goes into saturation first. c .) The 0V at the collector of Q2 is coupled to the base of Q1 which drives Q1 into cutoff. d .) C2 begins to charge. C1 is at -VCC and this voltage is applied to the base of Q2 to hold Q2 in saturation.
454
Astable Multivibrator
e .) After a finite period of time, (as set by the RC time constant of C2 and R3), C2 reaches a voltage value sufficient to snap Q1 on. f .) Q1 quickly goes into saturation. The change in voltage from -VCC to 0Vcauses C1 to discharge. g .) This voltage is coupled to the base of Q2 Placing / holding Q2 in cutoff. h .) C1 begins to charge and will snap Q2 on when a sufficient voltage value is reached. i .) In Summary, whenever a transistor saturates, its VC will change from -VCC to 0V. This voltage will then be coupled to the base of the other transistor which will drive the other transistor into cutoff. The frequency of the output waveform will depend on the RC time constants established at C1R2 and C2R3. 455
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics