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Background 1848 Italy became unified country divided in parts which fought together economy was backward agriculture primitive in Lombardy and Venetia were foreigners influenced by Austria no central authority after 1815 rebirth (Risorgimento) cultural revival, call for unification of Italy all agreed to be united 7 states -> annexation 1859 Garibaldi invaded Sicily and handed over to the king 1861 Italy became constitutional monarchy, king Victor Emanuel dominated by liberals for next 50 years it was new but still divided state Italians had no national feeling, 70% illiterate 2 Italys: Real Italy peasants, Legal Italy king and bureaucrats communication between the two was rare many Italians remain distrustful to the government catholic church didnt like the government too felt that their power was challenged many religious orders were dissolved, 1871 Rome was occupied

Backwardness prevented nationalistic feeling industries and agriculture underdeveloped, no progressives

liberal system brought some changes and introduced reforms most politicians were very wealthy and ineffective, corrupt wouldnt deal with any serious issue

free education was introduced but unsuccessful foreign affairs had little success 1895 Italians had clash with Ethiopians who won 1897 poor harvest led to demonstration 1898 Martial law introduced Fasci workers groups demanding change, more money, lower rants demonstrations

wanted to see changes in latiafundios

political groups were banned 1900 new prime minister introduced social reforms

e.g. 1 day a week off under 12 not allowed to work public commodities improved water, roads

1911 Italy invaded Libya success but socialists condemned it because it had nothing to do with ordinary people

Socialist newspaper Avanti with editor Benito Mussolini called for the end to private property and overthrow of the state

the socialists condemned the liberal government because the wages were still low, long working hours, low welfare benefits, the state was quick in crashing the oppositions, imperialist adventures were waste

1871 1915 5 million people forced to emigrate highlighted the failure of government

nationalist groups saw emigration as disgrace and the government ineffective

felt that the spirit of nation wasnt developed

Catholics wouldnt support the regime because the Pope was challenged by the state the Popular party (Popolari) established after WWI. catholic groups wanting social reform to reduce poverty

saw liberals as urban educated elite who didnt understand the real Italy there were also conservative liberals who would prefer liberal government

1914 mass outbreak of unrest in Italy

riots, demonstrations in cities

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the liberal state is facing two main challenges:

First world war Socialism

the war exposed the state obvious problem started to appear therefore socialists influence increased

the war divided Italy and led Mussolini to break away from socialism and created conditions for fascist to gain power

(Italy was part of Triple alliance, Italy left when A-H attacked Serbia) Italians did not want war but many of the liberals and nationalist felt that this was Italys opportunity to gain power and territory

=> division within the society Rome (govern) was now negotiating with both side (Triple alliance and Entente) they were offered land (S. Tirol, Trentino, Dalmatia, region of Yugoslavia + colonies) from Entente best opportunity entered side on Entente 1915 War

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nationalists were happy that they joined war but poor in the south and mass of people werent

people felt that theyre going to war for few people from other regions conscriptions about 5 million served conditions were terrible ->War of attrition (stuck in trench stalemate) rations were poor and pay was low approx. 600 000 Italians were killed, million wounded

2 major battles: Battle of Caporetto (Oct 1917) major defeat -> low morale nationalists blamed the liberal government for inefficiency

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government promised reforms so expectations raised

(Oct 1918) Battle at Vittorio Veneto Italy won victory expectations of rewards of victory

the victory at the end of the war became known as mutilated victory harsh, costly, not expected victory they expected Italy as great nation in Europe nationalists blamed the government Italy did not receive the territorial gains that they expected, only bits

Italy faced severe domestic problems:

Human costs of war Financial cost of the war -> burden on treasury

had to borrow from Great Britain and US -> debt 1914: 16 billion Lira, 1919: 83 billion

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Inflation -> savings of middle class were destroyed

Industrialists have done well during the war because they supported it but now their profits fell -> will effect workers

the end of the war saw growth in labour militancy strikes, demonstrations during the war very strong discipline but now the discipline is released and workers are angry at the harsh conditions of the time wages low, inflation,

evidence: 1919: 1 million workers took part in strikes membership of socialist trade unions grew

soldiers were returning from the war -> unemployment (1919 2 million unemployed)

Socialist threat to a liberal government: as the economy got worse political divisions increased the industrials workers started to join the socialist party the socialist party called for revolution wanted to get rid of liberal government wanted socialist republic and dictatorship of the proletariat (workers) even trough violence November 1919 elections universal suffrage

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the socialist PSI (Italian socialist party Partito Socialisto Italiano) catholic Popolari Party

32% of the votes taken by the socialist (at most at north industrialists) middle class and conservatives were terrified because socialists continued to make their traditional demands on economy

wages, hours, more control on labour

the socialists are not united and dont have a clear strategy government under Nitti (liberal) urged the industrialists to make concessions to workers reduce tensions

inflation continues -> food riots showing incompetency of the government

government did attempt to set up food committee

socialist threat spread to rural area - peasants were occupying the land government was slow to act -> the landowners are angry bc. of incompetence of government

agricultural trade unions increased demand better wages in 1920 the PSI won elections to many town councils

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now they control local taxes

between 1919 1920 increase in strikes called Biennio Rosso (two red years) fear of socialist revolution especially by middle class

this fear pushed many elite to support the fascists the weaknesses of the socialists helped the fascist to come to power in 1922

The Peace Settlement seen as mutilated victory damaged the prestige of socialists and liberals the nationalists/right saw the government as weak in dealing with socialist threat but also incompetent in dealing with war and peace the nationalists /right said that Italy should get the territory agreed by Entente agreed in 1915 but also Fiume in the border of Istria

(city occupied by Italians, suburb by Croatians)

Great Britain and US refused to give in (important for economy to Yugoslavia) Dalmatia also wasnt given to Italy Nationalists blamed government and felt that Italy was cheated they also didnt get German colonies

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many officers saw Italy being undermined by weak government and saw Italy falling into socialist revolution

felt that the parliamentary and liberal system was a failure and

Italy needed other system to recover

September 1919 Nationalist intellectual dAmunzio he seized Fume, praised by the nationalist and government did nothing government was criticised by nationalists he ruled the city for one year became public hero in December 1920 the new government (liberal) under Giolitti sent troops to Fume to reestablish their authority

dAmunzio fled and army took command of the city Fume remained under international supervision until 1923 force would achieve political aims in Italy dAmuzio inspired many fascists

Mussolini and Fascism he was a good speaker and writer

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put his energy into socialist revolution then became fascist supporter he wanted the war -> socialist disgusted with him resigned from Avanti and set up his own socialist newspaper Il Popolo dItalia he was conscripted in 1915, discharged 1917 in his newspaper he blamed government for failure in Caporreto, said that Italy needs dictator

in 1918 he tried to use his paper to try and create new political movement that would promote nationalism and social reform

called his newspaper as for combatants and producers (soldiers, farmers, factory workers)

March 1919 first meeting of his new movement the Fasci di Comattimento it appealed to all Italians Mussolini had no clear political ideology

1919-1921 Rise of fascism Fascism grows stronger 1919 liberal government fasces problems:

socialist party 156 seats after election Catholic party 100

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Liberals under Nitti survive by forming coalition with Catholics Nittis government is criticized over Fume (failed to crush it quickly) Nitti resigned successor Giolitti politically in a weak position

Sept 1920 engineering workers occupied factories in the northern areas in dispute over wages 400 000 workers involved in north cities Employers demand that government crush the occupation Giolitti remained neutral -> afraid to use force -> industrialists outrages will support fascists occupation collapsed after 1 month but weakened Giolittis position

In rural areas there were agricultural strikes and land occupation the landowners are feared of socialist threat socialist trade unions established in some areas

1920 local elections the socialist controlled 26 provinces (north and centre) middle class feared that taxes will be raised

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by the end of 1920 the right (landowners, ind) in north and centre began to take action which included violence they felt that the government has abandoned them

Fascist squads in Emilia and Tuscany landowners and middle class turned to local fascist groups who shared their hatred of socialism and attacked the socialists squads were usually small they burned down socialist offices and beat up trade unions in the early stages the squads were ex-army officers and middle class students as they attacked more socialist, members in the squads increased (small farmers, betteroff peasants) 1920-21 the violence continued especially in Emilia and Tuscany where there were very strong squads

the police did not interfere with the squadrisimo

the local fascist leaders the Ras build up their own power Mussolini saw the political opportunity of having his own squadrisimo he used his newspaper to publish fascist activities

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he said the fascist violence was necessary because it would save Italy from Bolshevism

Giolitti hoped that fascism could be absorbed into liberal system Giolitti offered election alliance to the fascists to produce an anti-socialist coalition in May 1921 elections Mussolini portrayed as diplomat and squads continue violence (p. 163)

liberals 125?? socialists have 123 seats catholic Popolari 107 seats fascist 35 seats

Mussolini is now member of parliament

Fascist supporters Mussolini managed to exploit fear of middle and upper class, particularly during the two red years then fascism became more right also young and middle class students, civil servants = Petty bourgeoisie

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industrialist afraid of socialism shop keepers, small business owners, teachers, small landowners,

Mussolini gaining support from conservatives 1921 Mussolini is junior member coalition government Mussolini needs to convince landowners and industrialists that liberalism has failed and that fascism would restore order he moves away from the radical economic ideas / social reform ideas to make fascism more attractive to middle class (see the handout) the government after 1921 was very unstable

Giolitti / Mussolini coalition lasted 1 month liberals were very divided among themselves

May 1921 October 1922 Italian government is unstable and cannot pass any measure to deal with industrial problems/strikes and there is collapse of law and order this is advantage for Mussolini

the fascist actions contributed to the collapse of law and order

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still attacking socialists

Mussolini needs to make fascist more united/presentable to conservatives in 1921 Mussolini works to make fascism strong political force he established the Partitio Nazionale Fascita in October 1921

Mussolini is leader of this party and

to gain support of the conservatives (who hate socialists and government) Mussolini changes his policies from 1921 his speeches talk of a war against socialism and liberalism he has no detailed policy he stresses patriotism and strong government he hates democracy and socialism he kept catholic on his side by saying that fascism opposes divorce and peasants disserve better

Mussolinis approach worked and his support increased (by end 1921 200,000 in party)

there was a danger that he will loose control because of fascist leader in provinces who wanted Coup detat (takeover)

he was also afraid that fascist violence might go too far he was worried that conservatives would want government to crush fascists

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he followed dual policy in 1922

saying 2 things depending to who is he talking to encourages squads to continue campaign of violence against socialists / cease of power by violence persuading conservatives that he is opposed to violence

July 1922 the socialist trade unions called general strike to make government do something about fascist violence

Mussolini used this to his advantage by restoring order if the government doesnt stop this industrial action, the fascists would

as soon as the strike began the fascist took over the public transport, postal system the general strike was disaster for the left poorly organized and collapsed after 2 days Mussolini present the fascist as defenders of law and order middle class and conservatives impressed

March on Rome 1922 most fascist think its time to cease power Mussolini wants to be appointed legally

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he began talks with different liberal groups about creating new government at the same time he talks to squads about possible Coup Oct 22 1922 Fascist congress in Naples

fascists drew up plan to march on Rome cease building in north and centre of Rome

Mussolini has his doubts and wanted to use it to blackmail the king under threat politicians would agree to make him leader of government said that fascism and monarchy can work together to assure conservatives

Oct 27 1922 fascist squads cease town halls and other key buildings success varied the reports started to go to Rome that fascists are advancing prime minister Facta goes to king to put Marshall law into act king agreed but then changed his mind king lacked confidence in his government and was afraid of violent confrontation (civil war) with Fascists

king didnt have much respect to liberals and thought that Fascism might bring new spirit to Italy

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he decided to have talks with Mussolini king refused Marshall law and Facta resigned -> no government king asked Salandra (conservative liberal) to lead and form new government including Mussolini

he tried to talk to Fascist offering them few of government posts Mussolini refused

Mussolini would accept nothing but a post of prime minister other liberals are opposing Salandra -> in-fighting among liberals

king relies he needs to find someone who would form a government Salandra is facing too much opposition 29th October 1922 Mussolini is appointed prime minister

Fascism strong contender?

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Yes Many assets Controlled several regions Firm leadership End class conflict By smashing socialism they attract support from elite Benefited from opponents weaknesses Opposition was unable to operate against them Socialists weakened by unemployment, demoralization Peoples fears of socialism confirmed by general strike goal for fascists

No Fascism contained many diverse elements Divided at how to achieve power Ras/Mussolini Mussolini had weak base in parliament No support in parliament had to be appointed by the king Had to use threat of the Ras to reinforce his claims

Consolidation of power Mussolini is prime minister but cannot get rid of parliament has to construct coalition parliament the first government - 14 senior ministers

Fascist were only 4 liberals Popolari

liberals and conservatives reassured

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even though Mussolini had no absolute power, he was prime minister, minister of foreign affairs and interior

Mussolini used the threat of the left and breakdown of law and order and threat of Bolshevik revolution to request extraordinary measures

Liberals believe Mussolini and believed that any new power he would be given he would give up as soon as theyd not be needed

I. Mussolini demands from parliament to give him the right to rule by decree for 12 months could create law and didnt need to consult parliament claimed he needs this to create law & order and strong government he was given Emergency powers Only Socialists objected

I. Establish the Grand Council of Fascism this would increase the authority over his own party this would be the top body of the Fascist party Mussolini would make all the appointments to the council he controlled the fascist policy

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I. Reduction of the influence of fascist leaders in provinces he created a new militia paid for by the state -> private army composed of fascist squads

I. Won support of industrialists Mussolini announced he would not go after tax evaders

I. Support of the church by saying he would ban contraception made RE (religious education) compulsory in State school as a result the Pope Pius XI. withdrew support from Popolari -> they lost their political influence

I. Reformed electoral system parliament has support of fascist MPs but king can dismiss them any time has support of liberals, conservatives and Catholics Mussolini said reform needed to produce a government with secure majority

end weak coalitions

in July 1923 the chamber us surrounded by blackshirts as Acerbo law is passed

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the party gaining most votes in election (as long as they got 25% of votes) would take 2/3 of the seats

1924 General elections fascists joined with right wing liberals incl. Salandra got 66% of the vote meant that fascist deputies increase from 35 to 374 out of 535 -> majority opposition was split because communists would join socialists Blackshirt violence, Ballot rigging split in opposition -> helped fascists gain votes mid 1924 Mussolini is in strong position

Matteotti crises socialists shot Mussolini blamed but he denies it Mussolini introduces censorship on the 1st July and bans meeting of opposition Avanti walked out in process and when wanted go back, blocked Avanti secession -> assembly of opposition deputies

walked out and expected the king to dismiss Mussolini

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king refused because he feared it would strengthen the left and might lead to civil war

conservatives also supported Mussolini

Mussolini moves to Dictatorship Mussolinis respond to the crises was a policy of repression and concession

press censorship 1924 banned meetings of opposition political parties

criticism continued Jan 1925 Mussolini addresses chamber of deputies

he will take measures to make himself dictator

over the next year he introduced decrees to increase government control: Dec 1925

passed the Legge Fascistissimo banned opposition political parties and Trade unions

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increased press censorship new secret police OURA Special court to try political crimes Podestas appointed local leaders (mayors) led to control of local governments/councils

Law of Jan 1926 his position was made unchallengeable it destroyed constitutional democracy

Why people voted for him? Page 170

Mutulated victory weak government economy primitive agriculture backwardness prevented nationalistic feeling

by 1926 Mussolini was the dictator of Italy parliament is under his control and there is no opposition

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aim to increase his personal power he encourages the cult of personality Mussolini controlled the key institutions

King kept out of domestic policy, impressed with Mussolini took adv of that, ) Government not going to share power with gov., no discussion on policies, ministers simply follow his instructions

Mussolini held 8 ministries (foreign, interior, 3 armed services) it was impossible for him to monitor his own decisions over so many areas -> illusion of power

Parliament its political importance decreased over the years, couldnt discuss

all candidates had to be fascist approved in 1939 abolished

Civil services fascist party membership was low

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was job for them by 1930 the members increased

got support by rewarding loyalty Judiciary Mussolini conducted purge many judges sacked bc. not enough pro-fascist legal system no longer impartial he could jail anyone whenever

Local government elected mayors replaced by fascists

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extend his power to the towns and countryside Church shifted his policies friendly 1929 Lateran Packs improve the relationship between church & state the Pope recognized Rome as part of Italian state, in return the state would recognized Popes sovereignty over the Vatican compensation of 30 million Pounds for Rome

Mussolini dictator was anti-religious -> not controlled by anyone when seen as getting on with Rome increased his public support and prestige abroad 1923 reintroduced RE in schools, banned abortion and contraceptives

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Mussolini and the Fascist Party

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PNF would serve Mussolini since 1921 Mussolini stressed central control but it was difficult because of Ras

March on Rome was a degree of concession to Ras

as prime minister he extends his control Created Militia paid by state ensure loyalty Grand Council of fascism policy making body also punished opposition 1923 local parties purged of dissidents

Ras purges, people appointed to the posts Mussolini did dominate the fascist party good political skills PNF was not united groups held together by Mussolini Mussolini directed policy, not the party most of the party members were white colored public employees see the handout

HWK: Make outline rise and consolidation of power personality, weaknesses of former regime, ideology, economy

Mussolini myth (handout)

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seen as a great lover sent by god role of the myth to provide focal point for the people to rally around helped win mass support his personal prestige other problems were blamed of fascists, not Mussolini

Opposition and support strong control of the fascist party and institutions of state made opposition difficult and dangerous Mussolini had no problems with using violence or murder to silence critics by 1926 the Fascist squads had murdered 2,000 opponents there was a ban on political activity except the fascist party press censorship -> opponents had no opportunity to give their views dissidents were spied on by OVRA

could be imprisoned without trial

with such repression opposition was disorganized -> ineffective there were 2 networks of anti-fascism

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Communists tried to keep underground party organization within Italy had own newspaper Unita distributed anti-fascist propaganda leaflets only 7,000 active supporters

Justice and Liberty founded by Carlo Roselli worked from Paris and kept international press informed about repression tried to spread anti-fascist propaganda only few thousand supporters, small scale did attract attention of fascists, Roselli was murdered 1937

Liberals and Popolari were left alone as long as they didnt criticize the regime

the OVRA would sometime pick individuals and harass them to show that it is easier to conform

Journalists and intellectuals were encouraged to join the system journalists had their pay doubled and had secured jobs

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easy reward many conformed

Mussolini also used fear and self interest to destroy any opposition from the public self-interest = rewards e.g. party membership became more necessary to get a good job or promotion

criticism would result in exile at same time building up popular support -> propaganda (cult of Duce, achievements glorified, parades, education, press)

citizens had to participate in the adventure many did not feel the need for opposition in 1930s

there was stability success abroad no much of interference in peoples life

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Aims: to consolidate the political system to make the economy self sufficient Autarky to provide economic base for military strength

Economic situation 1. limited raw materials 2. North-South divide (N-industry, modern agriculture S- poverty) 3. Literacy level is low 4. strong link between industry and state

Key economic periods 1) 1922 onwards Economic recovery Mussolini had no clear policy except liberal economic policy and lowering inflation and limited government intervention 1) 1927 onwards economy weakens due to problems caused by overvaluation of lira 2) 1929 onwards Italy is hit by Great depression -> Mussolinis response -> more government intervention to bail out industrialists

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attempts made to establish Fascists Corporative state 3) 1939 Economy gets worse due to stress Autarky

Industry

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when Mussolini came to power industry (and economy) was at boom demand was growing in mid 20s

Exports of cars and textile and agriculture doubled in 1922, 25

de Stefani followed liberal economic policy there would be limited government spending which would lower inflation and also there was less state intervention in industry e.g. Telephone industry was handed back to private ownership Taxes put on industrial profits made during the war were reduced or abandoned pleased industrialists in 1925 Trade unions were outlawed/banned Vidoni pact

1927 is coming to an end and the exchange rate of lira is falling against other currencies

Battle of the lira

the exchanged rate was 150L to 1BP in 1927 he changes the rate to 90L to 1BP

this increased his prestige with Italians inflation went down which was harming middle class the image of fascist stability in Italy increased

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long term: hit the export Italian goods were expensive banks tighten control of money the imports of food should have been cheaper but Duce imposed tax on the imports to protect his own goods

the only industries that benefited was steel, armaments, shipbuilding he didnt but tax on those

it was cheaper to import raw materials

the battle was only partly successful

1930 World Depression large number of companies collapse car production fell by 50% unemployment went up by 2 million the fascist government intervened

they introduced public work schemes, eg. building motorways, hydroelectric plants -> created jobs -> increased money in circulation -> more demand -> more jobs

banks had were bailed out otherwise they would be able to pay investors

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in Jan 1933 The institute for Industrial reconstruction

gives loans to industry instead of the banks costs tax payers a lot but helped Italy to go trough the depression

Mussolini wasnt interested to improve life of ordinary citizens balance of payments dramatically improved still negative but better since 1920s

by mid 30s the living standards and general economy were suffering Mussolini was too interested in foreign affairs believed war was inevitable so he has to be prepared -> Italy has to be self sufficient -> Italy should be in complete Autarky

Mussolini encouraged heavy industry steel, chemicals, shipbuilding by making large government orders

the state control also expanded

50% of steel, 80% shipb. were directed by government

encouraged economy of scale allowed large major companies to merge -> monopolies eg. Fiat controlled the car production

when Duce declared was in 1940 the economy wasnt self sufficient problems huge budget deficit Spain, Ethiopian adventure, rearmament

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How effective was Autarky? Mussolini attempt wasnt successful either did become self sufficient in grain still had to import lot of goods basic needs lack of foreign currency because he neglected exports couldnt import needed raw materials for military because he didnt have the currency oil companies had to search for new resources (eg. Agip) no coal supplies, little iron, no oil increased prices balance of trade still suffered made it hard to import raw materials

Agriculture Mussolini wasnt concerned about poor peasants introduced in 1925 The Battle for Grain

wanted to be self sufficient during war poor was important increase his prestige and countrys prestige it would reduce the balance of trade deficit

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would put high tariffs on imported grain government grants given to farmers to buy machinery and fertilizers free advice on best technique guaranteed farmers high price results:

cereal production increased (doubled from 1922 39) imported grain declined sharply (75% down from 1925-35) Italy becomes almost self sufficient in cereals (but not in fertilizers) Mussolini could claim success

Failures: grain production increased at expense of other agricultural products (e.g. olive oil, wine) those declined because instead of them, grain was seeded central and southern Italy more suitable for citrus fruits was changed to produce cereals yields remained low small farmers hit by world slump in food prices

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because Italy wasnt self sufficient in production of fertilizers, cereal production declined during the war

cost of grain and bread went up because of taxes on imported stuff, he could raise prices of his own products

increased import of meat and eggs The Battle of Marshes

aim: to show a dynamic government in action to impress foreigners and to improve health by reducing malaria to provide more jobs to increase land for cereal production

to set up drainage schemes private landowners were encouraged to cooperate was already started by liberal government mostly show case passed laws in 1923, 28 and 33 on reclamation of land the show case: Pontine marshes 50km from Rome Results:

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very little land was reclaimed about 1/28 of what propaganda claimed there was improvement in public health 1000 of jobs created during the depression most land reclaimed at North, little at south

the rural poverty in south remained bad USA made decision to stop migration -> closed escaped route from poverty Italians started to move to towns and cities his aim was to created prosperous peasants devoted to fascism but this didnt happen

his policies didnt help to the poor, it benefited the large landowners (p. 179)

Transport clear progress but projects were not economically vital

poor roads remained in backward agricultural areas

Trade (see handout)

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What were the main factors that enabled Mussolini to rise to power, and consolidate his position in Italy, between 1918 and 1926. [20] dissatisfaction with results of WW1 Economic depression Political instability -> Develop point (evidence) analyse how it played part in rise to power Weakness of monarchy and rise of Fascism The Matteotti affair Acerbo Electoral law -> Explain -> analyse how it was a factor in rise to power Fear of Communism Elimination of opposition use of violence Skills/Personality

To what extend were the aims of Mussolinis domestic and foreign policies achieved between 1923 and 1939? [20] aim: to establish totalitarian government rebuilt the glory good relationships with church improve economy

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Analyse the methods used by one single party state ruler in his successful bid for power explain the methods used by chosen ruler why were these methods chosen? analyse the methods by indicating how and why they were successful in propelling the ruler into power types of methods could be:

legal or violent types of support sought and obtained ideology the nature of the regime that is overthrown the regional (and the world) situation

(May 06) To what extend was the rise the rise to power of either Hitler or Mao due to personal appeal and ability? start with personal appeal how it help him to rise to power then other abilities evidence

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speeches

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Fascist intrusion into the everyday life Italians banned to belong to opposition, trade unions press, theatre, radio and films censored bombarded with propaganda women denied the benefit of higher education and job opportunities limited regime tried to impose code of conduct for young women

upper class less affected enjoyed clothes, high life, party going and foreign holidays not all intrusion were unwelcomed eg. welfare benefits provision of sickness and unemployment benefits help for poorer families during winter

Achille Starace Party secretary (involved in drugs, rape,) one of the most thoroughly unpleasant of all leaders replaced Augusto Turati in 1931 whom falsely accused of sado-masochism his 2 aims: to promote even further Mussolinis cult of personality and introduce Fascist uniformity into peoples life

Mussolini called him cretin but an obedient one

The Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro

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National Institution for Leisure Activities to provide healthy and profitable leisure time activities and improve the quality of life of Italian people

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also used for propaganda purposes: libraries, providing radio sets, showing films club houses for local communities, distributed food and clothing to the poor became very popular and in 1928 control of Dopolavoro was passed to the Party by 1939 its membership exceeded 4 mil. facilities were more accessible in rural areas than in villages, however they provided community centres sometimes even replaced the Catholic church as a centre

Dopolavoro might be regarded as one real success of Mussolini probably because it rather focused on leisure activities than on the real political indoctrination

Youth Policies Use of schools and universities for propaganda wanted to create mentally and physically perfect new men and women had to deal with illiteracy needed qualified men and women to move with the advanced technological age Mussolini appointed Gentile as Education minister middle class favoured the grammar school which concentrate on Latin, philosophy and humanities provided route to career in the professions Gentile believed to better but fewer schools the less gifted received more suitable and relevant education set up standardized system of examinations

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schools were single sexed and emphasis was on physical fitness Attendance dropped by 100,000 in first 4 years of Fascist rule

revision of school system angered many fascist and in July 1924 Gentiles system was dismantled

serious attempt of fascistising education was made in 1930s a curriculum was made and new textbooks history concentrated on the greatness of Roman Empire,

Mussolini explained it in order to mould in children a real awareness of their duties as Fascist citizens

1931 all teachers associations merged into Fascist Association system centralised and teachers had to take an oath of loyalty -> Bottais 1939 School Charter

Bottai wanted to establish an organic union of party and school he wanted to break down the class barriers in the system and place more emphasis on science and technology

special schools for the children of peasants an craftsmen were created -> rural sector would benefit

new Fascist men and women were trying to be created this radical idea worried the conservative middle class

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experiment was disrupted by war it is impossible to assess how successful the Fascists were in trying to indoctrinate their young.

obstacles: church, teachers, parents however with government higher expenditure on education the illiteracy rate fell rapidly

Italian universities rose from 54,000 in 1921 to 165,000 in 1942

government control declined with higher education structures it was more about adding courses (military training, Fascist culture) and highlighting Italian and Fascist achievements

also secondary and university teachers werent all committed to Fascism the oath of loyalty prevented purge of teachers

Fascist youth movements youth organisations were most successful in inculcating the Fascist values into youth young people were more attracted to the facilities rather than to the propaganda message

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ONB (Opera Nazionale Balilla) was the new fascist youth organization but in 1929 it was taken over by Education ministry

some complained that this led to insufficient fascist aspects in ONB and loss of Fascist spirit influence by unreformed education officials

many joined in order to take advantage of the facilities rather than out of political conviction

sports and physical exercises encouraged, weekend rallies and summer camps

Girls enjoyed more feminine pursuits cookery, childcare had to contend with counter attractions from Church Action by catholics intensification of indoctrination in the late 1930s 1937 the ONB was incorporate into GIL (Giovent Italiana del Littorio) for all youth

Following activities organized by ONB

sports, propaganda lectures, parades, Saturday after noon rallies, competitions, summer camps

older Avanguardisti

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Girls

resembled those of adult Blackshirts (squadristi)

enrolled on smaller scale they also did rhythmic exercises, watched films, sewing, handcrafting

GUF catering for university students people joined for career or social purposes organized Littorialia (1934-40) contest covering art and politics

Did Fascism capture the minds of youngs? 1928 decree only youths who had been in the ONB could join the Fascist party 1989 about 60% on N youths were members, lower in S 1935 membership became compulsory

organization tied to school system teachers urged to become ONB leaders therefore members were disproportionately male and middle class because girls and poorer boys left school early and were able to escape

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ONB organized on neighborhoods so little class mixing strong position of Catholicism in Italy also served to spread Fascism

some complain that male youth became more lovers than haters were just time-servers, not enthusiasts

propaganda strengthened the regime because between 1910-1930 all Italians born experienced Fascist propaganda

the extent to which support of Fascism disappeared after 1943 when Mussolini was overthrew Fascism had limited success

Propaganda Posters!!

Cinema messages of Mussolini before films great vehicle for conveying propagnda few melodramas and comedies produced for general consumption each film projected had to have link between the plot and politics Italians films were banned from dubbing however foreign films had to be dubbed into Italian, otherwise rather banned

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Radio began in 1924 and expanded rapidly Radioballila produced however cheaply and therefore unreliable Dopolavoro popularized the broadcasting Loudspeakers set up in market places, schools etc. by 1942 2 mil. of Italians regularly listened to radio however some tuned foreign radio stations to hear reliable news or listened to Vatican radio and read Osservatore Romano

Newspapers self-censorship certain news that were to be published correct version of events Vatican papers increased circulation Milan based paper too 5x times more than fascist paper

Music had an impact on young

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Leasure ONB and Dopolavoro (see above) sporting activities, family events not only youth aim: to create sense of belonging and indoctrinate fascist ideas acitivities with fascist flavour shows totalitarian aspirations of Mussolini seeking to control all aspects of their life

club houses everything subsidized even holiday lot did join and it did won the support for the fascists but didnt indoctrinate completely they just went along

Rallies organization, order mass parades collective identity

Sports discipline to socialize people national prestige and pride

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Art unlikely in Russia or Germany Italians enjoyed at least minimal freedom artist didnt escape even though art was in decline, it didnt disappear Roman culture but also modern like Futurism

Propaganda gained a lot of support for fascism and Mussolini Wasnt as organized as in Germany e.g. Art couldnt agree on the style

Did set new values and influenced lot of young people Wasnt very controlled

Fascism and Catholicism church was for Mussolini important and wanted to secure it Mussolini settled the church-state quarrel for many great achievement of the Duce

Church-state quarrel quarrel over land

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1929 - ending it was part of Mussolinis initial policy of favouring the social, economic and administrative Elite to consolidate his regime

Fascism wanted to have clear area of conflict because it was part of their totalitarian regime

should not allow powerful alternatives of beliefs

Roman Catholic church encouraged people to look to Rome for leadership agreement with the Pope would boost the Fascist regimes international image church was more concerned with Socialism rather than with Fascism better than previous regime

also they shared:

need for order discipline respect for hierarchy the acceptance of an infallible leader and hostility to Liberalism and materialism similar approach to family and the role of women corporativism = similar to Christian stress on harmony

if the regime provides authoritarian state then Christianity could grow

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political treaty was reached recognizing the independence of Vatican, church was given compensation and Concordat regulation Church-state relations

Italy was catholic so Mussolini needed the church Vatican was centre for Catholicism worldwide could hurt his image

After the Concordat The Lateran Treaty of 1929 the church took part in the everyday life of Fascism priests participated in ONB activities Priests and party officials cooperated in campaigning against modern dancing, short skirts and decadent films Catholic journal urged Catholics to go and vote for Duces government church welcomed the crusades against Bolsheviks in Abyssinia and Spain

Some radical Fascism considered Concordat as betrayal of their aims some priests were concerned about church identifying too much with Fascist state good Catholics cannot accept Fascism

2 major quarrels between Church and Fascism

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1931 the government considered Catholic Action was extending too much into state so several its branches were closed. The Pope responded by criticizing the regime in the papal newspaper LOsservatore Romano. Compromise reached that Catholic Action would just run strictly religious, education and recreational activities (not sport) and would be more decentralized.

1937-38 over anti-Semitism. The pope and priests criticized the government for undermining Christianity by forbidding marriages between Jews and Italians

although Mussolini benefited from the agreement, the church gained more long-lasting gains

it continued its missing based on Christian rather than Fascist principles which probably helped undermine the Fascist propaganda

1930 considerable religious revival church marriages, schools and priests increasing careful church leadership allowed the church to weaken the totalitarians claims of the regime

Catholic Actions provided an alternative environment for its members

Rivals or collaborators? the concordat boosted Mussolinis popularity

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the strengthening of Catholicism in schools and the Catholic action gave another perspectives, which sometimes was similar to the Fascist but sometimes not (respect for human life and militarism)

THUR - Domestic policies specific facts

Women

Child bearing is womans natural and fundamental role in life and Women should be exemplary wives and mothers, guardians of the hearth, and subject to the legitimate authority of their husbands Mussolini

even though women were not banned from colleges there we few job opportunities and almost no possibility of promotion in jobs

some were employed in traditional women jobs (teaching, nursing) and increasingly also in factories

in countryside it was essential to the rural economy for women to work on land women were to wear simple, plain clothes and avoid revealing dresses, high-heeled shoes and cosmetics

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Mussolini was against women being involved in sports since it was believe that it can cause infertility

however, wives of leading Fascist leaders enjoyed clothes from leading Paris designers and French perfumes

in 1925 women could vote however only in local government elections remained excluded from politics

The Battle for births Mussolini needed predominantly young population to supply the needs of army, industry and to populate its overseas empire wanted to reverse the trend of 1927 increase the pop. from 40 m to 60 m by 1950 policy generous reward for married and penalties for single backed with propaganda, 12 children was ideal loans offered to couples and they canceled with every new child (6 children loan repaid) even though policies were issued there was no increase in the number of marriages and the birth rate marginally declined ban of contraception total population reached 47.5 million in 1950 (1940??)

Problems faced and how successful was he in solving them?

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lack of unity low birth rate

Critically evaluate the success and failures of domestic policy (22-??) (Lenin + Muss) inflation unemployment poor parliamentary system

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no clear policy first only to make Italy great, respected and feared

European policies 1922-35 secured position in Europe but not a lot of influence in diplomacy after humiliation in WW1 Mussolini wanted to make Italy great again problem: powerful and hostile northern neighbors

he had to protect his country against France and Germany they were in power / they dominated Africa any change had to be agreed by them

had to secure influence in Balkans achieved in 1920s, expansionist policy in 1930s to control the Mediterranean and African empire

Mussolinis renewed greatness in Aug 1923 General Enrico Tellini and others were assassinated during their work at Conference of Ambassadors (territorial arrangement of 1919 treaties) I Greece Mussolini demanded full apology and 50 million Lire compensation

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Greece appealed to the League of Nations on 31st Aug, after Greece rejected Italys demands, Mussolini bombarded Corfu Greek marines

under pressure from Britain and Conference Mussolini withdrew his forces on 27 September

received 50 million lire FAILRUES OF ITALY:

responded to pressure from Conference of Amb. hadnt received full apology not a strong political power in Europe showed weakness when having to stand against big countries

1924 Pact of Rome diplomatic pressure on Yugoslavia -> pact with them Italy received Fiume -> prestige and popularity Mussolini believed that he can now influence Yugoslavia Italy economically supported local chief in Albania to take over Albania was basically Italian satellite -> Yug. saw it as a threat Italian army on the border

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Mussolini was aggressive towards Yug. (strategic during the war)

needed to stay on good terms with Britain 1) stays in the League of Nation 2) signs Kellogg Briand pact 1928 - war could be outlawed 3) agreed to Locarno Pact to secure post-war territory settlements 4) negotiated with Britain to settle the border between Egypt and Libia

Mussolini was determined to revise the peace settlement revisionist 1927 treaty of friendship with Hungary / 1930 with Austria trained German pilots in Italy clear break of Versailles

1933-1935 Relationship with Germany Mussolini thought that if Germany would frighten France and Britain, they would be more willing to give concessions to Italy to keep her as an ally Mussolini was afraid that Germany would be centre of fascism and Hitler would overshadow him

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afraid that Hitler will take over Austria and the greater Germany would share border with Italy

1935 relations were at low b/c March 35 Hitler revealed the existence of the Luftwaffe also alarmed when conscription in Germany began again Mussolini felt challenged so he agreed to meet Britain and France in Stressa

agreed a united front that would work to prevent the breaking of Versailles this gave Mussolini important security against the Anschluss also showed Mussolini that W powers were worried, also that Germany would ally with others thought that Brit and Fr would be more sympathetic for him

War in Ethiopia (Abyssinian Crisis) the situation gave him opportunity to expand his empire successful adventure would bring him glory and strengthen the regime (ADV) and impress the great powers Ethiopia was an ideal target

not colony of anybody else

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not in the position to fight the modern war neighboring Italian lands are Italys colonies (Somali land, Eritrea) easier to attack Ethiopia

would be a revenge to Adowa 1896 where Italy was defeated wanted to be it his sphere of influence 1934 clash between Italian and Ethiopian troops in Wal-Wal disputed border area Ethiopia asked the League of Nations to investigate Mussolini sends a million army 1935 Italian army attacks Ethiopia Ethiopians are disorganized with poor weapons 1936 the capital Addis Ababa occupied and the emperor Haile Selassie fled to Britain

the incident made Mussolini more popular in Italy the League condemned the invasion but the people in Italy supported him the League put economic sanctions on Italy no arms sold to Italy, member states were to ban Italian imports but only symbolic because there was no ban on oil, coal and steal and the Suez canal remained opened to Italian ships

this convinced hat Brit and Fr were paper tigers and wouldnt use force

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look up: Hoare Laval pact

Relations with Germany after 1935 he looked more favourably at Germany by frightening Brit and Fr they might give more concessions by early 1936 the relations between the two fascist regimes strengthen Hitler agreed not to carry out Anschluss and Mussolini agreed that he would accept Austria as Germanys sphere of influence -> Rome-Berlin Axis in April 1936 this confirmed their friendship they agreed that Hitler would expand towards Baltic and Mussolini towards East Mussolini wasnt thinking about war

1936-1939 Italy was very much involved in the Spanish Civil war he supported the Spanish fascist to overthrow the government (see notes on Spanish Civil War, foreign interventions)

Italy would expand its sphere of influence, increase its prestige British fleet dominates in W Mediterranean so it was opportunity for them to gain more influence

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Nov 1937 the Rome-Berlin Axis were strengthened when Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact (Germany, Japan, Italy) they would fight together against communist Russia

March 1938 Relationship between Germany and Italy cooled Hitler did Anschluss in March in response Mussolini signs an agreement to keep the status-quo in Mediterranean in May1938 Hitler visited Rome and renewed the friendship

Sept 1938 Hitler demands Sudetenland and there was a danger that this could lead to war and change the balance of power

Chamberlain asked Mussolini to act as a mediator in Munich Conference he got very positive publicity in the news prestige, sense of power Mussolini secretly worked with Hitler to find a solution that would favour Nazi Germany as a result Sudetenland is handed over to Germany both at home and in Europe Mussolini is seen as the one who brought the peace, very good reputation

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for Mussolini this was indication that Britain and France are weak he will use this to his advantage

Nov 1938 Mussolini wanted to annex Corsica, Tunis, Nice (but later he didnt) French are outraged and by 1939 theyre rearming Mussolini knew that if he continues there will be war he believed that he can win the war (especially with German alliance) and that Britain might not get involved (p. 187)

April 1939 Mussolini organized the invasion of Albania hes trying to show that hes the key figure in Europe even though that Albania was its sphere of influence he wanted it because he felt overshadowed by Hitler

in response Brit and Fr promised military assistance to Turkey and Greece if theyre attacked

Mussolini saw this promise as aggressive move against Italy because he considered it as his sphere of influence

these guarantees may have convinced Mussolini to sign the military alliance with Hitler -> Pact of steel

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Mussolini was under pressure from government to back-track it was seen as dangerous commitment

Note sent to Hitler that theyre not ready for war

help from Germany needed Note ignored and Hitler insisted that they stand by the terms Mussolini was attracted to Germany because it was also fascist state and felt that Ger might win the war and he would gain Their resources were depleted since Abyssinia

1939 When Ger went to war over Poland with the West, Italy remained neutral (nonbelligerent = non-fighting)

majority of Italians were relieved Mussolini wasnt happy with neutrality but his regime wasnt ready for war

by June 1940 Mussolini declared war on Brit and France a) because by May Ger had taken Holland and Belgium over Brit and Fr b) if Italy remained neutral they would be faced with Europe dominated by Germany c) she would also gain nothing d) if she joined the war Ger would be friend and Italy would receive

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he hoped to gain as much territory as possible before the war ended Sept 1940 British position in Egypt, in Suez attacked Oct he attacked Greece both offences were unsuccessful by the end of the year the fascist army was pushed out from Suez and Greece Suez canal was closed to Italy Navy crippled by the British end 1940 Britain still controls Mediterranean and Suez 1941 Mussolini has to accept that German general Rommel as a Commander in Africa Hitler had no faith in Italian army by April 1941 Ger swept trough Yugoslavia and Greece so the axis powers were doing well but Italy was no more than Junior partner relied on Germany for supplies

decisions were made by Germany some Italian troops sent to Russian from but proved to be untrained and in sufficient East African Empire taken over by British in 1941 by the end of 1942 Germany defeated at Stalingrad and German froces in N Africa were retreating

by May 1943 the axis army were surrendered Allies land in Sicily in 1943 the end of Mussolini

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poorly organized outdated weapons (from WW1) troops poorly trained there was opposition in the country against the war incompetent 600 Generals use defensive tactics from WW1 strategic materials had to be imported from Germany (coal, iron) the fascist regime did not think the war is going to last long they didnt fully mobilize supplies were low coal, iron, petrol, bread (150g per day) peoples faith in Il Duce was shattered longer working hours for those in factories opposition groups began to organize (from catholics to communists) by 1943 the shortages and anti-war mood led to strikes

the allies invading Sicily mainland is in danger group of fascist persuaded Mussolini to call meeting of Grand Council of Fascism (1943) July 1943 the council meets and they voted by majority to ask the king to restore the parliament

the King declared the war as a lost and appointed Marshall Badoglio as prime minister and instructed him to restore peace

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Mussolini is dismissed and arrested the fascist regime collapsed Armistice arranged with Britain and France by Sept 1943

How successful was Italian foreign policy? look at aims: great Italy, resources from Africa, empire in Africa, become great power in Europe, Balkans as sphere of influence Abyssinian affair success at the time achieved the nationalist dream of war territory in africa, revenged the previous defeat (Edoa); consolidated his position; brings Italian prestige; gains more support at home cult of personality; support from the church (civilizing the Africans); more market BUT drain on resource; budget deficit (2.5 bil to 16 bil Lira); 250 thousand occupying troops that had to be supplied; upsets Brit and Fr; sanctions are imposed has to trade more with Germany; has to continue fighting guerrilla war in Abys.; their rule was corrupt and brutal bad reputation in Eur; Spain strategic ally, demonstrate fascist might, good victory could claim that defeated communist; win at the time BUT cost 14 bil Lira; became unpopular; had no financial value Relationships with Germany

what was the hope? Equal partner but didnt achieve Anschluss and N Africa affair (Ger command)

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