Somendra Banerjee 2010 Regular 12/09/21 1

Velocity
Velocity = displacement = dx
Time dt

S.I unit of velocity is M/sec

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Velocity Measurement
 Displacement, velocity, and acceleration
measurement can be grouped together
under the heading of motion
measurement. However, depending on the
importance and techniques involved in
their measurement different “heads” are
maintained.

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 Types of velocity
 Velocity is of two types:-
1. Linear velocity
2. Angular velocity

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Methods for measurement of
velocity
 There are different methods for
measurement of both the types.
 For linear velocity, the most commonly
used method is measurement of velocity by
electro-magnetic transducer.

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 Further electro-magnetic transducer
classified into two categories.
1. Moving Magnet Type
2. Moving coil Type

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 For angular velocity measurement, we uses
the Tachometers which may be either
mechanical or electrical type.

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 Measurement of linear
velocity
 As we discuss above, the most commonly
used transducer for measurement of linear
velocity is the electro-magnetic transducer.
This transducer utilizes the voltage
produced in a coil due to change in flux,
which resulting from change in reluctance.

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 Now reluctance will change due to
change in air gap, and air gap change
will directly proportional to the
velocity of the object connected with
the transducer. That means induced
voltage will be directly proportional to
the velocity which to be measured. i.e
Eo α velocity.

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 Thus this transducer is velocity sensitive.
 As we discuss above, electro-magnetic
transducers are of two types
1. Moving magnet type
2. Moving coil type

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 Moving magnet type
 In electromagnetic transducers a permanent
magnet is use which provides a constant
magnetic field. But when that magnet
moves then flux changes with respect to the
coils that’s why emf induced in coils,
surrounding to that magnet.

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Diagram of moving magnet
type

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 In this transducer, the sensing element is
magnetic rod, that magnet coupled with the
device whose velocity is being measured.
There is a coil surrounding the permanent
magnet. The motion of that magnet induced
a voltage in the coil and the amplitude of
the voltage is directly proportional to the
velocity.

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 The polarity of the output voltage
determines the direction of motion. The
polarity of this transducer is stated in
terms of mV/mm-sec.

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 Advantages of the moving
magnet type
1. the maintenance require for this
transducer is negligible, because there is
no mechanical surfaces or contacts.
2. The output voltage is linearly
proportional to velocity.
3. These transducer can be used as event
markers as they are robust and
inexpensive to manufacture.

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 Disadvantages of moving
magnet type
1. The performance of these transducers are
adversely affected by stray magnetic fields.
These fields cause noise.
2. The frequency response is usually limited
and is stated.
3. These transducers are not very useful for
measurement of vibrations as their
calibration deteriorates as contact with steel
tools etc leads to progressive
demagnetization.

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 Moving coil type velocity
transducer
 The another form of velocity measurement
transducer is moving coil type. Though its principle
of operation is same as moving iron type but as in
this transducer the moving part is coil so it is more
beneficial in comparison to moving magnet type.
Means in this transducers the function of magnet
and the coil are reversed. And in this case also the
emf induced in coil due to relative change of flux
and the coil, and that emf will linearly proportional
to the velocity to be measured.

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 Working of moving coil type
transducer
 In this type of velocity transducer, there is a
pivoted arm on which a coil is mounted. A mass
is attached at the end of the arm. The velocity to
be measured is applied to the arm and therefore
the coil moves in the field of a permanent
magnet. A voltage is generated on account of
motion of the coil in the in the magnetic field.
The output voltage is proportional to the
velocity.

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 This type of transducer is generally used
for measurement of velocities developed
in a linear, sinusoidal or random manner.
Damping is obtained electrically, thus
assuring high stability under varying
temperature conditions.

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Schematic diagram of moving coil
type velocity transducer

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 Advantages of moving coil type
transducer

1. This is a more satisfactory arrangement as the

system now forms a closed magnetic circuit with a
constant air gap.
2. The whole device is contained in an antimagnetic
case which reduces the effects of stray magnetic
fields.

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Seismic type velocity transducer
 This is the another type of velocity measuring
transducer, which is mainly used to measure the
vibration in the devices.
 In this type of construction a permanent magnet is
supported between two springs and fitted with low
friction bearing rings. When this transducer is attached
to an object which is vibrating at a frequency that is
greater than the low natural frequency of the
transducer, then the coils surrounding the magnet
vibrate but as the magnet connected with the spring it
is remain stationary in space.

12/09/21
 Now due to the movement of coil with
respect to magnet a emf induced in the
coil which proportional to the amplitude of
vibration. The frequency of output is equal
to the frequency of the vibration.

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 Disadvantages of moving coil
and seismic type

 Both moving coil and seismic transducers

have the disadvantage that the
connections must be made to the moving
member.

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 Schematic diagram of
Seismic type velocity
transducer

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 Measurement of Angular
Velocity
In many cases the only way to measure
linear velocity is to convert it into angular
velocity. For example a speedometer uses
the wheel rotational speed to measure the
linear speed. Actually the disadvantage of
measurement of linear velocity arises
because a fixed reference must be used and
if the moving object has to travel distances,
the detection becomes impossible.
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 Measurement of angular velocity can
be made with tachometers which may
be either mechanical type or electrical
type.

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 Electrical tachometers
 The electrical tachometers are preferred
over mechanical tachometer for all
applications as these tachometers offer all
the advantages associated with electrical
transducers. Mainly the tachometers used
for velocity measurement are the
tachometer generator which are also known
as tachogenerators.

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Electromagnetic tachometer
generators
 There are two types of electromagnetic
tachogenerators.
1. D.C tachogenerator
2. A.C tachogenerator.

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 D.C Tachogenerator
 D.C tachogenerator consist of a small armature
which is coupled to the machine whose speed
is to be measured. This armature revolves in
the field of a permanent magnet. The emf
generated is proportional to the product of flux
and speed. Since the flux of the permanent
magnet is constant, the voltage generated is
constant, the voltage generated is proportional
to speed. The polarity of output voltage
indicates the direction of rotation.

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 That emf is measured with the help of a
moving coil voltmeter having a uniform
scale and calibrated directly in terms of
speed.
 A series resistance is used in the circuit for
purpose of limiting the current from the
generator in the event of a short circuit on
the output side.

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Schematic diagram of D.C tachogenerator is
as shown below

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 Advantages of D.C
tachogenerator

1. The direction of rotation is directly

indicated by the polarity of the output
voltage.
2. The output voltage is typically 10mV/rpm
and can be measured with conventional
type D.C voltmeter.

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 Disadvantages

1. Brushes on small tachometer generator

often produce maintenance problems, as
their contact resistance may vary and
produce appreciable error. Thus the
commutator and the brushes require
periodic maintenance.
2. The input resistance of meter should be
very high as compared with output of
generator.

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 A.C tachometer generators
 The disadvantages of D.C tachometer due
commutator segment can be remove by
using A.C tachogenerator. In this
tachogenerator the magnet is of rotating
type, that magnet may be either a permanent
magnet or an electromagnet. In this case coil
is wounded on stator, and magnet or field
winding on rotor, and therefore the problems
associated with commutator are absent.

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 Due to the rotating magnet the emf will
induced in stator coil. The amplitude and
frequency of this emf both are proportional
to the speed of rotation. Thus either
amplitude or frequency of induced emf
may be used as a measure of rotational
speed.

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 Schematic diagram of A.C
tachogenerator is shown as below

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 Limitation of measuring the angular
velocity by A.C tachogenerator
1. The difficulty with this system is that at
low speed the frequency of output voltage
is low and hence it is very difficult to
smooth out the ripples in the output
voltage.
2. At high speeds, the frequency increases
and therefore, the impedance of the coils
of tachogenerator increases.

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 Mainly we use frequency of induced voltage
to measure the velocity, as frequency is not
affected by temperature, impedance of
meters, and other systematic errors that can
be affect the voltage readings.

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 Drag cup rotor A.C

tachogenerator
It is another type of A.C tachogenerator. In
this case two stator field windings are
mounted at right angles to each other i.e
they are in space quadrature with each
other. The two windings are called
1. Reference winding.
2. Quadrature winding.

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 The tachometer rotor is a thin aluminium
cup called drag cup that rotates in the air
gap of field structure. This cup, which has
low interia and made of a high conductive
material proves to be a uniformly short
circuited conductor.

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 Now we apply a voltage in reference
winding, due to that voltage a emf will
induced in rotor, due to that emf a current
will induced, and that current has its own
flux. Now as the rotor is rotating that
means its flux is also rotating, that means
the flux will changes w.r.t qudrature
winding. Due to that change in flux a emf
will induced in qudrature winding. That
emf will directly proportional to velocity.
Therefore with the help of that emf we can
directly measure the velocity.
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Schematic diagram of drag cup
rotor

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Advantages of drag cup rotor A.C
tachogenerator
1. Drag cup type tachogenerator are robust
and are inexpensive. And, they require
little maintenance.
2. In some situations these tachometers are
very useful since they give a ripple free
output.

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 Disadvantages
1. The output voltage is proportional to the
product of speed and input voltage. Thus,
in order that the calibration of the
tachometer holds good, the input voltage
should be maintained absolutely constant.
2. These tachometer are hard to calibrate.
3. At high speed there exists a non linearity
between output voltage and the input
speed.
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 Digital Method Of Velocity
Measurement
 The Electromechanical methods for
measurement of angular velocity are
satisfactory up to about a speed of 10,000
RPM.Higher speed measurement are possible
with Digital methods which work in
conjunction with digital frequency meter.
 
Types Of Digital Method

There are two types of Digital methods

1.Photo electric type
2. Inductive Type
 Photo Electric Tachometer

This method of measuring speed of rotation

consists of mounting an opaque disc on the
rotating shaft .The disc has a number of
equidistant holes on its periphery. At one side
of the disc a Light source is fixed and at the
other side of the disc a light sensor such as
photo tube or some photo sensitive semi
conducting device is placed.
Diagram Of Photo Electric
Tachometer

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When the opaque portion of the disc is
between the light source and the light sensor
the light sensor is unilluminated and produces
no output. But when a hole appears between
the two the light falling upon the sensor
produces an output pulse.
 The pulse rate can be measured by an
electronic counter which can be directly
calibrated in terms of speed. The frequency at
which these pulses are produced depends
upon the number of holes in the disc and its
speed of rotation.
 Advantages Of Photo Electric
Tachometer
 The output format is digital and this means
that if tachometer is a part of a digital
instrumentation system, no analog to digital
converter is necessary.
 The pulse magnitude are constant .This
simplifies the electronic circuitry.
Disadvantage Of Photo Electric
Tachometer
 The light source must be replaced from time
to time. A typical life time for light source is
50,000 hours.
 Toothed Rotor Variable
Reluctance Tachometer
 This tacho meter generator consist of a
metallic toothed rotor mounted on the shaft
whose speed is to be measured. A small
permanent magnet with a coil wound round it
is placed near the rotor. When the rotor
rotates the reluctance of the air gap between
magnet and rotor changes giving rise to an
induced emf in the coil.
 
 Diagram Of Toothed Rotor
Variable Reluctance Tachometer

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 This output is in the form of pulses. The
frequency of the pulses of induced voltage
will depend upon the number of teeth (T) and
its speed of rotation (n) .since the number of
teeth is known ,the speed of rotation can be
determined by measuring the frequency of
pulses with an electronic counter.
 This output is in the form of pulses. The
frequency of the pulses of induced voltage
will depend upon the number of teeth (T) and
its speed of rotation (n) .since the number of
teeth is known ,the speed of rotation can be
determined by measuring the frequency of
pulses with an electronic counter.
 Speed=Pulses per second/Number of
teeth(RPS)
 
 A typical rotor has 60 teeth .Thus if the
counter counts the pulses in one second the
counter will directly display the speed in
RPM.
 
 ADVANTAGE

 It is simple and rugged in construction.

 It is maintenance free.
 MEASURMENT OF VIBRATIONS

 Nature of vibration
Most vibration are sinusoidal displacement of
the vibrating member about its mean
position. A vibration of this nature may be
defined by its amplitude and frequency. For a
sinusoidal vibration the displacement is given
by
X=Xm sin wt
Where Xm=amplitude w=angular frequency
 Seismic Transducer

 It is also known as seismic accelerometer. The

mass is connected through a parallel spring
and damper arrangement to a housing frame.
The housing frame is connected to the
source of vibrations. The displacement is
sensed and indicated by an transducer.
 
Diagram of Seismic Transducer

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 The seismic transducer may be used in two
different modes-
1.Displacement Mode
2.Acceleration Mode
 Types of accelerometer

 Potentiometric type Accelerometer

 LVDT Accelerometer
 Piezo-electric Accelerometer
 
 Potentiometric Type
Accelerometer
 This is the most simple type of
accelerometer. The seismic mass is attached
to the wiper arm of resistance potentiometer.
The relative motion with respect to the
transducer frame is sensed either as a
changed in resistance or as a change in
voltage output(if the potentiometer is used as
potential divider).
Diagram Of Potentiometric
Accelerometer

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 The damping may be provided by filling the
housing of the accelerometer completely
with a viscous fluid or it may be provided by a
Dashpot
 LVDT Accelerometer

 The core of the LVDT acts as the mass and

two flexible reeds attached at each end of
the rods of the core provide the necessary
spring action. The reeds are attached to a
housing which is subject to vibrations. As the
core moves up and down on account of
vibration the LVDT secondries give an AC
output voltage.
Diagram of LVDT Accelerometer

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 The magnitude of this output signal depends
upon the amplitude of the vibration. The
signal may then be rectified producing a
voltage that alternatively is positive and
negative. By measuring peak to peak
magnitude of this voltage ,an indication of
the amplitude of the vibrations may be
obtained.
 Advantage

 The LVDT has much smaller mass and thus

has a higher natural frequency. Therefore it
can be used for measurement of vibrations of
higher frequencies.
 The LVDT offers a low resistance to the
motion than the potentiometer and is
capable of a much better resolution.
 
Piezo-Electric
Accelerometer
 A Piezo-electric material is one in which an
electric potential appears across certain
surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the
crystal are changed by the application of
mechanical force. This potential is produced
by the displacement of charges. This effect is
known as piezo-electric effect. Elements
exhibiting piezo electric qualities are called as
electro resistive elements.
 Common piezoelectric materials include
Rochelle salts and quartz.
 When a force F is applied to a piezo-electric
crystal it develops a charge
Q=d*F
Where d=charge sensitivity of crystal. It is
constant for given crystal
Piezo Electric
Accelerometer
 Advantage

 The instrument is quite small in size and has a

small weight.(.025Kg.)
 The natural frequency is very high and
therefore the accelerometer is useful for high
frequency applications.
 Disadvantage

 These Accelerometer are useful for high input

frequencies and their response is poor at low
frequencies. Therefore they should not be
used for applications where the input
frequency is lower than 10 HZ.
Thank You