Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AD NUMBER
AD893426
FROM
Distribution authorized to U.S. Gov't.
agencies only; Test and Evaluation; Dec
1977. Other requests shall be referred to
Air Force Flight Dynamics Lab.,
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433.
AUTHORITY
AFFDL-TR.71-75
R. A. KROEGER, H. D, GRUSCHKA,
T. C. HELVEY, ET AL.
THE UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE SPACE INSTITUTE
TULLAHOMA, TENNESSEE
C-)
MARCH 1972 J§ JJ
Distribution limited to U,S, Government agencies only; test and evaluation; state-
ment applied December, 1971. Other requests for this document must be referred to
AF Flight Dynamics Laboratory (FY), Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433.
b!
-.." ..,,,•...
w.••.. ,-,•s..-,,
... ... ..• ,..
.. ,,-•, • ... .. ,..... ....... - ,• • ... .. .. .. . .. .. ... •... . • ... --. ......... .. ..
'tVW
1 ~iML.
LOW SPEED AERODYNAMICS FOR
ULTRA-QUIET FLIGHT
R. A. KROEGER, H, D, GRUSCHKA,
T. C. IIELVEY, ET AL.
Details of illustrations in
this dooument may be better
studied on microfiche
Distribution limited to U.S, Government agencies only; test and evaluation; state-
mont applied December, 1971, Other requests for this document must be referred to
AF Flight Dynamics Laboratory (FY), Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433.
_.I
FOROORD
The program was monitored by and under guidance of Dr. B. 1H. Goethert,
Dean, The University of Tennessee Space Institute.
WALT ERi.
Asst. for Research & Technology
Vehicle Dynamics Division
1.!.
ABSTRACT
iAN
.--
,.,,. .. '.. .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I, I NT RODU£'Il ION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
1, QUIET I'LIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. SOURCES OF NOISE .............. ............... 4
a, Vortex Cores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
b. Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 4
c. Vortex Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. BIONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
III. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ... .... ... .. 7
iv
LIST' OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
23. Wv/•N
vs bl versus Velocity, 60
24. Wvs/Ww versus Velocity. 61
vi
Ink=
Figure Page
43, Sketch olf Flow Through Leading Edge Comb. 86
44, Backllow Generat Ion. 87
"ii!
- - -
I
Figure", C
(i6 i1-i1c. ('coil'tructl on of a lird Wing.
viii
416 Noll
LIST OF TABLES
Tablu Page
ix
- l~ !
LIST OF SYMBOLS
x
Pu Boundary layer power law exponent, dimensionless
P Position vector, ft
q Dynamic pressure, lb/ft 2
rll Reverberation radius, 5.760M(16iT) , ft
R Distance from camera to the wall grid, ft
he Reynolds number, dimensionless
2
Reference area, ft 2 ; Surface area, ft
S
2
Correlation area, ft
Sc
SPL Sound pressure level, dB
t Time, see; Thickness, ft
T Reverberation time, sec
U Velocity, ft/sec
V Local velocity, ft/sec
V Remote velocity, fps
Vs Sinking speed, V/(L/D), ft/sec
W Acoustic power, ft-lbs/sec; Weight, lb
xi
Subscripts
c Correlation; Coefficient
1' Friction
o Remote Condition
t turbulent
vs Vortex shedding
w Wake
QO Remote condition
xii
A.0
SECTION I
INTRODDUCT ION
( rP
flight clement to be the local point of the study. The only
types of flow neglected by concentrating on the wing alone are
those accoumpnanying wing/body interference, interaction of an
airfoil with a tur'bulent wake and possibly [flow at very high
Reynolds Numbers as would be experienced on a long fuselage.
The basic mechanisms of noise generation to be studied were
therefore reduced to:
(1) Boundary layer,
- -•
' = k " -- ...... . ... - -" -' " '
SECTION II
UACKGROUND STUDIES
1. QUIET FLIGHT
1
All sound pressure levels (SPL) in this report are referenced
to 0.0002 microbar.
..
.....
' •k-'q
• • . • • .• , - T•
- , ,!.L.. .• . - "• • •"',• "•-•• --. - "•
signal exceeds the detection level curve by a maximum of 18 d13
at 310 lHz with the resulting aural detection range being appro-¢i-
m.ate.ly 1000 fect over ta quiet Jungle.
2, SOURCES OF NOISE
a. Vortex Cores
b. Boundary Layer
4
c, Vortex Noise
d. Unsteady Lift
3. BIONICS
01
been described, considerable optimization has taken place and
much can be learned through a detailed engineering and scientilic
study of the present species of Owl.
S. . ,; ; ii i i .. -
SECTION III
IN -K- - 7.
4. FINDINGS
9.
induced by the diverglug streamlines near the leading edge slot.
The pressure drop created by the flow around the slat adjacent
to the vortex sheet generator allows the air to easily negotiato
the 180 degree turn and flow wmuothly in the pattern showni. It
is hard to depict the three-dimensional flow in a sketch; however,
approximately four millimeters aboVe the wing the flow is in the
chordwise direction and quite comparable to that over a conventional
airplane wing. These conditions can exist only with the aid of
the special vortex sheet. The wake is very thin at the trailing
edge, The weak nature of the induced trailing vortex sheet
implies a gentle lift drop-off toward the tip, The very cumpli-
cated flow pattern found here was seen to allow the existence
of laminar tip flow up to an angle of attack near 30 degrees,
This is unusual performance for an airfoil with an unswept thin
leading edge. The fact that the stagnation line is along the
comb at small angles of attack seems to offer an additional de-
sign advantage for high speed airplanes.
T I- P I
5. APPLICATIONS TO SAILPLANES
11
...............
where fo is the vortex frequency in cycles per second, V. is
the velocity in feet per second and d is the cylinder diameter
in feet. For application to the airfoil, d becomes the boundary
layer thickness at the trailing edge.
2
F0/m(27rf)
{A 1(f/f2 n)
J[1-(f/f 2 + C2-y(f/f n) 2 2 1/2 (2)
F /m (21rf) 2
A = (3)
1 - (f/f n)2
12
r
2i 2/3 cm
f = IP(5)
4Ym
V
0.185 - - - (6)
d V4
From this, the mass per unit span of the splitter plate becomes
m - 0.6 p d 2 (7)
Even for thick boundary layers, this equation implies the need
for a very light weight splitter plate if a flexible hinge is
used. Even if the plates were made from a light material such as
balsa wood, some additional spring stiffening would still have
to be added at the hinge line to increase the system's natural
frequency to the level of Equation 1.
13
6. PROPOSED FLIGH1T TEST PROGRAM
14
SECTION IV
CONCLUSIONS
15
'labs.
14-4
4-1
-4
.44
00
gel "F7'7 7;
0.8
SWA
KE
GLIDER--
HUMAN THRESHOLD
OWL
FREQUENCY
17
..... . ....
+50
FROM REF. 13
+40
E +30
+20
ATTENUAT ION
10
AMPLIFICATION
-20 - I1
1 10 100 1000 10,000
18
is-
-- low • + -+ +
-~ -Me -f - ---
- . "ftft
640
00
, .64
o.
100
10 NN
19 .
'.44
-p.4
A2
Q U
F- 0
~~4J
4-
w21
4w P- (D 0
Figure S. Double Exposure Showing Changing Flight
Configuration.
22
INC -I
UP POSITION DOWN POSITION
MOTIONO
VORTEX SYSTEM
23
, ,'
APPENDIX I
1. INTRODUCTION
a. Background
b. Objective
c. The Approach
4
This study relies heavily on the theoretical and experi-
mental efforts of such notables in the area of turbulent boundary
layer research an Harrison, Doak, Sharland, Willmarth, and
others. The results of their mathematical solutions to the
noise problem are presented without elaborating on the actual
mechanical details of how they were derived. Likewise, the
24
fxt'
f -aO
where
F(;x't,t'-IX
ao
t- I-i
a 0 I
25
__
- : ....
-. : • •:•
• .U • :• .: '.-:• - i.=,.,:••::': •- -:<,l : • • . ;. _ ..• • .• _ ... : --,,A .
is threetanrded tiiie between source fluctuation and field
response. With the assumption that tile field
point
point is a large
dista fceC Irom tile source such that IxII ' D and the dimeiis ion
of the source is small compared to the wavelength of the sound
I
generated, one may replace th• retarded times
a0
by
ao0
a0
8
1/sq f FW• ,t). •'(R' +,. , )dS'-.- 'F •"t F. x'(•+_ý,x,.t7
0
Doak [17J has taken these general concepts and the work of
Curle £18] and Lighthill [19] and established an expression for
the source function of a turbulent fluid nn an infinite planie.
"~.6
From this function Doak derived a formula estimating the oower
radiated from a turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate at low
Mach numbers:
W = 6•-poa3 SS
where
{ x',t)}24
2
27
The equation for power output, W, may now be written:
W= 1 1),8 l'tk7 1C
3 sC(Itaj c'it~d (3)
{•t(' ,t)}
and S as a function of ( p) may be replaced by
ý'
2 2t
- 12rw1•- f [p(x'
.-, ,t)] 2 'W.
2 ,Sc(X - ,p)dS.
12l•poao •........... . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . . . .5 -
28
which is high according to the measurements of Willmarth [22]
and others. A generally accepted value for this constant in the
Mach number range of this study is 6x10- 3 and will be utilized,
in the appropriate equations. This means that (p) 2 m36 x 10"q,
where q is the dynamic pressure, 1/2 poU0.
According to Bull and WAllis [23],the value for w2 .s
should be of the order 1/2 UI [20J. Substituting these values
into Equation (5) gives:
oUo6 U6
W =-1,2xlO- 7
r00 f dS' - 1.2xlO- 7 (6)
ao S a0
where Sgl is the lower surface of the wing covered by the tur-
bulent Boundary layer.
This equation for estimating the acoustic power output of
the turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate should be appli.-
cable to the lower surface of the Eppler 266 airfoil. Doak[17J
states that a surface may be considered locally flat if the
radius of curvature of the surface is large compared to the
wavelength of the sound generated by the turbulent boundary
layer. Since the lower surface of the airfoil could be approxi-
mated by a circle with a large radius, the surface may be con-
sidered locally flat except possibly at low frequencies of 100
cycles per second and below.
and
29
i CL 1 2
t ',t) = -=t" f PoU0
t(x',t)]2
1 2 4 2•.L(x
PS 2 CL
W
"48-ao S C
48ra 0
at -(
_c2 ',t)]2,SC(x-' ,- ) CL(
C f2 .c
',t)] 2 f. (;',CL)
[CL(,i ,t)j2
w fU f CL(R''t)]J.Sc("CL'
C)dS'. (8)
oS
30
The description of this integral in terms of flow para-
meters necessitates a certain degree of knowledge about the
flow mechanics by which the lift fluctuations are produced.
Sharland [ 2 0 ] contends that the source strength can be as-
certained by considering the order of magnitude of the parameters
involved a He states that the lift fluctuations can be related
to time fluctuations in the boundary layer thickness at the
trailing edge of the airfoil. On. this basis, it is suggested
that the root-mean-square of the fluctuating lift coefficient
should be of the order of -1/5 power of the Reynolds number [20].
The frequency of the lift fluctuations should be approximately
the same as the frequency of the vortex shedding at the trailing
edge. Sharland £2 0) contends that the correlation area as a
function of (' ,CL) should be "governed by the size of the larger
eddies at the trailing edge."
Thus if
[C L(1102' - Re-O,4,
then
L
W Po f u4.f 2 .(Re) 0 4 S(x, CL)dS'. (9)
487- ao
SPo 4.f.(e-0.4Sc
W 4:-fP U°4 f2 ,(Re) 4 Sc Svs, (10)
48ira s
31
thickness at the trailing edge. Since the experimental moasuro-
ment of the actual boundary layer thickness is extremely difficult,
a theoretical approximation of this thickeness is necessary. The
method of obtaining this thickenss is discussed in Section 4 ol
this report.
W . o
where
W GPR (018
P q(GPR) q AR
32
la b=............'J
the total weight of the aircraft and occupant, S is the total
wing surface area, and AR is the aspect ratio. Then
W W TUo( roU2o)f.
W 10" 4 MU5Vf1.
MU4 ( (12)
d. Frequency Spectra
33
MENEEIEI
oF tIhe wave length. Thoreforc, the spectral density of the bound-
ary .layer noise in the audible ransg oi' thie hIuman Cia Would b1
expected to be the result of broad band type noise.
(3) Wake
34
_.-. • •, .• • • ;..•
- .o U4of 2 (Re)- 0.4 Sc 1,0)
U6
Wbl - 1.2xlO"
1 o Sbl, (6)
a0
Sc M (rf/2) 2 w2
Po 42
Wvsf 48- °3oV (Re) ScSvV, (10)
35
S.-
Ww 5 1 (12)
W w I0M 0 U0 IP()f u~.
0 p
10412 f 2 RH)- 2 S (
W/Ww 1.04xlOp a 2
4
/ .36x10 (Re)- 0 { o2 2 (14)
Mo0
Tha c mion unknown parameters for both Wvs/W and Wvs/Wbl
are f/Uo and r. Once these parameters are kn~wn then the
relative strengths of the aerodynamic noise sources may be
qualitatively judged.
36
air and on the water table, the frequencies may be correlated:
if
F water 1
5 air Uwater
then
fair •water
f Uair'
L ,L
CL PUo,S.
CL 2W
37
Thus i I' one knows the vol ocity and how CL varlis witlh anag I u
attack, then It is known how thu eff'ectivo angle ol attacRk vavies
wi. th vv ultoiy. Sinco the watoe table gives only a two-d iolnslona I
model of the flow regime and the effect of induced velocities due
to the vortex system of the three-dimensional wing is not present,
then the effective angle of attack is equal to the geometric
angle of attack. For this experiment Table I defines the anglo
of attack necessary on the water table to simulate a certain
angle of attack in the air associated with a specific velocity.
The derivation of the C' versus angle of attack curve given il
this table was developoh experimentally from the specified glider
in flight.
38
Of
S...
_• •' "I• •'d • __j ...... IWM
drawing is included in Figure 16. The inner unshaded airfoil
is the NACA 652414 which was employed by the Standard Austria S
1963, The outer airfoil is the Eppler 266 which is utilized
by the later Standard Austria SHl 1964.
39
(5) Photographic Techniques
40
'M. 14b
(7) Reynolds Number
IU I U 1 "u 2 U2
1 1 f__5
U1 U2
and since
1U 1 - 2
42
.. -. ' -- - - - --- - .. . ,-
"-w .- -. . . .. ... -h.
. -- .
then
U1
U1 U2 U2'
*/ 1 n
=++-n 2 /h • (l.+n)(2+n)
43
t 5d 1/2 (n+l)/n
•1
(4
f L 0i
(c d(~
;r
Cf•. 1.328
• + 2.326
Re (20)
Uo 4o
U - 1] t 21_ + i. (21)
44
rI
The second component corresponds to the design load distribution
of the mean line and will be denoted by AU /U•. For any other
camber or design lift coefficient the AUo/b. may be obtained by
a direct ratio, The third component corresponds to the additional
load distribution due to angle of attack and will be designated
by AUa/UO. For velocity distributions at lift coefficients other
than the design lift coe2P-,.*:ilt, the ratio may be determined by
multiplying the AU-/U a! Isign
i.
e lift coefficient by
(CL-CLi). Thus, zhe final ;i;tio for the lower surface is
U, to1
2 AUo0 U.
U, ( l]]l+1} -(camber ratio)---- (C-CLi)n A4 (23)
oo0 i 1 00 i 00
45
I I ENEM
the water table when the flow was seeded with dye (refer to
Section 3).
With this information, a computer programi was constructed
using Schlltching's equation for the momentum thickness which
necessitates the numerical integration of the velocity distri-
bution over the lower surface of the airfoil. The results of
this procedure are later presented in this section in the form
of tables and graphs (refer to Table IV and Figures 19 and 20).
46
i I i .i- i . '-/ I
5. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
47
It should be noted that although the equations used for
the acoustic output of the turbulent boundary layer (Whl),
wake (Ww), and lift fluctuations (Wvs) are dimensionalyy corr'c,:L
they have been applied to a very specific situation and thoir
real significancp lies in their relative values with one another
rather than their absolute magnitudes. Again, the derivation of
Equation (1) is highly dependent on the presence of low Mach
numbers and thus would lose validity in a higher velocity regime
than that considered in this study. Also, a characteristic
frequency of vortex shedding from a streamline body would not
be expected unless highly unsymmetrical flow in the boundary
layers of the upper and lower surfaces at the trailing edge is
present. At the higher velocities where small angles of attack
are present, the increased randomness of the unsteady lift forces
makes the concept of a characteristic frequency more difficult
to apply. Thus a time average of the fluctuations is the best
estimate that can be expected for such orientations. Therelore,
for any exact calculations of the absolute acoustic output at
angles of attack near zero lift, this method becomes questionablu,
However, for a first order approximation of the relative source
strengths, this formulation of Wvs, Wbl and W should provide
a good deal of insight into the parameters affecting the
achievement of ultra-quiet flight.
48
.. ..
...... -
i14 INI '
IN U
4-4 VI
4-1
SF " l • - i i l~li
4 I '"1 :: 1
114r
i ' ... .'-4
49
k I
$0 0
v0 -
-HW
0 "q
0 I-4~J P-4
4) .i
05
-rr. , r
44U
.H
41
v41
4.44
44I
I -4
. .... 1.
VAL--Z
6"-4
t44
r 444
41.
0) E-
52
IR= Z
[I
53
Of
Mirror at 45 degree &ngle
35mm Camera with
. 7close-up len.
Plexiglam.
supports
Modfbl -- L:
54
4-, - U
I.- .D..4.1
to 4 0
oco
'4-I '
4) U)o
0 Lic
* -
0 ci
0 .41
It~ 0
P14
44i
550
water air
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15-
CL
J.lO -t I I ---.
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
56
),C .
o044] v•
(N
4-1
04 0
.i4
E, 4
00
'04
N C
co
II I
o 0 00 0
57
N,1
IDI
^ mw
m Nto
vi
H&H
.#4
A4JU u
>+cU
o 04-4
"41
Id1 4)
58o
-- Transition (xl/Uo.15) CL-0.135-----
S--- n it o (xl"=O. 3)
.3
LCLm -- ýTran wition
o. B. CL. 0. 96
0.6+
0.48
0.2
59
S.. ._ ,-Io
Sw
N
r49
co
0 79
N r-4 r4
I-I
TABLE I
Effective Angle of
Velocity in Air (fps) CL Attack on the Table
62
II
¶N1
RB3
I r imom" q'iPp
TABLE III
Approximate
CL Reynolds Number xi/4
64
!4v
C4-
01 0 1 t.
L.O ,-I - - -
04.
V. M M 0
mN
V3i * * . .
TABLE V
8*air ir
a*
(where U ( /5)
1/ Percent
(where C () 1/4)
CL
66
67
APPENDIX II
1. OUTLINE
(41 Flow studies over the wing by use of tufts and hot
wire instruments.
2, TEST FACILITY
68
The wind tunnel experiments on the owl wing were run only
at one ol,.er speed. This corresponded to the average flight
velocity experienced in the acoustic experiments. The relative
velocity profiles and the turbulence data taken for calibration
was at an average velocity of 1250 feet per minute. The fol-
lowing is the description of these results: Figure 27 shows
the flow calibration, The deviations from the basic calibration
speed are shown at each measurement position. A hot wire
anemometer was used as the measuring instrument. The edge of
the laminar section can be seen. Steady state distortion between
-120 an,' +70 feet per minute were found. The unsteady character
of the flow is shown in Figure 28. An oscilloscope trace was
photographed depicting the output of the hot wire anemometer.
Measurements showed that the average unsteadiness was plus or
minus ].25% in the low frequency range and plus or minus 3,9%
at high fi'equency.
5. STROBE LIGHT
6. TEST OBJECT
Two owl wings were used. These were both the left and right
wings from the same bird. After several photographs were taken
69
Wing sweep: 06
7. EXPERIMENTS
a. Visual Observations
The owl wing was fixed rigidly in the model mounting system.
The wing root was held with a clamp while the outboard portion
of the wing was allowed to remain flexible. Care was taken to
simulate the live flight configuration. The following observations
were made:
70
L oo -- A
i.U6j111n-_11 000 Q
of attack where the amplitude of oscillation
reaches a minimum.
The owl wing was tested in the wind tunnel using the smoke
generator to study further details of the flow. Photographs
were taken to allow detailed investigations of the flow. The
angles of attack and position of the smoke generator were varied.
Special emphasis was placed upon the flow in the outboard region..
Figure 35 shows a high speed picture with an exposure time of
0.001 sec. Vibration of the smoke generator pipe caused the
smoke stream to appear turbulent; however, this was not felt
detrimental as the flow in the high speed section remained
laminar. The exposure time was increased to approximately 1/60
sec. in order to better describe the streamline flow.
Figure 40 shows the wake being turned in, aft of the trail-
ing edge, The flow defined in these pictures is outside of the
boundary layer. Flow immediately on the wing surface will be
described in detail in a later section.
71
............ mg~~ig
c. Strobe Light Experiments
72
a 77 --
over both the upper and lower surfaces everywhere. An extremely
thin flow discontinuity existed behind the wing. The streamlines
over the upper surface curved slightly toward the wing root. The
streamlines over the inner parts of the wing moved more in the
streamwise direction. No effect concerning the leading edge
comb could be recognized at this angle of attack. Such flow
is seen in Figure 39. Large vortices separated from the tip
feathers and appeared in the trailing wake over the entire out-
board half of the wing. The leading edge slot was only slightly
open. The termination of the large trailing vortex system in the
wake occurred directly downstream of the slot.
73
" " s__. ..... .- '.". ... -- -- n• .: •[ ='' T ! :' l :Ut - : w-• :? . .• N . ..
direction. Thus the inl uonce of the leading edge combs in com-
bination with the slnt and tip feathers produces a vortex sheet
system that enables a very complex, yet entirely laminar, flow
system to develop.
Another interesting observation was that this system con-
tinues to work in this same manner at extremely large angles of
attack. Though the tip feathers reach some maximum deflection
position at an intermediate angle of attack the leading edge
slot continues to open over the increasing angle of attack range.
Laminar flow continued to exist even at angles of attack in
excess of 300. Turbulent flow and separation thus are effect-
ively resisted by the three-dimensional flow created by the
wing.
The final part of this study was to investigate the owl
wing with the leading edge vortex sheet generator removed. The
comb was simply cut off with a pair of scissors. The flow over
the wing near the surface was mapped. The counterrotating areas
were replaced by a single large system with the flow being direct-
ed inboard at the leading edge. Flow separation occurred im-
mediately aft of the leading edge and reattachment was seen near
the trailing edge with considerable turbulence being induced.
74
74
r!
r
1-40
0II '-4
*
U,--- -
0 -
E-4
N
.4.1
'-4
-*1*4
" .4.J
w
N,
134
75
- - - - -
r
76
I I I II I I I I
I~II'1 I
-90.) L, - I, !_ 4- ) -- I - I I --
o/d-l t - I - I -. ,• , ,
I. I• I I I I I , I I I I ,?, I,,
I -II I I i I t !, • I.?,
I. " ir. ,! I I I I I t I I, I '. I•
I II I• I I I I I I I I• I, I•,,
-(.1J~o) -(d•-c-Je-%o)-(.o)-So) - €,)-- ,,o -t.k)-6o - --+ ,)~-•.o) -(.,,o-(.,-qs)--&u
I/ I,7 IJ•, I t I I I I i t I I, I• I.
""**',,O7')-(-•)--.&"o)-%-•).-C-a)~--& o- - ,, -. -•.,--o-+ (,kle-.•-
,I ? II t I I I I I It, t I.
-- •-',,1'- .- #MO -,0/00-
•)-e./4o)) -, - AN * - *so.--v.b--, , .
,~. I q I• i I I I I I I
I I I• I I I I i I I L
l .. LI i I I I I I t . .i _
77
20 ft.pm
20 ft. pm
78
400 ft. pm
79
- - . . .... M.
rI
T,1
• ,f
80
82
C' 404
Figure 36.. Flow at Moderate Angle of Attack.
83
Of-- --
-: 777- -*
FrI
2nd stream
1st stream
2nid str~eam
J t"t stream
84
Figure 40, Trailing Flow.
TUBE HANDLE
PLASTIC GLUE
FILAMENT
TUFT
85
b,'I~Wk]
flow\
Ltmninar flow
Turbulent fl.ow and
very thick
boundary layer
A
C ý:: ýV2
V AZ
IV2 V2 "IV2
86
0. 0_. _,.
•"--•i'..
".... ...-,-.. . , ' .. . .., .. - ..., .. ..,",
. ... . . .. , • • "-,-- .-- • .•..-
V" SLAT
L.E.
OUTBOA RD
STHEAMLINES
87
APPENDIX III
88
2. THE MODELS
3. EXPERIMENTS
S0- 07 *-
.- ,- - • . : - .: -i - m, • -
surface-to the position and size of the splitter plate.
The first tests that were made were to establish the plate
length. This was done by cambering the plate so that it would
move to a predetermined position. A range of such positions
was tried until the furthest aft point of boundary layer transi-
tion would occur yet the laminar nature of the flow on the lower
surface was not destroyed. Several plate lengths were tried
until an optimum was found. This corresponded to a plate length
of twelve percent of the wing chord. It is expected that this
particular dimension will be a function of Reynolds Number. The
proof of this method of noise reduction could not be done in the
water tunnel. However, the plate did oscillate at a low fre-
quency as was predicted from the study of the Owl flight.
A brief and inconclusive look was taken at the influence
of porosity on the boundary layer flow at the trailing edge.
A cambered flat plate with lateral slots was placed in the water
tunnel. Flow visualization showed that the lower surface could
be made fully laminar. The wider the slots were cut, the lower
the frequency of the outer boundary layer could be made. How-
ever, no conclusion was made regarding the spectral content of
the inner layers. The total boundary layer was thickened, how-
ever, possibly implying reduced gradients and frequencies, The
application of this concept to a thick airfoil would be quite
simple.
This concluded the water tunnel experiments.
91
\ýDYE STREANI PLEXIGIASS WINDOWS
L i2
I
a b
c d
SCREEN WIRE
e f
g h
Scale- Full
93
0.0
FLOW DIRECTION - OUT OF PAPER
PIANAR SURFACE
94
I!
FLOW DIRECTION - OUT OF PAPER
PLANAR SURFACE
C CCCC
SENSE OF TIP VORTICITY
FLOW- ON
~~
POSITION -
FLOW-OFF ____
POSITION
95
7: 1 I
APPENDIX IV
96
77%.- 77 7- 71 1,7.. .
The measuring and analysis setup and its frequency characte.L-
istics are shown in Figures 52 and 53. The average reverberation
time of the test room is given in Figure 54. The one-third
octave band spectral analysis in the frequency range below 25 Hz
has been made by application of magnetic tape frequency trans-
formation. Samples of the resulting measurements are shown in
Figures 55 through 61. On the photographs showing the unmodified
noise signal as sensed by the microphone, Figures 55 and 56, a
1 kHz signal traced during part of the flight indicates the
gliding phase as judged by the observer in the test room. In
identifying the part of the signal produced during the gliding
of the owl, evidently the observer's reaction time has to be
taken into consideration. The time history record of the over-
all sound pressure level in decibel is a graphical logarithmic
record of the root-mean-square value of the time varying signal
shown on the photograph (see Figures 57 through 59). In a follow-
up analysis a reproduction of the noise signal only from the
gliding phase of the test flight was made and a frequency analysis
of this signal in terms of one-third octave bands was obtained.
The gliding noise/frequency spectra for the reported flight tests
are shown in Figure 60 and 61. The spectral sound pressure level
distribution as measured in the reverberation chamber is compared
with the ISO, R226, threshold of hearing case for pure tones. The
spectra shown are corrected for the ambient noise level observed
during the tests. This was done by using the formula
nospl nback
63 1 2
r [0.1
E V (16irT)' 1/ (2)
97
Of-
with the chamber volume V measured in cubic meters and the
reverberation time T in seconds.
98
- A..~hh~it - ~ .~-. ~ - . ~ .. -~ ..
Figure 50. The Owl Approaching the Lower Porch in a Gliding
Descend After Passing the String Barrier.
- 9
Figure 51. Double E~xposiure of1 the Owl During a Gliding Phase.
The Measured F~light Spoed in this Came is 20.6 ft/s.
Recording:
Microphone
SMicrophone [ Mrape
Reproducing:
100
pr
I
AI perI
'- 0
A4- 04
41 - V
* , .. ...-- c
.. ..
CC
0 UI I I
Lf
101
----- - -
.-
...... -
- P4
'.44
. - . .. -. . . .° ..... - - -
* -. g" 0....
10n
102
ri
M4.
'5p4
103
Flight No. 12:
Lo Leading edge removed
I.*- Glidin--mu
104
-Flapping Gliding Landing
-60 dB__
~~4
1 40-
I
- -7 0------
-77---
...-...
...
. ~ ~ .r. . . . - I.Lo-.
PigurFlapTpial oLOealaondinguur
Glcidiing
SPL 500d
P4~
0000
I:: :::I v
j ij
0oi~... ~
....... pl
oo it
A A Ae~oo
Auozr lid rUU- 4TAI
1r
It1 14 11 106
14 44
-0':114
4T. 11 Ii til I4
1H.-4
.4 4
~.p~eti~~ii~Iit..
I
0009' .1-14Mi ~
P-4
MUTPTT o 30 sp 'UTw p - pv -
107
Of-
"4-
zz
.P4
4
108
4-t5
4)bb
0 E-4
r4
P44
-- - ~109 --- . -
Frequency Analysis of Flight No. 7, Series II, for Several
Distances of Obeervation:
74
A~ S- P 30-dB
10-12 0-:-HZ 50 _100 -02 50:10-00 50
-- - ~ S30 SP JB;
-:
. . -. . . . . . . ... . .
........ - .-
O1f
10. 20 -Hz - .50 100 .200-- -500
rI
.1000. 2000-. .5000
Owl
FllhtlNoe,
-ý-Altitud
32 o
ft,
Serieise
Velocity
2-3
120
ft/sec
- I
1115
.- SP dB
TABLE VII
TEST SERIES I: ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENTS OF OWLS
DECEMBER 13, 1970
113
114
67 "=;o 4 1
-- T
ul 4J
ho u
0 PC 0 PU
UO
PH.
PHI H P-PH
.- -4 PH F4 PH .4
FH PH
A. 4 ~ -
-. -
v
OIL
14 14
A4 C
P4 ~
P4
.5.4 '5.4 8
14 ~ ~' 00 ~ O 0 N~~
- -. - - - Milo~
TABLE X
DATA OF THE TESTED OWL
Weight 1.52 lb
2
Wing area*) 344.8 in
117
v Am .. ..
APPENDIX V
1. INTRODUCTION
Owls hunt their prey during low levels of ambient light and
location of their prey is by means of aural detection and pene-
trating vision, A frequent source of food for the owl is the
wood mouse which has large ear lobes and responds quickly to any
detectable noise, especially in higher frequencies. This infor-
mation combined with the knowledge that the owl has a low attack
speed implies that the owl must be capable of noiseless flight,
This capability is needed not only to prevent his prey from be-
coming alarmed, but also, to hear the faint sounds of his prey.
Upon these observations, ornithologists have reported the owl to
be silent for many years.
118
Bionics is a new way of analyzing problems of living systems
and machines by the pooling of the work of the biologist, the
psychologist, the mathematician and the engineer. When Steele
[31] introduced the word bionics in 1958 he gave it this definition:
With only slight muscular activity the bird can change the
angle of attack of his wing in gliding flight. With equal ease
it can vary the camber, the span and the sweep angle thus af-
fecting the lifting surface, the lift-to-drag ratio and the
control surfaces.
121
00,I I
b. Uniquv Features of the Owl's Flight Structure
* 7
A.Rapset [37] whu had done much research in experimental
bird aerodynamics, formed an analogy between ,Aie leading edge
comb and a swinging wire. he noted that two pieces of wire
twisted together and swung through the air will generate noise
at a much lower intensity and frequency than a single piece of
wire. He suggested that the toothed leading edge acts in the
same way, i.e., in a manner to reduce the vortex noise emitted
by the flow over the wing.
L. - W l1/2pSV2 CL
123
0-
7
characteristics, In this gliding mode the path of flight is in-
clined downward with the angle g. The gliding velocity and the
angle of inclination are the main factors for the determination
of the aerodynamic characteristics of the gliding vehicle. In
this respect the acceleration forces are negligible (see
Reference 39).
This third type of gliding flight can be investigated by
sailing the vehicle in the open atmosphere when vertical or
horizontal air currents are negligible. This approach was used
by Raspet [37] and Farrar and Farrel [40] in the early mornings
or late afternoons to study the gliding characteristics of the
buzzard. This condition can be simulated by investigating the
gliding vehicle in a wind tunnel. This procedure has long been
used to study mechanical vehicles but only recently living birds
[39, 41) have been trained to glide free in a wind tunnel.
124
establish experimental aerodynamic and acoustic data extreme
difficulties had to be overcome. The objective was to have the
owls fly a repeatable course and have a maximum distance in a
gliding mode. The measurements were made in the room illustrated
in Figures 68 and 69. After prolonged training of the owls
the flight was standardized by forcing the owls to fly from a
high perch over a string barricade to a low perch. The altitude
difference between the low and high perches was 5 feet and the
horizontal distance was 38 feet.
In the dimly lit room the owls took off from the high perch
in flapping flight to gain velocity, then passing over the
barrier they went into the gliding mode toward the low perch.
About three feet before arriving to the low perch they changed
the angle of attack of their wings and further slowed down their
flight by using their tail and wing tip feathers as flaps and
high drag devices.
125
subdued. The windows were covered with dark paper to prevent
the birds from flying against the glass.
The two Florida Barred owls (strix varia alleni) were pur-
chased from an animal dealer as adult birds. The experimental
tests were conducted with only one of the owls. The physical
properties of this owl are listed in Table XI.
Although a cage was available fox' the owls it was determined
to be advantageous to leave the owls free in the room where they
could use the two perches, This had the disadvantage that other
birds, especially if they were smaller than the Barred owls,
could not be used for experimentation because the Barred owls,
being birds of prey, killed them.
X* R- Z*
T " •(1)
Y- C R-Z (2)
3 -Z* H Y*
Z*
.3 - (H -Y*)(.3 -Z)(4
z 3 (4)
"HII
Z* .RHZ + +(3Y(3 - Z)] - 'C')"
- Z)(Y 4
127
wav R -Ai-i
the subsc ipts (1) and (2) respeptively. By taking the distance
between X1 and X4, defined as DX and similarly for DY* and I)Z*
the actual flight distance, LAt, in time At is:
2 2 2
AD.= (DX*) + (DY*) + (DZ*)
V - AD/At
d -=artan (DY*/DX*)
The glide angle and the gliding flight velocity are tabulated
in Table XIII.
128
S. . ... •.- • -.
was determined that the data from the dual flash photographs
should be adjusted to account for the delayed second flash of
the dual flash test. The velocity from the dual flash experiment
has been increased by 49 percent to make it consistent with tho
movie data. The aerodynamic data from the movie film experiment
is presented in Table XIV.
L - W con o
and D A W sini
1 DY*
where M tan-
CL - 2L/(pSV 2 )
and CD - 2D/(pSV2 )
4
where CL and CD are the lift and drag coefficients respectively.
129
/a
Sinking speed . V/(L/D)
Re - Vc
x1 1
aýý[ n X2 11/2
iml i.i
From these mean values the following parameters are calculated,
Re - 1.31 x 105
L/D M 2.25
130
10.94 ft/sec. This comparison shows that the owl is not as
well
black adapted
buzzard,to high performance gliding flight as in the
131
- . - . - -
appreciably affect his performance characteristics,
132
I1 n,,. 0 T.. JT
ccI
4c
133
4.1 .7
I. -
U
O-4
coc
.1l • . . .. .. .
134
Mt(1J
C'1
0
m 0
1 35 I I
...... .. .
135
fh
IX"
Figuie 70. Dual Flash Photograph of a Gliding Owl.
137
.... ... ..
......- ~ i ~ j i.
IMAGE PROJECTION
OF OWL ON WALL
ELECTRONIC FLASH UNrT WLNWL
POINT LIGHT - *
owl
OW
--- •
STRING BARRICADE
CAMERA - H
IMAGE PROJECTION
ON WALL
OWL IN Z_
CAMERA POSITION I
- .. ..-........ XY
I x
OWL IN
POSITION 2 .
2IMAGE
PROJECTION
R t ON WALL
138
0 .3_
4;P-
0/
".4-
cc'
wI
0 0 04
z.
0
w~
zo
0-
139
- .,.
ii
Z• -J4 ,.4
f,-
140
1:140
1414
ANN&-
Figure 77. Photograph of an Owl Wing with the Leading
Edge Comb Removed.
7.l
142
==rc IN
II
i nt
143
-* . . ..
TABLE XI
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TESTED OWL
Parameter Value
Weight, lb 1.52
2
Wing area*, in. 344.8
144
- I.'F
.± ~ '<
TABLE XII
145
- . . .. .v : .. ...
la~ v
0000 @~0000 @
C; C; -
40 4-0 1( ( (
4*'.4 0 H H H e4 - H i
0
C1 0 0 0 0 0
,P4
4J. i
4J m
N v P4
0~ 41 *q * N * N* N
I N 0 N % -
0 P- m~ v0 -
N (z
146
ej.n m ~m n. ~ .- cq 00 W
P4
40 0M Ob 0 0 00 0 (0
H- -~ f-i 4H
00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0p 00o
.4A
Cl Cl C4 Cl C4 C C4 C4 @4 4 @4
0 00 (h r-4 F L) P1 t
1-
tt v-4 tf-
'-44
04. 0
-,, ~ct t-
mi* 4 Cl N4 N4 P4 N 4 04 CQ N4 C
N4
@4C9Nl N t toO
147
Mir ,.
"In N Wf t-~ vJ v~ w~.
II 0ý Cý H Cý4 I~
00 ~~~~
t-0 htoH 0
Iý 010
040 00 0- 0 0q 0m
to f 0 in N wo '
4.48
Am-~ -. ,7 .
0% m
0 0 C0
NNU N; 0
NO00 00 0
'vP. 4 NNNNN N
1S S S . N% S S
Ii 4
a 14L
u *
44 44
09 ~4~
41 Ua tz MO N O
F0 C' 000
N
NN N MNN N N
Ln00000000 00
0 04 00 0 0 0 0 N N
10
M~W Hý 00 UD to 0) 0
0JI0 0 0 0 0 0
Lfq 0 eq N U
No
0 0( 00000
0!00 0 0 00
0a4
eq H g~4 ~4 C4~
o N 000000t-0
4) C
,Lf t 00 a) 0 Uo P.4
P4 Zq c~ q e
4
4D0 Nq NO 0 N4 04- N
4- 44 -, ;ý " 4
04q
.~ .q ~
.q e eq....
REFERENCES
152
L•• -....__%
..•;.-o.-•:•
.:._.
"•__.
..•.......I:
13. Walters, R. R , "Turbulent Boundary Layer Characteristics
of Flow Over a Compliant Surface," A Dissertation Submitted
to The Graduate College, University of Oklahoma, 1969.
153
.. . . ......
25. Skurdzyk, E. , anid C. Haddle, "Noise Production in a Tur-
bulent Boundary Layer by Smooth and Rough Surfaces,"
Second Symposium-Naval Hydrodynamics, R. Cooper, editor.
Washington, D. C.: Department of the Navy, 1958. pp 75-105.
26. Etkin, B , 0. K. Korbacker, and R. T. Keefe, "Acoustic
Radiation from a Stationary Cylinder in a Fluid Stream,"
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 29:30-36,
January, 1957.
154
IL -W O'P
40. Farrar, F. D., .Jr., and C. E. Farrell, Unpublished report.
Van~derbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, June, 1960.
155
----.-.-. ~ . .......... .. ..
UN-CLASSIFIED -
Rreer Rchari A
Grushka, Heinz D.
Helvey, Tibor C.__________________
41.
IMPORT DATR ?*. TOTAL NO. OW PAGES1 = b O. OP8149PI
MARCH 1972 1554
Go,CONRAICT OR GRANT Me. 90. ORIGINATON'Sl RPIWORT NUM1114111I
F33615-70-C-1762
S.POjEC? No. AFFDL-TR-71-75
1471
"Task N4o. 14 7102 S,~HRRPM OI Atc~pnmeahlm~h si.
D ?10 7 UNCLASSIFIED
14 KEY WOR 8 LINH A LINK 5 LINK C
Aerodynamic Noise