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Advances in Mental Health
ï Neurobiological
ï Research and Technology
ï Increased number and diversity of
programs available
ï Increased media attention
ï Increased focus on holistic health
ï Consumer involvement
ï Sociologic studies
Ä Stages of General Adaptation
Syndrome ( Hans Selye )

ï 1. Alarm Stage
ï 2. Resistance
ï Ä. Exhaustion
Classification of Mental Disorder
APA¶s DSM ± IV ± TR developed in 2000 ( Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders, Fourth edition, Text Revision)
Ö  ! "
AXIS I ± Clinical Disorder
AXIS II ± Personality Disorders and Mental
Retardation
AXIS III ± General Medical Condition
AXIS IV ± Psychosocial and Environmental
Problems
ï AXIS V ± GAF (Global Assessment of
Functioning)
level of functioning reported as a
number from 0 ± 100 based on the
patient¶s overall psychological, social,
and occupational function

GAF = 8Ä
ROLE OF PSYCHIATRIC NURSE

ï New Roles:
Carries out traditional tasks :
ï Administering prescribed drugs and monitoring
effects
Acts as a primary therapist
Uses interpersonal approach to help patients
and families
Draws on psychosocial and biophysical
sciences to provide care
Phases of Nurse ± Patient
Relationship
ï |# "#" $|#
ï Occurs before direct patient contact
ï $ #"" $|#
ï Getting - to - know ± you
ï Sets tone for relationship
ï A$% &|#
ï Exploration phase
ï Focuses on and evaluates patient¶s problems
ï Works toward achieving established goals
ï "# " $|#
ï Resolution phase
ï Marked by reviewing and summarizing patient¶s progress
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
ï INFLUENCES ï OBSTACLES
Patient¶s and nurse¶s past Requires nurse self ±
experiences, background, and awareness and knowledge of
feelings and sensitivity to patient¶s
Native language experiences, beliefs and
Culture or nationality background
Sexual orientation or gender Can be especially challenging
Age and developmental May be helpful to use
consideration
interpreter to communication
Roles and responsibility aid
Social background and
territoriality
physical, mental, and emotional
state
Values
environment
NON ± VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
ï also known as body language
Types:
Eye contact
Facial expression
Posture
Gait
Gestures
Touch
Physical appearance or attributes
Dress or grooming
Affect
silence
THERAPEUTIC
COMMUNICATION
ï Open ± ended questions
ï Validating
ï Clarifying
ï Sharing impressions
ï Restating
ï Focusing
ï Suggestive collaboration
ï Offering information
NONTHERAPEUTIC
COMMUNICATION

ï Attacking or defending
ï Casting judgment
ï Interrogating
ï Minimizing
ï Playing Ann Landers ( giving advise, offering false reassurance)
ï Pressuring
ï Running off at the mouth ( not letting the pt. respond,making
inappropiate comment)
ï Rushing
ï Taking sides
GUIDELINES ON PATIENT
INTERVIEW
ï Ensure privacy
ï Choose quiet, calm,private setting
ï Reassure patient
ï Show support and sensitivity
ï Listen carefully and objectively
ï Use reliable information sources
ï Check hospital records
ï Consider patient¶s culture
GUIDELINES FOR FIRST
ENCOUNTER
ï Introduce yourself and give reason for
interview
ï Ask patient how he¶d like to be addressed
ï Sit a comfortable distance from patient
ï Speak calmly
INTERVIEW DO¶S AND DON¶T¶S

ï Do set clear goals

ï Do head unspoken signals
ï Do check yourself
ï Don¶t rush
ï Don¶t make assumptions
ï Don¶t judge
MSE ( MENTAL STATUS
EVALUATION)
ï ß ""#|
ï Assess LOC
ï Evaluate general appearance
ï Evaluate behavior
ï Evaluate activity level
ï Evaluate speech for content and
quality
ï Assess mood
ï Assess abstract reasoning
ï Check signs of confusion
ï Assess recent and remote memory
ï ß '"#|
ï Assess attention span and ability to
concentrate
ï Assess ability to understand material
ï Determine store of common
knowledge
ï Assess ability to evaluate choices
ï Assess insights
ï Test sensory and perception and
coordination
ï Examine thought content and
pattern for clarity
ï Assess changes in sex drive
ï Evaluate patients competence
ï Assess patients defense
mechanisms
ï Assess evidence of self destructive
behavior or suicidal tendencies
DEFENSE MECHANISM
1. Acting ± out
2. Compensation
Ä. Denial
4. Displacement
5. Fantasy
6. Identification
7. Intellectualization
8. Introjection
9. Projection
10. Rationalization
11. Reaction formation
12. Regression
1Ä. Repression
14. Sublimation
15. undoing
TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR
PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
ï Drug therapy
ï Psychotherapy
ï Individual
ï Group
ï Cognitive
ï Family
ï Crisis intervention
ï Behavior therapy
ï Assertiveness training
ï Aversion therapy
ï Desensitization
ï Flooding (implosion therapy)
ï Positive conditioning
ï Response prevention
ï Thought stopping
ï Thought switching
ï Token economy
ï Milieu therapy
ï Detoxification programs
ï ECT
 $#$ß
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Mental Illness in Children
ï Risk factors:
ï Low birth weight
ï Physical problems

ï Family history of mental or addictive disorders

ï Multigenerational poverty

ï Separation from caregivers

ï Abuse and neglect

Theories of Growth and
Development
ï Freud¶s Theory of ï Erikson¶s Theory of
Psychosexual Psychosocial
Development ï Trust vs. mistrust
ï Oral ï Autonomy vs. shame and
ï Anal
doubt
ï Phallic
ï Latency ï Initiative vs. guilt
ï Adolescence ï Industry vs. inferiority
ï Identity vs. role confusion
Piaget¶s Theory of Cognitive
Development
ï Sensorimotor
ï Preoperational

ï Concrete operations

ï Formal Operations
( Attention Deficit Hyperactive
Disorder)
ï Characteristics:
ï Nuerobiological disorder
ï Marked by: inappropiate inattention,
impulsiveness and hyperactivity
ï May progress to conduct disorder
ï Affects at least twice as many boys as girls
ï Symptoms continue into adulthood
ï Causes:
Genetic
Typically found in at least one other close
relative
Other relative may have symptoms that don¶t
meet diagnostic criteria
ï Risk factors:
ï Drug exposure in utero
ï Birth complications

Toxemia, hypoxia, head trauma
ï Low birth weight
ï Lead poisoning

ï Child abuse
ï Treatment:
Psychotherapy to reduce symptoms and teach
child ways to modify behavior
Drugs:
ï Methyphenidate (ritalin)
ï dextroamphetamine
ï Pemoline
Individualized educational plan
Family education to explain
expectations,effects of medications, and need
for additional structure
 Nursing Intervention
ï Develop trusting and accepting relationship
with the child
ï Encourage him to talk about problems,
difficulties, and feelings
ï Assess high risk for injury
ï Maintain safe, calm environment that
minimizes stimulation and distractions
ï Discuss disruptive behaviors, patterns of
losing control and consequences of
disruptive behaviors
ï Teach him to make choices and select
appropiate ways of behaving
ï Monitor his activities and help him set
limits, stay calm, and take opportunities to
control undesirable behaviors
ï Schedule frequent breaks to help him
control impulsiveness and minimize
hyperactive behaviors
ï Help him learn how to take his turn, wait in
line, and follow rules
 AUTISM
ï Characteristics:
ï In appropiate response to environment
ï Pronounced impairments in language,
communication, and social interaction
ï Repetitive interests and behaviors

ï Disordered thinking

ï Difficulty understanding feelings of others

and world around him
ï Repetitive, self ± injurious, or other abnormal
behaviors
ï Occurs in 10 ± 12 of every 10, 00 children
ï Causes:
No known cause
Maybe from abnormal brain structure or function
Possible genetic predisposition
ï Diagnosing autism:
Usually diagnosed by age Ä
Standardized rating scale for evaluation
Tests for certain genetic and nuerologic problems
ï Screening tools:
Childhood for autism rating scale
Checklist for autism in toddlers
Screening test for autism in 2 ± 2 ± year old
ï Signs and symptoms:
ï Infancy: hearing failure
ï Regression at age 2
ï Young children: impaired language dev¶t and difficulty in expressing needs
ï Indifference toward others
ï Delayed and impaired verbal and non verbal communication
ï Lack of intonation and expression in speech
ï Repetitive rocking motions
ï Hand flapping
ï Dislike in changes in daily activities and routines
ï Self ± injurious behaviors(biting, hiting)
ï Unusual fascination with inanimate objects
ï Dislike in touching and cuddling
ï No fear of danger
ï Treatment:
ï Early intervention
ï Special education

ï Family support

ï Drugs to manage symptoms:

Stimulants

SSRI¶s

Lithium
ï Nursing Intervention:
Choose words carefully when speaking to
child
Offer emotional support and information to
parents
CONDUCT DISORDERS
ï Characteristics:
ï Hallmark: aggressive behavior
ï Child rarely performs at level predicted at by IQ or age
ï Cause:
ï Unknown
ï May have biological and psychosocial components in twins and adopted
children
ï Risk factors:
ï Early maternal rejection
ï Separation with parents, with no alternative caregiver available
ï Early institutionalization
ï Family neglect, abuse or violence
ï Frequent verbal abuse from parents, teachers or other authority
ï Large family size , crowding, and poverty
ï Parental psychiatric illness, substance abuse, or marital discord
ï Signs and symptoms:
Aggressive behavior
Destruction of property
Deceitfulness of theft
Disregard to rules
ï Treatment:
Psychotherapy
Drugs to treat nuerologic difficulties
Educational strategies to encourage and help child
continue with school
Early identification of at ± risk ± children
Parental instruction to teach how to deal with child¶s
demands
Juvenile justice system, if needed to provide
structured rules and means for monitoring and
controlling child¶s behavior
ï Nursing Intervention
Work to establish trusting relationship with child and
family
Provide clear behavioral guidelines
Talk to him about making acceptable choices
Teach him effective problem solving skills
Help him identify personal needs and best strategies
for meeting them
Teach him how to express anger
Monitor him for anger as well as for signs that he¶s
internalizing anger
Major Depression
ï Unipolar depression
ï Persistently sad or irritable mood
accompanied by disturbances in sleep and
appetite, lethargy, and irritability to
experience pleasure
ï One or more major depressive episodes,
defined as episodes defined as episodes
of depressed mood lasting at least 2
weeks
Causes:
ï Genetic
ï Familial

ï Biochemical

ï Physical

ï Psychological

ï Social

ï Imbalances in major neurotransmitters

Risk Factors:
ï Family History
ï Excessive stress

ï Abuse or neglect

ï Physical or emotional trauma

ï Loss of parent

ï Loss of relationship
Signs and symptoms:

ï Commonly goes unrecognized by the child¶s

family, physician and teacher¶s
ï Mistaken for normal mood swings typical of a
particular developmental stage
ï Differs from adult depression

ï Psychotic features: less common in depressed

children and adolescents
ï Anxiety symptoms and physical symptoms: more
common in depressed children and adolescents
Screening ToolS:
Children¶s depression inventory
Beck depression inventory
Center for epidemiologic studies depression
scale
Treatment:
Psychotherapy, medication, or a combination
Targeted interventions involving home or school
environment
Interpersonal therapy, focusing on working through
disturbed relationships that may contribute to
depression
Antidepressant drugs: effective for adults;
controversial for children
SSRI¶s: fluoxetin(prozac)

Paroxethin(paxil)

Sertaline(zoloft)
Nursing Interventions:
ï Maintain a safe, secure environment
ï Sustain child¶s typical routine
ï Monitor child for dangerous or self ± destructive
behavior
ï Provide appropriate times to eat, rest, sleep,and
play or relax.
ï Develop an appropriate or contract with child
ï Help him talk about problems and stressors
ï Work on age ± appropriate strategies for solving
problems
 MENTAL
RETARDATION
Characteristics:
ï Below ± average general intellectual
functioning with associated deficits in
communication, social skills, self ± care,
and adaptive behavior
ï Low intelligence, defined as an IQ below
70
Classifying Mental retardation

ï MILD - IQ : 50 to 70
ï MODERATE ± IQ : Ä5 to 49
ï SEVERE - IQ : 20 to Ä4
ï PROFOUND: IQ : below 20
 $$ &  &(|"$
ï Single dominant gene problem
ï Chromosomal disorders
ï Inborn errors of metabolism
ï Problems during embryonic
development
ï Pregnancy and perinatal factors
ï Infancy or early childhood
problems
ï Environmental problems
ï Pre ± existing mental disorders
ï Failure to achieve
developmental milestones
ï Deficiencies in cognitive
functioning
ï Failure to achieve intellectual
developmental markers
ï Psychomotor skills deficits
ï Neurologic impairments
ï Depression or labile moods
ï Deviations in normal adaptive
bahaviors
 TREATMENT
ï Behavior management
ï Environmental supervision
ï Monitoring of child¶s developmental needs
and problems
ï Programs that maximize speech,
language, cognitive, psychomotor, social,
self ± care, and occupational skills
NURSING INTERVENTIONS
ï Determine child¶s strength and abilities
ï Monitor child¶s developmental levels
ï Teach child about natural and normal feelings
and emotions
ï Provide for child¶s safety needs
ï Provide consistent, supervised environment
ï Take safety precautions
ï Keep communication brief.
 $#$ß
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Characteristics:
ï Gradual deterioration
memory
Learning
Attention
Concentration
Thinking
Language use
other mental functions
Cause:
ï Faulty inhibitory mechanism in patient¶s
working memory
Signs and symptoms:
ï Subjective complaints, including inability to
remember appointments or solve complex
problems
ï Noted poor hygiene, inappropriate dress, or
weight loss
ï Signs of depression (stooped posture, shuffling
gait, poor eye contact, and abnormal
movements), hostility, resistance, and
defensiveness
ï Diagnosing: ï Treatment:
By neuropsychological and
cognitive testing Various drugs,
By assessment
ï Physical appearance
vitamins, herbs, and
ï Remote, recent, and dietary therapies
immediate memory
ï Speech characteristics Close monitoring by
ï Higher language skills physician
ï Alertness level
ï Interdisciplinary
management
NURSING INTERVENTIONS:
ï Reduce and eliminate factors that may worsen confusion
ï Carefully monitor patient¶s fluid status and electrolyte and nutritional
status
ï Promote normal sleep ± rest activities
ï Promote optimal vision and hearing
ï Reduce unnecessary stimulation, and make environment as stable
as possible
ï Provide frequent, meaningful sensory input and reorientation
ï Encourage patient to participate in therapeutic groups
ï Check on patient frequently because he may be prone to falls,
wandering, and self ± poisoning
ï Take extra safety measures rendering bath water and food
temperature to avoid accidental burns.
##" $ß"#
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 )
Characteristics:
ï Irreversible disease marked by global,
progressive impairment of cognitive
functioning, memory, and personality
ï Most common cause of dementia among
people age 65 and older
ï Affects an estimated 4 M americans
ï Sixth leading cause of death among white
women age 85 and older
Causes:
ï Significant loss of neurons and volume in brain regions
devoted to memory and higher mental functioning
ï Neurofibrillary tangles
ï Buildup of amyloid
ï Accumulation of beta amyloid, an insoluble protein,
which forms sticky patches (nueritic plaques) surrounded
by debris of dying neurons
ï Environmental factors: infection, metals and toxins
ï Excessive amounts of metal ions, such as zinc and
copper in brain
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Decreased intellectual function
ï Personality changes
ï Impaired judgment
ï Changes in affect
STAGE 1:
Agitated or apathetic mood
Attempts to cover up symptoms
Deterioration in personal appearance
Decline in recent memory
Poor concentration
depression
wandering
ï STAGE 2 ï STAGE Ä
Confabulation Severe decline in cognitive,
Continuous, repetitive functioning
behaviors Compulsive touching and
Increased apraxia, agnosia, examination of objects
and aphasia Decreased response to stimuli
Decreasing ability to Deterioration in motor ability
understand or use language
Disorientation to person, place
and time
Failure to recognize family
members
ï DIAGNOSTICS: ï TREATMENT:
Cognitive assessment No cure
evaluation DRUGS:
Functional dementia anticholinesterase
scale Antipsychotic
MRI of brain benzodiazepine
MMSE
Spinal fluid analysis
NURSING INTERVENTIONS:
ï Protect patient from injury: remove hazardous items or potential
objects to help maintain a safe environment
ï Monitor patient¶s food and fluid intake
ï Have patient follow regular exercise routine
ï Encourage patient to see his physician every Ä to 6 months
ï Speak to patient calmly
ï State your expectations simple
ï Minimize confusion
ï Provide outdoor activities
ï Provide frequent meaningful sensory input
ï Increase patient¶s social interaction
!,'##" 
Characteristic:
ï Multi ± infarct dementia
ï Irreversible alteration in brain function that
results from damage or destruction of
brain tissue such as blood clots that block
small vessels in brain
ï Impairs cognitive functioning, memory,
and personality
ï Doesn¶t affect LOC
ï Affects Localized parts of brain, sparing
some brain function
ï May cause slight brain damage, with
barely noticeable symptoms: however, as
more small vessels are blocked over time,
mental decline becomes obvious
Causes:
ï Small focal deficits
ï Contributing factors such as advanced
age, cerebral emboli or thrombi, DM, hart
disease, HTN, TIA¶s
Signs and symptoms:
ï Occur more abruptly that those associated
with Alzheimer¶s disease
ï More episodic
ï Multiple remissions
Diagnostic tests:
ï Cognitive assessment scale
ï Global deterioration scale
ï MMSE
ï MRI or CT Scan
ï An abbreviated mental examination to
detect memory problems and aid
differential diagnosis, tx, and rehabilitation
Treatment:
ï Carotid endarterectomy
ï Drug therapy such as aspirin
Nursing Interventions:
ï Reduce unnecessary stimulation
ï Make environmental as stable as possible
ï Avoid changing patient¶s room and moving
furniture or possessions
ï Minimize factors that may contribute to
confusion
ï Orient patient to his surroundings to ease
his anxiety
 )$|# 
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& 
  
ïA disabling disease characterized by
disturbed thinking, disorganized
speech, and in many cases, odd ±
sometimes frightening - behavior
Classification:
Catatonic
Disorganized
Paranoid
Residual
undifferentiated
Effects:
ï May impair patient¶s ability to hold a job
ï In some cases, leaves patient
unemployable
ï May neglect their personal hygiene
ï Approximately 10% of schizophrenics
commit suicide
Causes:
ï Precise cause unknown
ï Probably results from interplay of genetic,
biochemical, anatomic, developmental and
other factors
Structural Brain Abnormalities
ï Enlarged ventricles
ï Higher ventricle ± to brain volume ratio
ï Reduced size of certain brain regions
ï Abnormal brain functions, including
decreased metabolic activity in some brain
regions
Other possible causes:
ï Maternal influenza
ï Birth trauma
ï Head injury
ï Huntington¶s chorea
ï Cerebral tumor
ï Stroke
ï SLE
Characteristic signs and symptoms:

ï Speech abnormalities
ï Thought distortions
ï Poor social interactions
ï Regression
ï Ambivalence
ï echopraxia
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Positive: ï Positive:
ï Associated with Hallucinations
temporal lobe
abnormalities Delusions:
ï persecutory
ï Negative: ï reference
ï Linked to abnormalities ï Thought withdrawal or
in frontal cortex and thought insertion
ventricles
ï disorganized
ï Negative symptoms: ï Disorganized
Reflect absence of Reflect patient¶s
normal characteristics abnormal thinking and
Apathy ability to communicate
Lack of motivation Thought disorder
Blunted affect Bizarre behavior
Poverty of speech
asociality
Phases:

ï Prodromal
ï Active
ï residual
Treatment:

ï Antipyschotic (nueroleptic)
Types:
ï conventional

ï Clozapine

ï atypical
General Nursing Interventions:
ï Establish trust and rapport
ï Maximize level of functioning
ï Promote social skills
ï Ensure safety
ï Provide reality ± based activities and
explanations
ï Deal with patient¶s hallucinations
ï Promote compliance with and monitor drug
therapy
ï Encourage family involvement
 
-. 
Characteristics:
ï Remaining mute; refusal to move about or tend
to personal needs
ï Exhibiting bizarre mannerisms ( facial grimacing
and sucking of mouth)
ï Rapid swings between stupor and excitement
ï Bizarre postures ( holding body rigidly in one
position for a long time)
ï Diminished sensitivity to painful stimuli
ï Negative symptoms
ï Echolalia
ï echopraxia
Treatment:
ï ECT
ï Benzodiazepines
Nursing Interventions:
ï Spend time with patient
ï Tell patient directly, specifically,and precisely
what needs to be done
ï Assess for signs and symptoms of physical
illness
ï If patient is in bizarre posture, provide ROM
exercises and ambulate patient every 2 hours to
prevent ulcers or decreased circulation
ï Stay alert for violent outbursts
  -

-. 
Characteristics:
ï Incoherent, disorganized speech and
behavior
ï Blunted or inappropriate affect
ï May start early and insidously
Signs and symptoms:
ï Incoherent, disorganized speech ( loose
association)
ï Grossly disorganized behavior
ï Blunted, silly, superficial, or inappropriate
affect
ï Grimacing
ï Hypochondriacal complaints
ï Extreme social behavior
Treatment:
ï Antipsychotics
ï psychotherapy
Nursing Interventions:
ï Ask patient¶s permission to touch him, as
appropriate
ï Set limits formally
ï Explore content of hallucinations as
appropriate
ï Don¶t combat patient¶s delusions with logic
| 

-. 
Characteristics:
ï Persecutory or grandiose delusional
thought content and possibly, delusional
jealousy
ï Gender identity problems
ï Stress may worsen symptoms
ï Only in minimal impairment in patient¶s
level of functioning ± as long as he doesn¶t
act on delusional thoughts
Signs and symptoms:
ï Persecutory or grandiose delusional thoughts
ï Auditory hallucinations
ï Unfocused anxiety
ï Anger
ï Tendency to argue
ï Stilted formality or intensity
ï Violent behavior
Diagnostics:
ï Must meet DSM ± IV ± TR criteria
ï Must rule out other causes for symptoms
Treatment:
ï Antipsychotics
ï Psychosocial therapies and rehabilitation
Nursing Intervention:
ï Don¶t touch patient without telling him first
exactly what you¶re going to be doing and
before obtaining his permission to touch
him.
ï Set limits firmly but without anger; avoid a
punitive attitude.
ï If patient has auditory hallucinations,
explore content of hallucinations;
ï Tell him you don¶t hear the voices, but you know
they¶re real to him.
ï Don¶t try to combat patient¶s delusions with logic;
instead address feelings, themes, or underlying
needs associated with the delusion
ï If patient expresses suicidal thoughts, or says he
hears voices telling him to harm himself, institute
suicide precautions; document his behavior and
precautions
ï If patient expresses homicidal thoughts,
institute homicide precautions
 
 
-. 
Characteristics:
ï History of acute schizophrenic episodes
and persistence of negative symptoms
such as restricted affect or poverty of
speech
ï Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior
is absent, and delusions, hallucinations,
and other positive symptoms no longer
dominate
Signs and symptoms:
ï No prominent psychotic symptoms
ï Inappropriate affect
ï Social withdrawal
ï Eccentric behavior
ï Illogical thinking
ï Loose associations
Undifferentiated
Schizophrenia
Characteristics:
ï Presence of schizophrenic symptoms, such as
delusions and hallucinations, in patient who
doesn¶t fall into category of paranoid,
disorganized, or catatonic schizophrenia
ï Patient meets general diagnostic criteria for
schizophrenia, but symptoms don¶t conform to
any of the other subtypes with no clear
predominance set of diagnostic characteristics
Treatment:
ï Antipsychotics
ï Psychotherapy
Nursing Interventions:
ï Ask patient¶s permission to touch him, as
appropriate
ï Set limits formally
ï Don¶t combat patient¶s delusion with logic
ï Explore content of hallucinations, as
appropriate
ï Institute suicide or homicide precautions
as needed.


 

ï Outward expression of emotion attached
to ideas including but not limited to facial
expression and vocal modulation
Affect:
ï Blunted ± severe reduction in intensity of outward
emotional expression
ï Flat ± complete or almost complete absence of outward
emotional expression
ï Restricted ± reduction in intensity of outward emotional
expression
ï Inappropriate ± affect that doesn¶t match situation or
content of verbalized message
ï Labile ± raped and easily changing affective expression
that¶s unrelated to external events or stimuli
Classification:
ï Bipolar disorder
ï Cyclothymic disorder
ï Dysthymic disorder
ï Major depressive disorder
Biological factors:
ï Defficiencies or abnormalities in brain¶s
nuerotransmitters such as norepinephrine,
serotonin, dopaine, acetylcholine
Psychological Theories:
ï Cognitive
ï People who suffer from depression process information
in a characteristically negative way
ï Behavioral
ï Learned helplessness theory ± person¶s helplessness
and depression develop from his experiences with
negatively perceived event
ï Psychoanalytic
ï Results from harsh super ego and feelings of loss and
aggression
. 
 

Characteristics:
ï Manic ± depressive disorder
ï Marked by severe, frequent, pathologic mood
swings
ï Patient experience extreme highs I mania or
hypomania) alternating with extreme lows (
depression)
ï Periods of normal moods are interspersed
between highs and lows
ï Severe episodes of mania or depression can
sometimes involve psychotic symptoms
Characteristcis of Mania:
ï Elation
ï Euphoria
ï Agitation or irritability
ï Hyperexcitability
ï Hyperactivity
ï Rapid thought and speech
ï Exaggerated sexuality
ï Hallucinations
ï Decreased sleep
Hypomania
ï An expressive, elevated. Or agitated mood
that resembles mania
ï Less intense than mania and lacks
psychotic symptoms
Classification of Bipolar
Disorders:

1. Bipolar I disorder
2. Bipolar II disorder
Ä. Cyclothymic disorder
4. Rapid ± cycling bipolar disorder
Causes:
ï Precise cause is unknown
ï Genetic, biochemical, and psychological
factors may play a role
ï May be triggered by stressful events,
antidepressants use, sleep deprivation,
and hypothyroidism
Signs and symptoms:
ï Manic
ï Expressive, grandiose or hyperirritable mood
ï Increased psychomotor activity, such as agitation,
pacing or hand wringing
ï Excessive social extroversion

ï Rapid speech with frequent topic changes

ï Decreased need for sleep and food

ï Impulsivity

ï Impaired judgement
ï Depressive phase
ï Low self ± esteem
ï Overwhelming inertia

ï Feelings of hopelessness, apathy, or self reproach

ï Difficulty concentrating or thinking clearly ( without

obvious disorientation or intellectual impairment)
ï Psychomotor retardation

ï Anhedonia

ï Suicidal ideation
Diagnostics:
ï Evidence of signs and symptoms
ï Must Meet DSM ± IV ± TR criteria
Treatment:
ï Lithium
ï Valporic acid
ï Carbamazepine
ï antidepressants
Nursing interventions: manic phase

ï Provide for patient¶s dietary needs

ï Help patient with personal hygiene
ï Involve patient in activities that require
gross motor movements
ï Provide diversionary activities suited to a
short attention span
ï Provide emotional support and set realistic
goals for behavior
ï In a calm, clear, self confident manner,
establish limits for patient¶s demanding,
hyperactive,, manipulative, and acting ±
out behaviors
ï Alert care team promptly when acting ±
out behavior ascalates
Nursing intervention : Depressive
phase
ï Provide continual positive reinforcement to
help build self ±esteem
ï Assume an active role in communicating
with patient
ï Avoid overwhelming patient
ï Take measures to prevent patient self ±
injury or suicide
Guidelines for patients receiving
Lithium:
ï Blood levels should be checked 8 tp 12 hours after 1st dose, 2 or Äx
weekly for the 1st month then weekly to monthly during maintenance
therapy
ï Instruct patient to maintain fluid intake of 10 to 1Ä 8 oz of glasses
2500 ± Ä000 ml/day
ï Teach patient that lithium may cause lithium depletion
ï Inform patient that increasing salt intake may increase lithium
excretion
ï Teach patient and family to watch for evidence of lithium toxicity
ï Advise patient to take lithium with food or after meals
ï caution patient against driving or operating dangerous equipment
Signs and symptoms of lithium
toxicity
ï Abdominal cramps
ï Frequent urination
ï Diarrhea
ï Vomiting
ï Drowsiness
ï Unsteadiness
ï Muscle weakness
ï Ataxia
ï tremors

 

 

Characteristics:
ï Short periods of mild depression alternating with
short periods of hypomania
ï Between depressive and manic episodes of brief
periods of normal mood
ï Both depressive and hypomanic phases shorter
and less severe than those in bipolar I and
bipolar II
ï Affects up to 1% of the population, striking men
and women equally
Cause:
ï Genetic
Signs and symptoms: General
Features
ï Odd, eccentric, or suspicious personality
ï Dramatic, erratic or antisocial personality
features
ï Inability to maintain enthusiasm for new projects
ï Pattern of pulling close and then pushing away
in interpersonal relationships
ï Abrupt changes in personality from cheerful,
confident and energetic to sad, blue or mean
Hypomanic phase
ï Insomia
ï Hyperactivity and physical restlessness
ï Irritability or aggressiveness
ï Grandiosity or inflated self ± esteem
ï Increased productivity, creativity
Depressive phase:
ï Insomnia or hypomania
ï Feelings of inadequacy
ï Decreased productivity
ï Social withdrawal
ï Loss of libido or interest in pleasurable activities
ï Lethargy
ï Suicidal ideation
Diagnostics:
ï Rule out other disorders as cause of
symptoms
ï Must meet DSM ± IV ± TR criteria
Treatment:
ï Lithium
ï Carbamazepine
ï Valporic acid
ï Verapamil
ï Various antidepressants
ï Individual psychotherapy
ï Couple or family therapy
Nursing Interventions:
ï Explore ways to help patient cope with
frequent mood changes
ï Encourage vocational opportunities that
allow flexible hours.
ï Encourage patients with artistic ability to
pursue their talents as creative outlet.
Dysthymic disorder
Characteristics:
ï Dysthymia
ï Mild depression that lasts at least 2 years
in adult or 1 year in children
ï Twice as common in women than in men
ï More prevalent among poor and
unmarried
Causes:
ï Decreased serotonin
ï Multiple stressors, personality problems
and inadequate coping skills
Signs and symptoms:
ï Persistent sad, anxious or empty mood
ï Excessive crying
ï Increased feelings guilt, helplessness and
hopelessness
ï Weight or appetite changes
ï Sleep difficulties
ï Reduced energy level
Treatment:
ï Short term psychotherapy
ï Behavioral therapy
ï Group therapy
ï Anti depressants
Nursing Interventions:
ï Provide supportive measures
ï Teach patient about the illness
ï Encourage positive health habits
Major Depression
Characteristics:
ï Uni polar depression
ï Symptom of a persistently sad mood lasting 2 weeks or
longer may be accompanied by other problems such as :
Guilt
Hopelessness
Poor concentration
Sleep disturbances
Lethargy
Appetite loss or weight gain
Anhedonia
Loss of mood
Suicidal thoughts
Causes:
ï Genetic, biochemical, physical, psychological
factors implicated
ï Primary defects sites points to nueral networks
of brains prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia
ï Possible involvement of serotonin
ï Drug induced such as antihypertensives,
psychotropics, antiparkinsonians, opiods, and
non opiod analgesics, steroids
Signs and symptoms:
ï Feelings down in the dumps
ï Increased or decreased appetite
ï Sleep disturbance
ï Disinterest in sex
ï Difficulty concentrating or thinking clearly
ï Easy distractibility
ï Indecisiveness
ï Low self esteem
ï Poor coping
ï Constipation or diarhea
ï Suicidal thoughts
ï Possible worsening of symptoms in the morning
ï Suicidal attempts
Diagnostics:
ï BDI
ï Dexamethasone suppression test
ï Toxicology screening
Treatment:
ï Basic treatment options:
ï ECT
ï Antidepressants
ï SSRI
ï 1st line treatment:inhibits serotonin reuptake
ï SNRI¶s
ï venlafaxin ( used as 2nd line agents) ± inhibits norepinephrine
uptake
ï TCA¶s
ï Older type of antidepressants
ï MOAI
Nursing interventions:
ï Monitor BP q 2 to 4 hours during MAOI therapy
ï Assess patient taking MAOI for hypertensive crisis
ï monitor liver function and CBC when the patient is
taking TCA
ï Administer SSRI in the morning with or without food
ï Advice patient taking SSRI to avoid alcohol
ï Monitor serum level of litium.
ï Advice patient taking MAOIs to avoid tyramine rich
foods.
ï Suicide precaution especially during recovery phase
Key facts about ECT:
ï Controversial
ï used to treat severe depression in certain
cases
ï Used when pyschotherapy and medication
is not effective
ï A patient is immediate risk for suicide
ï contraindicated for patients with MI and
history of stroke
ï 1 sec electrical current pass through the brain using
electrodes placed above temple;current produces brief
seizure
ï Insertion of bite block to prevent tongue biting
ï Atropine to reduce secretions and prevent aspiration and
short acting general anesthetics or muscle relaxants
administered before the procedure
ï Brain waves, heart rhythm and arterial oxygen sat are
monitored during treatment
ï NPO 6 to 8 hours prior the procedure
ï Total of 6 to 12 treatments in typical
course for major depression
ï Requires informed consent
ï Potential Adverse effects:
ï Headaches
ï Short term memory loss

ï And muscle ache

Nursing Interventions:
ï Provide patients physical needs
ï Structured activities
ï Watched out for suicide

/
 0

 

Key facts about anxiety:
ï A universal feeling
ï Degree of anxiety along with the ability to
perceive it accurately and channel it
appropriately determines whether a
persons anxiety will help or hinder his level
of functioning
ï Maybe mild, moderate, sever or panic
Classification:
ï Acute stress disorder
ï agoraphibia
ï GAD
ï OCD
ï Panic disorder
ï Phobia social and specific
ï PTSD
Causes:
ï Biochemical factors
ï Brain atrophy
ï Underdeveloped frontal and temporal
lobes
ï Abnormalities involving the amygdala and
hypocampus
  

 

Characteristics:
ï May begin as early as 2 days after the
trauma
ï Unlike PTSD, ASD may resolve in 4
weeks
Cause:
ï Exposure to trauma
Signs and symptoms:
ï Hyperarousal
ï Avoidance of reminders of traumatic event
ï Persistent intrusive recollection of
traumatic events in flashbacks, dreams, or
reccurrent thoughts of visual images
ï Exaggerated startle reflex
ï Dissociation ( hallmark symptoms)
treatment:
ï Psychotherapy
ï cognitve
ï Behavioral
ï Pharmacotherapy
ï Supportive counselimg
Nursing interventions:
ï Encourage patient to discuss stressful
event and identify it as traumatic
ï Encourage patient to identify any feeling of
survivor guilts, inadequacy or blame
ï Teach patient relaxation technique
.1
Characteristics:
ï Intense fear or avoidance of situation or places
that may be difficult or embarrassing to leave or
in which might not be available
ï Usually occur in patients with history of panic
disorder
ï Most common fears include crowds, large public
places and places where person feels trapped
Causes:
ï unknown
ï May have genetic basis or biochemical
influence
Sisgns and symptoms:
ï Overriding fear of open or public spaces
ï Deep concern that help might not be
available in such places
ï Avoidance to public places and
confinement to home
Treatment:
ï Pharmacologic therapy:
ï Benzodiazepines
ï Densensitization
ï Relaxation technique
ï Psychotherapy
Nursing Interventions:
ï Encourage patient to discuss feared object
or situation
ï Administer anxiolytics as prescribed
ï Encourage the patient to verbalize feelings
ï Establish a trusting relationship
&  -
 0

 
+&2
Characteristics:
ï Anxiety that¶s persistent overwhelming,
uncontrollable and out of proportion to the
stimulus usually chronic
ï Efffects range from mild to severe and
incapacitating
causes:
ï Genetic predisposition
ï Imbalance in serotonin and GABA
ï Possible predisposition in children of
anxious parents
ï stress
Signs and symptoms:
ï SOB
ï Tachycardia
ï Dry mouth
ï Sweating
ï Nausea or diarrhea
ï Urinary frequency
ï Inability to relax
ï Muscle tension
ï Irritability
ï Trembling
ï Cold clammy hands
ï Poor concentration
ï Unrealistic assessment of problems
ï Excessive anxiety and worry over minor matters
ï Fear of grave misfortune or death
Treatment:
ï Cognitive
ï Biofeedback
ï Pharmacotherapy
ï Antianxiety
ï SSRI

ï TCA
Nursing interventions:
ï Stay with the patient
ï Remain calm and non judgmental
ï Suggest activities that distract from anxiety
ï Reduce environmental stimuli
OCD
Characteristics:
ï Untoward, recurrent, intrusive thoughts or images that the person
tires to alleviate through repetitive behaviors or mental acts
ï Obsession produce anxiety
ï Compulsion reduce anxiety
ï Obsessive ± compulsive behavior may be simple or complex and
ritualized
ï Complex: tend to take up more than 1 hour per day
ï Extreme ritualistic behaviors: can take hours to complete, becomes
the patient¶s major life activity
ï Affects about 2% of general population
ï Many OCD sufferers also have major depressive disorder, specific
phobia, eating disorders, substance abuse or personality disorder
Causes:
ï Apparent association with tourette syndrome
ï Anatomic- physiologic disturbances in the brain
area
ï Freudian psychoanalytical theory
ï Result of conflict between ego and id
ï Behavioral theory
ï Conditioned response to anxiety ± provoking events
ï Compulsive behavior also learned and reinforced
Signs and symptoms:
ï Repetitive thoughts that cause stress
ï Repetitive behaviors, such as hand washing,
counting or checking and rechecking whether a
door is locked
ï Engagement in culturally prescribed ritual
behavior that exceeds cultural norms; occurs at
times and places that others in culture world
would judge inappropriate and interferes with
social norms
Diagnosing:
ï Demonstration of ritualistic behavior that¶s
irrational or excessive
ï Enlarged basal ganglia in some patients
ï Increased glucose metabolism in part of
the basal ganglia
Treatment:
ï Exposure and response prevention (
primary behavioral technique used)
ï Relaxation technique
ï Support groups
Nursing interventions:
ï Give patients time to carry out the ritualistic
behavior ( unless it¶s dangerous) until he can be
distracted by some other activity
ï Establish reasonable demands and limits on the
patient¶s behaviors, and make their purpose
clear
ï Encourage use of active diversions to divert his
attention from the unwanted thoughts and
promote a pleasurable experience
Nursing interventions:
ï Limit number of times per day he may indulge in
compulsive behavior; then gradually shorten
time allowed
ï Refocus time and attention on other feelings or
problems
ï Explain how to channel emotional energy to
relive stress
ï Engage him in activities that produce positive
accomplishments and boost confidence and self
- esteem
|  

Characteristics:
ï Anxiety in its most severe form
ï Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks that
causes intense apprehension and feelings
of impending doom
ï Panic attacks occur suddenly without
warning
Causes:
ï Possible trigger: intense stress or sudden loss
ï Family predisposition
ï High norepinephrine levels, suggesting defect in
catecholamine system
ï Heightened sensitivity to somatic symptoms
ï Misinterpretation of symptoms
ï Medical conditions ( asthma, PMS, migraine,
cardiovascular disease)
Signs and symptoms:
ï Can mimic heart attack
ï Diminished ability to focus or think clearly,
even with direction
ï Fidgeting or pacing
ï Rapid speech
ï Exaggerated startle reaction
Diagnostics:
ï Must rule out organic cause for signs and
symptoms
ï Must meet DSM ± IV ± TR criteria
Treatment:
ï Cognitive therapy using cognitive
restructuring
ï Behavioral therapy involving
desensitization
ï Relaxation techniques to help patient cope
with a panic attack
Nursing interventions:
ï Stay with the patients until attack subsides
ï Avoid touching patient until you¶ve established
rapport
ï Maintain a calm, serene approach
ï Speak in short, simple sentences and slowly
give patient one direction at a time; avoid giving
lengthy explanations and asking too many
questions
ï reduce external stimuli, including exposure to
groups of people
ï Provide a safe environment and prevent
harm to patients and others
ï Keep in mind that patient¶s perceptual field
may be narrowed; therefore, avoid
exposing her to excessive stimuli and dim
bright lights as necessary
|1+  2
Characteristics:
ï Social anxiety disorder
ï Marked, persistent fear or anxiety in social
or performance situations
ï Sufferer avoids these situations whenever
possible
ï More common in women
ï Rarely develops after age 25
Causes :
ï Family predisposition
ï Possible role of biological and
environmental factors
ï Environmental influences ( observasional
learning, social modeling)
Signs and symptoms:
ï Fear or avoidance of eating, writing, or
speaking in public, meeting strangers
ï Pronounced sensitivity to criticisms
ï Low self esteem
ï Scholastic underachievement because of
test anxiety
ï Blushing
ï Profuse sweating
ï Trembling
ï Nausea or stomach upset
ï Difficulty talking
Diagnostics:
ï No specific test
ï Must meet DSM ± IV ± TR criteria
Treatment:
ï Desensitization therapy
ï Role ± playing in guided imagery
ï Assertiveness training
ï Modeling behavior
ï Negative thought stopping
Nursing intervention:
ï Avoid urge to trivialize patient¶s fear
ï Teach patient progressive muscle
relaxation, guided imagery, or thought ±
stopping techniques as appropriate
ï Suggest ways to channel energy and
relieve stress
ï Don¶t let the patient withdraw completely
|1+ .2
Characteristics:
ï Onset in childhood to early adulthood
ï More persistence seen in adult phobia
Classification:
ï Natural environment
ï Animal
ï Blood ± injection ± injury
ï Situational
ï Other
Causes:
ï Unknown cause but may have some
genetic influences
ï Predisposing factors: observing or
experiencing trauma) may contribute
ï Usually not caused by a single traumatic
event
ï May adopt phobias of other family
members
Common phobias:
ï Arachnophobia
ï Dysmorphophobia
ï Ecophobia
ï Enochlophobia
ï Heliophobia
ï Heterophobia
ï Xenophobia
Signs and symptoms:
ï Severe anxiety with exposure or even
threat of exposure
ï Low self ± esteem
ï Depression
ï Feelings of weakness, cowardice, or
ineffectiveness
Diagnostics:
ï History of anxiety when exposed to
specific entity or situation
ï Must meet DSM ± IV -TR
Treatment :
ï Systematic desensitization or exposure therapy
ï Relaxation therapy
ï Breathing exercises
ï Thought stopping
ï Role ± playing in guided imagery
ï Hypnosis
ï No proven drug treatment
Pharmacologic treatments:
ï Benzodiazepines
ï Beta ± adrenergic blocker : propanolol
ï MAOI
ï SSRI
ï TCA
ï buspirone
Nursing interventions:
Pharmacologic treatment
ï Monitor patients receiving benzodiazepines for
an initial excitement rather than calming effect
ï When administering inderal, take patients pulse
for 1 full minute after giving the dose
ï Advise diabetic patients taking inderal that the
drug may mask hypoglycemia
ï Monitor BP of patients taking MAOI for 2 to 4
hours after initial therapy
ï Assess patients taking MAOIs for
hypertensive crisis
ï Give SSRIs in the morning with or without
food
ï Monitor patients taking TCA¶s for
orthostatic hypotension
Nursing interventions:
ï Encourage patient to discuss the feared
entity or situation
ï Collaborate with patient and
multidisciplinary team
ï Teach assertiveness team
ï Instruct patient in relaxation and thought ±
stopping techniques as appropriate
ï Administer medications as ordered
|"+. 

 
2
Characteristics:
ï Persistent, recurrent images and memories of a
serious traumatic event that the person has
either experienced or witnessed impairing her
ability to function
ï Includes such traumatic events as wartime
combat, accidents, acts of violence
ï May involve flashbacks, reliving event,
nightmares
Causes:
ï Triggering traumatic event
ï Some may be biochemically predisposed
Signs and symptoms:
ï Anger
ï Poor impulse control
ï Chronic anxiety and tension
ï Avoidance of people, places, and things
associated with the traumatic events
ï Emotional detachment or numbness
ï Social withdrawal
ï Decreased self - esteem
Diagnosing PTSD ( key
assessment)
ï inability to recall specific aspects of the
traumatizing event
ï Recurring dreams, flashbacks, or thoughts
of the traumatic event
ï Feeling or acting as one did when event
originally occurred
ï Intense distress when faced with cues
reminiscent event
Treatment:
ï SSRIs (1st line drugs to treat depression)
ï Benzodiazepines
ï Beta ± adrenergic blockers
ï TCA¶s
ï MAOI
Nursing interventions:
ï Deal constructively with patient¶s displays of
anger
ï Encourage patient to assess angry outbursts by
identifying how anger escalates
ï Assist in regaining control over angry impulses,
help to identify situations in which patient lost
control, to talk about past and precipitating
events
ï Use displacement as means of dealing
with urges( from self or others), provide
safe, staff ± monitored room
ï Encourage move from physical to verbal
expressions of anger


 

Somatization:
ï Conversion of emotional or mental sates
into bodily symptoms
ï Internatization of anxiety, stress and
frustration
Characteristics:
ï Patients don¶t feign symptoms as in
malingering
ï Patients believe their symptoms indicate a
real physical disorder
ï Patients have difficulty accepting that
symptoms have a psychological origin
Classification:
ï BDD
ï Conversion disorder
ï Factitious disorder
ï hypochondriasis
ï Pain disorder
ï Somatization disorder
Causes:
ï Psychodynamic theory
ï repression
ï Stress
ï Learned response
ï Psychological mechanisms
ï Primary gain
ï Secondary gain
Stress related disorders in children:

ï Stuttering
ï Sleepwalking
ï Sleep tremors



.
 
+2
Characteristics:
ï Preoccupation with imagined or slight
defect in physical appearance that causes
patient much distress or impairment in
social or occupational functioning
ï In extreme cases, results in psychiatric
hospitalization
ï May predispose patient to major
depressive disorder
Causes:
ï Biological explanation : possible genetic
predisposition to psychiatric disorder
ï Psychological explanation: low self ±
esteem and tendency to judge oneself
almost exclusively by appearance
Signs and symptoms:
ï Frequent checking of reflection in mirror or
avoidance of mirror
ï Frequently comparing appearance with that of
others or scrutiny of other¶s appearance
ï Attempting to cover perceived defect
ï Seeking corrective treatment to eradicate
perceived defect
ï Touching perceived problem area frequently
Related behavior
ï Feelings of acute distress over
appearance
ï Avoidance of social situations where
perceived defect may be exposed
Possible misdiagnoses
ï Anorexai nervosa
ï Social phobia
ï Agoraphobia
ï Panic disorder
ï Trichotillomania
ï Depression
ï OCD
Diagnostic tests:
ï Yale ± brown obsessive compulsion scale
method
ï National institutes of health body dysmorphic
disorder scale
ï Psychiatric status rating scale for BDD
ï Global assessment of functioning scale
ï Hamilton depression rating scale
Treatment:
ï Group therapy
ï Behavior therapy
ï Aversion therapy
ï Thought stopping

ï Thought replacement

ï Response prevention

ï SSRIs
ï TCAs
Nursing interventions:
ï Promote an accepting, nonjudgmental atmosphere;
avoid expression of shock, amusement, or criticism of
patient¶s behavior
ï Address patient time to carry out compulsive or ritualistic
behavior
ï Address patient¶s physical needs
ï Allow patient time to carry out compulsive or ritualistic
behavior ( unless dangerous) until some distraction or
other activity can be implemented
ï Let patient know you¶re aware of the behavior, and help
him explore feelings associated with it

.


Characteristics:
ï Marked by persistent conviction that one has or is likely
to get a serious disease ± despite medical evidence and
reassurance to the contrary
ï Patient¶s conviction based on bodily sensations or
symptoms that have been misinterpreted
ï Patient doesn¶t consciously cause symptoms and isn¶t
consciously aware of benefits they bring
ï Patient doesn¶t suffer from delusions
ï Affects as many men as women
Causes:
ï Most common in people who have had an
organic disease
ï Psychological factors ( probable role)
ï May reflect self centeredness or wish to be
taken care of
ï May be linked to or maybe expression of anger
or guilt
ï May be linked to anxiety and depression
Signs and symptoms:
ï Characteristically involves a single body
system
ï Complaints rarely follow recognizable
pattern of organic disease
ï Typically concerns not relieved by
examination and physician¶s reassurance
Misinterpreted physical
symptoms:
ï Borborgymi
ï Abdominal bloating
ï Crampy discomfort
ï Cardiac awareness
ï sweating
Common sensory symptoms:
ï Anesthesia
ï Paresthesia
ï Deafness
ï Blindness
ï Tunnel vission
Common motor complaints:
ï Abnormal movements
ï Weakness
ï Gait disturbances
ï Paralysis
ï Tremors
ï Tics
ï jerks
Diagnostics:
ï Projective psychological tests
ï Complete patient history
ï Tests to rule out underlying organic
disease
Treatment:
ï Goal: help patient lead productive life
despite distressing symptoms and fears
ï Appropriate teaching and supportive
relationship with one competent , trusted
health care professional crucial
ï Psychotherapy
ï Behavior modification
Nursing interventions:
ï Encourage patient to express feelings
rather than repress them
ï Help patient learn non pharmacologic
strategies to reduce distress, including
imagery, relaxation, hypnosis,
biofeedback, and massage
ï Teach assertiveness techniques if
appropriate
ï Relaxation technique
ï Meditation technique
| 
 

Characteristics:
ï Complaints of persistent pain
ï Psychological factors play key role in
pain¶s onset, severity, or maintenance
ï Predominant feature is the pain itself
ï Remissions and exacerbations may occur
Complications:
ï Psychoactive substances dependence
ï Multiple surgical interventions
ï Complications of extensive diagnostic
evaluations
Causes:
ï No specific cause
ï Stress or conflict may underlie the problem
ï One theory equates patient¶s unconscious
conversion of conflicts to pain
ï Behavioral theory: pain behavior
reinforced when rewarded and inhibited
when punished
Signs and symptoms:
ï Acute or chronic pain not explained by a physiologic
cause
ï Pain severity, duration, or resulting disability not
explained by underlying physical disorder
ï Insomnia
ï Anger, frustration, and depression
ï Anger directed at health care professional
ï Drug ± seeking behavior in an attempt to relieve pain
ï Frequent visits to multiple health care providers to seek
pain relief
Diagnostics:
ï Tests to rule out physical or neurologic
causes for pain
ï Rule out other psychiatric disorder as
cause of pain
ï Must meet DSM ± IV ± TR criteria
Treatment:
ï Psychotherapy
ï Analgesics
ï Anxiolytics
ï TCAs
Alternative therapies:
ï Nutritional therapy
ï Herbal therapy
ï Homeopathic remedies
ï Acupuncture or acupressure
ï Hydrotherapy
ï Naturophatic manipulative therapy
ï aromatherapy
Nursing interventions:
ï Help patient understand what¶s contributing to
his pain; encourage him to recognize situations
that precipitate hi pain
ï Offer attention at times other than what patient
complains of pain, to weaken the link to
secondary gain
ï Provide nonpharmacologic comfort measures
whenever possible
ï Teach patient coping strategies to help him deal
with pain
 3  
 

Characteristics:
ï Marked by loss of or change in voluntary motor
or sensory functioning that suggests a physical
illness but has no demonstrable physiologic
basis
ï Specific symptom or deficit has pyschological
basis
ï Exacerbation during times of stress
ï Most common somatoform disorder among
children and adolescents
Facts about FACTITIOUS
DISORDER
ï Patient deliberately produces or
exaggerate symptoms of a physical or
mental illness to assume the role of a sick
person
ï Main types:
Factitious disorders with physical symptoms (
Munchausen syndrome) ; factitious disorders
with psychological symptoms
Munchausen syndrome
ï Symptoms are:
Fabricated
Self ± inflicted
An exacerbation or exaggeration of
preexisting disorder
A combination of above
Factitious disorder with
psychological symptoms:
ï Almost always coexist with a severe
personality disorder
ï History of psychoactive substance abuse
Causes:
ï Biological and psychological components
ï Psychodynamic theory: defense
mechanism neutralizes anxiety
ï Sudden onset of conversion symtoms
Signs and symptoms:
ï Possible sudden onset of single, debilitating sign
or symptom that prevents normal function of
affected body part
ï Weakness
ï Paralysis
ï Sensation loss in a specific body part
ï pseudoseizures
ï Loss of a special sense, such as vision, hearing,
or touch
ï Aphonia
ï Dysphagia
ï Impaired balance or coordination
ï Sensation of a lump in the throat
ï Symptoms that rarely conform fully to
known anatomic and physiologic
mechanisms under true physical disorder
Diagnostics:
ï Neurologic evaluation
ï Laboratory tests
ï MRI
ï CXR
ï Lumbar puncture
ï EEG
Treatment:
ï Psychotherapy
ï Family therapy
ï Relaxation technique
ï Behavior modification
ï Biofeedback training
ï hypnosis
Nursing interventions:
ï Establish a supportive relationship
ï Help patient find appropriate ways to
increase her coping ability, reduce anxiety,
and enhance self ± esteem
ï Provide for patient¶s physical needs
ï Include patient¶s family in her care
- 
 

Characteristics:
ï Multiple and often vague physical complaints
that suggest a physical disorder but have no
physical basis
ï Complaints may involve any body system and
commonly persist or recur for years
ï Patients may have impairments in occupational,
social, and other functioning; may become
extremely dependent in their relationships
ï Affects about 0.2% to 2% of general population
ï Usually, symptoms begin before age Ä0
Causes:
ï None specific
ï May have genetic, biological
environmental, and psychological
influence
ï May perceive and process pain differently
ï May involve underlying feelings of
depression, anxiety, distress
ï Linked with child abuse
Signs and symptoms:
ï Involves any body system, but most commonly
GI, nuerologic, cardiopulmonary, or reproductive
ï Many sufferers complain of multiple symptoms
at same time
ï History of multiple medical evaluations by
different health care facilities, without significant
findings
ï Complicated medical history
ï Patient may seem quite knowledgeable about
tests, procedures, medical jargon
ï Patient may complain that people may think
she¶s imagining symptoms
ï Patient has tendency to disappear previous
health care professionals and previous
diagnoses and treatments
Diagnostics:
Psychological evaluation to rule out related
psychiatric disorders
Treatment:
ï No definitive therapy
ï Management focus:preventing
unnecessary interventions; turning
patient¶s attention away from symptoms
Nursing interventions:
ï Always remember the goal is to help patient
manage her symptoms, not eliminate them
ï Keep in mind that interpersonal relationships are
commonly linked to symptoms
ï Negotiate a care plan
ï Check your own feelings and attitudes
periodically
 3

 

Characteristics:
ï Rare
ï Disturbances in the normal waking state
ï Affect fundamental aspects of consciousness,
memory, identity, self ± perception, and
perception of the environment
ï Result from overwhelming stress caused by a
traumatic event that the person witnessed or
experienced, or by some intolerable internal
conflict
Types:
ï Depersonalization
ï Dissociative amnesia
ï Dissociative fugue
ï Dissociative identity disorder
Theories of dissociative
disorders:
ï Psychological theories
ï Biological theories
ï Learning theories
Diagnosing dissociative
disorder:
ï Dissociative disorders interview schedule
ï SCID ± D
ï Diagnostic drawing series
Depersonalization
disorder
Characteristics:
ï Persistent or recurrent feeling of being detached
from the person¶s own mental processes or body
ï Patient¶s self ± awareness is altered or
temporarily lost
ï Patient may perceive change in consciousness
as barrier between herself and outside world
ï Patient may feel that external world is unreal or
distorted
ï Sudden onset, usually occurring in adolescent or
in early adulthood
ï Symptom of depersonalization is brief and
has no lasting effects
ï Typically progresses; in many patients
becomes chronic with exacerbations and
remissions
ï Resolution usually occurs gradually
Causes:
ï Exact cause is unknown
ï Severe stress
ï History of physical, mental, or substance
abuse
ï History of OCD
sensory deprivation
ï Nuerophysiologic factors
Signs and symptoms:
ï Feeling detached from entire being and
body or loss of touch with reality
ï Loss of self ± control
ï Difficulty speaking
ï Obsessive rumination
ï Disturbed sense of time
Diagnostics:
ï Rule out physical disorders
ï Psychological tests and special interviews
ï Confirmed if DSM ± IV ± TR criteria met
Treatment:
ï Many recover without treatment
ï Treated when condition is persistent, recurrent, or
distressing
ï Psychotherapy
ï Cognitive ± behavior therapy
ï Hypnosis
ï Drugs:
SSRIs, TCAs
ï Identifying and addressing all stressors linked to onset
Nursing interventions:
ï Establish therapeutic, nonjudgmental
relationship with patient
ï Encourage patient to recognize that
depersonalization is a defense mechanism
ï Recognize and deal with anxiety ± producing
experiences
ï Assist patient in establishing relationships
Dissociative
Amnesia
Characteristics:
ï Key feature : inability to recall important personal
information that can¶t be explained by ordinary
forgetfulness
ï Forgetting basic autobiographical information
ï Acute memory loss triggered by severe
psychological stress
ï Most patients aware that they have ³lost´ some
time
Types:
ï Localized
ï Selective
ï Generalized
ï Continuous
ï Systematized
Causes:
ï Stress caused by traumatic experience
ï Predisposition
ï History of physical, emotional, or sexual
abuse
Signs and symptoms:
ï Patient may seem perplexed and
disoriented or wander aimlessly
ï Can¶t remember event that precipitated
episode
ï Doesn¶t recognize inability to recall
information
ï When episode ends, unaware of memory
disturbances
Diagnostics:
ï Physical examination to rule out organic
cause of symptoms
ï Psychiatric examination, including
psychological tests
ï Must meet DSM ± IV ± TR criteria
Treatment:
ï Helping patient recognize traumatic event trigger
ï Teaching of reality ± based coping strategies by
psychotherapist
ï When recovery is urgent, questioning patient
under hypnosis or in drug ± induced, semi
hypnotic state
ï Drugs:
Benzodiazepines
SSRIs
Nursing interventions:
ï Establish therapeutic, nonjudgmental relationship
ï Encourage patient to verbalize feelings of distress
ï Help patient recognize that memory loss is a defense
mechanism
ï Help patient deal with anxiety ± producing experiences
ï Teach and assist patient in using reality based coping
strategies
ï Teach family members techniques for dealing with
patient¶s memory loss
Dissociative Fugue
Characteristics:
ï Sudden, unexpected travel away from home or
workplace
ï Inability to recall past
ï Confusion about personal identity
ï Occasional formation of new identity during episode
ï Degree of impairment varies with duration of fugue and
nature of personality state evoked
ï Upon return to pre ± fugue state, patient may have no
memory of events that occurred during fugue
ï usually resolves rapidly
Causes:
ï Precise cause unknown
ï Follows extremely stressful event
ï Heavy alcohol use (possible predisposing
factor)
Signs and symptoms:
ï Often asymptomatic during fugue
ï Confusion about identity or puzzled about past
ï Confrontational when new identity (or absence of identity) is
challenged
ï Depression
ï Discomfort
ï Shame
ï Intense internal conflict
ï Suicidal or aggressive impulses
ï Confusion, distress, even terror due to failure to remember events
during the fudue
Diagnostics:
ï Psychiatric examination (during suspected
fugue)
ï Psychological history to check for episodes of
violent behavior
ï May not be able to diagnose until fugue ends
ï Physical examination to rule out medical
conditions
ï Confirmed if DSM ± IV ± TR criteria met
Treatment:
ï Psychotherapy
ï Establish trusting relationship
ï Hypnosis
ï Cognitive therapy
ï Group therapy
ï Family therapy
ï Creative therapies such as music or art therapy
Nursing interventions:
ï Encourage patient to identify emotions that
occur under stress
ï Monitor patient for signs and symptoms of
overt aggression toward self or others
ï Teach patient effective coping skills
ï Encourage patient to use available social
support systems
Dissociative Identity
Disorder (DID)
Characteristics:
ï Marked by two or more distinct identities
or subpersonlalities
ï Identities or subpersonalities recurrently
take control of patient¶s consciousness
and behavior
ï Primary personality may be unaware of
subpersonalities
 Causes:

ï Strong connection between DID and

history of severe childhood abuse
Signs and symptoms:
ï Lack of recall beyond ordinary forgetfulness
ï Pronounced changes in facial presentation,
voice behavior
ï Hallucinations particularly auditory and visual
ï Suicidal tendencies or other self ± harming
behaviors
diagnostics:
ï Correct diagnosis only after months or
even years in mental health system
ï Medical history revealing unsuccessful
psychiatric treatment, periods of amnesia,
and disturbances in time perception
ï DSM ± IV ± TR criteria
Treatment:
ï Long term process
ï Goal: to integrate all of patient¶s personalities and prevent
personality from splitting again
ï After stabilization, decreasing degree of dissociation, enhancing
cooperation and consciousness among subpersonalitie, and
ultimately merging them into one personality
ï Family and couples therapy
ï hypnosis
ï Drugs :
Benzodiazepines
SSRIs
TCAs
"
 *  .

ï Don¶t encourage patient to create new
personalities
ï Don¶t suggest that patient adopt names for
subpersonlities
ï Don¶t encourage subpersonalities to function
more autonomously
ï Don¶t encourage patient to ignore certain
subpersonalities
ï Don¶t exclude unlikable subpersonalities from
therpy
Nursing Intervention:
ï Establish trusting relationship with each subpersonality
ï Help patient identify emotions that occur under stress
ï Encourage patient to identify emotions that occur under
stress
ï Teach patient effective defense mechanisms and coping
skills
ï Stress importance of continuing with psychotherapy, and
patient for what to expect
ï Monitor patient for suicidal ideation and behavior;
implement precautions as needed
|   

 

Characteristics:
ï Pervasive pattern of behavior and thinking that differs
markedly from norms of patient¶s cultural or ethnic
background
ï Disturbances in self image
ï Inappropriate range of emotions
ï Poor impulse control
ï Maladaptive ways of perceiving self, others and the
world
ï Long standing problems in personal relationships
ï Reduced occupational functioning
CLUSTERS:
ï Cluster A
Paranoid
Schizoid
Schizotypal
Cluster B
Antisocial
Borderline
Histrionic
Narcissistic
ï Cluster C
ï Avoidant
ï Dependent

ï OCD
  
| 
|   

 

Characteristics:
ï Marked by distrust of other people and a
constant, unwarranted suspicion that
others have sinister motives
ï Searches for hidden meanings and hostile
intentions in everything others say and do
ï Pt quick to challenge loyalties of friends
and loved ones
Causes:
ï Exact cause unknown
ï Possibly genetic influence
ï Maybe a result of inadequate or poorly
established parent attachment
Signs and symptoms:
ï Suspicion and distant of others¶ motives
(hallmark)
ï refusal to confide in others
ï Inability to collaborate with others
ï hypersensitivity
ï Inability to relax
ï Detachment and social isolation
Treatment:
ï Individual psychotherapy
ï Psychotherapy involving simple, honest,
businesslike approach
ï Pharmacologic therapy :
ï Antipsychotic drugs
ï SSRIs

ï Anxiety drugs
Nursing Interventions:
ï Offer persistent, consistent, and flexible care
ï Avoid inquiring too deeply into patient¶s life or history unless it¶s
relevant to clinical treatment
ï Avoid defensiveness and arguing
ï Establish therapeutic relationship by actively listening and
responding
ï Don¶t challenge patient¶s paranoid beliefs
ï Avoid situations that threaten patient¶s autonomy
ï Use humor cautiously
ï Help patient identify negative behaviors that interfere with his
relationships so he can see how his behaviors affect others
  
-
|   

 

Characteristics:
ï Detachment and social withdrawal
ï Patient is loner, with solitary interests and
occupations
ï No close friends
ï Maintains social distance
ï Functions adequately in every day life but
doesn¶t develop many meaningful relationship
Causes:
ï Exact cause is unknown
ï Sustained history of isolation in infancy
and childhood
ï Parental modeling of interpersonal
withdrawal, indifference and detachment
Signs and symptoms:
ï Emotional detachment
ï Social withdrawal
ï Lack of strong emotions
ï Little observable change in mood
ï Indifference to other¶s feelings, praise, or criticism
ï Lack of close friends or confidants
ï Inability to experience pleasure
ï Feelings of utter worthlessness coexisting with feelings
of superiority
ï Oversensitivity to sights
Treatment:
ï Goal:
ï Decreasing patient¶s resistance to change
ï Reducing social isolation and improving social interaction
ï Enhancing self ± esteem
ï Therapy:
ï Individual psychotherapy (short term)
ï Cognitive restructuring
ï Group therapy
ï Self help support groups
ï Medications for overlapping psychitaric disorder (major
depression)
Nursing Interventions:
ï Respect patient¶s need for privacy
ï Take a direct, involved approach to gain
patient¶s trust
ï Recognize patient¶s need for physical and
emotional distance
ï Give patient ample time to express his feelings,
pushing him to do so before he¶s ready may
cause him to retreat
  
-
. 
|   
 

Characteristics:
ï Odd thinking and behavior
ï Pervasive pattern of social and
interpersonal deficits
ï Eccentric behavior and difficulty
concentrating for long periods
ï Severe social anxiety because of paranoia
about others¶ motivation
Causes:
ï Possible genetic basis
ï Environmental factors : stress
ï Poor regulation in dopamine pathway in
the brain
ï Ego boundary problems
ï Parent¶s likely had inadequate parenting
skills and poor communication skills
Signs and symptoms:
ï Disturbed thinking
ï Behavioral disturbances
Treatment:
ï Psychoanalytic intervention
ï Cognitive ± behavioral therapy
ï Individual therapy ( preffered)
ï Group therapy
ï Antipsychotic agents (low dose)
Nursing Interventions:
ï Remember that patient is easily overwhelmed
with stress
ï Give patient ample time to make difficult
decisions, or decisions that seem difficult only to
patient
ï Recognize and respect patient¶s need for
physical and emotional distance
ï Teach patient social skills and reinforce
appropriate behavior
     
|   
 

Characteristics:
ï Violates others¶ rights or generally
accepted social norms
ï Predisposes affected person to criminal
behavior
ï Impulsivity and recklessness
ï Egocentricity
Characteristics:
ï Disregard for the truth
ï Lack of remorse or empathy
ï Irritability and aggression
ï Inability to tolerate boredom and
frustration
ï Inability to maintain consistent,
responsible functioning at work or school
or as a parent
Causes:
ï Biological Factors
ï Poor serotonin regulation
ï Reduced autonomic activity and acquired
abnormalities in frontal lobe
ï Possibly genetic
Childhood risk factors for Antisocial
Personality Disorder:
ï Substance abuse
ï Criminal behavior
ï Physical or sexual abuse
ï Neglectful or unstable parenting
ï Social isolation
ï Transient friendships
ï Low socioeconomic status
Signs and symptoms:
ï Long standing pattern of disregarding
others¶ rights and society¶s values
ï Repeatedly performing unlawful acts
ï Reckless disregard for own or other¶s
safety
ï Deceitfulness
ï Lack of remorse or empathy
Signs and symptoms:
ï Consistent irresponsibility
ï Power ± seeking behavior
ï Destructive tendencies
ï Impulsivity and failure to plan ahead
ï Superficial charm
ï Inflated, arrogant self - appraisal
Personality and projective test:
ï BDI (beck depression inventory)
ï Draw ± a ± Person Test
ï MMPI- 2 (minnesota multiphasic
personality inventory)
ï Sentence ± completion test
ï Thematic apperception test
Treatment Options:
ï FOCUS: helping patient make connections
between his feelings and behaviors by
gaining better access to and experiencing
such feelings
ï Psychotherapy (tx of choice)
ï Inpatient hospitalization(rare)
ï Drugs:
ï Lithium
ï Beta adrenergic blockers

ï anticonvulsants
Nursing Interventions:
ï Set limits on patient¶s behavior
ï Guidelines:

choose your battles wisely(only as needed)

Focus on behavior

Ensure consistency
ï Establish a ³ behavioral contract´ with patient
ï Anticipate manipulative efforts
ï Avoid power struggles and confrontations
ï Avoid defensiveness and arguing
ï Observe for physical and verbal signs and irritation
ï Help patient manage his anger
  

  
|   
 

Defining Characteristics:
ï Poor regulation of emotions
ï Pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, mood,
behavior, and self ± image
ï Difficulty disdinguishing reality from misconceptions of
world
ï Alternating extremes of anger, anxiety, depression, and
emptiness
ï Impulsivity
ï Intense and stormy relationships
ï Extreme sensitivity to rejection
ï May resort to self destructive behaviors
Causes:
ï Precise cause is unknown
ï Possible genetic component
ï Dysfunction in the brain¶s limbic system or
frontal lobe
ï Decreased serotonin activity
ï Increased activity in alpha ± 2 ±
nonadrenergic receptors
Signs and symptoms:
ï Unstable relationships
ï Unstable self ± image
ï Unstable emotions
ï Manipulation
ï Intense fear of abandonment
ï Rapidly shifting attitude
ï manipulation
ï Uncertainty about major issues
ï Dissociation
ï Acting out
ï Chronic feelings of emptiness
ï Unpredictable, self damaging behavior
Treatment Options:
ï psychotherapy
ï Structured therapeutic environment
ï Psychosocial treatment (dialectical behavior)
ï Social learning theory and conflict resolution
therapies
ï Milieu therapy
ï Self help groups
ï Drugs: ( SSRIs, MAOIs, resperidone,
olanzapine, valproate or lithium, naltrexone
Nursing interventions:
ï Encourage patient to take responsibility for herself
ï Avoid sympathetic, nurturing responses
ï Set appropriate expectations for social interactions;
praise patient when she meets these expectations
ï Respect patient¶s personal space
ï Avoid defensiveness and arguing
ï Try to limit patient¶s interactions to assigned staff to
decrease splitting behaviors
ï If patient is taking medications, monitor her for
³cheeking´ or hoarding
    
|   
 

Defining Characteristics:
ï Pervasive pattern of excessive emotionality and
attention seeking behavior
ï Charming, expressive and dramatic
ï Must be center of attention at all times
ï Difficulty in developing and sustaining
satisfactory relationships
ï Fidelity and loyalty often lacking
Causes:
ï Exact cause is unknown
ï Possibly genetic component
ï Childhood event may play a role
ï Seductive or authoritative attitude of father
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Constant craving for attention, stimulation, and
excitement
ï Intense affect
ï Flirtatious, seductive behavior
ï Vanity, over ± investment in appearance, exhibitionism
ï Self dramatization
ï Impulsivity
ï Somatic pre occupation
ï Depression
ï Suicidal gestures and threats
Treatment Options:
ï GOAL: to relieve worst elements of behavior
rather than cure patient
ï Psychotherapy
ï FOCUS: solving problems in patient¶s life rather
than producing long ± term personality changes
ï Medications to relieve associated symptoms
Nursing Interventions:
ï Give patients choices in care options: incorporate her
wishes in her treatment plan as much as possible
ï Anticipate patient¶s tendency to try to ³win over´
caregivers
ï Teach patient appropriate social skills; reinforce
appropriate behaviors
ï Promote patient¶s expression of feelings, analysis of her
behavior, and accountability for her actions
ï Help patient manage crises and feelings that trigger
them
  
|   
 

Defining Characteristics:
ï Self centeredness
ï Self absorption
ï Lacking in empathy
ï Patient typically takes advantage of people
to achieve own ends
Defining Characteristics:
ï Patient uses people without regard to their
feelings
ï Intense need for admiration
ï Patient expects to be recognized as
superior
ï Driven and achievement oriented
ï Delusion of greatness
Causes:
ï Exact cause is unknown
ï Psychodynamic theory: child¶s basic
needs do unmet
ï Ambivalent self - perception
Signs and symptoms:
ï Arrogance or haughtiness
ï Self centeredness
ï Unreasonable expectations of favorable
treatment
ï Grandiose sense of self importance
ï Exaggeration of achievements and talents
ï Constant desire for attention and admiration
ï Lack of empathy
Treatment Options:
ï Long ± term psychotherapy
ï Group therapy not effective because
patient typically dominates group
ï Long term therapy for those who lack
motivation for out patient treatment
Nursing Interventions:
ï Avoid reinforcing either pathologic grandiosity or
weakness
ï Focus on patient¶s positive traits or on his feelings of
pain, loss, or rejection
ï If patient makes unreasonable demands or has
unreasonable expectations, tell him so in a matter of fact
way
ï Remain non judgmental
ï Don¶t avoid patient
ï Avoid defensiveness and arguing
  
3
 |   

 

Defining characteristics:
ï Feelings of inadequacy
ï Extreme social anxiety
ï Social withdrawal
ï Low self esteem
ï Poor self confidence
ï Patients dwell on negative and has difficulty
viewing situations and interactions objectively
Causes:
ï Combined genetic, biological,
environmental, and other factors
ï Genetic and biological theories linked to
temperament
ï Overly critical parenting style
ï Significant environmental influences
during childhood
Signs and symptoms:
ï Shyness, timidity, and social withdrawal
behavior meant to drive others away
ï Reluctance to speak or conversely, overly
talkative
ï Constant mistrust or wariness of others
ï Difficulty starting and maintaining
relationships
ï perfectionism
Signs and symptoms:
ï Limited emotional expression
ï Low self esteem
ï Self ± consciousness
ï Reluctance to take personal risks or
engage in new activities
Treatment options:
ï GOAL: to improve social interaction and
increase confidence in interpersonal
relationships
ï Psychotherapy ( only for high functioning
patients)
ï Individual psychotherapy (preferred therapy)
ï Self ± help support groups
ï Adjunctive medications
Nursing Interventions:
ï Offer persistent, consistent, and flexible care
ï Take direct, involved approach to gain trust
ï Monitor signs of dependency
ï Assess signs of depression
ï Prepare patient for upcoming procedures well in
advance
ï Initially give patient explicit directives rather than asking
him to make decisions
ï Teach patient relaxation and stress ± management
techniques
  
.
 
|   
 

Defining Characteristics:
ï Extreme need to be taken care of, leading to submissive,
clinging behavior and fear of separation and or rejection
ï Sufferers let others make major decisions for them
ï Strong need for constant reassurance and support
ï Behaviors typically arise from the perception that patient
can¶t function without others
ï Overly sensitive to disapproval
ï Avoid positions of responsibility
Causes:
ï Exact cause unknown
ï Possible link with authoritarian or overprotective
parenting
ï Childhood trauma
ï Closed family system that discourages outside
relationships
ï Childhood physical and sexual abuse
ï Social isolation
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Submissiveness
ï Self ± effacing, apologetic manner
ï Low self esteem
ï Lack of self confidence
ï Lack of initiative
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Incompetence and need for constant
assistance
ï Feelings of pessimism, inferiority, and
unworthiness
ï Hypersensitivity to criticisms
ï Clinging, demanding behavior
ï Dependence on number of people
ï Avoidance of change and new situations
Treatment Options:
ï Outpatient mental health clinics
ï Psychotherapy (tx of choice)
ï Individual and group therapy
ï Assertiveness training
ï Self help support group
ï Medications for associated symptoms
ï In crisis , possible use of benzodiazepines
Nursing Interventions:
ï Offer persistent, consistent, and flexible care
ï Take direct, involved approach to gain patient¶s trust
ï Give patient as much opportunity as possible to control
her treatment
ï Verify patient¶s approval before initiating specific
treatments
ï Encourage activities that require decision making
ï Help patient establish and work toward goals to promote
sense of autonomy
ï If patient has physical complaints, don¶t minimize,
dismiss or conversely, encourage them
  
$1  3
. 3
|   
 

Defining Characteristics:
ï Pervasive desire for perfection and order at
expense of openness, flexibility, and efficiency
ï involves viewing the world as black and white
ï Patient has overwhelming need to control
environment but agonizes over the process
ï Lifelong pattern of rigid thinking may lead to
poor social skills
ï May have one or both of the other cluster C
personality disorder
Causes:
ï Possible genetic or familial cause
ï Patient viewed as needing control as
defense against feelings of powerlessnes
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Behavioral, emotional, and cognitive
rigidity
ï Perfectionism
ï Severe self criticism
ï Indecisiveness
ï Controlling manner
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Cool, distant, formal manner
ï Emotional constriction
ï bouts of intense anger when things stray
from patient¶s idea of how things ³should
be´
ï Chronic sense of time pressure and
inability to relax
ï Preoccupation with orderliness, neatness,
and cleanliness
Treatment Options:

ï Individual Psychotherapy
ï Possible adjuvant medications
ï Cognitive approaches rarely work
ï Group therapy
ï Generally poor response to medications
Nursing Interventions:
ï Let patient control his own treatment plan by giving him
choices whenever possible
ï Avoid informality as patient demands strict attention to
detail
ï Recognize and respect patient¶s need for physical and
emotional distance
ï Be prepared for long monologues; try to remain attentive
ï Use tolerance and ordinary kindness when dealing with
patient
ï Avoid defensiveness and arguing
Nursing Interventions:
ï Don¶t brush aside issues that patient thinks are
important in an effort to get on with effective
issues
ï don¶t pressure patient to focus on emotions
before he¶s ready; it will alienate him
ï Remember that patient¶s defensive structures is
a cover for his vulnerability to shame, humiliation
and dread
#  

Characteristics:
ï Occur in people of all ages and economic.
Ethnic and educational backgrounds
ï Typical sufferers are white, middle class
female in her teens or 20¶s
ï Physically and psychologically debilitating
ï Sufferers face social obstacles : criticisms
and isolation
 03 
Defining Characteristics:
ï Self ± starvation syndrome
ï Relentless pursuit of thinness sometimes to
point of fatal emaciation
ï Preoccupation with food and body image
ï Despite extreme thinness sufferer thinks she¶s
fat because of distorted body image
ï Weight drops to less than 85% of ideal body
weight
Types:
ï RESTRICTING TYPE: patient limits food
intake
ï BINGE ± EATING or PURGING TYPE:
patient engages in regular binge-eating
or purging behaviors along with limiting
food intake
Causes:
ï Identical twins at grater risk
ï Female siblings of anorexics
ï Below normal levels of serotonin and
norepinephrine; above normal cortisol
ï Stress
ï Pressure from societal standards of Ideal
body shape
ï Learned response to strong social
pressures
Causes:
ï Low self ± esteem
ï perfectionism
ï Feelings of inadequacy
ï Sense of powerlessness
ï Family dynamics
ï Possible subconscious effort to avoid
dealing with sexuality issues
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Self imposed starvation despite obvious emaciation ( key
Feature )
ï 15% or greater weight loss with no organic reason
ï Morbid dread of being fat and compulsion to be thin
ï Emaciated appearance
ï Skeletal muscle atrophy
ï Lanugo
ï Blotchy or sallow skin
ï Dryness or loss of scalp hair
ï hypotension
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Amenorrhea
ï Painless salivary gland enlargement
ï Preoccupation with body size; distorted image
ï Low self esteem
ï Suicidal thoughts
ï Avid exercising with no apparent fatigue
ï Wearing oversized clothing
Treatment options:
ï Psychotherapy
ï Behavior modification
ï Group, family, or individual therapy
ï Antidepressants medications
Signs and Symptoms that needs
Hospitalization:
ï Rapid weight loss
ï Electrolyte imbalance
ï Hypothermia
ï Suicidal ideation
ï Severe hypotension
Nursing Interventions:
ï Help patient modify body image through
cognitive and behavioral strategies
ï Monitor hospitalized patient¶s VS,
nutritional status, and I and O
ï Help patient establish target weight
ï Negotiate adequate food intake
Nursing Interventions:
ï Frequently offer small portions of food or
drinks
ï Maintain one ± on ± one supervision of
patient during meals and 1 hour after
meals
ï Encourage patient to recognize and assert
her feelings freely
ï Advise family members to avoid
discussing food with patient
 3 
Defining Characteristics:
ï Episodes of binge eating followed by
feelings of guilt, humiliation, depression,
and self ± condemnation
ï Frequent binging
ï Recurrent use of compensatory measures
to prevent weight gain
Causes:
ï Genetic
ï Specific area of chromosome 10p linked to
families with history of bulimia
ï Possible role of altered serotonin levels
ï Society¶s emphasis on appearance and thinness
ï Sexual abuse
ï Family disturbance or conflict
ï Learned maladaptive behavior
ï Struggle for control or self identity
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Persistent sore throat, heartburn
ï Calluses or scarring on back of hands and knuckles
ï Tooth staining or discoloration, loss of enamel, and
increased dental carries
ï Hx of eating food more than what most people would eat
ï Thin, normal or slightly over weight , with hx of weight
fluctuations
ï Abdominal and epigastric pain
ï Amenorrhea
ï Fluid and electrolyte imbalance
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Perfectionism
ï Distorted body image
ï Exaggerated sense of guilt
ï Feelings of alienation
ï Image as perfect
ï Poor impulse control
ï Low tolerance of frustration
ï Peculiar eating habits or rituals
ï Excessive exercise regimen
ï Frequent weighing
Treatment Options:
ï Centering on issues that cause the
behavior itself
ï Psychotherapy
ï TCAs or SSRIs
ï Self ± help groups
ï hospitalization
Nursing Interventions:
ï Engage patient in therapeutic alliance to obtain
commitment to treatment
ï Establish contract with patient that specifies amount and
type of food she must eat at each meal
ï Set limits for each meal
ï Identify patient¶s elimination patterns
ï Teach patient to keep journal to monitor high risk
situations that cue binging and purging behaviors
ï Encourage patient to recognize and ventilate her feelings
about her eating behaviors
ï Explain risks of laxative, emetic and diuretic abuse
Nursing Interventions:
ï Provide assertiveness training
ï Assess and monitor patient¶s suicide
potential
ï Refer patient and family to American
Anorexia Nervosa and Related Disorders
Inc.
1  1 
ï Maybe any chemical substance or
preparation that¶s used in a maladaptive
manner
ï Many people abuse a combination of
substances
ï Drug mixing is most dangerous form of
substance abuse
11 diagnostic Classes of
Substance Abuse
ï Alcohol
ï Amphetamines
ï Caffeine
ï Cannabis
ï Hallucinogens
ï Inhalants
ï Nicotine
ï Opioids
ï PCP
ï Sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics
   
ï Alcohol stimulates the release of endorphins and
enkephalins (body¶s opiods) which turn on the
central dopamine reward system
ï CNS depressant
ï Absorbed quickly in stomach and small
intestines and is metabolized by liver wihin 12 ±
24 hours
ï Intoxication is when blood alcohol level is 100 -
150 mg/dl or 0.15%
 Effect Overdose Withdrawal
syndrome
ïSedation, ïStupor ïAnorexia
decreased inhibition ïIrritability
ïCardiac arrest
ïRelaxation ïNausea
ïDecreased
ïComa ( 0.40%)
ïTremors
coordination ïRespiratory ïInsomnia
ïImpaired judgment depression ( ïIrritability
ïSlowed reflexes 0.50%) ïTachycardia
ïSlurred speech
ïdeath ïIncreased BP
ïEuphoria
ïIncreased temp
ïSexual dysfunction
ïDiaphoresis
ïTactile
hallucinations
ïDelirium tremens
Delirium tremens Wernicke¶s Korskoff¶s
Encephalopathy syndrome
ï most serious form of ï acute reversible ï chronic irreversible
alcohol withdrawal nuerological condition disorder following
ï6- 8 hours from last associated with Wernicke¶s
drink (life threatening) Thiamine deficiency encephalopathy
ïSeizure, confusion, ïAtaxia ïMemory loss
disorientation, ïGlobal confusion ïLearning deficit
hyperpyrexia, HPN, ïPalsy 6th nerve ïconfabualtion
tachycardia, coarse leading to nystagmus
tremors, agitation,
cardio vascular
collapse
ïDOC:
benzodiazepines
 Substance Effect Overdose Withdrawal
symptoms

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 Substance Effect Overdose Withdrawal
symptoms

Amphetamines ï euphoria ï restlessness ï depression

ïInsomnia ïTremors ïFatigue
ïHyperactivity ïTachypnea ïMay lead o
ïHyperalertness ïConfusion psychotic
ïWeight loss ïHallucinations
behavior and
suicide
ïTachycardia ïPanic
ïHPN ïConvulsions
ïDilated pupils ïRespiratory
ïFine tremors depression
ïdeath
 Substance Effect Overdose Withdrawal
symptoms

Hallucinogens ï distorted ïpanic ï none

perceptions ïpsychosis ïBadtrip and
ïGrandiosity flashbacks
ïHallucination
ïIllusion
ïDilated pupils
ïHPN
ïIncreased
salivation
 Substance Effect Overdose Withdrawal
symptoms

Cocaine ï grandiosity ï seizure ïsevere craving

ïPressured ïRespiratory ïDepression
speech depression ïFatigue
ïTachycardia ïCardiac ïAnxiety
ïHPN arrythmias
ïdiaphoresis ïDelirium
ïParanoia
 Substance Effect Overdose Withdrawal
symptoms

Marijuana ï relaxation ï psychosis ïanxiety

ïMild euphoria ïRestlessness
ïLoss of ïSweating
inhibition ïLack of
ïRed ayes appetite
ïDry mouth ïNausea
ïParanoid ïGeneral
ideation malaise
 Substance Effect Overdose Withdrawal
symptoms

Phencyclidine ïEuphoria ï drowsiness ï none

( PCP ) ïPerceptual ïStupor
distortion ïGrand mal
ïViolence seizure
ïAntisocial ïdeath
disorder
ïIncreased
salivation
ïnystagmus
0  

Components of Sexual Identity :
1. Biosexual Identity
ï Either male or female
2. Gender Role
ï Outward expression of one¶s own gender
Ä. Gender Identity
ï A person¶s private experience ( psychological and social
pressures)
4. Sexual Orientation or Preference
ï feeling¶s about his or her sexual attraction and erotic
potential
Types of Sexual Disorders:
ï Paraphilias
ï Sexual Dysfunction
ï Sexual Arousal Disorder
ï Sexual Desire Disorder

ï Orgasmic Disorders

ï Sexual Pain Disorder

ï Sexual Pain Disorders

ï Gender Identity Disorder
General Intervention for Sexual
Disorder:
ï Ensure therapeutic relationship
ï Promote patient¶s self ± knowledge
ï Increase patient¶s level of interaction
ï Promote participation in care
ï Improve patient¶s coping skill
ï Provide referrals
ï Be aware that a primary nurse should be assigned to ensure
continuity of care and therapeutic relationship
ï Initially, allow patient to partially depend on you for self care
ï If patient is threat to self, or others institute safety precautions
ï Identify unnecessary environmental stimuli
|. 
|. 
ï Marked by sexual urges, fantasies, or
behaviors that center on inanimate
objects, suffering, or humiliation, or
children or other non consenting persons
ï Involve an attraction to non sanctioned
source of sexual satisfaction
Types of Paraphilias:
ï Exhibitionism
ï Fetishism
ï Pedophilia
ï Frotteurism
ï Sexual Masochism
ï Sexual Sadism
ï Voyeurism
ï Transvestic Fetishism
#01  
ï Marked by sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviors
involving unexpected, unsolicited exposure of
male genitals to strangers ± primarily female
passerby in public places
ï Occurs in places where sexual intercourse is
impossible such as crowded shopping malls
ï Usually limited to genital exposure with no
harmful advances or assaults
ß  
ï Marked by sexual fantasies, urges, or
behaviors that involve the use of fetish (
inanimate objects or non sexual part of the
body) to produce or enhance sexual
arousal
ï Involves a partner
ï Sometimes focuses on certain parts of the
body such as feet, hair or ears
ß 
ï Becoming sexually aroused from touching
or rubbing against a nonconsenting person
ï Usually occurs in crowded places
0   
ï Achieving sexual gratification from being
physically or emotionally abused
0 
 
ï Achieving sexual gratification by inflicting
pain by inflicting pain, cruelty, or emotional
abuse on others
!
 
Deriving sexual pleasure from looking at
sexual objects or sexually arousing situations
" 3 ß  
seen only in heterosexual men who become
sexually aroused by cross ± dressing in
women¶s clothing and imagining themselves
as women
Pedophilia
ï Marked sexual fantasies, urges, or
activities involving child, usually age 1Ä or
younger
ï Person is almost always a man, is
erotically aroused by children and seeks
sexual gratification with them
causes:
ï Unknown cause
ï Behavioral, psychoanalytical, biological, and
learning theories
ï Closed head injuries
ï CNS tumors
ï Lack of knowledge about sex
ï Nueroendocrine Disorders
ï Psychosocial stressors
Signs and Symptoms:
ï Anxiety
ï Depression
ï Disturbances in body image
ï Guilt or shame
ï Purchase of books, videos, or magazines related
to paraphilia or frequent visits to paraphilia
related web sites
ï Sexual dysfunction
ï Social isolation
Treatment Options:
ï Combination of psychotherapy, cognitive,
behavioral, pharmacotherapy and surgery
ï Aversive stimulation in behavioral therapy
ï Social skills training
ï Multifaceted for paraphiliacs who are sex
offenders
Nursing interventions:
ï Assess patients for signs and symptoms of
paraphilias
ï Assist with treatments as needed
0 

 
Types:
ï Sexual desire Disorders:
ï Hypoactive sexual desire disorder
ï Sexual aversion Disorder

ï Sexual Arousal Disorders:

ï Female sexual Disorder
ï Male Erectile Disorder

ï Orgasmic Disorder:
ï Female or male Orgasmic Disorder
ï Male Orgasmic Disorder

ï Premature Ejaculation
Types:
ï Sexual Dysfunction due to general medical
Condition
ï Sexual Pain Disorders :
ï Dyspareunia
ï Vaginismus
0 
  
 

.3 0 
 
 

0 3   


ï 
.3 0 
 
 

Deficiency or abnormal sexual fantasies or desire for
sexual activity
May engage in sexual intercourse if the partner
initiates
ï 0 3   

Dislikes or avoids genital sexual contact with a sexual
partner
Sexual Arousal Disorders:
Female sexual Disorder
Male Erectile Disorder

ï Female sexual Disorder

- persistent or recurrent inability to attain or maintain (
through completion of sexual activity ) an adequate
lubrication ± swelling response of sexual excitement
ï Male Erectile Disorder
- persistent or recurrent inability to attain or maintain (
through completion of sexual activity ) an adequate
erection
Orgasmic Disorder:
ï Female or male Orgasmic Disorder
ï Persistent or recurrent delay in, or absence of ,
orgasm, following a normal sexual excitement
phase
ï Premature Ejaculation
ï Persistent and recurrent onset of orgasm and
ejaculation with minimal sexual stimulation
Sexual Dysfunction due to general
medical Condition
ï Sexual dysfunction is fully explained by
the direct physiologic effects of general
medical conditions
ï Caused by substance use ( alcohol) ,
prescription drugs and street drugs
Sexual Pain Disorders :
ï Dyspareunia
ï Genital pain with sexual intercourse
ï Treatment: ( with physical cause )

creams,and water soluble jellies for inadequate lubrication

Medications for infection

Excision of hymenal scars

Change in coital position to reduce pain on deep penetration

ï Vaginismus
ï Involuntary spasmodic muscle contractions occur at the entrance to the
vagina when male tries to insert his penis
ï Cause: learned response, commonly from dyspareunia

Fear and anticipation of pain, fear of pregnancy, vaginal infection
ï Treatment: couples therapy, kegel exercise, rest, progressive use of plastic
dilator or finger
"##6