Groundwater Hydrology Thisd Edition David Keith Todd University of California, Berkeley and Todd Engincers Larry W. Mays Arizona State University ® WILEY John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Executive Editor Bill Zobrist Project Editor Jennifer Welter Senior Production Editor Valerie A. Vargas Marketing Manager Jennifer Powers Senior Designer Dawn L. Stanley New Media Editor Thomas Kulesa Cover Design David Levy Cover Image Photograph by Robert Morris, U.S. Geological Survey Production Management Services Argosy Publishing ‘This book was set in 10/12 Times by Argosy Publishing and printed and bound by Hamilton Printing. ‘The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corporation. On the Cover: Comal Springs. The highly productive Edwards aquifer, the first aquifer to be desig- nated asa sole source aquifer under the Safe Drinking Water Act, isthe source of water for more than | million people in San Antonio, Texas, some military bases and small towns, and for south-central ‘Texas farmers and ranchers. The aquifer also supplies water to sustain threatened and endangered species habitat associated with natural springs in the region and supplies surface water to users down- stream from the major springs. These various uses ae in direct competition with ground-water devel- ‘opment and have created challenging issues of ground-water management inthe region. Photo and description from the USGS website: hup/watecusgs.gov/pubs/ciclcire1 186.html/gw_effect html isk id ma i pp: ‘Copyright 20050 John Wiley & Sons, Ine. Al sights reserved. [No prt ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ina reuieval system, or wansmited in any form or by any ‘means, elecwoni, mechanical, photocopying, recording, seaming or otherwise, excep as pemited under Sec- tions 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior writen pemmission ofthe Pub- lisher or authorization trough payment ofthe appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, Requests tothe Publisher for pe mission shouldbe addressed tothe Permissions Department, John Wiley & Soas, In. 111 River Street, Hoboken, 1NJ 07030, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, E-mail: PERMREQ@ WILEY.COM. ‘To order books or for customer service plese cll 1(800}-CALL WILEY (225-5945) ISBN 0-471.05937-4 (lah) ISBN 0-471-45254-8 (WIE) Printed inthe United States of America 10987654321 In\ PREFACE to the 3rd Edition Water is essential for life on Barth, and the largest source of fresh water lies under the Earth's surface. Increased demands for water have stimulated efforts to further develop, and in many cases over develop, ‘our groundwater resources. In addition we have created pollution problems resulting from over develop- ‘ment of groundwater resources and the mismanagement of wastes. As a result investigations of the occur- rence and movement of groundwater have advanced, drilling equipment has improved, new models have been developed, techniques for managing groundwater have advanced, and research has extended our understanding of the resource. Intended Audience and Introduction ‘This book is intended for a groundwater hydrology course in civil and environmental engineering, geol- ogy, or hydrogeology. It is appropriate for either a one or two term course atthe junior, senior, or gradu- ate level ‘The first edition of this book by David K. Todd was published in 1959 and the second edition was published in 1980, This third edition of Groundwater Hydrology has the same purpose as the previous ‘wo editions, to present the fundamentals of groundwater hydrology in a manner understandable to those ‘most concerned with such knowledge. Few people specialize in the subject, yet, because groundwater is ‘a major natural resource, the subject becomes important for students and professionals in many fields: water supply, the environment, agriculture, economics, mining, and the law, to name only the obvious ‘ones. Although itis impossible to presenta subject fitted to such a diversity of students the common need is an understanding of the fundamental principles, methods, and problems in the groundwater field. ‘Thus, this book endeavors to make available a unified presentation of groundwater hydrology. Since the earlier editions of this book, the groundwater resource field has made tremendous strides, Awareness of the environment, concems and competition for water supplies, contamination of ground- ‘water, and enhanced regulation of water resources have all focused attention on the subject. As a result cducational programs, research funding, and professionals actively involved in developing and managing groundwater have grown dramatically. The National Ground Water Association together with journals such as Ground Water and Water Resources Research has been instrumental in advancing groundwater knowledge. ‘New to this edition ‘We have attempted to develop this book, not only as a stand-alone work, but in partnership withthe Inter- net to serve as a portal to the vast resources on groundwater hydrology that now exist on the Internet. Hopefully this book will help guide the student, the professional, and the researcher to the general doc- uments and other publications, program plans, field project details, software, and other information found on the Internet.vi Preface Internet References “Most of the web sites in the book are maintained by government agencies and nongovernmental organi zations so that they will tey continue in the future. Several end-of-chapter problems throughout the book are based upon Internet exercises. + Example Problems, Case Studies, Problem Sets The most significant change in ths edition has been the addition of example problems and case studies inthe text, and the addition of problem sets atthe end of each chapter. For educational purposes these problems enable a student to apply ‘material in the text to realistic everyday situations + Modeling with MODFLOW The second most noticeable change has been an entirely new chapter ‘on modeling (Chapter 9) featuring the U. S. Geological Survey MODFLOW model, which has become the standard modeling tool in the groundwater field. Chief among the new developments in the groundwater field is the role of computers, not only for organizing data and solving problems but also in managing groundwater resources on a basin-wide basis for known or anticipated inputs and outputs, ‘+ New Figures and Photos We have included over 300 new figures and photos. Many of the new figures and tables within the book have been taken from various Web pages, in particular the U. 8. Geological Survey. These items not only provide specific information but serve as samples of «graphics and tabulations available on the Internet making the style of this book mote variable than that of most textbooks. + References References have been updated and selected on the basis of significance and avail- ability + Metric and US. Units Both metric and U. S. customary units have been used in the example problems. Metric units are used in keeping with their growing acceptance in the United States as well asin recognition of the wide use of this book throughout the World. U. S. customary units have also been used because ofthe continued use by many in the United States. ‘Student and Instructor Resources ‘The website for the book, located at www.wiley.com/college/todd, includes resources for both students, ‘and faculty: corrections tothe book, updates on changes in web addresses and new web pages used in the book, and other updates on material inthe book that are of value to students and faculty. These resources. are also included on the author's website at www.public.asu.edu/-lwmays/. Larry Mays can be contacted at mays@asuedu For instructors who have adopted the book for their course, a complete Solutions Manual for all homework problems in the text is available for download. Selected figures from the tex, in PowerPoint format, are also available for easy creation of lecture slides. Visit the Instructor Companion Site portion. of the book's website to register for a password for these assets available only to instructors, For instructors who have adopted the book for their course, a complete Solutions Manual forall ‘homework problems in the text is available for download. Selected figures from the text, in PowerPoint format, are also available for easy creation of lecture slides. Visit the Instructor Companion Site portion ‘of the book’s website to register for a password for these assets available only to instructors. Acknowledgements We are indebted to personnel of the U. S. Geological Survey for their numerous excellent publica- tions on so many aspects of groundwater from which we have borrowed freely. We are deeply indebted to Sukru Ozger who prepared many of the problems and their solutions forthe solutions manual. Students at Arizona State University have been exposed to advanced drafts of this new edition and offered severalani- has Jem oly pler has sin bat ew :U, sof, han ail- Preface vil constructive comments. We want to thank the reviewers Scott Wolcott of Rochester Institute of Technol- ogy, Rameshwar Singh of San Jose State University, Rao S. Govindaraju of Purdue University, Albert J Valocchi ofthe University of Iinois at Urbana-Champaign, Jeffrey D. Caulfield ofthe University of Mis- sour at Rolla, and Mark Widdowson of Virginia Tech. for their helpful comments and suggestions David W. Abbott, Maureen Reilly, and Dan Rothman, PE. provided useful reviews of selected chapters. David Keith Todd Larry W. Mays Piedmont, California Scottsdale, ArizonaContents Introduction 1 LL Scope 1 1.2 Historical Background 2 121 Qanats 2 1.22 Groundwater Theories 2 1.23. Recent Centuries 4 1.3 Trends in Water Withdrawals and Use 5 14 Utilization of Groundwater 9 15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 13 15.1 Hydrologic Cycle 13, 1.52 The Groundwater System in the Hydrologic Cycle. 15, 16 Hydrologic Budget 20 LT Publication Sources. 27 1.7.1 Intemet Resources. 27 1.72 US. Geological Survey Publications 27 173. Publications — 29 18 DataSources 29 18.1 NWISWeb Data forthe Nation 30 182 RealTime Data 31 Problems 32 References 33, Example Publications of Organizations and Government Agencies 34 2 Occurrence of Groundwater 35 21 Origin and Age of Groundwater 35 22 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 36 221 Aquifers 36 222 Porosity 37 223° SoilClassifiction 40 2.24 Porosity and Representative Elementary Volume 41 225. Specific Surface 42 23. Vertical Distribution of Groundwater 45 24 Zone of Aeration 46 24.1. Soil-Water Zone 46 24.2 Inermediate Vadose Zone 46 243. Capillary Zone 47 244 Measurement of Water Content 49 245 Available Water 50 25 Zone of Saturation 50 25.1 SpecificRetention 50 252 SpecificYield 50 2.6 Geologic Formations as Aquifers 52 26.1 Alluvial Deposits 52 262 Limestone 53 263 Volcanic Rock 55 264 Sandstone 55X Contents 265. Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 55 266 Chay 55 2.7 ‘Types of Aquifers 56 27.1 Unconfined Aquifer 56 212 Confined Aquifers 56 273 Leaky Aquifer 57 274 Wdealized Aquifer 57 28 Storage Coefficient 58 2.9 Groundwater BasinsRegional Groundwater Flow Systems 59 29.1 High Plains Aquifer 59 29.2 Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer System 61 210 Springs 67 210.1 What Are Springs? 67 2.10.2. Edwards Aquifer—Discharge of Springs 70 2.11 Hydrothermal Phenomena 73 211.1 Thermal Springs 73 2.11.2 Geothermal Energy Resources _ 75 2.12 Groundwater in Permafrost Regions 76 2.13 Groundwater inthe United States 77 Problems 83 References 84 3. Groundwater Movement 86 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 3.10 Darcy’sLaw 86 3.1.1 Experimental Verification 86 3.1.2 Darcy Velocity 89 3.13 Validity of Darcy's Law 90 Permeability 91 3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability 91 3.2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity 91 3.2.3 Transmissivity 92 3.24 Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials 92 Determinat 94 33.1 Formulas 94 33.2 Laboratory Methods 95 33.3. TracerTests 98 334 AugerHole Tests 99 33.5 Pumping Tests of Wells 100 Anisotropic Aquifers 100 Groundwater Flow Rates 103 Groundwater Flow Directions 105 36.1 FlowNets 105 3.6.2 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours 106 3.63 Flow Across WaterTable 112 3.64 Flow Across a Hydraulic Conductivity Boundary 114 3.65 Regional Flow Patters 115 Dispersion 119 37.1 Concept 119 3.2. Dispersion and Groundwater Hydrology 121 Groundwater Tracers 122 General Flow Equations 122 Unsaturated Flow 125 3.10.1 Flow Through Unsaturated Soils 126 3.10.2 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity 128 ail 3.12 Prot Rele a\s 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 Prob Refe 53 SA3.103 Vertical and Horizontal Fiows 133, 3.1 Kinematic Wave 133 3.12 Infiltration: The Green-Ampt Method 134 Problems 140 References 142, 4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics 146 Contents xi 4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow 146 4.1.1 Confined Aquifer 146 4.12 Unconfined Aquifer 147 4.13 Base Flow toa Stream 149 42 Steady Radial Flow toaWell 152 42.1 Confined Aquifer 152 42.2 Unconfined Aquifer 156 42.3 Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge 43° WellinaUniformFlow 161 44 Unsteady Radial Flow ina Confined Aquifer 163 44.1 Nonequilibrium Well Pumping Equation 163 44.2 Theis Method of Solution 168 4443 Cooper-Jacob Method of Solution 167 444 Chow Method of Solution 169 445 Recovery Test 170 45. Unsteady Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 172 4.6 Unsteady Radial Flow ina Leaky Aquifer 177 4.7 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 180 47.1 WellFlow Near a Stream 180 4.7.2 Well Flow Near an Impermeable Boundary 186 4.73. Well Flow Near Other Boundaries 189 4.74 Location of Aquifer Boundary 191 48 Multiple Well Systems 192 49. Partially Penetrating Wells 195, 4.10 Well Flow for Special Conditions 198 Problems 198 References 204 5 Water Wells 206 159 5.1 Test Holes and Well Logs 206 5.2. Methods for Constructing Shallow Wells 206 52.1 DugWells 208 522 Bored Wells 209 523 DrivenWells 211 5.24 Jetted Wells 212 5.3 Methods for Drilling Deep Wells 214 53.1 Cable Tool Method 218 53.2 RotaryMethod 20 533 AirRotary Method — 220 534 Rotary-Percussion Method 221 53.5 Reverse-Circulation Rotary Method 222 54 Well Completion 222 S41 WellCasings 222 542 Cementing 223 543 Screens 223 544 Gravel Packs 226Contents 55 Well Development 228 35.1 Pumping 228 552 Surging 228 55.3. Surging with Air 228 554 Backwashing with Air 228 555 Hydraulic Jeting 230 556 Chemicals 231 55.7 Hydraulic Fracturing 231 558 Explosives 231 56 Testing Wells for Yield 232 5.7 Pumping Equipment 232 57.1 Total Pumping Head 232 57.2. Pumps for Shallow Wells 232 54.3 Pumps for Deep Wells 232 58 Protection of Wells 234 58.1 Sanitary Protection 234 582. Frost Protection 236 583. Abandonment of Wells 237 59 Well Relabilitaion 237 5.10 Horizontal Wells 239, 5.10.1 Inflation Galleries 239 5.102 Horiontal Pipes 240 5.103 Collector Wells 240 SIL Characteristic Well Losses 242 S11 Well Losses 242 5.11.2 Evaluation of Well Loss 243 5.12. Specific Capacity and Well Eficiency 248 5.13. Slug Tests 250 5.13.1 Definition 250 5.13.2 Design Guidelines 250 5.133 Performance of Slug Tests 251 5.1344 Methods for Analyzing Slug Test Data 253 5.14 Slug Tests for Confined Formations 255 5.14.1 Cooper, Bredehoef, and Papadopulos Method 255 5.142 Hvorslev Method 259 5.15. Slug Tests for Unconfined Formations 261 5.15.1 Bouwerand Rice Method 262 5.15.2 Dagan Method 268 5.153 KGS Model 271 5.16 Slug Tests for High Conductivity Formations 272 5.17 Well'Skin Effect 273, Problems 273 References 716 6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences 279 6. Time Variations of Levels. 279 6.1.1 Secular Variations 279 6.12 Seasonal Variations 280 6.1.3. Short-Term Variations 280 62. Stwamfiow and Groundwater Levels 284 621 Bank Storage 285 622 Base Flow 286 623. Base Flow Recession Curve 289 63 Fluctuations Due to Evapotrnspication 29163.1. Evaporation Effects 291 63.2 Transpiration Effects 291 63.3 Evapotranspiration Effects 292 64 Fluctuations Due to Meteorological Phenomena 295 64.1 Atmospheric Pressure 295 642 Rainfall 297 643 Wind 298 644 Frost 298 65 Fluctuations Due toTides 299 65.1 OceanTides 299 65.2 EathTides 302 66 Urbanization 303 67 Earthquakes 306 68 Extemal Loads 308 69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 308 69.1 Lowering of Piezometric Surface 311 69.2 Hydrocompaction 315 69.3 Dewatering of Organic Soils 317 694 Sinkhole Formation 317 695. Crustal Uplift 319 69.6 Monitoring of Land Subsidence 319 (6.10. Effects of Global Climate Change on Groundwater 321, Problems 324 References 325 7 Quality of Groundwater 329 741 Natural Groundwater Quality 329 72 Sources of Salinity 330 73. Measures of Water Quality 335, 74 Chemical Analysis 337 74. Concentrations by Weight 337 742 Chemical Equivalence 338 743 Toa Dissolved Solids by Electrical Conductance 339 744 Hardness 339 15 Graphic Representations 340 76 Physical Analysis 345 7.7 Biological Analysis 345 78 Groundwater Samples 345 719 Water Quality Criteria 346 79. Drinking Water Standards 346 79.2 Industrial Water Criteria 346 79.3 ligation Water Criteria 347 7.10 Changesin Chemical Composition 348 TAL Dissolved Gases 349 712 Temperature 351 7.13. Saline Groundwater 354 Problems 356 References 357 8 Pollution of Groundwater 359 8.1 Pollution in Relation to Water Use 359 8.2 Municipal Sources and Causes 361, 82.1 SewerLeakage 361xiv 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 8.10 al Contents 8.2.2 Liquid Wastes 361 82.3 Solid Wastes 362 Industrial Sources and Causes 364 83.1 Liquid Wastes 364 83.2 Tankand Pipeline Leakage 364 833° Mining Activities 364 834 Oil-Field Brines 366 Agricultural Sources and Causes. 367 84.1 Irrigation Retum Flows 367 84.2 Animal Wastes 367 843 Fentlizersand Soil Amendments 367 844 Pesticides, Insecticides, and Herbicides 368 Miscellaneous Sources and Causes 368 85.1 Urbanization 368 85.2 Spills and Surface Discharges 370 853. Stockpiles 370 854 Septic Tanks and Cesspools 370 85.5 Roadway Deicing 370 85.6 Saline Water Intrusion 371 85.7 Interchange through Wells 372 85.8 Surface Water 372 Attenuation of Pollution 373 861 Filtration 373 86.2 Sorption 373, 863 Chemical Processes 374 864 Microbiological Decomposition 374 865 Dilution 374 Distribution of Pollution Underground 375 87.1 Hanford Site in Richland, Washington 377 ‘Mass Transport of Pollutants 378 8.8.1 Transport Processes 378 88.2 _Advection-Dispersion Equation for Solute Transport in Saturated Porous Media 382 883 Analytical Procedure 384 8.84 Transport of Reactive Pollutants 385 Monitoring Groundwater Quality 386 Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater 392 8.10.1 Remediation Goals 392 8.10.2 System Design 394 8.103 Hydraulic Containment of Groundwater 304 8.104 Groundwater Extraction Systems 396 8.105 Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater 396 Conventional Pump-and-Treatment Systems 401 8.11.1 Pump-and-Treat Remediation Suategies 401 8.11.2 Characterizing Sites for Pump and Treatment Design 403 8.11.3 Capture Zone Analysis 406 8.114 Extraction/Injection Scheme Design 407 Problems 407 References 409 9 Groundwater Flow Modeling Techniques 413 9 92 93 94 Why Develop Groundwater Models? 413 ‘Types of Groundwater Models 414 ‘Steps in the Development of « Groundwater Model 415. ‘Simulation of Two-Dimensional Groundwater Systems 415 9.4.1 Governing Equations 415 a 98 99. 9 94 Ret 0 102 102 104 10s 106 10796 91 98 99 9.10 9. 94.2. Finite Difference Equations 417 943 Solution 419 944 Case Study 419 ‘Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow Model 420 95.1 Derivation of Finite Difference Equations 420 952 Simulation of Boundaries 427 953 Vertical Discretzation 427 954 Hydraulic Conductance Equations 429 MODFLOW-2000 Description 431 9.6.1 Model Introduction 431 9.62 Space and Time Discretization 432 9.63 External Sources and Stresses 433, 9.644 Hydraulic Conductance—Layer-Property Flow Package (LPF) 9.65 SolverPackages 440 9.66 Telescopic Mesh Refinement 440 Case Study: Using MODFLOW: Lake Five-O, Flora 444 9.1.1 Finite Difference Grid and Boundary Conditions 444 97.2 Model Calibration and Sensitivity Analysis 444 9.73 Model Results 448 Particle Tracking—MODPATH 449 98.1 Whats Particle Tracking? 449 9.8.2 Particle Tracking Analysis—An Application 449 Example Applications and Input of MODFLOW 450 Solute Transport Modeling—MOC3D 455 9.10.1 Solute Transport Equation 455 9.102 MOC3D Model 456 Groundwater Modeling Software Support 459 9.11.1 US. Geological Survey 459 9.112 U.S. EPA Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling (CEAM) 9.113 Intemational Groundwater Modeling Center (IGWMC) 459 9.114 Processors for MODFLOW 459 Problems 460) References 461 10 10.1 102 103 104 105 106 107 Management of Groundwater 464 Concepts of Basin Management 464 10.1.1 Managing Groundwater Resources 465 Groundwater Basin Investigations and Data Collection 466 102.1 Topographic Data 467 10.22 Geologic Data 468 102.3 Hydrologic Data 468 Yield 469 103.1 Alternative Basin Yields 469 10.3.2 Evaluation of Perennial Yield 471 CConjunctive Use and Watershed Management 473 Groundwater Management: Water Laws and Policies 477 105.1 Water Law and Policy 477 10.5.2 Arizona's Groundwater Management Code 477 1053 Texas GroundwaterLaw 478 ‘Case Study: Groundwater Management: Examples 479 106.1 Edwards Aquifer Management 479 10.62 High Plans Aquifer: Conjunctive Water Use on the High Plains Groundwater Management Using Models 481 10.7.1 What Are Groundwater Management Models? 481 436 459 480 Contentsxvi Contents 10.7.2 Optimization Methods 482 10.7.3. Types of Groundwater Management Models 482 108 Groundwater Management Modeling: Hydraulic Management Models 484 10.8.1 Steady-State One-Dimensional Problems for Confined Aquifers 484 10.8.2 Steady-State One-Dimensional Problems for Unconfined Aquifers 486 10.8.3 Steady-State Two-Dimensional Model for Confined Aquifers 487 10.84 Transient One-Dimensional Problem for Confined Aquifers 489 10.8.5 Steady-State Two-Dimensional Problem for Unconfined Aquifers 490 10.9 Policy Evaluation and Allocation Models: Response Matrix Approach 492 10.10 Optimal Control Groundwater Management Modeling 495, 10.11 Case Studies: Groundwater Management Modeling Applications 496 10.11.1 Optimal-Control Model for Barton Springs-Edwards Aquifer, Texas 496 10.11.2 Heuristic Optimization-Simulation Model for Groundwater Remediation Design: N-Springs Site, Hanford, Washington 497 10.11.3 Groundwater Management Model Using Response Matrix Approach: ‘Santa Clara-Calleguas Basin, Califomia 499 Problems S04 References 506 11__Surface Investigations of Groundwater 509 111 Geologic Methods 509 112 Remote Sensing $10 113 Geophysical Exploration 512 114 Electrical Resistivity Method 513. 115 Seismic Refraction Method $17 11.6 Gravity and Magnetic Methods 520 Problems 520 References S21 12 _ Subsurface Investigations of Groundwater 523, 121 Testing 523 12.1.1 Geologic Log 524 12.12 Driling-Time Log 525 122 WaterLevel Measurement 526 123 Geophysicel Logging 527 124 Resistivity Logging 529 125. Spontaneous Potential Logging 533, 12.6 Radiation Logging 533 126.1 Natural-Gamma Logging 533 12.62 Gamma-Gamma Logging 534 1263 Neutron Logging 535 127 Temperature Logging 535 128 Caliper Logging 536 129 Fluid-Conductivty Logging 537 12.10 Fluid-Velocity Logging 537 12.11 Miscellaneous Logging Techniques 538 1211.1 Television Logging 538 12112 Acoustic Logging 538 12.113 Casing Logging $39 12.12 Other Subsurface Methods 539 12.13 Case Study: Oasis Valley, Nevada 539 Problems S41 References 54513._ Artificial Recharge of Groundwater 547 IB.L Concept of Artificial Recharge $47 13.2. Recharge Methods $48 13.2.1 Methods 548 13.22 Recharge Rates 556 133 Wastewater Recharge for Reuse 559 13.4 Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) Systems 560 134.1 What Are SAT Systems? 560 1342 Operation of SAT Systems $63, 13.43 Modeling SAT Systems 565 135. Recharge Mounds 567 135.1 Perched Groundwater Mounds 567 1352 Steady-State Equations for Groundwater Mounds 135.3 Hantush Equation 570 1346 Stormwater Infiltration Basin Mound Development 576 136.1 Potential Flow Model fora Trench S76 13.62 Potential Flow Model for Circular Basin S78 13.63 Mound Growth 580 13.64 Mound Recession 582 137 Innovative Approaches $83, 1321 Wildwood, New Jersey 583 13.22 Orange County, California 584 13113 Long Island, New York 584 1374 Orlando, Florida 584 1375 Dayton, Ohio $84 138 Induced Recharge 584 Problems 585 References 986 14 Saline Water Intrusion in Aquifers 589 14.1 Occurrence of Saline Water Intrusion 589 14.2 Ghyben-Herzberg Relation Between Fresh and Saline Waters 143. Shape of the Fresh-Salt Wate Interface 592 144° Structure ofthe Fresh-Salt Water Interface 596 145 Effect of Wells on Seawater Intrusion 597 14.6 Upconing of Saline Water 600 147 Fresh-Salt Water Relations on Oceanic Islands 603 148 Seawater Intrusion in Karst Terains 605 149 Control of Saline Water Intrusion 606 14.10 Examples of Seawater Intrusion 608 14.10.1 Long Island, New York 608 14.102 Southern California 608 Problems 611 References 612 Appendix A 615 Appendix B 619 Appendix C 620 Index 625 Contents xvii 590Chapter 1 Introduction Groundwater hydrology may be defined as the science of the occurrence, distribution, and ‘movement of water below the surface of the earth. Geohydrology has an identical connotation, and hydrogeology differs only by its greater emphasis on geology. Utilization of groundwater dates from ancient times, although an understanding of the occurrence and movement of sub- surface water as part of the hydrologic cycle is recent. ‘The US. National Research Council (1991) presented the following definition of hydrology: Hydrology is the science that eas the waters ofthe Earth, their occurence, circulation, and distribution, their chemical and physical propetes and their reaction withthe environment, including the relation o living things. The domain of hydrology embraces the ul life history of water on Barth Section 1.5 describes in further detail the concepts ofthe hydrologic cycle. ‘The importance of groundwater (hydrology) in the hydrologic cycle has been the subject of extensive technical research and publishing by many investigators over the past decades. Many ‘of these publications are introduced inthis book. Also, many books written on the subject ofthe fate of water have caught the attention of the general public, especially those interested in saving ‘our resources. These include books by Carson'® and de Villiers* among others. 1.1 SCOPE Groundwater (ceferred to without further specification) is commonly understood to mean water ‘occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum. This saturated zone is to be distinguished from an unsaturated, ot aeration, zone where voids are filled with water and air. Water con- tained in saturated zones is important for engineering works, geologic studies, and water sup- ply developments; consequently, the occurrence of water in these zones will be emphasized here. Unsaturated zones are usually found above saturated zones and extend upward to the ‘ground surface; because water here includes soil moisture within the root zone, itis @ major cconcem of agriculture, botany, and sol scence. No rigid demarcation of waters between the two zones is possible, for they possess an interdependent boundary, and water can move from zone to zone in either direction. The interelationships are described more fully in Chapter 2. Groundwater plays an important part in petroleum engineering. Two-fluid systems, involving ol and water, and thee-fluid systems, involving gas, ol, and water, occur frequently in development of petroleum. Although the same hydrodynamic laws gover flows of these systems and groundwater, the distinctive nature of water in petroleum reservoirs ses it apart from other groundwater. Major differences exist in water quality, depth of occurrence, and methods of development and utilization, all of which contribute toa separation of interests and 1