Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of RCC Dams

Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of
Roller Compacted Concrete Dams
Year: 2011
NABEEL AHMED KHAN

2007-MS-STRU-08
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
LAHORE, PAKISTAN
Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of
Roller Compacted Concrete Dams
Year: 2011
NABEEL AHMED KHAN

2007-MS-STRU-08
SUPERVISOR EXTERNAL EXAMINER

(Assistant Prof. Dr. Kafeel Ahmad) (Prof. (R) Dr. Zia-ud-din Mian)
CHAIRMAN DEAN
Civil Engineering Department Faculty of Civil Engineering
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of
Science in Civil Engineering
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
LAHORE, PAKISTAN
Dedication
To Parents and Teachers for
leading me into intellectual
persuade and who inspired
me towards the sacred task
of learning.
Acknowledgements
The author would not have been able to finish this project without the support of family
and friends who have always been there, the encouragement they give to keep moving
and their love to empower, that never fails at any time. Thank you.
The author would like to thank Dr. Kafeel Ahmad, Research Supervisor, who has given a
chance to prove that everything is possible. His deep insight and supervision gave a lot of
positive perspective, and taught things far more than understanding. To you sir, the
author gives lots of thanks and respect. Thank you.
The author would also thank Mr.Mumtaz J. Shabbir (late), the Ex- Head of SED NESPAK
who was a true leader and visionary and always inspired everyone towards living
purposefully and attaining something with marvel and dedication. He will always live in
the hearts for what he taught was the sheer sense of honour and love for the field.
Thank you Sir.
And In the end, the author would like to thank Almighty Allah, He who was, is and will
always be; Him who is giving high hopes; for giving us strength and hope towards
achieving goals; for being true to what He promised. All praises to Him, thank you our
Creator and Savior. To God be the glory.
Nabeel A. Khan
ABSTRACT
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) has emerged as an excellent material to replace the
costly conventional mass concrete in the construction of large dams worldwide. RCC
dams are built by placing concrete lifts and compacting them with external vibratory
rollers and dozers. The principal advantage of the use of RCC is reduced cost and time in
dam construction. But it has a tendency of excessive thermal cracking which needs to be
controlled during its design and construction.
Concrete setting is an exothermic reaction which produces considerable amount of heat

due to hydration of cement. The low thermal conductivity of concrete and the great
volume of massive concrete structure, such as gravity dam, contribute to a low
dissipation of the hydration heat. The rapid method of construction associated with RCC
dams creates an adiabatic environment inside the dam, as there is no time to dissipate the
heat generated before placing the next layer. This transient thermal gradient results in
volumetric changes which may be restrained by previously set concrete in the vicinity of
the newly placed lift, thus causing tensile stresses. If concrete tensile strain capacity is
exceeded, cracking will occur. Excessive concrete cracking may cause excessive seepage,
with the resulting damaging effects on durability and even structural stability of dam.
Experience shows that thermal cracking is a major concern for RCC dams and a realistic
evaluation of this phenomenon beforehand is mandatory.
In this research, steps involved in thermo-mechanical analysis of large RCC dams have
been presented. Detailed construction-stage thermo-mechanical analysis of Dasu Dam
which is a part of WAPDA’s Future vision 2025 has been carried out as case study
emphasizing on actual site conditions prevalent during the construction of this dam.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Development of RCC 1
1.2 Advent of RCC in Pakistan 2
1.3 Structural Analyses of RCC Dams 3
1.4 Why Thermal Analysis? 3
1.5 Thesis Organization 4
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Introduction 5
2.2 Discussion & Underlying Principles 5
2.3 Numerical Models for Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of RCC 11
2.4 Further Research 26
3.0 COMPUTATIONAL STRATEGY & ALGORITHM 29

3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Algorithm for Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of RCC Dam 29
3.3 Numerical Modeling and Material Properties 32
3.3.1 Mix Design of RCC 32
3.3.2 RCC Properties Adopted in this Analysis 34
3.3.3 Climatic Variations 38
3.3.4 Placement Temperature 38
3.3.5 Construction Schedule 39
3.4 Computer Modeling 41
3.4.1 Introduction to ANSYS 41
3.4.2 Numerical Discretization and Analysis Procedure 42
3.4.3 Analysis Assumptions 47
4.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS 48

4.1 Introduction 48
4.2 Thermal Gradient Analysis 48
4.3 Thermal Stress Analysis 52
4.4 Thermal Crack Analysis 56
4.5 Fracture Mechanics Parameters 60
4.5.1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) 60
4.5.2 Non Linear Fracture Mechanics 61
4.5.3 Fictitious Crack Model 62
4.5.4 Application of Fracture Mechanics 63
4.6 Validation of Results 66
5.0 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 68

5.1 Introduction 68
5.2 Conclusions 68
5.3 Recommendations 71
REFERENCES
Chapter
1
INTRODUCTION
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) has emerged as an excellent material to replace the
costly conventional mass concrete in the construction of large dams worldwide over the
past forty years. The use of RCC has allowed many new dams to become financially
viable due to the reduced economies realized from the rapid construction method.
In physical appearance, RCC is relatively dry, lean and has zero slump, containing coarse
and fine aggregates that are consolidated by external vibration using vibratory rollers,
dozers and other heavy equipment. In principle, RCC dam is a concrete dam constructed
by using earth/rockfill dam construction equipment. In the hardened condition, RCC has
similar properties to conventional concrete. For effective compaction, RCC must be dry
enough to support the weight of the construction equipment, but have a consistency wet
enough to permit adequate distribution of the paste binder throughout the mass during the
mixing and vibration process.
ACI 116 and ACI 207.5R defines RCC as concrete compacted by roller compaction; and
which will support a (vibratory) roller while being compacted. RCC is usually mixed
using high-capacity continuous mixing or batching equipment. The mix is then delivered
with trucks or conveyors, and spread with bulldozers in layers prior to compaction.
1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF RCC
Roller compacted concrete has been in regular use since 1920s, mostly as a base for
highways and airfield pavements. The rapid worldwide acceptance of RCC was a result of
its economics and successful performance in the recent history. The first use of RCC in
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Chapter 1 Introduction
large volumes (2.66 million cubic metres) was at Tarbela Dam in 1974 where it was used
to replace rock in the collapsed stilling basins and plunge pools. Shimajigawa Dam, Japan
(completed in 1981) and Willow Creek Dam, USA (completed in 1982) are considered
the principal structures that initiated the global acceptance of RCC dams and up till today,
over 500 RCC dams have been completed worldwide. It has become virtually the
standard method of constructing concrete gravity dams.
Rapid advances in RCC construction have occurred in developing nations to meet

increased water and power needs. Faster concrete placement rates and low heat of
hydration have primarily been key factors for the construction of large RCC dams. The
highest RCC dam built to date is the 216m high Longtan dam, currently nearing
completion in China. The 220 m high Nam Ngum dam in Lao PDR is also at initial
stages. The behaviour of RCC gravity dams is essentially the same as for conventional
concrete gravity dams from structural, operational and maintenance points of view.
1.2 ADVENT OF RCC IN PAKISTAN
Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) launched an elaborate plan to meet
the country’s growing energy needs namely “Water Resources and Hydropower
Development -Vision 2025” according to which several large dams have been proposed
throughout Pakistan with Diamer Basha Dam (283m high), Dasu Dam (233m high) and
Bunji Dam (180m high) to name a few being RCC dams specifically. These three large
dams will add approximately 12000 Megawatts to the national grid. Construction of
Diamer Basha Dam will initiate in 2011, Dasu Dam is in tender design stage whereas
prefeasibility studies of Bunji Dam have been completed. Once completed, these dams
will certainly be a landmark for Northern Areas of Pakistan making it a potential hub of
extreme engineering achievements in the field of RCC dam construction.
The design of an RCC dam balances the use of available materials, the selection of
structural features and the proposed methods of construction. Faster concrete placement
rates and low heat of hydration have been key factors for the construction of large RCC
dams. By maintaining good quality control during construction, RCC offers an attractive
option for building large dams especially gravity dams where the concrete volume is
Page | 2
substantial. Sound rock foundations as encountered at these dam sites are considered the
most suitable for RCC gravity dams. In addition, good quality coarse and fine aggregates
are available abundantly in these localities which add to the advantages of RCC. All these
factors governed the selection of RCC as the ultimate choice for construction of large
dams in Pakistan.
1.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSES OF RCC DAMS
In general, structural design studies of a concrete dam comprise of stability analysis,

stress analysis and thermal analysis. Stability and stress analyses are based on principles
of statics and dynamics using either the rigid body mechanics or the discretization such as
Finite elements etc. Thermal analysis, on the contrary, is quiet rigorous particularly due to
lengthy algorithms involved because of its non-linear incremental transient nature. Above
that, definition of accurate concrete model incorporating all important properties to
simulate the actual construction scenario of a dam makes the problem even more
complicated.
1.4 WHY THERMAL ANALYSIS?
Concrete setting is an exothermic reaction that produces considerable amount of heat due
to hydration of cement. The low thermal conductivity of concrete and the great volume of
massive concrete structure, such as gravity dam, contribute to a low dissipation of this
heat. The rapid method of construction associated with RCC dams creates an almost
adiabatic behaviour of material in the centre of dam, as there is no time to dissipate the
heat generated before placing the next layer. This transient thermal gradient results in
volumetric changes which may be restrained by previously set concrete, thus causing
tensile stresses. If concrete tensile strain capacity is exceeded, cracking may occur.
Excessive concrete cracking may cause excessive seepage, with the resulting damaging
effects on durability and even structural stability. Experience shows that thermal cracking
is a major concern for RCC dams and a realistic evaluation of this phenomenon
beforehand is mandatory.
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In this research, steps involved in thermo-mechanical analysis of large RCC dams will be
presented. Detailed construction-stage thermo-mechanical analysis of Dasu Dam will be
carried out as case study emphasizing on actual site conditions prevalent at the
construction site.
1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION
The current research has been presented in different chapters described as under, along
with a brief summary of works carried out.
Chapter 1 focuses on introducing the concept of RCC and how it has developed over the
years replacing the conventional concrete practices in the construction of large dams.
In Chapter 2, a detailed review of literature including the underlying principles of thermo-

mechanical analysis and description of analytical models put forth by various researchers
and some comments on these models have been presented.
In Chapter 3, the computational strategy and modeling of roller compacted concrete has
been discussed. Detailed description of the adopted parameters, various assumptions and
algorithms used in the computer aided modeling and solution of the thermal analysis
problem has been presented. Emphasis has been laid on selection of the most appropriate
mathematical model that would simulate the actual on-site conditions of the proposed
dam.
Chapter 4 presents the results of thermo-mechanical analysis as obtained from the

software. Both tabular data and graphical displays have been provided to give a better
picture and to develop understanding of the actual problem. Sensitivity of the assumed
parameters on the obtained results has also been discussed. A brief discussion on fracture
mechanics parameters has also been presented in this chapter.
Finally, Chapter 5 concludes the main results obtained from this study and some
important recommendations for future research oriented works.
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Chapter
2
1LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter lays emphasis on the basics of thermal stresses in large concrete dams with
detailed description of thermo-mechanical properties of Roller Compacted Concrete
which will be used in detailed analysis afterwards. A number of numerical models
presented by various researchers to depict inherent properties of RCC will also be
provided with particular merits and demerits.
2.2 DISCUSSION & UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
During construction, the placement temperature is somewhat higher than the ambient
temperature prevalent at that instant. As RCC hydrates, its temperature rises and due to
restraint by adjacent material, it experiences compression as it attempts to expand. Once
hydration is essentially complete, the RCC slowly cools decreasing the level of the
compression till a steady state temperature is reached. The temperature which then causes
a stage of no stress is called “zero stress temperature” (ZST). Further decrease of
temperature can cause tensile stresses which can exceed tensile capacity and thus lead to
crack development.
The following figure describes the various parameters relevant to the thermal studies
prepared by Deutsches Talsperren komitee [1].
Page | 5
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Figure 2.1: General temperature and stress profile of RCC
A = Concrete Temperature
B = Time
C = Concrete Stresses
D = Zero Stress temperature
E = Cracking Temperature
F = Compressive prestressing
G = Tensile stresses
H = Tensile strength
Heat transfer is a complex phenomenon involving conduction, convection, radiation and

heat generation as a result of hydration, all occurring side by side. Due to rapidity of RCC
placement, hydration heat becomes entrapped and this heat is conducted radially to the
layers above and below the one being considered. Coefficient of conductivity governs this
behaviour. Convection occurs as a result of heat loss to the environment depending upon
heat transfer mechanism. Convection takes place in two phases:
a) Immediately after a layer is placed taking some portion of the early heat of
hydration. The setting time of RCC is about five to seven hours during which
much of the heat is dissipated through convection.
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b) Surface heat transfer taking place from the dam face. Heat generated due to
hydration moves towards the dam face due to conduction from where it is lost to
air.
Though the thermal effects of conventional concrete and roller compacted concrete do not
differ much, still a significant difference between the two is the slower placement rate for
conventional concrete which allows for an early dissipation of hydration heat. The rapid
placement inherent to RCC implies that increased insulation due to successive layers is
present by the time peak hydration temperatures are reached. On the other hand, lower
cementitious materials content of RCC implies a lower total adiabatic hydration
temperature rise than an equivalent conventionally vibrated concrete (CVC).
The actual temperature rise in mass concrete depends on the dynamics of exothermic
reaction between cement and water which in turn is time and temperature dependent.
Ambient environmental conditions, thermal properties of the mix, geometry of structure
and construction conditions influence the process of heat development. Uncontrolled
increase in the temperature of mass concrete is detrimental to the integrity of structure.
Increase in volume of concrete equal to the product of temperature rise and co-efficient of
thermal expansions occurs and this process continues till the peak temperatures are
achieved. Over a period of several months or even years, temperature of mass concrete
slowly cools to a stable temperature, or a stable temperature cycle. If concrete is
unrestrained, it is free to contract as a result of cooling from peak temperatures and no
tensile stresses will thus be produced. However, mass concrete structures are always
restrained to certain degrees either due to foundation or previously placed concrete lifts,
tensile stresses are thus obligatory. If these stresses exceed tensile strain capacity of mass
concrete, thermal cracks are formed either on the surface called ‘surface gradient
cracking’ or inside the mass called ‘mass gradient cracking’. Seepage is the principal
problem if magnitude of these cracks is extensive which causes additional hydraulic
gradients inside the dam body, combined with the fact that RCC is somewhat weaker
along the lift joints, creates a major risk for structural stability and weakens the dam in
sliding.
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The following set of figures describes various parameters/processes involved in the

thermal analysis problem of concrete dam. a) during construction and b) after completion
of construction
Figure 2.2 (a): Process of Heat Transfer in Concrete Dams during Construction
Figure 2.2 (b): Process of Heat Transfer in Concrete Dams after Completion of
Construction
Page | 8
Over the last three decades, efforts have been implanted to establish true numerical
simulation of thermal cracking so that potential property and life risk in the event of dam
failures may be avoided. Several models were put forth by renowned researchers to
evaluate thermal properties of roller compacted concrete as will be presented in the
subsequent sections. But before that, a brief description of thermal and mechanical
properties of roller compacted concrete is given below [14]:
Adiabatic Temperature Rise (Tad): An adiabatic system is one in which heat is neither
allowed to enter or leave. Adiabatic temperature rise is therefore, a rise in temperature of
concrete due to heat of hydration of cement in adiabatic conditions. In mass concrete,
temperatures near the centre of mass will be sum of placement temperatures and adiabatic
temperature rise. Near the surface, peak temperatures will be numerically close to
ambient temperatures. Total temperature rise depends on the cement content in the
concrete mix. Traditionally, almost half of the cement quantity had been replaced with
other cementitious compounds just to reduce the total heat of hydration. Typical values of
adiabatic temperature rise in mass concrete ranges from 11 to 19 °C at 5 days to 17 to 25
°C at 28 days. ACI 207.1R also gives typical curves for adiabatic temperature rise to be
used in case of unavailability of laboratory data.
Specific Heat (c): Specific heat is the amount of heat required for unit rise in
temperature in a unit mass. Its value is affected by temperature changes however, it is
assumed constant for mass concrete calculations. Typical values range from 0.75 to 1.25
kJ/kg-K.
Thermal Conductivity (K): It is the rate at which heat is transmitted through a material
of unit area and thickness when there is a unit difference in temperature between the two
faces. It is the product of thermal diffusivity, specific heat and density. It is also assumed
to be independent of temperature for the purpose of thermal analysis. Typical values of
thermal conductivity for mass concrete range from 1.7 to 3.5 W/m-K.
Thermal diffusivity (h2): Thermal diffusivity is the rate at which temperature change
can occur in a material. It is obtained by dividing thermal conductivity with the product of
Page | 9
specific heat and unit weight (= K/γc). It is also assumed to be independent of time and
temperature. Typical values range from 0.003 to 0.006 m2/hr.
Modulus of Elasticity (Ec): It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to corresponding

normal strain below proportional limit. For concrete, modulus of elasticity depends on the
degree of hydration and hence it is time and temperature dependent. However, its
temperature dependency is neglected for mass concretes. Laboratory tests should be
performed to determine elasticity values at various ages to represent the ‘aging’ effects.
Typically, its value range from 21 to 38 GPa at 28 days. Sustained modulus of elasticity
(Esus) includes creep effects and can be obtained directly from creep tests.
Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion (Cth): It is the change in linear dimension per unit
length divided by temperature change. The value of this coefficient depends on the type
and quantity of coarse aggregates and is considered independent of time and strength.
Typical values are 5 to 14 × 10-6 per °C.
Tensile Strain Capacity (εsc): It is the change in length/volume per unit length/volume
that can be accommodated in concrete prior to cracking. It depends on time and strength
of concrete and also upon the rate of loading.
Creep: Creep is defined as time dependent deformation due to loads applied for
longer periods. It results in an increase in strain, but at a continuously decreasing rate
keeping the stress constant. It depends on modulus of elasticity and hence is time and
strength dependent. Specific creep is the creep under unit stress or strain per MPa.
Shrinkage: Drying shrinkage occurs due to loss of moisture from concrete structures
which are relatively thin than mass concrete. Autogenous shrinkage is a decrease in
volume of concrete due to hydration of the cementitious materials. For mass concrete
structures, only autogenous shrinkage is considered. It occurs over longer time periods
and is dependent on time and strength of concrete.
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2.3 NUMERICAL MODELS FOR THERMO-MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF

RCC
Thermo-mechanical analysis is a complex problem due to involvement of plenty of

variables. Aging of concrete is the most important aspect in this regard as almost all
properties of concrete vary with age of concrete. Furthermore, changing environmental
conditions adds to the complexity of this problem. Research is still underway to develop
the most accurate numerical and analytical model of roller compacted concrete in the
construction of dam representing the actual on-site scenarios.
Some of the most prominent works carried out by researchers and practicing engineers at
various mega projects are presented below. Each is followed by a brief note of author’s
observations:
[7]
Cervera and Goltz (2004) presented a modified 1-D thermo-chemo-mechanical model
for analyzing roller compacted concrete dam. The idea behind this 1-D model was to
reduce the computational efforts and CPU time cost in analyzing 2-D or 3-D models. The
model presented by these authors was implemented in computer program named COMET
developed by International Centre for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE) in
Barcelona, Spain.
The following hydration model based on the principles of thermodynamics was presented
by the authors:
Thermal field equation is given by:
𝐶𝑇̇ − 𝑄̇(𝜉) = 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑇 ∇. (∇T) … 2.1
where,
T = temperature (°C)
C = heat capacity per unit volume
Q = velocity of liberated heat per unit volume
Rext = heat production of the external volume of heat source
kT = thermal conductivity
ξ = hydration degree = Q/Q∞
Q∞ = final amount of liberated heat in ideal conditions
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The final degree of hydration depends on the water-cement ratio and is calculated by:
1.031𝑤/𝑐
𝜉∞ = … 2.2
0.194+𝑤/𝑐
This is equivalent to assuming a linear dependency of the form Q(ξ) = Qξ ξ where Qξ is

the latent heat, assumed to be constant. To incorporate aging effects on material
properties, an internal variable k was defined which is calculated as:
𝑛𝑇
𝑇𝑇 −𝑇
𝑘 = (𝐴𝑓 𝜉 + 𝐵𝑓 ) � � 𝜉 … 2.3
𝑇𝑇 −𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
where,
Af, Bf = material constants
Tref = reference temperature
TT = maximum temperature at which hardening of concrete will occur
nT = material property controlling sensibility to the curing temperature
Thus, compressive strength is given as:
𝑓 − (𝑘) = 𝑘𝑓∞− … 2.4
where, 𝑓 − is the compressive strength and 𝑓∞− is its final value. On a similar pattern,
tensile strength and elastic modulus can be given as:
𝑓 + (𝑘) = 𝑘 2/3 𝑓∞+ and 𝐸(𝑘) = 𝑘 2/3 𝐸∞ … 2.5
The creep effects were modeled via a visco-elastic damage model based on the
framework of Continuum Damage Mechanics Theory considering short and long term
behaviours involving creep and relaxation phenomenon. Detailed description of this
model is given in [7].
Results from software COMET which is based on the above mathematical model were
compared with temperature data obtained from thermometers installed in Rialb RCC
Dam, Spain.
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Observations and Comments:

This 1-D strip model is able to calculate temperature gradients and thermal stresses quiet
accurately. ‘Slide lines’ were placed on both sides of the strip model to simulate the
horizontal heat flux. However, calculation of these slide lines is quiet problematic as heat
can flow in any diagonal direction as well which cannot be modeled with these slide lines.
In addition, transverse crack pattern is difficult to judge from this model due to its 1-D
behaviour.
[6]
Calmon et-al (2004) presented a numerical model for thermal stresses of RCC dams
using 2-D finite element method. According to them, the general 2-D partial differential
equation governing the heat flow in a solid is given as:
𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
�𝑘(𝑥) �+ �𝑘(𝑦) � + 𝑞̇ = 𝜌𝑐 … 2.6
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡
where
q = rate of internal heat generation due to hydration per unit of volume and time (W/m3)
ρ = density of material (kg/m3)
c = specific heat capacity of concrete (J/kg°C)
k = thermal conductivity of the material (W/m°C)
ρc = thermal capacity of concrete, and
T = temperature function depending on the location and time
Boundary conditions for this heat flow problem are Neumann conditions given as:
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑘𝑥 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑛𝑦 + 𝑞(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 0 … 2.7
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
where nx and ny are the Cartesian co-ordinates of the vector of directional cosines of the
normal to the surface and q(x,y,t) is the heat flow gained/lost by unity area. To simulate
environmental conditions, Calmon et-al used the following equation based on Newton’s
law:
qc (x,y,t) = hc [T(x,y,t) – Ta(t)] … 2.8
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Here hc is the convection heat transfer coefficient (also called film coefficient, W/m2) and
for concrete surfaces, it is approximated as:
hc = 3.8w + 4.7 … 2.9
Authors used the following relation originally given by Polivka & Wilson (1976) and
modified by Silva (2002) to portray heat transfer by radiation between two surfaces:
1
𝑞𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡) = 𝑉𝜎 � 1 1 � (𝑇𝑟4 − 𝑇𝑠4 ) … 2.10
+ −1
∈𝑟 ∈𝑠
where
V = radiation factor (o ≥ V ≥ 1)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant [5.6705 x 10-8 W/(m2.K4)]
εs = emissivity of the surface
εr = emissivity of the external source of radiation
Ts = absolute temperature of the surface (Kelvin)
Tr = absolute temperature of the source (Kelvin)
Now heat gained due to solar radiations was expressed by the following relation:
qs(x,y,t) = a.I (x,y,t) … 2.11
Here α is the coefficient of absorptivity of solar radiation and I (x,y,t) is the total incident
solar radiation at any point at time t. These values can be obtained from local
meteorological data. To model the heat of hydration of concrete, following equation
based on experimental works of Rastrup (1954) was used.
−𝑛
𝑄 = 𝑞 + 𝐸. 𝑒 𝑏.(𝑡𝑒) … 2.12
where Q is the heat of hydration (J/g) and E, b, n, q are constants depending on

composition of concrete mix. The variable te is an equivalent time for the process in real
time t and is obtained as:
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∑𝑡0 20.1(𝑇𝑡 −𝑇𝑟 )

𝑡𝑒 = … 2.13
3600
Here Tt is the temperature of the process during time Δt in seconds and Tr is the reference
temperature. Heat generation rate per unit volume and unit time 𝑞̇ is
−𝑛 20.1(𝑇𝑡 −𝑇𝑟 )
𝑞̇ = 𝐶. 𝑛. 𝑏. (𝑡𝑒 )−𝑛−1 𝐸. 𝑒 −𝑏.𝑡𝑒 . … 2.14
3600
where,
𝑞̇ = heat generation rate per unit volume (W/m3)
C = cement content per unit volume of concrete (kg/m3)
N, b and E are constants and their values are determined from experimental data
For defining material model in the computer program, authors utilized previously
published data. Variation of modulus of elasticity with time was calculated from the
following equation:
𝑡
𝐸= … 2.15
𝑎+𝑏.𝑡
Here, t is the age of concrete while a and b are constants. Creep of concrete was also
considered and following equation developed by United States Bureau of Reclamation
(USBR, 1956) was implanted in the computer program
1
𝐽(𝑡,𝑡0) = + 𝐹𝑡0 . log (𝑡 − 𝑡0 + 1) … 2.16
𝐸𝑡0
𝐹𝑡0 = 𝑐 + 𝑑/𝑡0 … 2.17
where,
𝐸𝑡0 = modulus of elasticity at initial age to
𝐹𝑡0 = coefficient depending on time to, calculated from above equation
c and d are co-efficient of creep function
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Authors developed two computer programs PFEM_2D T and PFEM_2D AT based on

above presented equations in collaboration with Furnas Centrais Electricas S.A. Brazil.
This software was applied for thermal stress analysis of the gravity dam at Cana Brava
hydroelectric plant in Goias, Brazil.
The model presented by Calmon et-al (2004) is restricted to two dimensional heat transfer
problems. Furthermore, un-coupled thermo mechanical analysis is performed i.e. first
temperature distributions for all time increments is calculated and later, these values are
used in the second software to judge thermal stresses. This uncoupling is cumbersome in
terms of data handling within the software.
In addition, this model does not give any method for determining the placement
temperatures of concrete which is a major participant in early thermal stresses. Most of
the material properties like thermal conductivity, diffusivity, specific heat etc were
considered independent of time and temperature. No emphasis was laid on tensile
properties of concrete and hence thermal crack propagation was not determined.
[28]
Zhang, Zhu and Guo (2004) presented thermal stress simulation and possible crack
pattern of 111 m high Mianhuatan RCC dam, China. The authors considered the
following equations to simulate material properties of concrete.
𝛽
𝐸(𝜏) = 𝐸0 (1.0 − 𝑒 −𝛼𝜏 ) … 2.18
where, τ = concrete age, E(τ) = elastic modulus at age τ, E0 = ultimate elastic modulus, α
and β are test parameters.
𝛽
𝜃(𝜏) = 𝜃0 (1.0 − 𝑒 −𝛼𝜏 ) … 2.19
where, θ(τ) = insulated temperature rise at age τ, θ0 = ultimate insulated temperature

rising. To simulate creep of concrete, authors suggested the following equation:
Page | 16
𝐶(𝑡, 𝑇) = (𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝜏 −𝑎1 )�1 − 𝑒 −𝑘1 (𝑡−𝑇) � + (𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝜏 −𝑎2 )�1 − 𝑒 −𝑘2 (𝑡−𝑇) � +
𝐷𝑒 −𝑘3 𝜏 �1 − 𝑒 −𝑘3 (𝑡−𝑇) � … 2.20
In this equation, A1, A2, B1, B2, α1, α2, k1, k2 and k3 are parameters depending on
experimental data. Authors used compound layer method along with variable time
increments in different regions while modeling Mianhuatan dam on a program developed
by IWHR.
The creep model suggested by authors is very complex involving lots of variables and no
indication has been given to determine these variables from lab testing. Compound layer
method adopted in this study is a powerful tool to reduce number of calculation steps
while assuring accuracy. In this method finer mesh is used at early ages of concrete to
account for minute thermal changes. As time progresses and temperatures attain
somewhat constant values, these fine meshes are merged into larger sized meshes. On
similar pattern, time steps are also changed from smaller time steps at early ages to larger
ones at later. This method is very efficient and reduces calculation time dramatically.
[23]
Noorzaei, Ghafouri and Amini (2006) investigated the influence of placement
schedule on thermal stresses of RCC dam. A finite element based computer code named
STARD was developed and following relationships were postulated to determine
temperature gradient and corresponding stresses. These were later applied to calculate
thermal stresses for 169m high Roodbar RCC dam, Iran.
Fourier equation governing thermal generation and temperature distribution for isotropic
2-D environment is
𝜕2𝑇 𝜕2𝑇 𝑄 𝜌𝐶 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2
+
𝐾
=
𝐾 𝜕𝑡
… 2.21
where,
ρ = density
C = concrete specific heat
Page | 17
T = concrete temperature
K = concrete conductivity co-efficient
Q = rate of heat introducing per unit volume
α = thermal diffusing
Two main boundary conditions for this problem are Drichlet and Couchy boundary as
shown below:
T = Tp … 2.22
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝐾𝑥 𝑙 + 𝐾𝑦 𝑙 + 𝑞 + ℎ(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 ) = 0 … 2.23
𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦
where Tp is the known value of temperatures on nodal points at boundaries, q is the heat
flowing from surface, h is the film co-efficient, Ts is unknown temperature at the
boundary nodal points, Tf is ambient temperature, lx and ly are direction cosines.
Authors used the following numerical model originally developed by Taylor and Galerkin
for solving these equations.
[𝐴∗𝐺 ]{∆T} = {𝐹𝐺∗ } … 2.24
Here [𝐴∗𝐺 ] is the load matrix and {𝐹𝐺∗ } is the force matrix. Relations for determination of
these matrices are given in Ref [5]. For determination of hydration heat, equation given
by M. Ishikawa (1991) for RCC was used
Q = ρcTad … 2.25
where Tad is the adiabatic rise in concrete temperature and is given by:
Tad = Kt (1-e-αt) … 2.26
Here Kt is the maximum temperature of concrete under adiabatic conditions and α is a

parameter representing heat generation rate. This yields the following equation:
Q = ρc Kt αe-αt … 2.27
Page | 18
Temperature of RCC while placing is another key factor and authors postulated the
following equation for its determination
Tcasting = Tanu -2/3(Tanu-Tmon) + Crush Add + Mixing Add + Transporting Add … 2.28
Adding temperature of aggregate crushing and concrete mixing is generally assumed

equal to 1.1 °C. The effect of radiations of newly placed concrete was considered by
adding 1°C to the computer model. To account for temperature distribution in rock, it was
suggested that heat transfer should be analyzed for temperature data of 2-3 years before
starting of construction.
The influence of placing schedules was checked by performing thermal analysis for two
different conditions: placement starting on 1 November and placement starting on 1 July.
Based on their research, authors concluded that concrete placement starting in summer
season will increase tensile stresses near the dam foundations.
The numerical model used by Noorzaei et-al is very elaborate and comprehensive.
However, more exact calculations have been put forth by other researchers as will be
discussed in the subsequent sections.
[21]
Nehrin and Fuji (2001) carried out 3-D finite element thermal analysis using
ANSYS/Thermal software for 56.5 m high Hinata Dam, Japan. Mathematical formulation
adopted by the authors for this purpose is presented below:
The governing partial differential equation used for 3-D transient thermal conditions in
Cartesian coordinates is given by:
𝜕𝑇
𝜌𝑐 = [𝑘]∇2 𝑇 + 𝑞𝑘 … 2.29
𝜕𝑡
Initial conditions adopted for this problem were
lim𝑡→0 𝑇(𝑃, 𝑡) = 𝑇0 (𝑃) … 2.30
Page | 19
where P = P(x,y,z) at any point. The boundary conditions prevalent for this problem are
stated below:
Prescribed temperature = T(P, t ≠ 0) = T’

Prescribed heat flux over the surface, 𝑞𝑘 = {𝑞}𝑇 {𝑛} … 2.31
Heat transfer by convection, expressed by Newton’s Cooling law,

{𝑞}𝑇 {𝑛} = −ℎ𝑐 {𝑇𝑏 − 𝑇} … 2.32
where Tb is the bulk temperature of the atmosphere, T is the surface temperature and hc is
the film coefficient and its value given by Froli [1993] for concrete-air interface is:
ℎ𝑐 = 5.6 + 4.0 𝑉 for V< 5m/s

= 7.15 𝑉 0.78 for V ≥ 5m/s … 2.33
Solar radiation absorbed by the dam surface was expressed as:
{𝑞}𝑇 {𝑛} = 𝑎[𝐼𝑑 + 𝐼𝑖 ] … 2.34
Here a is the absorptivity of the concrete surface, Id is the direct solar radiation and Ii is
indirect (diffused) solar radiation. Determination of absorbed solar radiation is very
complex and so a suitable fictitious temperature Tb* called “equivalent atmospheric
temperature” was introduced because it included the effects of both heat from sun and
effects of air temperature. Hence,
𝑎
{𝑞}𝑇 {𝑛} = −ℎ𝑐 {𝑇𝑏∗ − 𝑇′} where 𝑇𝑏∗ = 𝑇𝑏 + [𝐼𝑑 + 𝐼𝑖 ] … 2.35
ℎ𝑐
𝜕Ω
Heat generation due to hydration was given as: 𝑞" = 𝜌𝑐 with Ω(t) being obtained from
𝜕𝑡
curve fitting on experimental data (Tu and Niu, 1998) and was expressed as :
Ω(t) = 28.96(1 − e−0.38t ) °C … 2.36
For determination of thermal stresses and strains, authors cited the work of Lewis,
Morgan and Zeinkiewicz (1981).
Page | 20
Computer model of the dam section developed on ANSYS/Thermal consisted of 5625 8-

noded, 3-D hexahedral elements with temperature and structural displacements assigned
as DOF for these elements. All initial and boundary conditions were applied to this model
except thermal radiations for which another layer of specialized elements provided in the
software database was superimposed on the previous model. To determine the
requirements of pre-cooling of concrete, three cases were investigated i) Tp = Tamb + 3°C
(no pre-cooling), ii) Tp = Tamb (mild pre-cooling) and iii) Tp = Tamb - 3°C (intense pre-
cooling).
Results obtained from this thermal study were similar to data obtained from
thermocouples installed at various levels of the dam. Simulation of thermal field by
software ANSYS/Thermal was quiet realistic and comprehensive. Flexibility of modeling
different boundary conditions of the problem is the primary advantage of ANSYS.
However, a few discrepancies in the authors’ work were exclusion of creep effects from
the problem and ignoring material non-linearity which would have returned more precise
results.
One of the most remarkable research works in this subject is carried out by Giesecke, Qin
[16]
and Marx (2002) from University of Stuttgart, Germany. They presented a realistic
and computational efficient method to solve temperature and thermal stress problems for
large RCC dams. Numerical model developed by the authors is presented below:
The Fourier differential equation for changing temperature field is given as:
𝜕𝑇(𝑥,𝑡) 𝜕 𝜕𝑇(𝑥,𝑡)
𝑐𝜌 − ∑𝑑𝑖=1 �𝑘𝑖 �= 𝑞 for x Є Ω, t > 0 … 2.37
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥𝑖 𝜕𝑥𝑖
Here,
T = temperature [°C]
c = specific heat [J/(kg.K)]
ρ = density [kg/m3]
d = dimension of domain Ω
ki = thermal conductivity [W/(m.K)]
Page | 21
q = rate of heat generation [W/m3]

Heat transfer from the surface of concrete is given by:
qn = qH + qL - Rn … 2.38
qn = heat flux normal to the surface of structure [W/m2]

qH = sensible heat flux through conduction and convection [W/m2] = αc.(To - Ta)
Here αc is the convective heat transfer co-efficient [W/(m2.K)], Ta is temperature of the

fluid and To is temperature of the structure surface
qL = latent heat flux through evaporation and condensation [W/m2] based on Penman-
Brutsaert Model
Rn = net radiation [W/m2] = qG - qE
qG = net incoming short-wave radiation = (1.0 – αG).G
Here αG is the albedo (reflection coefficient) of the structure surface with respect to global
radiations and G is the global radiation incident upon the structure surface.
qE = net outgoing long-wave radiation = αr .(To-Ta)

αr = ε. σ. (To2 + Ta2)( To + Ta)
where,
αr = radiative heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2.K)]
ε = radiation exchange coefficient [-]
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67035 x 10-8 [W / (m2.K4)]
To = temperature of the surface [K]
Ta = temperature of the atmosphere [K]
Summarizing these equations,
qn =(ac +ar)(To-Ta) + qL –qG = a(To-Ta) + qL -qG … 2.39
To represent the adiabatic rise in temperature due to hydration heat, authors derived the
following expressions:
Page | 22
̇ ∞ ̇
𝑞 = 𝑄̇ = 𝑐𝜌𝑇𝑎𝑑 = 𝑐𝜌𝑇𝑎𝑑 𝜉 … 2.40
Q = rate of hydration heat

Tad = adiabatic temperature rise measured in adiabatic test
∞
𝑇𝑎𝑑 = final value of Tad
∞
ξ = hydration degree = 𝑇𝑎𝑑 /𝑇𝑎𝑑
For a temperature regime different from that under which Tad is measured, ξ can be
calculated as
𝑏
𝜉 = exp (− ) … 2.41
𝑡𝑒 𝑛
Here b and n are material constants and te is the maturity or equivalent age and is
calculated as:
𝑡
𝑡𝑒 = ∫𝑜 exp [𝐵 (𝑇(𝜏) − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )]𝑑𝜏 … 2.42
Where B is a material constant called temperature sensitivity factor, Tref is the reference
temperature for which maturity equals the real time values. So hydration degree 𝜉̇ under a
variable temperature regime can be calculated as:
𝑏
𝑑𝜉 𝑑𝑡𝑒 exp (− 𝑛 )
𝜉̇ =
𝑡
= 𝑏𝑛 𝑒
𝑛+1 exp [𝐵(𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 )] … 2.43
𝑑𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑒
[7]
Authors used the work of Cervera et-al for simulating aging effect on mechanical
properties of concrete. Total strain in concrete was assumed to be a sum of stress related
part 𝜀𝜎 (comprising of elastic strain 𝜀𝑒 and creep strain 𝜀𝑐 ) and stress unrelated part 𝜀⋉𝜎
(comprising of shrinkage strain 𝜀𝑠 and thermal strain 𝜀𝑇 . This is shown below:
𝜀̇ = 𝜀̇𝜎 + 𝜀̇⋉𝜎 = 𝜀̇𝑒 + 𝜀̇𝑐 + 𝜀̇𝑠 + 𝜀̇𝑇 … 2.44
Stress related strain was determined using a rheological model consisting of springs,
Kelvin chains and a single dashpot representing stiffnesses, viscosities and transitional
thermal creep respectively.
Page | 23
The above described model was incorporated in a finite element program TESAR which
was used for calculating temperature field development of Longtan RCC dam in China.
To improve the computing efficiencies, authors used adaptive compound layer method
and adaptive time step method to control the discretization in space and time respectively.
This means that in the regions of freshly placed concrete, temperature and stresses are
calculated layer by layer but as time passes, thermal and mechanical properties of
concrete in lower regions become somewhat stationary and hence these individual layers
can be combined into one thicker layer having coarser mesh.
Due to unavailability of solar radiations data at the site, effects of solar radiation and
evaporation were not considered in the analysis. However a parametric study was carried
out on 1-D strip model to explore the influence of solar radiation and evaporation on RCC
dams. Environmental data was taken from Web Service of National Technical University
of Athens. Based on these studies, it was concluded that influence of solar radiation and
evaporation on temperature development of RCC is significant. Also the magnitude and
distribution of the wind speed have significant effects on the temperature evaluation of
early age concrete.
The mathematical model presented herein is very elaborate and quiet realistic. Almost all
primary factors involved in the transient temperature problem have been incorporated in
this model. However, due to missing site data, effects of solar radiations and evaporation
were ignored which has introduced a marginal error of up to 2% in the final results. Many
of these equations will be used in the current research also because of the resemblance of
environmental and structural features of Longtan Dam China and the proposed Dasu
Dam, Pakistan.
Thermal Studies at Diamer Basha Dam:
Diamer Basha dam is located about 60 kms upstream of Dasu dam and as per WAPDA’s
vision 2025; it will be constructed prior to Dasu dam. So the preliminary thermal studies
carried out during the detail design of Diamer Basha dam are of principal importance in
the current research.
Page | 24
Material testing was not carried out during this study, therefore material properties
assumed for the preliminary thermal analysis were based on experience with other
projects. Seven trial mixes were assumed having different proportions of cementitious
materials (cement, fly ash, slag etc). Heat of hydration and modulus of elasticity were
assumed independent of temperature. Following expressions were used in this study [3]:
Initial elastic modulus: 𝐸𝑐 = −1.6(𝑓𝑐′ )3 + 45(𝑓𝑐′ )2 + 989.4𝑓𝑐 ′ … 2.45

Splitting strength: 𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡 = 0.1329𝑓𝑐 ′ … 2.46
Tensile strength: 𝑓𝑡′ = 0.3 log(10𝑓𝑐′ ) . 𝑓𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡 = 0.03987. 𝑓𝑐′ . log (10𝑓𝑐′ ) … 2.47
Creep function: 𝐹(𝑘) = 33.216 (𝑓𝑐′ )−0.7128 … 2.48
Sustained elastic modulus defined as the equivalent elastic modulus for calculating an
elastic quantity (stress or strain) at time tj, due to a disturbance (stress or strain) applied
between the time increment from ti to ti+1 was used to calculate varying stresses in the
long term. Following formulae was used:
1
𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑠 �𝑡𝑗 , 𝑡𝑖,𝑖+1 � = 2 … 2.49
+0.5(𝐹(𝑘)𝑖 +𝐹(𝑘)𝑖+1 ).ln (𝑡𝑗 − 0.5(𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡𝑖+1 )+1.0)
�𝐸𝑒,𝑖 +𝐸𝑒,𝑖+1 �
A two stage analyses comprising short time phase (during construction) and long term
phase (after completion of construction) was carried out for the project. Simplified 1-D
strip model was made for the ‘construction line’ analysis taking account of the time-
dependent construction sequence of lifts, placement temperatures, adiabatic rise in
temperature, heat exchange between concrete surface and environment only in one
direction. For long term phase, 2-D finite element model was built in program EFESYS to
analyze effects of temperature dissipation following construction and hydration process
until steady state is achieved inside the concrete mass.
Based on these expressions, surface and mass gradient cracking of RCC were estimated
and it was concluded that some surface cracking is expected at the upstream and
downstream faces. To encounter upstream cracking, special crack control measures will
be adopted. Results from this thermal analysis were passed to stability analysis to account
for some strength loss within near surface lift zones.
Page | 25
2.4 FURTHER RESEARCH
Researchers and scientists have utilized modern tools and experimentation to further
investigate the influence of physical and chemical properties of RCC on its thermal
behavior. Many expressions and graphs have been developed to represent these time
dependent properties as will be discussed in the proceeding sections:
Eirele (1999) presented a simplified expression for temporal development of static

modulus of elasticity in compression of normal weight concrete based on CEB-FIP 1993.
1
𝑡 735
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑐,28 � � … 2.50
17.6+0.37𝑡
where, Ec(t), time dependent modulus [GPa]

Ec,28, modulus at age of 28 days [GPa]
t, concrete age [days]
This expression is only suitable for rough estimation as the model parameters are just
valid for standard concrete and not for low cement roller compacted concretes. To cope
[10]
with this matter, Conrad, M. et-al (2004) investigated the effects of modulus of
elasticity of young RCC via experimentation. They tested an RCC mix of 85 + 0 (85
kg/m3 OPC and 0 kg/m3 Pozzolan) at ages of 3h, 6h,… up to 365 days. The best
experimental fit of the curve based on the results of these tests is shown below:
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑐,∞ . exp(𝑎. 𝑡 𝑏 ) … 2.51
Applying 𝐸𝑐,∞ = 𝐸𝑐,365 = 24.4 GPa, a = -5.0, b = -0.63, the best fitting of test results could
be achieved by which elastic modulus at early age as well as higher ages could easily be
represented.
Bazant (1988) presented a mathematical model for simulation of heat evolution,

shrinkage and creep of concrete. “Shrinkage Core Model” as normally called, gives the
formulation of heat source in terms of concrete maturity.
Page | 26
𝛼𝑀
𝐻(𝑡, 𝑇) = 𝐻∞ … 2.51
1+𝛼𝑀
The maturity M, is a function of time t and absolute temperature T as:
𝑡 𝑄 1 1
𝑀(𝑡, 𝑇) = ∫𝑡𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝 � � − � 𝑑𝑇� … 2.52
𝑅 𝑇1 𝑇
where,
H∞ = Total value of concrete hydration heat per unit volume [kJ/m3]
α = Heat source parameter [1/day]
Q/R = Activation energy / universal gas constant [°K]
T1 = Reference temperature, normally 20°C = 293 °K
td = Dormant period [day]
Yang and King (2003) presented experimental measurement of thermal expansion of

concrete for six samples with different mix designs. The principal conclusions of their
research were that thermal expansion is strongly dependent on the type of coarse
aggregate. Cycles of heating and cooling have negligible impact on thermal expansion
coefficient values. These values are also dependent on shape of specimen and rate of
loading in laboratory.
Table 2.1 gives a tabular summary of different properties of RCC adopted in the design of
various RCC dam projects worldwide.
Page | 27
Table 2.1: Properties of RCC material adopted on different dams
Adiabatic Co-efficient of Tensile Co-efficient

Unit Ultimate Modulus of Placement Specific Thermal Thermal
RCC Composition Temep Thermal Strain of Heat
Sr. No. Project Name weight Strength Elasticity Temperature Heat Conductivity Diffusivity
Rise expansion Capacity Transfer
Cement Fly ash kg/m 3 MPa GPa °C °C kJ/kg-°C W/m-°C m 2 /hr per °C W/m 2 -°C
-6 -6
1 Cindere Dam, Turkey 60 30 13 10 x 10 60 x 10
2 Cana Brava Dam, Brazil 2441 -9 (90 days) 28 30 0.8368 1.8909 11.7 x 10-6 13.9467
3 Rialb Dam, Spain 200 2550 -42 (Ult.) 23 7.1 7.8 x 10-6
100 180 2400 +1.12 22.4(90day) 15 1.019 2.418 0.00375 5.6 x 10-6
4 Mianhuatan Dam, China 150 180 2400 +1.58 26.6(90day) 16.7 0.98 2.386 0.00375 6.6 x 10-6
200 180 2400 +1.87 27.7(90day) 18
Te/(2.12e-
5 Salto Caxias Dam, Brazil 2388 -10.2 1.105 1.7905 7.07 x 10-6 13.9533
3+Te*0.162e-3)
6 Roodbar Dam, Iran 2400 15 0.9205 2.105 11.63
7 Miyagase Dam, Japan 91 39 2450 20 1.046 1.7096 8 x 10-6 11.63
8 Hinata Dam, Japan 90 34 2350 25 0.21 0.88 1 x 10-5 25.8
9 Milltown Hill Dam, USA 66 66 16.7 18 1.047 3.3 0.005 1.8 x 10-6
104 0 2529 -18.3(90 day) 16.5 12.7 20 0.921 1.8 0.003 2.2 x 10-6
104 47 2531 -27.3(90 day) 17 11.1 20 0.921 1.8 0.003 2.2 x 10-6
10 Willow Creek Dam, USA
47 19 2520 -11.9(90 day) 12 11.7 12.2 0.921 1.8 0.003 2.2 x 10-6
187 80 2438 -30.8(90 day) 11.7 29.4 0.921 1.8 0.003 2.2 x 10-6
11 Portuguese Dam, Portugal 25.6 9 1.004 0.0022 9.5 x 10-5
Page | 28
Chapter
3
COMPUTATIONAL STRATEGY & MODELING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, methodology for carrying out detailed thermo-mechanical ‘TM’ analysis
of RCC dams will be presented. All pertinent parameters adopted for this analysis will
also be described. Algorithms will be finalized for carrying out 2-D thermal analyses with
particular emphasis on selected software. Structural features of Dasu Dam will be
described in brief and relevant thermal analysis aspects of this dam will be discussed.
3.2 ALGORITHM FOR THERMO-MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF RCC DAM
Fig 3.1 represents a flow chart that describes the steps involved in carrying out detailed
thermal analysis of dam. Primarily this study incorporates the following steps for carrying
out thermo-mechanical analysis.
i. Data Collection and assumptions

ii. Finite Element Modeling
iii. Thermal gradient analysis
iv. Thermal stress analysis
v. Crack Analysis
Page | 29
Chapter 3 Computational Strategy & Modeling
Illustrative Example; Dasu Dam
For elaboration of detailed thermo-mechanical analysis, an illustrative example of Dasu

Dam will be presented in this section. Dasu dam is part of ‘Vision 2025’ by Water and
Power Development Authority Pakistan to meet the ever-increasing energy needs of the
country. Under this project, several small and large dams have been planned across the
country. Dasu dam has been placed in the final phase of this project to be commissioned
by the year 2025. Feasibility Studies of Dasu Hydropower Project were completed by
Joint venture of world renowned consultants including NESPAK, MWH, Colenco, ACE
and Binnie in February 2009.
Dasu dam is essentially a roller compacted concrete gravity dam 233m high and having a
maximum base width of 213m. Approximate crest length of the dam is 518m. Being a
massive structure, having 4.6 million cubic meters of RCC, it was deemed necessary to
evaluate the thermal cracking potential of Dasu dam so as to avoid any perilous effects on
overall structural stability.
During the feasibility studies, preliminary level thermal analysis of Dasu dam was carried
out by the author. This analysis was focused on post-construction thermal behaviour to
evaluate any sustained thermal stresses that would have been detrimental for overall
stability of the dam. Software MSC.MARC was used to calculate thermal stresses.
Uniform material properties were assumed in computer modeling and all these properties
were assumed to be time and temperature independent. Results of this analysis were later
input in the structural analysis of dam to evaluate factors of safety against stress and
stability.
Following are some of the main characteristics of Dasu Dam [18]:
Dam Crest Level 957 m

Crest Width 13 m
Crest Length 518 m
Maximum Dam base width 213.5 m
Lowest Foundation Level 724 m
Upstream Dam Slope 0.15H: 1V, 0.2H: 1V
Downstream Dam Slope 0.75H: 1V
Page | 30
Start
Data Collection &

Literature Review
Selection of
Appropriate Material
properties for
Illustrative Example
Ambient Environmental Roller Compacted Foundation Properties

Conditions Concrete Properties
Determination of
Construction Schedule
Numerical Modeling & Non-linear Incremental

Discretization in ANSYS® Structural Analysis
MultiPhysics (NISA)
Comparison of Results
with Dasu HPP Feasibility
Conclusions
Studies
Fig 3.1: Flowchart for Thermo-mechanical Analysis
Page | 31
A typical section of the proposed RCC gravity dam at spillway section is given in Fig 3.2:
Fig 3.2: Cross-section of Dasu Dam [18]
3.3 NUMERICAL MODELING AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Based on extensive research and data collected from similar projects having synonymous
ambient conditions, material properties of RCC have been assumed for this study so as to
simulate the actual on-site conditions that will be encountered during construction. Efforts
were diverted to select such material properties that have been based on reliable research
and can be applied efficiently to a computer model as well. It is worth mentioning that no
material testing has been carried out for confirmation of the selected material properties.
3.3.1 Mix Design of RCC
The advent of RCC Dam construction can be traced to the 1980s. The first RCC dam was
constructed in Japan. It was conceived along the lines of a conventional concrete dam but
with the concrete compacted by roller. Cementitious contents for Japanese RCC Dams
have generally been about 130 kg/m3, with a 30% fly ash replacement of cement. This
dam was closely followed by the Willow Creek and Upper Stillwater dams in the USA.
The former featured a dry-lean, low paste, RCC mix with a cement content of less than
Page | 32
100 kg/m3. The Upper Stillwater dam featured high paste mixes and approximately 60%
of cement replacement by fly ash. The intention was to form impermeable mixes with
high tensile strengths.
The two approaches of low paste RCC coupled with a waterproof facing and medium to
high paste RCC mixes which are themselves sufficiently impermeable, have subsequently
dominated RCC dam construction. They are also sometimes considered as representing a
soils or geotechnical philosophy versus a concrete philosophy. The soils philosophy
considers RCC as a cement-enriched processed soil, or aggregate, whose mix design is
based on moisture-density relationships. For the concrete philosophy, the RCC mix is
considered to be a true concrete whose strength and other properties follow the water-
cement relationship with strength being inversely proportional to its water-cement ratio.
The RCC mix should not, however, contain so much paste that a measurable slump is
produced or excess paste is brought to the surface with only a few passes of a vibratory
roller. Recent trends in RCC mix design have tended towards the concrete philosophy
approach.
The fresh and hardened properties of RCC are sensitive to variations in cement and
pozzolan properties. A single and consistent source of cement and pozzolan is commonly
used. The selection of a pozzolan suitable for RCC should be based on its conformance
with ASTM C 618. Some variations beyond the ASTM limits can be allowed provided
the pozzolan is consistent in its proportion. Pozzolans meeting the specifications of
ASTM C 618 for Class C, Class F, and Class N have been successfully used in RCC
mixtures. Class F and Class N pozzolans are usually preferred, since they normally
contribute less heat of hydration than Class C and have greater sulphate resistance. The
use of pozzolan will depend on required material performance as well as on its cost and
availability at the project.
This analysis assumes a cementitious material content of 170kg/m3, comprising 100kg

cement and 70kg pozzolanic material which represents 40% replacement of cement. This
analogy of 40% cement replacement has already been adopted in Ghazi-Barotha
hydropower project and remarkable results have been achieved.
Page | 33
3.3.2 RCC Properties Adopted in this Analysis
Following are the mechanical and thermal properties of RCC adopted in this TM analysis:
a) Modulus of Elasticity (Ec)
The temporal growth of stiffness and the initial release of the hydration heat in
conjunction with the temperature rise of the concrete mass and the present restraint
(internal and external) result in moderate compressive temperature stresses. These
stresses may be caused by high relaxation of stresses and creep effects in the early age.
However, when the hydration process nearly stabilizes and the rate of heat release retards,
the temperature of the mass begins to drop. In this phase, the concrete mass has gained a
much higher stiffness, so only a small drop of temperature may compensate for the
initially built up compressive stresses. Further cooling affects tensile stresses which may
exceed the tensile strength and in turn lead to thermal cracking.
For the prediction of thermal cracking in RCC, a better understanding of the temporal
development of the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity is required especially in the very early
state of curing. In most publications, RCC properties and their temporal evolution are
considered to be equal to those of conventional mass concrete. A very well known
expression stipulated in literature and experimentally investigated by Conrad, M. et-al [10]
has been used in the current TM analysis.
𝐸𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐸𝑐,∞ . exp(𝑎. 𝑡 𝑏 ) … 3.1
where,
Ec (t) = time dependent modulus [GPa]
Ec,∞ = final modulus of Elasticity at 365 days [GPa]
t = concrete age [days]
α & b are Constants
Based on experimentation, the value of α and b is -5.0 and -0.63. Following is the
graphical representation of temporal growth of RCC Modulus.
Page | 34
Fig 3.3: Variation of RCC modulus with Age
b) Adiabatic Heat of Hydration
Heat generation within the concrete mass is an adiabatic phenomenon occurring as a

result of hydration process. Amount of heat generated is directly related to the cement
content in the concrete mix. In very large concrete mass, temperature near the center of
mass will be approximate sum of placement temperature and adiabatic rise due to
hydration. Near the surface, peak temperatures will be lower and will be near ambient
temperatures.
The adiabatic temperature rise due to hydration heat is based on the following expression
published by ASCE (1986) [26].
T(t) = K (1-e-αt) … 3.2
where
T = temperature (°C)
t = time (Days)
α and K are constants based on unit cement content and placement temperature
Page | 35
Values of these constants are obtained from charts developed by Radovanic (1998) from
experiments on several small and medium sized samples. Based on this expression, the
rate of heat generation R(t) is calculated as [26]:
R(t) = K Cp γ α e-αt … 3.3
where
Cp = Specific heat capacity of RCC (J/g°C)
γ = Density of concrete (g/m3)
t = Time (Days)
c) Surface Heat Transfer Co-efficient (Film Co-efficient)
The surface heat transfer coefficient “h” (film coefficient) is applied to all exposed
surfaces to represent the convection heat transfer effect between the surrounding air and
the concrete surface. The following approximate equation is used to calculate the surface
heat transfer coefficient [14]:
h = hc + hw … 3.4
where, for a concrete surface, the average value of hc is taken to be 6.0 W/m2-°C, and hw
is approximately related to the wind speed “v” as hw = 3.7v (with v in m/s).
d) Compressive Strength
Values of compressive strength fc’ has a direct influence on the modulus of elasticity of
concrete so it is imperative that sufficient compressive strength is assigned to RCC.
Tensile strength is also taken as a percentage of compressive strength and hence adds to
the need for sufficient strength. For the current studies, value of fc’ has been taken equal
to 20 MPa.
e) Tensile Strength
ACI 207.1R-96 states that mass concrete has sufficient tensile strength and hence the
assumption of ‘Zero tensile strength’ as in reinforced concrete of smaller sized members
Page | 36
may be violated to utilize the benefits inherent to mass concrete. For this reason, different
codes present different relations in terms of modulus of rupture of concrete for
determining tensile strength. For this analysis, tensile strength value equal to 5% of the
ultimate compressive strength has been assumed.
f) Tensile Strain Capacity
For thermal analysis, value of tensile strain capacity is of much more concern than the
tensile strength because this particular value will decide the specific location and pattern
of thermal cracks in mass concrete. This value depends on the ultimate strength and also
on the rate of loading. For conservative approach, value of tensile strain capacity ‘TCS’
has been taken equal to 20 microns or 2 × 10-5.
Apart from above stated properties, following are some other properties that were used to
calculate thermal stresses in Dasu RCC dam.
Table 3.1: RCC and Rock Foundation Properties Used in the Analysis
Sr. No Properties RCC Foundation
Varies
1 Modulus of Elasticity, (MPa) 20,000
with Age
2 Poisson’s Ratio 0.2 0.25
3 Unit Weight, (kg/m3) 2600 2900
4 Co-efficient of Thermal Expansion, (per °C) 7 ×10-6 3.5 ×10-6
5 Thermal Conductivity, (W/m.°C) 2.0 1.1
6 Specific Heat, (kJ/kg°C) 1.05 0.8
7 Film Co-efficient (W/m2.°C) 19.36 19.36
Varies
8 Heat of Hydration Rate (W/m3) -
with Age
9 Tensile Strain Capacity 2 × 10-5 -
Page | 37
3.3.3 Climatic Variations
For Dasu dam, mean monthly average temperatures data for the past 30 years has been
used. Following are the main climatological parameters observed at Besham Qila located
about 85 km downstream of Dasu dam site which have been adopted for this analysis:
Table 3.2: Ambient Temperatures [3,18]
Precipitation Temperature (°C)

Month Maximu
(mm) Minimum Average
m
January 88.8 21.7 3.3 12.5
February 140.1 27.8 2.2 15.0
March 164.4 35 8.9 22.0
April 110.7 38.3 10 24.2
May 65.1 43.4 11.7 27.6
June 67.6 45.6 17.8 31.7
July 123.1 44.5 18.9 31.7
August 125.2 40 18.3 29.2
September 71.3 39.5 17.2 28.4
October 52.4 34.5 10 22.3
November 35.6 28.9 6.7 17.8
December 54.4 25.6 4.4 15.0
Annual 1098.7 45.6 2.2 23.9
3.3.4 Placement Temperature
Placement temperature of mass concrete is another important parameter that has a direct
influence on the peak temperatures and hence on thermal stresses. A simplified equation
postulated by Noorzaei, Ghafoori and Amini (2006) [23] has been used in this analysis
Tplacement = Tanu - 2/3(Tanu - Tmon) + Crush Add + Mixing Add + Transporting Add
Page | 38
Adding temperature of aggregate crushing and concrete mixing has been assumed equal
to 1°C while the effect of radiations on newly placed concrete has been considered by
adding 1°C to the placement temperature. It is worth mentioning here that due to higher
peak temperatures and probability of flood overflows, no concreting activity was assumed
from May to September.
Following is the placement temperature adopted for this study:
Months Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temp (°C) 14 15 15 17 x x x x x 17 15 14
3.3.5 Construction Schedule
Rapid and continuous delivery of RCC is important to mass concrete applications. As a

general guide, the average sustained placing rate does not exceed 65% of the nominal
plant capacity when haul vehicles are used for delivery to the dam, and 75% when an all-
conveyor delivery system is used. Typically the designed nominal plant capacity should
include a factor of 1.20 to 1.30 over the sustained rate requirement to allow for the RCC
manufacturing plant breakdown/maintenance. These values tend to be lower on smaller
projects and higher on larger projects [3].
For Dasu dam, the construction schedule is established by considering the geometry of
the dam and climatological conditions. Total quantity of RCC in the dam body is
[18]
approximately 4.6 million cubic meters . RCC placing rate is assumed to be
3
approximately 325m /hr with a 16 hour working day and 26 days a month. There is a
break in concreting operations from May to September each year due to extreme high
temperatures and the probability of floods in summer. No loss of days due to rains,
floods, strikes etc. have been considered. Two 500 m3/hr batching plants will be required
for this construction schedule with one to be used in case of breakdown. Construction has
been assumed to start in October. This is because experience shows that if concreting is
started just before summer months, temperature gradients are much higher near the base
of dam. This results in severe cracking around this zone and the chances of large crack at
the dam-foundation interface are high. Table 3.3 shows the assumed construction
schedule.
Page | 39
Table 3.3: Construction Sequence and Schedule of Dasu dam

Dam Construction Schedule
Elevations Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5
724 1 Oct.
730 9 Oct.
740 5 Nov.
750 5 Dec.
760 7 Jan.
770 9 Feb.
780 20 Mar.
790 5-May 1 Oct.
800 18 Nov.
810 15 Jan.
823 15-May 1 Oct.
830 10-Dec
840 10-Feb
854 5-May 1-Oct
860 5-Nov
870 5-Jan
880 28-Feb
890 15-Apr 1-Oct
900 20-Nov
910 31-Dec
This schedule has been developed based on the following assumed placement rates:
o 325m3/hr from base to El. 810

o 200m3/hr from El. 810 to El. 830
o 325m3/hr from El. 830 to El. 910
Page | 40
3.4 COMPUTER MODELING
3.4.1 Introduction to ANSYS
Thermo-mechanical analysis is a very complex problem involving extreme non-linearities

in geometry and material of a structure. Geometry and material properties of dam change
at every instant and this time and temperature dependency adds to this greatly non-linear
problem. Such an analysis is named as Non-linear Incremental Structural Analysis
(NISA) by structural engineers. ANSYS® MultiPhysics version 11.0 has been used to
carry out this TM analysis. ANSYS is general purpose software with extensive
capabilities to model complex structures and is commercially used in mechanical, civil,
automobile and aviation sectors to analyze and design wide range of structures. This
software is equipped with an extremely efficient solver that can simulate and analyze all
kinds of engineering models in shortest possible times. ANSYS has built-in algorithms to
solve heat transfer, fluid mechanics and structural problems in a user friendly
environment and for this reason ANSYS was used in the present research.
Apart from basic software capabilities, ANSYS has been equipped with many modern
tools to solve variety of problems in minimum computing time. Amongst these are
‘Coupled-Field Solver’ and ‘Birth & Death of Elements’ which have been used in this
TM analysis. The Elements library provided within ANSYS database is also quiet
extensive and user friendly.
a) Coupled Field Solver
A coupled-field analysis is a combination of analyses from different engineering

disciplines that interact to solve a global engineering problem, hence we often refer to a
coupled-field analysis as a multiphysics analysis. In principle, when the input of one field
analysis depends on the results from another analysis, the analyses are coupled. This
coupling can either be one way or two way based on the problem requirement.
In a thermal stress problem temperature field introduces thermal strains in the structural
field, but the structural strains generally do not affect the temperature distribution. The
coupled field solver embedded in ANSYS results in the reduction of analysis time
drastically and hence results in saving of time and cost. Many coupled field solvers like
Page | 41
thermal-structural, electrostatic-structural, electrostatic-structural-fluidic, electro-thermal-

structural-magnetic and many other combination of analysis can be efficiently carried out.
b) Birth & Death of Elements
Using a specialized command provided in the software, incremental construction of dam

can be easily modeled by introducing EKILL and EALIVE commands in the ANSYS
command interface. This command simulates the exact construction sequence of structure
with properly introduced boundary conditions by activating new RCC lifts (layers) with
time in the computer model. The new layer has boundary conditions and material
properties corresponding to younger concrete while the layers present beneath this fresh
layer have different properties and boundary conditions depending on their particular age.
This cycle continues until the construction is completed. This command is very efficient
in carrying out non-linear incremental structural analysis.
3.4.2 Numerical Discretization and Analysis Procedure
With reference to the illustrative example i.e Dasu Dam, following is the procedure for
carrying out the complete thermo-mechanical analysis using computer aided modeling in
software ANSYS® MultiPhysics.
a) Finite Element Modeling
The main body of the dam was modeled using 1240 plane strain elements. A standard lift
height of 3 m as proposed in the construction schedule was adopted which resulted in a
total of 62 lifts to reach to the top of roller compacted concrete portion of dam. Each lift
was modeled as one layer of elements divided equally along the length. Foundation rock
was also modeled to a depth of 50 m and 50 m on both upstream and downstream of dam
body to include its thermal effects. Figure 3.4 shows the FE model used in this analysis.
b) Element Type
The type of element selected for the analysis is very important for these types of problems
as all pre and post-processing as well as the numerical algorithms depend on this element
type. For the current analysis, PLANE 223; a 2-D 8 noded quadratic coupled field solid
with four degrees of freedom at each node was used. This element can perform a wide
Page | 42
variety of coupled field analyses. Advanced analysis features such as Birth and death,
large deflection, joule heat generation and solution control required for TM analysis; are
inherent to this element type. This coupled field solid eliminates the need for reanalyzing
the whole structure again and all necessary outputs are obtained from a single analysis
run.
c) Material Models
Material properties for RCC and rock as described in the previous sections were
introduced using material models. A special add-on to ANSYS named CivilFEM was also
utilized to model the most accurate properties for roller compacted concrete. One
limitation associated to the software was that material properties cannot change with time
automatically. For this reason, several material models with different modulus of
elasticity values of concrete were defined so that temporal growth of material modulus
can be defined exclusively. Material non-linearities were defined using this technique.
d) Time
The time for analysis corresponds to the actual chronological time of construction. All
material properties, boundary conditions and birth of elements were based on this time
and so this had to be dealt with attention.
Time unit for this analysis was assumed to be one day. The non-linear incremental
structural analysis was performed on monthly basis starting from one year before the start
of dam construction and continued to 2500 days from this start point. Analysis before
construction start was carried out to apply average temperature gradients on the
underlying rock so that the foundation effects can be represented properly. Analysis time
was divided into 25 steps with a maximum of 20 sub-steps for each step.
e) Nonlinear Options
As the TM analysis problem is both non-linear and time varying, so non-linear options of
ANSYS were activated. Full Newton Raphson method was adopted for incremental non-
linearities. Number of iterations for each subset were limited to 25 while convergence
limits were set to calculate sufficiently accurate results. Advanced features such as ‘line
Page | 43
search; and ‘solution predictor’ were also activated so that results could be achieved in
minimal time but not at the expense of any loss of accuracy.
f) Boundary Conditions
For each time step, boundary conditions were applied to all the active elements based on
their age (i.e. age of concrete). ANSYS classifies all loads into two broad categories
namely Surface loads and Body loads. All loads are however, applied to the finite
elements within the software.
As soon as the cement mixes with water, exothermic reaction produces considerable heat
of hydration. This adiabatic heat of hydration, calculated by the formulae given in Section
3.3.2 (b) was applied to all the active elements in the FE model. As an initial condition,
each element was subjected to the placement temperatures stipulated in Section 3.3.4.
Annual average air temperatures were assigned as boundary conditions on u/s and d/s
faces of dam representing external heat radiations from sun. Surface heat transfer
coefficients (film coefficients) as given in Section 3.3.2 (c) were also assigned as
boundary conditions. As the analysis progressed, all of these boundary conditions were
re-assigned to particular element layers depending on the age of that layer/lift. This
procedure continued till the completion of analysis time. Figure 3.5 represents a graphical
display of all boundary conditions applied to the FE model.
A flowchart of complete TM analysis algorithm adopted in this research is presented in

Fig 3.6.
Page | 44
Fig 3.4: FE Model used in TM Analysis
Fig 3.5: Boundary Conditions in TM Analysis
Page | 45
Thermo-Mechanical
Analysis
Pre-Processing
Finite Element Define Geometric &

Modeling Material Properties
Birth and Death of

Elements Technique
Apply Initial & Modify RCC Properties

Boundary Conditions to based on time for all
all Active Elements Active Elements
Post-Processing
End of Stage Placement
NO
Last Stage
Take a New Stage
YES
Save Results for Further Processing
Fig 3.6: Algorithm for TM analysis
Page | 46
3.4.3 Analysis Assumptions
For this detailed 2-D TM analysis, various assumptions were made to obtain reliable and
accurate stress and strain states of the dam body. The highest section of the dam with the
corresponding maximum base width was used in the analysis. Some other assumptions
adopted are:
• Self weight and any superimposed loads on the dam were not activated in the
analysis to obtain stresses due to thermal loads only.
• No material testing was carried out and all material properties were derived from
literature based on the specified mix design.
• RCC and rock were considered isotropic.
• RCC material properties such as modulus of elasticity, specific heat, co-efficient
of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity and convection co-efficient were
considered independent of temperature effects.
• Creep and shrinkage effects of concrete were ignored.
• Mean monthly average temperatures based on the average of past 30 years were
considered for temperature loads. Daily peaks were ignored due to unavailability
of daily temperature variations.
• Placement temperature was not allowed to exceed 17°C.
• Grout enriched vibrated RCC as proposed on the u/s and d/s faces of dam were
not considered in thermal analysis.
• Construction was assumed to start on 1st October and placement of RCC was
assumed to be discontinued from May to September each year due to high
ambient temperatures unsuitable for placing mass concrete.
Page | 47
Chapter
4
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Results obtained from the detailed TM analysis will be presented and discussed in detail
in this chapter. ANSYS postprocessor has been utilized to obtain relevant output data and
spreadsheets have been configured to apply more rigorous analytical procedures so as to
achieve accurate results. Results will be presented in both graphical and tabular formats
and contours of temperature and stress profiles will also be shown. Fracture mechanics
parameters used to obtain the probable crack lengths in concrete mass will also be
discussed in this chapter.
Broadly classifying, following types of analyses were carried out for this detailed TM
analysis
I. Thermal Gradient Analysis

II. Thermal Stress Analysis
III. Mass and Surface Cracking Analysis
All of them will be discussed in the subsequent sections.
4.2 THERMAL GRADIENT ANALYSIS
The non-linear incremental structural analysis (NISA) technique adopted in TM analysis

and the inherent transient nature of the problem resulted in bulk of output data. Post
processing is an intensive job in ANSYS. Results are obtained both at nodal points,
termed as integration points, as well as element centroids. Which result to be used for
Page | 48
Chapter 4 Results & Discussions
which analysis, depends on the user’s know-how of the problem. Although the coupled
field solver embedded in ANSYS displays all analysis results in a single run, however for
simplicity, we will discuss each of the so-called ‘thermal’ and ‘mechanical’ analyses
results separately.
Thermal gradients mean the variations in temperature values inside the body of dam.
Since the temperature profiles are variable along the dam cross-section and it is
unfeasible to analyze every finite element for variations in temperature values throughout
the analysis time, so few critical positions were selected along u/s and d/s faces of dam as
well as along the exact centerline of dam section. Results obtained at these positions, in
the shape of time history curves were studied. These were transferred to excel
spreadsheets for further post-processing.
Following are the contour plots of temperature profiles inside the dam body at different
time instants during the construction of dam:
Fig 4.1: Temperature at 130 days from Start of Construction

Page | 49
Page | 50
Fig 4.5: Temperature at the end of analysis time (i.e. Day 2500)
These contour plots show variations in temperatures encountered during the construction
and hence can be used for deciding the provision of temperature control measures to be
adopted by the contractor.
Fig 4.2 shows temperature values after 14 months from the construction start (taken as 1st
October). A maximum temperature of 30 °C occurs at approximately 60 m above the base
of dam. It is worth mentioning that this is the same elevation at which the construction
process was stopped in May (of the successive year of start) due to higher summer
temperatures reaching up to 40°C. During this time, concreting was assumed to
discontinue as such high temperatures are detrimental for concrete and the probability of
delayed ettringite formation is high which renders roller compacted concrete completely
useless. Actually, delayed ettringite formation (DEF) is an internal sulphate attack in
concrete. Ettringite is a by-product of cement hydration in normal conditions. But in case
of high heat and temperatures, water becomes a redundant and is not readily available for
the complete hydration process. Due to this, formation of ettringite in concrete matrix is
delayed. On the other hand, such high temperatures are also inappropriate because it will
be impossible for construction labour to work under such heat and humidity.
Page | 51
Maximum temperature of 32 °C was observed after 22 months from the construction start
(Fig. 4.3) while maximum temperature value of 44°C was observed at 5 years after the
construction start (Fig 4.5). This higher value was observed at El. 890 m. At this
elevation, spillway has been constructed using conventional concrete. Its cement content
is 300 kg/m3 in comparison to 100 kg/m3 for RCC. Further investigation revealed that at
this elevation, dam width reduces significantly near the top and ambient temperatures
which are the prime heat source, accumulate and result in enhanced thermal effects at this
elevation. Although this maximum temperature may still be acceptable as the concrete
properties will not be hampered by much, yet some measures will have to be taken up as
precautions. Cooling pipes may be inserted at this location which will help in controlling
the inside temperatures of concrete.
4.3 THERMAL STRESS ANALYSIS
Results of thermal gradient analysis obtained from the one way coupling of TM analysis
were used to calculate thermal stresses. These are more meaningful in terms of the
required concrete strength as any excessive tensile stresses should have to be restricted
primarily by the material properties. All other temperature control measures will only
help in reducing tensions for certain time period. Results of this stress analysis will be
utilized for further crack analysis. Compressive stresses also developed due to
temperature gradients but these are of no importance in crack analysis. In fact these
compressive stresses tend to heal some minor cracks developed earlier but this effect will
be ignored in the analysis. Table 4.1 gives the maximum thermal stress values obtained at
different locations. This table has been derived from ‘Time History Post-processor’ of
ANSYS. Time histories of different elements were obtained and the peaks were read from
these plots.
Page | 52
Table 4.1: Maximum Thermal Stresses along Dam Height

Thermal Stresses (MPa)
Elevation
U/S Face Along Centerline D/S Face
(m)
Tensile Compressive Tensile Compressive Tensile Compressive
740 0.410 0.222 0.127 0.000 0.399 0.285
750 0.494 0.188 0.190 0.000 0.501 0.188
760 0.726 0.459 0.380 0.000 0.726 0.000
770 0.520 0.459 0.380 0.000 0.722 0.000
780 0.494 0.188 0.190 0.000 0.501 0.190
790 0.000 1.537 0.000 0.792 0.000 1.543
800 0.061 0.570 0.000 0.190 0.057 0.634
810 0.726 0.459 0.380 0.000 0.726 0.000
823 0.027 1.537 0.000 0.684 0.027 1.600
830 0.278 0.903 0.000 0.000 0.278 0.412
840 0.716 0.459 0.380 0.000 0.716 0.000
854 0.007 1.598 0.000 0.684 0.007 1.598
860 0.000 0.631 0.000 0.190 0.000 0.493
870 0.716 0.459 0.380 0.000 0.716 0.000
880 0.494 0.681 0.187 0.000 0.494 0.184
890 0.000 3.528 0.000 2.949 0.000 3.783
900 0.045 1.125 0.000 0.190 0.045 0.397
910 0.384 0.681 0.190 0.000 0.384 0.045
Page | 53
924
904
884
864
844
Dam Height (m)

824
804
784
764
744
724
-4.0 -3.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Stress (MPa)
Fig 4.6: Maximum Stresses at U/S face of Dam (-ve Compressive, +ve Tensile)
924
904
884
864
844
Dam Height (m)
824
804
784
764
744
724
-4.5 -4.0 -3.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Stress (MPa)
Fig 4.7: Maximum Stresses at D/S face of Dam (-ve Compressive, +ve Tensile)
Page | 54
924
904
884
864
844
824
Dam Height (m)

804
784
764
744
724
-3.5 -3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Stress (MPa)
Fig 4.8: Maximum Stresses at Dam Centerline (-ve Compressive, +ve Tensile)
Form Table 4.1 and Figures 4.6 to 4.8, it is clear that the maximum tensile stress at u/s
and d/s faces of dam is 0.73 N/mm2 while along the centerline, maximum tensile stress is
0.38 N/mm2. Tensile strength equal to 5% of the compressive strength (equal to 1.0
N/mm2 for 20 N/mm2 compressive strength) for mass concrete as directed by ACI and
various other researchers could be used here. Using this allowable strength, possibility of
tensile cracks will be eliminated altogether for the results obtained. But this analogy is
correct only for exterior loads like the hydrostatic, superimposed and seismic loads etc.
For thermal loads which act from within the body of dam, this criterion for allowable
tensile strength does not seem justified and cracks will definitely appear in the concrete
mass. For this reason, instead of tensile strength, tensile strain capacity has been defined
and will be discussed in the subsequent sections.
The above charts also show a sudden rise in the compressive stress values near the top of
dam. At this location, conventional concrete has been used for the construction of
spillway which has higher cement content than RCC. Due to the presence of this high
cement content conventional concrete, higher heat of hydration will release and higher
Page | 55
compressive stresses will hence appear. But as discussed earlier, such compressive
stresses are hardly a concern in assessing the crack potential of dam.
4.4 THERMAL CRACK ANALYSIS
Tensile strain capacity ‘TSC’ has been discussed in Section 2.2 and 3.3.2(f). It is the
allowable strain which will occur before the onset of any cracking. But as soon as the
tensile strains exceed TSC, cracking will initiate. Crack analysis addressed herein
comprises of surface cracking and mass cracking potential. Surface cracks are those
which will appear on the u/s and d/s face of dam due to applied boundary conditions.
Mass cracks will appear inside the body of dam and as discussed earlier, these have been
estimated by extracting the analysis results along the centerline of dam cross section.
Since a 2-D TM analysis was carried out which only depicts the tensile and cracking
strains at one section, whereas, cracks will appear throughout the crest length. For this
reason, following analytical procedure has been implemented to extrapolate the results of
2-D analysis into the third dimension so that the number of cracks and crack spacing may
be determined along the crest length [11]:
Cracking strain = Sc = Thermal Strain – Tensile Strain Capacity

Dam length considered =L
Total cracking width = Cw (total) = Sc × L
Assumed cracking width = Cw
No. of cracks = N = Cw (total) / Cw
Crack spacing =S=L/N
Following values were used for this crack analysis:
Tensile strain capacity = 2 × 10-5
Assumed Crack Width = 2 mm [12, 14]
This assumption for 2 mm crack width is required to calculate the number of cracks each
having a width of 2 mm. In actual every crack will have different widths but for
simplicity and ease in calculation, this uniform width will be used here. Using the above
calculation steps, transverse and longitudinal crack spacing has been calculated from
Page | 56
surface cracking and mass cracking strains respectively. Following tables will depict the
results of surface and mass cracking analysis.
Table 4.2: Transverse Crack Potential along the Dam Crest
Surface Gradient Cracking

U/S Face D/S Face
Elevation
Crack
(m) Cracking No. of Cracking No. of Crack
Spacing
Strain Cracks Strain Cracks Spacing (m)
(m)
736 1.474E-05 1 135.66 1.474E-05 1 135.66
778 9.050E-06 1 220.99 9.493E-06 1 210.68
781 1.124E-05 1 177.89 1.124E-05 1 177.89
784 5.499E-05 4 36.37 5.499E-05 4 36.37
787 5.674E-05 4 35.25 5.674E-05 4 35.25
790 1.474E-05 1 135.66 1.474E-05 1 135.66
793 1.474E-05 1 135.66 1.474E-05 1 135.66
796 1.474E-05 1 135.66 1.430E-05 1 139.86
799 9.050E-06 1 220.99 9.493E-06 1 210.68
808 7.743E-06 1 258.30 7.743E-06 1 258.30
811 1.124E-05 1 177.89 1.124E-05 1 177.89
814 1.124E-05 1 177.89 1.124E-05 1 177.89
817 1.124E-05 1 177.89 1.124E-05 1 177.89
820 5.499E-05 6 36.37 5.499E-05 6 36.37
823 5.499E-05 6 36.37 5.499E-05 6 36.37
826 1.124E-05 1 177.89 1.124E-05 1 177.89
829 7.743E-06 1 258.30 6.600E-06 1 303.03
832 3.100E-06 0 645.16 4.243E-06 1 471.36
835 4.243E-06 1 471.36 4.243E-06 1 471.36
838 7.743E-06 1 258.30 7.743E-06 1 258.30
841 1.124E-05 1 177.89 1.124E-05 1 177.89
844 1.124E-05 2 177.89 1.124E-05 2 177.89
847 1.124E-05 2 177.89 1.124E-05 2 177.89
850 5.499E-05 8 36.37 5.499E-05 8 36.37
853 5.560E-05 8 35.97 5.560E-05 8 35.97
856 1.360E-05 2 147.06 1.360E-05 2 147.06
859 8.350E-06 1 239.52 8.350E-06 1 239.52
865 3.100E-06 1 645.16 3.100E-06 1 645.16
Page | 57
868 4.850E-06 1 412.37 4.850E-06 1 412.37

871 6.600E-06 1 303.03 6.600E-06 1 303.03
874 6.600E-06 1 303.03
877 2.030E-05 4 98.55 4.335E-05 8 46.14
880 8.010E-05 14 24.97 8.010E-05 14 24.97
883 8.010E-05 15 24.97 8.010E-05 15 24.97
886 1.239E-04 23 16.15 1.239E-04 23 16.15
889 9.060E-05 17 22.08 9.060E-05 17 22.08
892 1.360E-05 3 147.06 1.360E-05 3 147.06
895 1.360E-05 3 147.06 1.360E-05 3 147.06
898 1.360E-05 3 147.06 1.360E-05 3 147.06
901 1.010E-05 2 198.02 1.010E-05 2 198.02
904 6.600E-06 1 303.03 6.600E-06 1 303.03
907 6.600E-06 1 303.03 6.600E-06 1 303.03
910 6.600E-06 1 303.03 6.600E-06 1 303.03
In general, RCC dams are divided into blocks by way of self induced joints which are
materialized by means of conventional formwork or by inductors. In the first case, blocks
permit the use of formwork on the dam face in one of the monoliths, while other is being
concreted. Its inconvenience is that the passage of machines from one block to the other is
restricted but this can be solved by many ways. For the case of driven joints or inductors,
blocks are made wider or continuous from one side to other depending upon the crest
length, and a synthetic/galvanized sheet is inserted by special equipment like a vibrating
blade machine. These joints continue throughout the dam cross section at certain
intervals. Next to upstream face, transverse joints are water proofed by the use of water
stops.
From the above table, minimum crack spacing for transverse cracks is calculated to be 16
m at El. 886 m. This shows that at every 16 m, a transverse joint will have to be inserted
along the dam crest length. With the block method of construction, as envisaged in the
[18]
Feasibility Studies of Dasu Hydropower Project , this induced crack spacing can be
altered so as to treat the vertical joints between the construction blocks equivalent to
transverse crack inducers.
Page | 58
Placement of vertical contraction joints in RCC is mainly governed by hydraulics and

thermal-construction considerations. Visible cracking in transverse (upstream-
downstream) direction usually is not a structural concern in gravity dams, but it is
unsightly and sometimes alarming to the public. It also results in water loss and a need to
collect and remove the leakage from galleries built for this purpose.
Table 4.3 shows the longitudinal crack spacing obtained from the mass gradient cracking
analysis carried out along the dam centerline.
Minimum crack spacing observed inside the dam body is 11 m at El. 886 showing that
vertical crack inducers need to be provided at this distance. These are not surface cracks
and hence are not visible and detectable easily. These unseen cracks can extend parallel to
the dam axis literally dividing the dam into two or more sections and hence create serious
stability and structural concerns. The dam will probably be safe and stable for normal
load conditions, especially if the crack is closed and does not contain water. But if
seepage continues to occur through foundation, lift joints or monolith joints, water filled
longitudinal cracks will jeopardize the sliding and overturning stability of the dam.
Table 4.3: Longitudinal Crack Potential along the Dam Section
Mass Gradient Cracking

Elevation
Crack Spacing
(m) Cracking Strain No. of Cracks
(m)
784 3.750E-05 2 53.33

787 4.100E-05 3 48.78
820 3.750E-05 4 53.33
823 3.750E-05 4 53.33
850 3.750E-05 5 53.33
853 4.100E-05 6 48.78
877 1.650E-05 3 121.21
880 9.000E-05 16 22.22
883 9.000E-05 17 22.22
886 1.775E-04 34 11.27
889 1.110E-04 21 18.02
Page | 59
Since the table shows that probability of occurrence of a longitudinal crack exists
between El.784 and El. 890, an induced longitudinal contraction joint needs to be
provided between these elevations at the centerline of dam. This can be achieved by
constructing longitudinal galleries at each of these elevations. A longitudinal joint can be
constructed between these galleries by impressing a slot vertically through RCC lifts
using pneumatically driven steel plates and a geo-grid inserted at the bottom of the
respective lifts. These galleries can also provide access for the purpose of monitoring,
drainage and future grouting. At locations where transverse and longitudinal joints meet,
drain holes are to be provided which deliver drained water to galleries.
4.5 FRACTURE MECHANICS PARAMETERS
Results discussed until now, depict the numbers and spacing of longitudinal and
transverse cracks anticipated inside the body of dam. Although longitudinal joint will be
provided throughout the crest length, depth of transverse cracks which will appear on the
dam surface remains a serious concern. Cracks ranging from few millimeters to several
meters have been observed in different dams worldwide. To assess the depth of these
cracks, detailed implementation of fracture mechanics of concrete is required. Concrete
fracture parameters are not yet defined completely and a lot of research is underway to
investigate the mechanism of fracture inside the reinforced and mass concretes. For the
present scope of study in this detailed TM analysis, several simple fracture mechanics
models were studied and efforts were made to reach at a rational solution. A brief
discussion on these parameters is presented in the following section after which the
selected parameters will be applied to the results of illustrative example.
4.5.1 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
The first explanation of the mechanism of fracture in brittle materials was given by
Griffith (1920). Based on the analysis of a sharp crack in a sheet of brittle material, with a
constant remotely applied stress, it was demonstrated that the stresses near the crack tip
tend to approach infinity. Thus, the stress state in the vicinity of the crack tip proved to be
crucial for the load carrying capacity of the sheet. It was shown that in order for the crack
Page | 60
to advance, a certain amount of potential energy must be accumulated in the system,

which will release as a result of movement/deformation along the crack tips. Analysis of
this energy balance condition resulted in a formula for the maximum applicable remote
tensile stress as [15]:
𝐸𝐺𝑐
𝜎𝑐 = � … 4.1
𝜋𝛼
where,
E is the modulus of elasticity, Gc is the critical energy release rate and α is the crack
length. Gc is the amount of energy needed to fully separate a unit area of crack surface. If
σ < σc, no cracking will occur. Irwin (1957) utilized the same theory and stress intensity
factors ‘SIF’ for fundamental crack opening modes were derived for various materials.
SIF is an important parameter for structural integrity assessment of structures containing
cracks. SIF gives a measure of the intensity of the stress field in the crack tip region. This
parameter gives the possibility to analyze crack growth or the possible catastrophic failure
if a given load is applied to the structure. The stress intensity factors can be calculated
using stress and strain analyses and energy released during the crack growth can be
estimated. The estimation of stress intensity factors can be done by analytical or
numerical techniques.
[20]
For the loading conditions assumed by Griffith (1920) , the critical stress intensity
factor at any crack tip will be equal to
𝐾𝐼𝐶 = 𝜎 √𝜋𝛼 … 4.2
Using eq 4.1 and 4.2, following equation is obtained
2
𝐾𝐼𝐶
𝐺𝑐 = … 4.3
𝐸
4.5.2 Non linear Fracture Mechanics
LEFM can be used to estimate important fracture parameters for linear elastic materials
however, concrete shows neither linear nor elastic behaviour and for this reason, non-
linear fracture mechanics parameters were utilized. Various models have been put forth
Page | 61
by the researchers for investigating fracture in concrete. Following is a broad

classification of these models:
Non linear Fracture Models
Cohesive Crack Models Equivalent Elastic Crack Models
Fictitious Crack Crack Band Two Parameters Size Effect Law

Model Model (Bazant Model (Shah (Bazant 1984)
(Hillerborg 1976) & Oh 1983) 1995)
Effective Crack
Model (Karihaloo
1998)
A detailed description and application of each of these models is available in literature.

For the purpose of TM analysis, only the Fictitious Crack Model ‘FCM’ presented by
Hillerborg (1976) will be discussed here.
4.5.3 Fictitious Crack Model
Crack formation in concrete is caused due to several reasons. The fictitious crack model
(FCM) as developed originally by Hillerborg et al (1976) is an efficient tool to predict the
formation of cracks in a composite material such as concrete. Fracture energy and strain
softening modulus of the material are required in this model. The concept of fictitious
crack is energy-based according to the model of concrete fracture. In FCM the zone of
micro-cracking and debonding ahead of the crack front is modeled as a cohesive stress
that acts to close the crack. The magnitude of cohesive stresses on the crack surface is
Page | 62
determined by a softening law that relates stress to the relative displacement of the crack
surfaces through fracture energy [15].
Being heterogeneous in nature, concrete has a complex microstructure. Whenever load is

applied, microcracks will appear in concrete and these cracks grow with time. Fig 4.9
shows a macrocrack (continuous traction-free crack) with its surrounding zone in a
cementitious material. The damage zone ahead of this traction-free crack is referred to as
the fracture process zone ‘FPZ’. This zone plays a vital role in the growth of crack.
Within the FPZ, many micro-failure mechanisms including matrix microcracking,
debonding of interfacial transition zones ‘ITZ’, crack deviation and branching take place
[27]
. All these mechanisms contribute to the Fracture Energy which is defined as the
specific work of fracture necessary to cause any cracking. It can be obtained from area
under the stress-displacement curve of a uniaxial tension test. In the FPZ, the Young’s
modulus is smaller than that of the undamaged material and stress relaxation takes place.
Fig 4.9: Fracture Process Zone ahead of a crack [27]
In order to illustrate the size dependence in a simple and dimensionless way, Hillerborg
introduced the concept of a characteristic length, lch, as a unique material property.
𝐸 𝐺𝐹
𝑙𝑐ℎ = … 4.4
𝑓𝑡2
4.5.4 Application of Fracture Mechanics
The proper fracture mechanics theory to be applied for a crack growth problem, as is the
case with thermo-mechanical analysis, depends on the relative size of the FPZ ‘l’’ with
respect to the smallest critical dimension ‘D’ of the structure under consideration. In
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general, linear elastic fracture mechanics applies for D/ l > 100, while nonlinear quasi
brittle fracture mechanics is applied for structures having 5 < D/ l < 100. For D/ l < 5
non-local damage models, particle models or lattice models are applied [15]. Since for the
case of concrete gravity dam, critical dimension is much larger than the anticipated FPZ,
so LEFM can be applied to evaluate fracture parameters. However, in the following
section, non-linear fracture parameters in addition to LEFM have been calculated for
accuracy.
[9]
Choi et-al (2006) performed series of 3-point bending tests on reinforced concrete
beams in order to evaluate the most suitable fracture parameters. Notches were crafted on
[9]
the beam specimens as a standard test procedure stated by the RILEM committee .
Various samples with varying notch lengths and widths were tested and results were
interpreted using linear elastic fracture mechanics parameters defined for brittle materials.
From the results obtained from these tests, following average values of fracture
parameters were obtained.
KIC = Critical Stress Intensity Factor = 0.7 MPa (m)1/2

GIC = Energy release rate i.e. potential energy per unit area = 19 J/m2
GF = Fracture energy = 150 J/m2
Now, using the Griffith’s theory of LEFM, SIF for a plate with remotely applied uniform
stress which creates an edge crack as shown in the Fig. 4.10 is given by the following
equation [15]:
𝐾𝐼 = 1.12 𝜎 √𝜋𝛼 … 4.5
Based on the above equation and normal principal stresses obtained

from the TM analysis, crack length α was calculated at different
elevations along the u/s face of dam. Table 4.4 shows the calculated
crack lengths:
Fig 4.10: Edge α

Crack for uniform
stress [15]
Page | 64
Table 4.4: Crack lengths along dam Height
Crack Length at Crack Length

Elevation Elevation
U/S Face at U/S Face
(m) (m)
α (mm) α (mm)
740 205.9 830 94.7
750 299.9 840 629.4
760 647.7 854 0.1
770 331.4 860
780 299.9 870 629.4
790 880 299.9
800 4.6 890
810 647.7 900 2.5
823 0.9 910 181.2
The above table shows that a maximum crack length of approximately 650 mm appears at
El.810. This crack length will govern the provision of water stops that should be provided
near the u/s face of dam so as to create a barrier in the path of water accumulated in these
cracks.
Now proceeding further into the non linear fracture parameters which have been based on
Hillerborg’s theory. Influence of maximum aggregate size Фmax on specific fracture
energy GF of concrete was investigated by Trunk & Wittmann (1998) [27]. They obtained
the following relation:
𝐺𝐹 = 𝛼 . Ф𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 … 4.6
where the values of α and n are calculated to 80.6 and 0.32 respectively. For Dasu dam,
maximum aggregate size was assumed to be 75 mm inside the concrete mix. Using this
size and the constant values given above, specific fracture energy of roller compacted
concrete is equal to 320 J/m2.
Value of characteristic length as calculated by eq 4.4 with tensile strength being kept
equal to 800 kN/m2 comes out to be 12.3 m. This characteristic length is a measure of
brittleness of the material and it is specific for any specific type of material [15]. Length of
the fully developed fracture process zone is roughly defined as 1.8 times lch, which comes
Page | 65
out to be 22.1 m. From the results of LEFM, approximate traction-free crack length
comes out to be less than 1.0 m while the fracture process zone which extends ahead of
the traction free crack is approximately 22 m for the roller compacted concrete adopted in
this analysis.
4.6 VALIDATION OF RESULTS
Results of thermo-mechanical analysis using computer aided modeling are generally

verified using thermocouples installed in mass concrete samples. In fact, at times, small
scale models of entire RCC dams are created by following the techniques and procedures
to be followed by contractors so as to investigate all important conditions that can occur
during actual construction.
Validation of thermo-mechanical results is quiet expensive and cost intensive practice and
it involves installation of thermocouples or distributed fibre optic temperature
measurement device which transmit inside temperatures of concrete mass to computers
and the data for temperature variations is recorded continuously. This data is then
compared with the thermal analysis results and validation is hence accomplished.
Due to limitation of resources, validation of results of this TM analysis using

thermocouples and material testing was not possible. Hence a comparison of results of
this TM analysis and several other RCC dams under similar ambient conditions is hereby
made so as to validate the correctness of results.
Table 4.5: Maximum Thermal Stress Values of Different Dams
Maximum Thermal Stress

Sr. No. Project Name (MPa)
Tension Compression
1 Rialb Dam, Spain 0.6 1.6
2 Salto Caxias Dam, Brazil 0.2 0.8
3 Roodbar Dam, Iran 1.5 3.8
4 Hinata Dam, Japan 1.0

Page | 66
5 Portuguese Dam, Portugal 0.6
6 Tha Dan Dam 0.2 1.5
7 Sarraire Dam, Switzerland 0.5 0.6
8 Mianhuatan Dam, China 2.0 2.2
9 Dasu Dam, Pakistan 0.8 3.8
The above values clearly depict that the results obtained from this TM analysis are close
to those obtained at other dams worldwide. This shows that the procedures adopted for
this study are quiet precise and give results in the acceptable range.
Page | 67
Chapter
5
CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The results achieved during this detailed thermo-mechanical analysis of Dasu RCC dam
are very helpful for deciding the required strength parameters of concrete mix as well as
for finalizing the construction schedule. In this chapter several conclusions drawn from
this analysis will be presented and suggestions for future research works will be
highlighted.
5.2 CONCLUSIONS
Following are the conclusions drawn from this research:
• Thermal Gradient Analysis shows that a maximum temperature of 44°C will

prevail inside the dam body at El. 890m. Near the base of dam, temperature varies
from 20 to 35 °C. Temperature time histories of the surface elements follow a
cyclic variation due to the fact that these elements are more influenced by ambient
temperatures. Elements near the center of dam are less affected by solar radiations
incident on the surfaces and hence time histories of these central elements are
more influenced by adiabatic temperature rise.
• Strict temperature control measures during batching and placement operations

involving pre-cooling of aggregates before mixing, liquid nitrogen cooling during
mixing and effective curing during construction is required. Post cooling of dam is
Page | 68
practically very difficult and expensive for such a massive structure. So efforts
need to be focused on temperature controlling at earlier stages.
• Results of thermal stress analysis indicated that a maximum tensile stress of 800
kPa appears at several locations in the dam body and particularly at those
locations where the concreting operations were stopped in summer due to high
ambient temperatures. It is worth mentioning here that during summers, when the
concreting will be halted, peak flows and even floods will be anticipated and these
would be allowed to overtop the already constructed RCC dam. This would
naturally help in cooling down of temperatures inside the already constructed
portion of dam.
• Surface gradient crack analysis shows that cracks due to thermal strains will
appear at about 50m above the base of dam. Maximum number of surface cracks
appear at El.886 and here the probable crack spacing is about 16 m. These cracks
are not a structural concern in gravity dams, but these are unsightly and sometimes
alarming for the public. Water will accumulate inside these cracks and create
increased pressure which will intensify the crack propagation phenomenon. To
avoid this water stoppers must be installed near the u/s face of dam.
• To control transverse cracking, vertical contraction joints will be provided at 16 m

interval throughout the crest length of dam. This spacing will be adjusted with
respect to the width of monolith block adopted for construction of RCC dam.
Contraction joints will preferably be synthetic or galvanized sheets which will be
inserted into the concrete lifts by special equipment like a vibrating blade machine
• Mass Cracking Analysis shows several cracks within the body of dam. Thus,
probability of appearance of longitudinal crack inside the dam body at mid
distance of base width is high. These unseen cracks can extend parallel to the dam
axis and can divide the dam into two or more sections and hence create serious
stability and structural concerns. To avoid this, a possible solution is to provide
two longitudinal galleries throughout the dam length at El. 790 and El. 890. A pre-
defined crack (i.e. longitudinal joint) can be constructed between these two
galleries by impressing a slot vertically through RCC lifts using pneumatically
driven steel plates.
Page | 69
In the light of analysis assumptions discussed earlier, the following comments are due:
• The 2-D RCC model used in this study is considered acceptable because RCC
placement is usually continuous along the third dimension i.e. along the length of
the dam. In addition, the thermal conductivity of concrete is very less as compared
to its convective co-efficient. Heat generated inside the dam body will naturally
tend to escape using the shortest route i.e. from u/s and d/s faces of dam.
• RCC material properties and heat of hydration values used in this study were
based on the available literature. Creep and shrinkage effects of RCC which cause
relaxation of stresses were not considered.
• The majority of induced cracking due to tensile stresses were related to

temperature drop from peak temperatures in summers to somewhat stable
temperature conditions in winters.
• The construction schedule is the most important parameter for thermal behaviour
of RCC dam.
• Large monolith widths without contraction joints are inappropriate as they cause
an increased axial tensile stress on the upstream face of the dam which may result
into vertical cracking. In actual when interior temperature of the dam body is high
and environmental temperature is low, temperature gradient will be much higher
which will create greater axial stresses on the dam surface. Based on experience,
monolith widths for RCC dam construction must be within 20-30 m.
• The current analysis was based on the construction schedule prepared for the
conventional Block Method of construction in which concrete dam is constructed
in blocks of specified widths. For this type of construction, 2-D thermal analysis
provides proper simulation of thermal stresses. However, a new method of
construction named Sloped Layer Method is also being currently used worldwide.
In this method, dam construction is carried out as a single block rather than
several monoliths. The choice of construction method depends on the contractor’s
ability and experience. If Sloped Layer method is adopted, a full 3-D TM analysis
of the entire dam body will have to be carried out to simulate the proper thermal
stresses prevalent inside the concrete dam.
Page | 70
• Thermal analysis of concrete dams is carried out in parallel to structural analysis

(i.e. stability and stress analyses). Results from thermal analysis in terms of
temperatures or stresses are combined with structural analysis results in order to
evaluate the behaviour of dam body against all loads. Crack lengths and spacing
as obtained from this TM analysis will vary when other structural loads are
combined with thermal loads.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the procedures followed and results obtained from this thermo-mechanical
analysis, following are a few recommendations for carrying out any future research
works.
• Although 2-D TM analysis provides all necessary information for thermal stability
of dam, a full 3-D TM analysis must be carried out in case Sloped layer method of
construction is adopted.
• Thermal analysis results should be incorporated in the structural analysis so as to

obtain the exact behaviour of dam against anticipated loads.
• Fracture mechanics parameters used in this study were calculated for static
thermal analysis. However, the actual thermal loads vary with time and hence
dynamic fracture analysis will be required to ascertain the exact fracture
mechanics parameters such as transient crack lengths.
• As indicated earlier, intense material testing is required to obtain all thermal and
structural properties of roller compacted concrete. This requires sampling of
materials from the site as these materials will represent the actual on-ground
scenario for concrete that will be used in dam construction. Tests on this concrete
should be carried out for obtaining all necessary material properties and the results
from these tests should be used in detailed TM analysis.
• Creep and shrinkage effects of mass concrete should also be considered for a full
3-D thermo-mechanical analysis.
Page | 71
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Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of RCC Dams

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Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of RCC Dams

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Thermo-Mechanical Analysis of

Roller Compacted Concrete Dams

NABEEL AHMED KHAN

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

NABEEL AHMED KHAN

SUPERVISOR EXTERNAL EXAMINER

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

Concrete setting is an exothermic reaction which produces considerable amount of heat

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 5

3.0 COMPUTATIONAL STRATEGY & ALGORITHM 29

4.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS 48

5.0 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 68

1.1 DEVELOPMENT OF RCC

Rapid advances in RCC construction have occurred in developing nations to meet

1.2 ADVENT OF RCC IN PAKISTAN

1.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSES OF RCC DAMS

In general, structural design studies of a concrete dam comprise of stability analysis,

1.4 WHY THERMAL ANALYSIS?

1.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION

In Chapter 2, a detailed review of literature including the underlying principles of thermo-

Chapter 4 presents the results of thermo-mechanical analysis as obtained from the

2.2 DISCUSSION & UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES

Figure 2.1: General temperature and stress profile of RCC

Heat transfer is a complex phenomenon involving conduction, convection, radiation and

The following set of figures describes various parameters/processes involved in the

Modulus of Elasticity (Ec): It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to corresponding

2.3 NUMERICAL MODELS FOR THERMO-MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF

Thermo-mechanical analysis is a complex problem due to involvement of plenty of

Thermal field equation is given by:

𝐶𝑇̇ − 𝑄̇(𝜉) = 𝑅𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑇 ∇. (∇T) … 2.1

This is equivalent to assuming a linear dependency of the form Q(ξ) = Qξ ξ where Qξ is

𝑓 − (𝑘) = 𝑘𝑓∞− … 2.4

𝑓 + (𝑘) = 𝑘 2/3 𝑓∞+ and 𝐸(𝑘) = 𝑘 2/3 𝐸∞ … 2.5

Observations and Comments:

qc (x,y,t) = hc [T(x,y,t) – Ta(t)] … 2.8

hc = 3.8w + 4.7 … 2.9

qs(x,y,t) = a.I (x,y,t) … 2.11

where Q is the heat of hydration (J/g) and E, b, n, q are constants depending on

∑𝑡0 20.1(𝑇𝑡 −𝑇𝑟 )

𝐹𝑡0 = 𝑐 + 𝑑/𝑡0 … 2.17

𝐹𝑡0 = coefficient depending on time to, calculated from above equation

c and d are co-efficient of creep function

Authors developed two computer programs PFEM_2D T and PFEM_2D AT based on

Observations and Comments:

where, θ(τ) = insulated temperature rise at age τ, θ0 = ultimate insulated temperature

Observations and Comments:

[𝐴∗𝐺 ]{∆T} = {𝐹𝐺∗ } … 2.24

Tad = Kt (1-e-αt) … 2.26

Here Kt is the maximum temperature of concrete under adiabatic conditions and α is a

Adding temperature of aggregate crushing and concrete mixing is generally assumed

Observations and Comments:

Initial conditions adopted for this problem were

lim𝑡→0 𝑇(𝑃, 𝑡) = 𝑇0 (𝑃) … 2.30

Prescribed temperature = T(P, t ≠ 0) = T’

Heat transfer by convection, expressed by Newton’s Cooling law,

ℎ𝑐 = 5.6 + 4.0 𝑉 for V< 5m/s

Solar radiation absorbed by the dam surface was expressed as:

{𝑞}𝑇 {𝑛} = 𝑎[𝐼𝑑 + 𝐼𝑖 ] … 2.34

Ω(t) = 28.96(1 − e−0.38t ) °C … 2.36

Computer model of the dam section developed on ANSYS/Thermal consisted of 5625 8-

Observations and Comments:

q = rate of heat generation [W/m3]

qn = heat flux normal to the surface of structure [W/m2]

Here αc is the convective heat transfer co-efficient [W/(m2.K)], Ta is temperature of the