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I4J:H69 6 <57K2G9H7 G47H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >L
M07G7BA N:06G6 :4;7169<7H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >O
I4;7169< PHD463: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Q
R2DS1G68= T:3:U: VW:57FGD62 B:X56Y = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Z
[752U5A2 :H97<:9A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >\
/B7B]2568 D752U57;7 :H97<:9: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^?
IH97<:9 G7 G92D7< = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^>
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i17G92FX62 6G074569246 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Z
[752U5A2 :H97<:9A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^j
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qAU6G42568 6 G07G7BA 0123G9:H42568 3:55Ar = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^s
gG074569246 :4;7169<7H= t97U52562 0758968 :4;7169<: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = L?
u:X65: v`_165;: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = L?
u57K2G9H7 HAU6G46<Ar JS5Dw6F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = L^
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i1:D96D: 017;1:<<617H:568 <:X65 v`_165;: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = LZ
v271296U2GD62 N:3:U6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = L\
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@DH6H:425957G9` 6 074579: 1:N46U5Ar 6G074569242F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = O^
i17B42<: E<S48w66 6G074569242F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = OO
i17B42<: 7G9:57H: 017;1:<< = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = OQ
i17B42<: EDH6H:425957G96 017;1:<< = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = O\
i17B42<: 1:N12X6<7G96 6:J:597H7;7 S1:H52568 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Q?
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v271296U2GD62 N:3:U6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = QQ
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I16J<296U2GD62 HA1:K2568 H 7B1:957F 074`GD7F 579:w66 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Z?
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T:3:U6 07 :4;716J<:< u:1D7H: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ZO
T:3:U6 07 <:X65:< v`_165;: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ZQ
v271296U2GD62 N:3:U6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ZQ

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i212<255A2 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Zs
v60A 0212<255Ar = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Zs
/BC8H42562 0212<255Ar = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = j?
S5Dw66 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = j?
/BC8H42562 JS5Dw66 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = j?
/0123242562 JS5Dw66 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = j>
qAN7H JS5Dw66 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = j^
tG47H5AF 7021:971 #$ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = j^
I16J<296U2GD6F w6D4 $%& = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = jL
'6D4 () #*+ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = jQ
@9:0A GB71D6 017;1:<<A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = jQ
i12017w2GG65; = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = jQ
[7<0648w68 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = jZ
[7<0757HD: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = jZ
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T31:HG9HSF . <61 / = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = j\
tU6<G8 GD4:3AH:9` = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = js
qAU6G42562 <:DG6<S<: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \?
v:B46w: S<57K2568 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \^
i17G9A2 U6G4: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \L
i73D4_U2562 <:92<:96U2GD7F B6B46792D6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \L
0i12017w2GG65; = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \O
612D96H: 1#23*45+ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \O
612D96H: 15+$ #2+ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \Q
612D96HA 1#$5+$ 6 1#$25+$ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \j
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I16J<296U2GD62 6 47;6U2GD62 HA1:K2568 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = \s
v21<65:4= i797D6 HH73: 6 HAH73:= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = s^
M9:53:195A2 0797D6 HH73:HAH73:= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = s^
i797D6 6 :F4A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = sL
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M6G92<A GU6G42568 6 J71<:9A r1:52568 3:55Ar = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = sj
R:N<21A B:N7HAr 9607H 0212<255Ar = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = s\
gNSU2562 H5S912552;7 0123G9:H42568 960: 5%4 *+ = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = s\
T:3:U6 07 92<2 V<:X655:8 97U57G9`Y = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >??
R:B79: G G6<H74:<6 6 6r D73:<6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >? >
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I312G: 6 SD:N:9246 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?O
/021:w66 HN8968 :312G: 6 1:NA<257H:568 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?O
tD:N:9246 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?Q
u:GG6HA = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?Z
/B1:]2562 D E42<259S <:GG6H: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?j
M917D6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?j
u57;7<215A2 <:GG6HA = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?\
I16J<296D: SD:N:9242F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?\
i212<255A2 6 HA3242562 0:<896 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >?s
65:<6U2GD72 HA3242562 0:<896 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >>>
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R:B79: G7 G917D:<6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >>O
65:<6U2GD72 HA3242562 0:<896 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >>Q
HS<215A2 <:GG6HA = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >>Z
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i16H232562 9607H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >>s
28H5A2 016H232568 960: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >>s
H572 016H232562 960: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >^?
H572 016H232562 960: SD:N:9242F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >^?
M47K5A2 960A 3:55Ar = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >^>
M91SD9S1A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >^^
/BC23652568 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >^L
6B46792D6 JS5Dw6F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Ô
R:NB62562 017;1:<<A 5: <73S46 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Ô
q52X562 JS5Dw66 6 0212<255A2= [4_U2H72 G47H7 +
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M9:96U2GD62 6 365:<6U2GD62 B6B46792D6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >^Q
i16<21 G7N3:568 B6B46792D6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >^Q
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M91SD9S1: 3:55Ar VG92DY = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >^j
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R2:46N:w68 VG92D:Y G 07<7]`_ 7357GH8N57;7 G06GD: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >L?
M91SD9S1: 3:55Ar V7U2123`Y = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >L^

R2:46N:w68 V7U21236Y G 07<7]`_ 7357GH8N57;7 G06GD: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >L^

R:G07N5:H:562 01:H64`5Ar GD7B7U5Ar G91SD9S1 G 6G074`N7H:562< G92D: = = = = = = = >L^
T:3:U: 017 Vr717X62Y G47H: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >LL
[:4`DS48971 :16J<296U2GD6r HA1:K256F H 7B1:957F 074`GD7F 579:w66 = = = = = = = >LL
6B46792D: 348 1:B79A G7 G92D7< = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >LQ

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I4;7169<A HAU6G42568 n = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >O >
I4;7169<A HAU6G42568 U6G24 6B75:UU6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >OL
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I4;7169<A HAU6G42568 n = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >O\
I4;7169<A HAU6G42562 U6G24 6B75:UU6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
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M719617HD: V0SNA1`D7<Y = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >QO
AG91:8 G719617HD: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >QQ
/06G:562 :4;7169<: BAG917F G719617HD6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >QQ
/w25D: EJJ2D96H57G96 :4;7169<: BAG917F G719617HD6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >QQ
/w25D: <:DG6<:4`57;7 H12<256 1:B79A :4;7169<: BAG917F G719617HD6 = = = = = >QZ
/w25D: G12352;7 H12<256 1:B79A :4;7169<: BAG917F G719617HD6 = = = = = = = = = >Qj
/w25D: G47K57G96 N:3:U6 G719617HD6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Qj
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2521:w68 G4SU:F5Ar U6G24 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Z?
M719617HD: V<29737< 0SNA1`D:Y = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Z?
gGG4237H:562 BAG917F G719617HD6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Z^
65:<6U2GD72 HA3242562 0:<896 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >ZO
R2X2562 12DS112595Ar G77957X256F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >ZZ
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212DS1G6H5AF :4;7169< = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Z\
i212B71 01:H64`5Ar GD7B7U5Ar HA1:K256F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >Zs
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i212B71 073<57K2G9H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >jL
i212B71 01:H64`5Ar GD7B7U5Ar HA1:K256F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >jO
i212B71 0212G9:57H7D = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >jQ
i212B71 1:N47K256F U6G4: H GS<<S = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >jj
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2S071837U255AF <:GG6H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >\ >
t071837U255AF <:GG6H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >\ >
2S071837U255AF G06G7D = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >\O
H76U572 3212H7 076GD: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >\Q
I5:46N EJJ2D96H57G96 3H76U57;7 3212H: 076GD: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >\\
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i76GD E42<259: H 79G719617H:557< <:GG6H2 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >sL
i16<21A N:3:U . 12X:2<A2 <29737< 3242568 07074:< = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >sQ
T:3:U: 017 017H73: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >sQ
T:3:U: Vt;:3:F U6G47Y = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = >sZ
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[1692166 GB:4:5G617H:557G96 3212H: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^? >
i73321KD: GB:4:5G617H:557G96 3212H: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^?O
7B:H42562 SN4: H Iq3212H7 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^?O
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R2X2562 N:3:U6 Vv242J755:8 D56KD:Y G 07<7]`_ <:GG6H: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^?\
R2X2562 N:3:U6 Vv242J755:8 D56KD:Y G 07<7]`_ 3H76U57;7 3212H: 076GD: = = = = = ^?s
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v2G9617H:562 Iq3212H: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^>Z
g5G91S<259A H6NS:46N:w66 ;1:J7H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^^>
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i17B42<: H216J6D:w66 D73:= u2973A 794:3D6 D73: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^^Z
v60A 7X6B7D = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^^j
q216J6D:w68 07G123G9H7< <:GG7H7;7 92G9617H:568 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^^\
v2G9617H:562 Iq3212H: 6 65921J2FG: V9242J755:8 D56KD:Y = = = = = = = = = ^^s
u2973A 794:3D6 D73: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^^s
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R2:46N:w68 6 92G9617H:562 D1:G57U157;7 3212H: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^LL
q6NS:46N:w68 D1:G57U15Ar 3212H`2H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^LQ
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T:3:U: 7 HAB712 N:8H7D = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Lj
T:3:U: 7 U6G42 :S369716F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Ls
[7;3: 016<256<A K:35A2 :4;7169<A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Ô?
i16B46K55A2 :4;7169<A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Ô^

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T:3:U: 7 HAB712 N:8H7D = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ÔO
T:3:U: 7 U6G42 :S369716F = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ÔQ
T:3:U: 017 :94297H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ÔQ
i165w60 VK:357;7Y HAB71: 6 0212B71 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Ôj
T:3:U: 017 <656<:4`572 U6G47 DH:31:97H = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Ôj
T:3:U6 5: VK:35A2Y :4;7169<A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Ô\
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i76GD H ;4SB65S= v70747;6U2GD:8 G719617HD: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^QZ
M47K57G9` :4;7169<: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Qj
MH7FG9H: 7Br73: H ;4SB65S = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Qj
T:3:U6 6 S01:K52568 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Q\
v70747;6U2GD:8 G719617HD: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Q\
0M64`57 GH8N5A2 D7<075259A = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Qs
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T:3:U: 7 <656<:4`57< 07D1AH:_]2< 3212H2 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Zs
/B]:8 Gr2<: :4;7169<: = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^Zs
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T:3:U: 7 <656<:4`57< 07D1AH:_]2< 3212H2 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^jZ
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7D:N:924`G9H7 074579A G6G92<A {AND, OR, NOT} = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ^sO
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IG6<09796U2GD:8 G47K57G9` = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = L?^
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0[7<B65:w6755:8 6 :4;7169<6U2GD:8 G47K57G96 1:w675:4`5Ar U6G24 = = = = = = = = = L?Z
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T:3:U: 1:N47K2568 U6G4: 5: G920256 3H7FD6 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = L ^Q
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6G916BS96HA = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = L^\
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G9HS29 G92025` 3H7FD6= M:<7<S 01:H7<S B69S G779H29G9HS29 1 = 20 . H9717<S G01:H: 2 = 21 .

0./.6 76.626 67 3 -4021 26. 23701 320.12 207 π ,-./6305.65
88 207 .871.17 67176 88 097-26 8767- ,7 .-. 1/71762 3205.6 117.
207 ,.-3 2- /.5621797 ,-./630.125 20 = 87 097-26 717 ,76-726 2 1
π
7173. ,-23./117 7-0 17 676 097-26 1.045 767/.63056 7 7-07 =

!05 .073.8 20 68. 1. 530565 0..16-12 " 717 0/2 ,-./63056 70#2.
20 88 17- 2- 3 /.56217 4,22 2 /05 07.125 2 17.125 2,7046 097-26
07.125 2 17.125 $670287% 3 8767- 320.125 37/565 8 ,70./736.01762 0..1&
6-1 /.632 2-2 =
2Dw68 >= /B]22 0758962 :4;7169<:
9129`2<S G01:H: 4 = 22 . 6 9=3= H76U5:8 N:06G` G779H29G9HS29 1:N47K256_ U6G4: H GS<<S

5207H9718_]6rG8 G920252F 3H7FD6= :016<21
3 → → 1 · 21 + 1 · 20 = 2+1
5 → → 1 · 22 + 0 · 21 + 1 · 20 = 4+0+1
7 → → 1 · 22 + 1 · 21 + 1 · 20 = 4+2+1
31 → → 1 · 24 + 1 · 23 + 1 · 22 + 1 · 21 + 1 · 20 = 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1
32 → → 1 · 25 + 0 · 24 + 0 · 23 + 0 · 22 + 0 · 21 + 0 · 20 = 32 + 0 + . . . + 0
) )}) ! ! 7D:K692 . U97 D:K372 5:9S1:4`572 U6G47 2365G9H255A< 7B1:N7< 0123G9:H48

29G8 H H632 GS<<A 5207H9718_]6rG8 G920252F 3H7FD6= i73GD:ND: 348 3:557;7 U6G4: n 5:F
3692 <:DG6<:4`5S_ G92025` 3H7FD6 2m . D7971:8 <25`X2 46B7 1:H5: n = R:GG<791692 U6G47
q
n0 = n − 2m = 7G074`NSF92G` <29737< <:92<:96U2GD7F 653SDw66=
[752U5AF 5:B71 E42<259:15Ar 7BC2D97H <7K29 01656<:9` 46X` D752U572 U6G47 N5:U2
56F= v:D . 5:016<21 . S071837U255AF 5:B71 8 B69 #)( 6<229 256 H7N<7K5Ar N5:U256F= gN
E97;7 017G97;7 J:D9: G423S29 7U25` H:K572 S9H21K32562 G1236 D7<:53 6G074569248 52 <7
K29 BA9` D7<:53 G47K2568 646 S<57K2568
5:9S1:4`5Ar 32FG9H6924`5Ar
U6G24=
i16 6NSU2566 8NAD: 017;1:<<617H:568 . HA HG9129692G` G 8H42562< = ,,
%&*'' E97 G69S:w68 . D7;3: 12NS4`9:9 E42<259:157F :16J<296U2GD7F 7021:w66 HAr7369
N: 012324A 073<57K2G9H: U6G24 . D7971A2 <7K57 N:06G:9` H HAB1:557< <:X6557< 0123G9:H
42566=
g9:D . 348 D7<0`_9217H 46X` 52D7971A2 32FG9H6924`5A2 U6G4: 8H48_9G8
E42<259:15A<6 7BC2D9:<6 = u57K2G9H7 E96r U6G24 D752U57= [:D62 6<2557
32FG9H6924`5A2 U6G4: E42<259:15A . N:H6G69 7 6G074`NS2<7;7 <:X6557;7
0123G9:H42568=
.76-5 1 67 67 16-017. 207 1. 5305.65 0..16-1 7.867
3 1.8767- 097-26 ,743702 .. -766 16-012 20 2 88
0..16-12 7.862 = -2 67 /. ,7/-4.36 67 097-26 -76.6
02# /05 1.70#2 16-01 2.0 202 67 4 -2.62.822 7,.-252
6756 7763.6632. 097-26 07.125 326125 2 17.125 670287 202
097-26 /.0.125 97087 870 97/17 70#2 2.0 =
u57;62 G7H12<255A2 017w2GG71A 073321K6H:_9 52GD74`D7 9607H <:X6557;7 0123G9:H

42568 32FG9H6924`5Ar U6G24= '24A2 U6G4: 01:D96U2GD6 H2N32 0123G9:H48_9G8 7365:D7HA<
7B1:N7<= q 017w2GG71:r G 32B6957F :1r692D9S17F B74`X:8 U:G9` D7<:53 GH8N:5: G U6G4:<6 .
N:06G:55A<6 H 32 B69:r= i16 0123G9:H42566 527916w:924`5Ar U6G24 H 32 B69: 07<2]:29G8 6r
3H76U5:8 N:06G`= u57K2G9H7 0123G9:H6<Ar 9:D6< 7B1:N7< U6G24 E97 HG2 527916w:924`5A2
U6G4: <25`X2 232 = @97<S <:X6557<S 0123G9:H4256_ H 8NAD2 M6 G779H29G9HS29 960 3:55Ar
= PG46 <A 070A9:2<G8 G47K69` G 07<7]`_ D7<:53A 017w2GG71: 3H: U6G4: 960:
. GS<<: D7971Ar B74`X2 46B7 1:H5: 232 . 97 H7N56D529 021207452562 6 G9:1X6F
23656U5AF 33F B69 12NS4`9:9: BS329 S92185=
i16 0123G9:H42566 7916w:924`5Ar U6G24 H H632 B69 7365 B69 527Br736<7 HA32469` 073
32
N5:D V04_GY 646 V<65SGY= 27916w:924`5A2 U6G4: <25`X62 231 N:06GAH:_9G8 7BAU5A<
7B1:N7< H H632 3H76U57F N:06G6= M9:1X6F B69 S 56r 1:H25 5S4_= /916w:924`572 U6G47 −a .
<73S4` a D79717;7 <25`X2 46B7 1:H25 231 . N:06GAH:29G8 H 32 B69:r D:D 3H76U5:8 N:06G`
U6G4: 232 − a = M9:1X6F B69 348 7916w:924`5Ar U6G24 1:H25 1 . 9:D D:D 231 6 231 − a < 232
016 1 < a 6 231 = @97<S <:X6557<S 0123G9:H4256_ G779H29G9HS29 960 #2
. 75 7rH:9AH:29

w24A2 U6G4: 6N 7912ND: [−231 , 231 − 1] = :016<21 . 7916w:924`572 U6G47 −11 BS329 N:06G:57
H 0:<896 D:D B2NN5:D7H72 0123G9:H42562 U6G4: 232 − 11
???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? >? >>
232 − 11 = > 2−
>>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> >? >? 2 =
=
? ? 2− 2 =
= >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> >>>>>>>> >>>> > >2
T32G` H7 H9717F G917UD2 <A 348 S37BG9H: S<25`X646 5: 1 S<25`X:2<72 6 HAU69:2<72=
i16<21A 0123G9:H42568 7916w:924`5Ar U6G24
−1
−128
−256
−255
−(210 + 23 + 1)
−(210 + 23 )
v:D6< 7B1:N7<
97BA 074SU69` 0123G9:H42562 7916w:924`57;7 U6G4: −a . 527Br736<7 HN89` 2;7
<73S4` a . HAU2G9` 6N 52;7 23656wS. N:06G:9` 12NS4`9:9 H 3H76U57< H632 . 3706G:H
G42H: 5S46 9:D . U97BA HG2;7 BA47 32 w6J1A . : N:92< 65H219617H:9` HG2 B69A=
v:D72 0123G9:H42562 7916w:924`5Ar U6G24 6<229 H:K572 0126<S]2G9H7 2G46 GD4:3AH:9`
64 S<57K:9` 7916w:924`5A2 U6G4: . 65921012961S8 6r 0123G9:H42562 D:D B2NN5:D7H72 . 97
12NS4`9:9 65921012961S2<AF SK2 D:D N5:D7HAF BS329 H215AF=
:016<21 . 348 G47K2568 U6G24 −a 6 −b 37G9:97U57 G47K69` 6r B2NN5:D7HA2 0123G9:H42
568 232 −a 6 232 −b = i74SU6< . 233 −a−b = PG46 a+b 52 G46XD7< B74`X62 . : 6<2557 . a+b 6 231 .
97 <4:3X62 32 1:N183: B69: U6G4: 233 − a − b 97U57 9:D62 K2 . D:D 6 S U6G4: 232 − a − b .
D797172 G779H29G9HS29 N5:D7H7<S 0123G9:H4256_ U6G4: −a − b =
i73H23< 697;6
t D:K37;7 6G074569248 2G9` D752U5AF 5:B71 E42<259:15Ar D7<:53 32FG9H6F.

702161S_]6r E42<259:15A<6 7BC2D9:<6 . D7971Ar 9:DK2 D752U572 U6G47=
qr737< :4;7169<: 8H4829G8 D752U5AF 5:B71 E42<259:15Ar 7BC2D97H= q7 H12<8
1:B79A :4;7169<: HA0745829G8 D752U572 U6G47 E42<259:15Ar 32FG9H6F 6
12NS4`9:9 :4;7169<: 8H4829G8 D752U5A< 5:B717< E42<259:15Ar 7BC2D97H=
q D7<0`_921:r E42<259:15A< 7BC2D97< 8H4829G8 B69= PG9` 52GD74`D7 G9:53:19
5Ar G07G7B7H N:06G6 U6G24 32FG9H6924`5Ar . w24Ar . w24Ar 527916w:924`5Ar H
H632 07G4237H:924`57G96 B69 J6DG617H:557F 3465A=
& "% " (!#% # #

qH23< 52GD74`D7 H:K5Ar 075896F=
iSG9` 52D797172 <57K2G9H7= :N7H< 2;7 )*z){(&- . : 2;7 E42<259A BSDH:<6=
B
k' d({& d*&{ { )*z){( B E97 <57K2G9H7 D752U5Ar 07G4237H:924`57G92F E42<2597H
&
6N B =
u57K2G9H7 G47H 3465A 7B7N5:U:29G8 D:D n = :016<21 . 348
n B B = {0, 1} <57K2G9H7 G47H
3465A 2 E97
B 2 = {00, 01, 10, 11}.
2Dw68 >= /B]22 0758962 :4;7169<:
u57K2G9H7 8 E97 <57K2G9H7 B:F9

B
B 8 = {00000000, 00000001, 00000010, 00000011, . . . , 11111111}.
MD74`D7 1:N46U5Ar G47H 3465A H :4J:H692

8 B = {0, 1}
/9H29 8 u
2 = 256 = 57K2G9H7 HG2r G47H 3465A 8 <7K57 N:06G:9` D:D <57K2G9H7 HG2r G47H
3465A 7 . D D7971A< H D:U2G9H2 021H7;7 E42<259: G5:U:4: 3706G:46 0 . : 0797< 1 = PG46
U6G47 E42<2597H <57K2G9H: X 7B7N5:U69` D:D |X| . 97 U6G47 HG2r G47H 3465A n 2G9`
|B n | = |B| · |B n−1 |,
79DS3: G423S29 J71<S4: |B n | = |B|n .
u57K2G9H7 HG2r G47H G7G9769 6N 0SG97;7 G47H: . 7B7N5:U:2<7;7 D:D . G47H 3465A . G47H
∅ 1
3465A 2 6 9:D 3:422= u57K2G9H7 HG2r G47H 7B7N5:U:29G8 D:D B ∗
B ∗ = {∅} ∪ B 1 ∪ B 2 ∪ B 3 ∪ . . .
q:K57 0756<:9` . U97
B ∗ G7321K69 G47H: GD74` S;7357 B74`X7F . 57 HG K2 D752U57F 3465A=
qr735A2 6 HAr735A2 3:55A2 :4;7169<7H 0123G9:H48_9 G7B7F G47H: H 52D79717<

N:3:557< D752U57< :4J:H692=

## &"" & '#"%(#
I4;7169<A <7K57 706GAH:9` U247H2U2GD6< 8NAD7< G47H:<6= v:D 6 H <:92<:96D2
HG2 92712<A 6 S9H21K32568 <7K57 N:06GAH:9` B2N G02w6:4`5Ar 7B7N5:U256F= 7 G02w6:4`
5AF J71<:4`5AF 8NAD N:06G6 S9H21K3256F G64`57 7B42;U:29 K6N5` <:92<:96D:< 6GU2N:29
527357N5:U57G9` . 078H48_9G8 D1:9D7G9` 6 8G57G9` 6N47K2568= qG E97 07NH74829 <:92<:96
D:< ;7H7169` 6 06G:9` 5: 7357< 8NAD2 6 4SUX2 0756<:9` 31S; 31S;:=
74`X65G9H7 6G074`NS2<Ar H 017;1:<<617H:566 :4;7169<6U2GD6r 8NAD7H 6<2_9 7B]62
U219A= q 97 K2 H12<8 . 52 HG2;3: w242G77B1:N57 074`N7H:9`G8 D:D6<46B7 D75D1295A< 8NAD7<
017;1:<<617H:568 6 N:;17<7K3:9` 6N47K2562 52GS]2G9H255A<6 329:48<6= q E97F D56;2 <A

BS32< 6G074`N7H:9` %d{ && . D7971AF 07r7K 5: 8NAD . 57 52 8H4829G8 9:D6< G917;6<
H U:G957G96 . 52D7971A2 32FG9H68 BS3S9 706GAH:9`G8 017G97 G47H:<6= iG2H37D73 52G47K57
012H1:969` H 1:B79:_]S_ 017;1:<<S= T:06G` :4;7169<: 5: 0G2H37D732 N:U:G9S_ 5:;483522 .
75: 07NH74829 GH7B7357 HAB61:9` S17H25` 329:46N:w66 . 5:U65:8 79 706G:568 H G:<Ar 7B]6r
U219:r 6 D75U:8 07317B5A< 6N47K2562<=
: G2<65:1:r HA BS3292 1:B79:9` G D75D1295A< 8NAD7< 017;1:<<617H:568= qA 5:SU692G`
017r7369` w207UDS 6328 :4;7169<: h 0G2H37D73 h 12:46N:w68 5: 8NAD2 017;1:<<617H:568=

R:N56wS <2K3S 017;1:<<7F 6 :4;7169<7< <7K57 078G569` G42 gP RP Pg

3S_]6< 7B1:N7<= I4;7169< E97 Gr2<: 12X2568 D:D7F97 N:3:U6= ↓
I 017;1:<<: E97 D75D1295:8 12:46N:w68 :4;7169<: . D7971:8 <7 I
/Rg vu

K29 BA9` 0127B1:N7H:5: H N:0SGD:2<AF J:F4 6

5: D7<0`_9212= I4;7169< . H GH7_ 7U2123` . 8H4829G8 12
↓
iR/
RIuuI
:46N:w62F 6326 12X2568=
I4;7169<A <7K57 N:06GAH:9` 52 974`D7 H H632 92DG9: 5: D:D7<46B7 J71<:4`57< 8NAD2=
MS]2G9HS_9 6 31S;62 G07G7BA 706G:568 :4;7169<7H . 5:016<21 . H H632 B47DGr2<

Gr2<A= 7 H D752U57< GU92 . 4_B72 706G:562 . H 97< U6G42 H6NS:4`572 . 9:D 646 65:U2 0123
G9:H4257 646 07925w6:4`57 <7K29 BA9` 0123G9:H4257 H D7<0`_9212 H H632 92DG9: 5: 52D7
9717< J71<:4`57< 8NAD2 . 6 9:D6< 7B1:N7< . N:06G` :4;7169<: . 9:DK2 D:D 6 3:55A2 . 8H4829G8
G47H7< H 52D79717< D752U57< :4J:H692=
'#"%( "&

q D:U2G9H2 021H7;7 016<21: :4;7169<: 1:GG<7916< 5:r7K32568 5:6
B74`X2;7 7B]2;7 32469248 / 3HSr 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6G24= qr735A<6 3:55A<6 :4;7169<:
8H48_9G8 3H: 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6G4: a 6 b . : HAr735A<6 3:55A<6 BS329 7357 5:9S1:4`572 U6G47
/ U6G24 a 6 b =
/06G:562 :4;7169<:
>= PG46 a = b . 97 / = a = b 6 N:D:5U6H:2< HAU6G42568=
^= PG46 a > b . 97 6N a HAU69:2=
b > a . 97 6N b HAU69:2< a b ← b − a = 212r736< D >=
L = PG46 K2 i
@979 :4;7169< 0123G9:H425 H H632 0G2H37D73: >=>=
b*+&,(- ! I4;7169< PHD463:

a, b
a 6= b
;
a>b

a←a−b

b← b−a

!
[75G91SDw68 V Y 0G2H37D73: 7N5:U:29 V07H97189` 07G4237H:924`
A B
57G9` 7021:w66 B . N:06G:55Ar H (* &%,)(&,) . 07D: HA0745257 SG47H62 A Y= v247
7021:971: E97 HG2 65G91SDw66 <2K3S A 6 = PG46 SG47H62 A 52
HA0745257 H G:<7< 5:U:42 . 97 9247 7021:971: 52 HA0745829G8 56 1:NS= /365 X:; HA
07452568 924: w6D4: 5:NAH:29G8 (,) *) =
[75G91SDw68 V
A B C Y 0G2H37D73: 7N5:U:29 V2G46 H2157 A . 97 HA074569`
65G91SDw66 B . 65:U2 HA074569` 65G91SDw66 C =Y
g5G91SDw68 V Y 7N5:U:29 VN:D75U69` 017w2GG HAU6G42568 G 12NS4`9:97< Y=
a a
i7D:K2< . U97 5:X :4;7169< 5:r7369 / 3HSr U6G24 6 =
a b
2FG9H6924`57 . /(a, b) = /(a − b, b) 016 a > b . 07E97<S. 52G<7918 5: 97 . U97 5:
D:K37< X:;2 <25829G8 7357 6N U6G24 . N5:U2562 /(a, b) 7G9:29G8 526N<255A<= u:DG6<:4`
572 6N U6G24 a 6 b 5: D:K3A< X:;7< S<25`X:29G8 . 6 H D:D7F97 <7<259 756 G9:57H89G8 1:H5A
2Dw68 >= /B]22 0758962 :4;7169<:
31S; 31S;S 6 1:H5A 6GD7<7<S N5:U256_ /= @97<S

7G57H:557
<S 5: 6921:w68r w6D4: <7K57 G707G9:H69` G423S_]S_ 12DS112595S_ J71<S4S
(b, a − b), 2G46 a > b .

 /
(a, b) = (a, b − a), 2G46 a > b .
/ / >=>

a, 2G46 a = b .

) )}) !e! 7D:K692 . U97 / /

(a, b) = (a − b, b) 348 4_BAr 527916w:924`5Ar w24Ar
a 6 b . 9:D6r U97 a > b =
) )}) !x! tG7H21X25G9HSF92 016H2355AF :4;7169< >=>. 6G074`NS8 G77957X2562 /
(a, b) =
/(a mod b, b) 016 0747K6924`5Ar a 6 b HA1:K2562 Va mod b Y 7N5:U:29 7G9:97D 016 32
42566 a 5: b =
"$ && & &!#" &!"

/357 6N H:K52FX6r 075896F 927166 :4;7169<7H ,,d= qA 5:H2158D: 8H57 646
527G7N5:557 6G074`N7H:46 <2973 12DS1G66 H K6N56= MS9` <2973: 12DS1G66 N:D4_U:29G8 H
97< . U97 3:55:8 N:3:U: GH7369G8 D 12X256_ 0737B5Ar N:3:U . 57 G B7422 017G9A<6 Hr735A<6
3:55A<6=
:016<21 . 0SG9` 527Br736<7 :5:4696U2GD6 HAU6G469` 0176NH735S_ 79 D7<07N6w66 3HSr
JS5Dw6F
h(x) = f (g(x)), h0 (x) =?
48 E97;7 5SK57 12X69` 3H2 0737B5A2 N:3:U6 5:F96 0176NH735A2 f 0 (y) . g 0 (x) . : H D:U2G9H2
12NS4`9:9: H215S9`
f 0 (g(x)) · g 0(x).
v:D7F 12DS1G6H5AF :4;7169< HA 016<258292 . 12X:8 N:3:568 07 <:92<:96U2GD7<S :5:46NS=
T:3:U: VW:57FGD62 B:X56Y 8H4829G8 2] 7356< 6N 81D6< 016<217< 016<252568 <2973:
12DS1G66= @9: N:3:U: 07NH74829 SH6329` 5207G123G9H255S_ GH8N` 12DS1G66 6 <2973: <:92<:
96U2GD7F 653SDw66=
64 D74`w: . 5:56N:55Ar 5: 021HAF G921K25`= G2 D74`w:
) )}) !f! PG9` 916 G921K58 6 q
6<2_9 1:N5AF 36:<291 . 6 <25`X62 D74`w: 42K:9 5: B74`X6r 97 2G9` 7B1:NS_9 GSK:_]S_G8
061:<63S= T: r73 1:N12X:29G8 HN89` H21r522 D74`w7 G 4_B7;7 G921K58 6 5:329` GH21rS 5:
7365 6N 31S;6r G921K52F= i16 E97< N:012]:29G8 D4:G9` B74`X22 D74`w7 5: <25`X22= T:3:U:
N:D4_U:29G8 H 97< . U97BA 0212<2G969` HG_ 061:<63S G 021H7;7 G921K58 5: H9717F=
7D:N:924`G9H7 97;7 . U97 E9: N:3:U: 1:N12X6<: . 7G57H:57 5: <29732 <:92<:96U2GD7F 65
3SDw66= g53SDw68 017H7369G8 07 U6G4S D742w= 48 061:<63A 6N 7357;7 D74`w: HG 7U2H6357
N:3:U: 12X:29G8 N: 7365 r73 B:N: 653SDw66= iSG9` <A S<22< 0212<2]:9` n − 1 D74`w7
01230747K2562 653SDw66=
i17H23< X:; 653SDw66= iSG9` 3:5: 061:<63: 6N D742w= 48 97;7 . U97BA 0212<2G969`
n
061:<63S 5: H9717F G921K25` . 5:< 912BS29G8 0212<2G969` G:<72 56K522 B74`X72 D74`w7
5: H9717F G921K25` . : 348 E97;7 527Br736<7 . U97BA HG2 7G9:4`5A2 D74`w: BA46 5: 9129`2<
G921K52= T5:U69. U97BA 0212<2G969` n D742w . 5:< G5:U:4: 5SK57 0212<2G969` G974B6D 6N
H21r56r (n − 1) D742w 5: 91296F G921K25`= i7 01230747K256_ 653SDw66 <A <7K2< E97
G324:9`= M324:2< E97 . : N:92< 0212<2G96< G:<72 B74`X72 D74`w7 G 021H7;7 5: H9717F 6 .
5:D752w . 0212<2G96< G974B6D 6N n − 1 D742w G 9129`2;7 G921K58 5: H9717F= v:D6< 7B1:N7< .
<A 017H246 X:; 653SDw66=

q G779H29G9H66 G7 Gr2<7F X:;: 653SDw66 . <7K57 GD75G91S617H:9` :4;7169< 02

12<2]2568 0176NH74`57;7 U6G4: D742w G 7357;7 G921K58 5: 31S;7F= t :4;7169<: 2G9` 916
:1;S<259: U6G47 D742w . 57<21 G921K58 . 5: D79717< 756 5:r7389G8 . 6 57<21 G921K58 . 5:
D7971AF 6r 5SK57 0212<2G969`=
I4;7169< >=^. N:06G:55AF 5: 0G2H37D732 . 12:46NS29 12DS1G6H5S_ 632_ 0212<2]2568 D7

42w= S5Dw68 (n, x, y) 0212<2]:29 n D742w G7 G921K58 G 57<217< x 5: G921K25` G
57<217< y = 7<21: G921K52F E97 U6G4: 1 . 2 . 3 = 291S357 N:<2969` . U97 2G46 3:5A 57<21:
x . y 3HSr G921K52F . 97 57<21 9129`2;7 G921K58 HAU6G4829G8 07 J71<S42 6 − x − y =
b*+&,(- !e R2X2562 N:3:U6 VW:57FGD62 B:X56Y

n, x, y

n=1
; 0212<2G969` H21r522 D74`w7 G7 G921K58 x 5: G921K25` y

(n − 1, x, 6 − x − y)

(1, x, y)

(n − 1, 6 − x − y, y)

v:D6< 7B1:N7< . 12X2562 N:3:U6 0212<2]2568 n D742w GH7369G8 D 3HSD1:957<S 0212<2]2

56_ n−1 D74`w: 6 0212<2]256_ 7357;7 D74`w:= i7GU69:2< D746U2G9H7 32FG9H6F . 527Br736<72
348 017H232568 HG2F 017w23S1A 0212<2]2568= iSG9` f (n) 527Br736<72 U6G47 32FG9H6F . 348
021257G: 061:<63A 6N n D742w= 48 7357;7 D74`w: 79H29 1:H25 23656w2 f (1) = 1 = 48 f (n)
074SU6< G77957X2562
f (n) = f (n − 1) + 1 + f (n − 1) = 2f (n − 1) + 1.
R2X:8 E97 12DS11259572 G77957X2562 074SU:2 1 000 000 000 000 000 000.

v:D6< 7B1:N7< . H12<8 . 527Br736<72 348 0212<2]2568 061:<63D6 6N 64 D742w . 7U25` H246D7=
u2973 12DS1G66 8H4829G8 7356< 6N B:N7HAr :4;7169<6U2GD6r <29737H= uA 2] 52 1:N D
52<S H215<G8 5: 42Dw68r 6 G2<65:1:r=
k(& ,,d 6G074`NS29G8 348 12X2568 :4;7169<6U2GD6r N:3:U G 0:1:<291:<6
Hr735A<6 3:55A<6. D7971A2 <7K57 GH2G96 D 6< K2 G:<6< . 57 G B7422 017G9A<6
0:1:<291:<6 Hr735A<6 3:55A<6= q 017G92FX2< G4SU:2 S N:3:U6 A <7K29 BA9`
5:9S1:4`5AF 0:1:<291 n 6 N:3:U: A(n) d{&(d D N:3:U2 A(n−1) 12X2562 N:3:U6
A(n) <7K29 BA9` 074SU257 6N 12X2568 N:3:U6 A(n − 1) = 16 E97< 527Br736<7 .
i
U97BA 12X2562 N:3:U6 A(1) BA47 6NH2G957= q 7B]2< G4SU:2 GH736<7G9` 6 Hr735A2
3:55A2 x <7;S9 BA9` B7422 G47K5A<6= q:K57 . U97BA 4_B:8 w207UD: N5:U256F
Hr735Ar 3:55Ar x , x , x , . . . 9:D:8 . U97 N:3:U: A(x ) GH7369G8 D N:3:U2 A(x ) .
HG2;3: 7B1AH:4:G` 5: E42<259:157F N:3:U2 . 12X2562 D79717F N:47K257 H :4;7169<
1 2 3 i i+1
6 52 GH7369G8 D 31S;6< N:3:U:<=

J71<S461S2< 52GD74`D7 017G9Ar :4;7169<6U2GD6r N:3:U . D7971A2 0742N57 12X69` . U97
BA 7GH769G8 G 0758962< :4;7169<: 6 12DS1G66=
) )}) !! :06X692 . 12DS1G6H5AF :4;7169< HAU6G42568
n! = 1 · 2 · . . . · n 5: 0G2H37D732=
(a, b) = (a mod b, b) 5:06X692 . 12DS1G6H5AF
) )}) !y! gG074`NS8 G77957X2562 / /
:4;7169< . HAU6G48_]6F 3HSr U6G24 a 6 b =
/
2Dw68 >= /B]22 0758962 :4;7169<:
) )}) !-! :06X692 12DS1G6H5AF :4;7169< 02U:96 w6J1 3H76U57;7 0123G9:H42568 U6G4: .
5:U65:8 G <4:3X2;7 1:N183:=
) )}) !"! :57 <57K2G9H7 018<Ar 5: 047GD7G96 . 56D:D62 916 6N D7971Ar 52 0212G2D:
_9G8 H 7357F 97UD2= :06X692 12DS1G6H5AF :4;7169< 0G2H37D73 N:D1:GD6 074SU6HX6rG8
<57;7S;74`56D7H H U215AF 6 B24AF wH29: 9:D . U97BA <57;7S;74`56D6 7357;7 wH29: 52 6<246
7B]2F G97175A=
#!! & %#(&%
[752U5A2 :H97<:9A E97 017G92FX62 0127B1:N7H:9246 Hr735Ar 3:55Ar H HAr735A2 3:5

5A2= gr 7BAU57 1:GG<:916H:_9 D:D
0127B1:N7H:9246 . 97 2G9` 9:D62 6G074569246 .
D7971A2 07925w6:4`57 <7;S9 1:B79:9` GD74` S;7357 374;7 . 074SU:8 5: Hr73 G6<H74A 6 02U:
9:8 5: HAr73 0127B1:N7H:55AF 0797D G6<H747H=
[752U5AF :H97<:9 <7K29 5:r7369G8 H 7357< 6N D752U57;7 U6G4: G7G97856F= u57K2G9H7
HG2r H7N<7K5Ar G7G97856F 7B7N5:U6< G6<H747< K =
M1236 G7G97856F 2G9` HA32425572 5:U:4`572 G7G978562
xs ∈ K 6 073<57K2G9H7 G7G97856F
7G9:57H: X ⊂ K = M7G978562 x 8H4829G8 G7G978562< . H D79717< :H97<:9 5:r7369G8 H <7
<259 5:U:4: HAU6G4256F= q 017w2GG2 HAU6G4256F :H97<:9 <25829 GH7 G7G978562= [:D 974`D7
f s
:H97<:9 7D:NAH:29G8 H 7357< 6N G7G97856F 7G9:57H: . HAU6G42568 012D1:]:_9G8=

[752U5AF :H97<:9 1:B79:29 07 9:D9:<= i17;1:<<: 1:B79A D752U57;7 :H97<:9: N:3:9G8 G

07<7]`_

= : D:K37< 9:D92 :H97<:9 GU69AH:29 7365
G6<H74 6N Hr73: 6 H N:H6G6<7G96 79 2;7 N5:U2568 0212r7369 H 7357 6N H7N<7K5Ar G7G97856F=
S5Dw68 0212r737H π 348 D:K37F 0:1A G7G978562 . GU69:55AF G6<H74 N:3:9 G423S_]22
G7G978562= M6<H74A 5: Hr732 8H48_9G8 G6<H74:<6 52D79717;7 D752U57;7 J6DG617H:557;7
:4J:H69: B =
i16H23< G917;72 70123242562=

*&'}'c ){(&-)(

K M

B
x ∈ K
X ⊂ K
π : K × B → S
s f
M = {K, B, π, xs , Xf }, xs ∈ K, Xf ⊂ K, π : K × B → K.

b*+&,(- !x I4;7169< 1:B79A D752U57;7 :H97<:9:
x ← xs =

;
5: Hr732 2G9` G423S_]6F G6<H74 b

x ∈ Xf
)&'}(n ,)#&(

x ← π(x, c)

i16H23< 016<21 D752U57;7 :H97<:9: . D7971AF GU69:29 U957G9` U6G4: HH2355Ar 236
56w= i747K6< K = {s , s } . x = x . B = {0, 1} . : JS5Dw68 π N:3:9G8 9:B46w2F
0 1 s 0

x b π(x, b)
s0 0 s0
s0 1 s1
s1 0 s1
s1 1 s0
0
S0 0
S0 0 S0
1
1 1 1 1
1 S1 0
S1 0
1 S2 S1
0 0
S2 0 1

R6G= >=> q6NS:4`5A2 0123G9:H42568 D752U5Ar :H97<:97H= : IH97<:9 017H21D6 U957G96
U6G4: 23656w= B IH97<:9 HAU6G42568 7G9:9D: 79 3242568 5: 3 U6G4: 23656w= H 1S;72
H6NS:4`572 0123G9:H42562 :H97<:9: B=
@9: 9:B46w: 0737B5: 9:B46w2 47;6U2GD7F 7021:w66 [
XOR = 752U5A< :H97<:9:< S37B57 G7
07G9:H489` H6NS:4`572 0123G9:H42562= : 16GS5D2 >=> : D1SK7UD:<6 >. ^ 0123G9:H425A
G7G978568 :H97<:9: . D:K37F G9124D2 G779H29G9HS29 G917UD: H 9:B46w2 706G:568 JS5Dw66 02
12r737H= R837< G D:K37F G9124D7F SD:N:5 G6<H74 b . 1:H5AF 0 646 1 = M9124D: 79 G7G978568
x H G7G978562 x0 797B1:K:29. U97 6N G7G978568 x BS329 7GS]2G9H45 0212r73 H G7G978562 x0 .
2G46 5: Hr73 BS329 073:5 G6<H74 b =
IH97<:9 5:r7369G8 H G7G978566 . D7;3: GU69:57 U9572 U6G47 23656w . 6 H G7G978566 .
s0 s1
2G46 52U9572= PG46 GU69:55AF G6<H74 1:H25 0 . 97 G7G978562 52 <25829G8 . : 2G46 1 . 97
<25829G8=
t E97;7 D752U57;7 :H97<:9: 529 G7G97856F 7G9:57H: . 07E97<S 75 BS329 1:B79:9` . 07D: 5:
Hr73 07G9S0:_9 G6<H74A= q D:K3AF <7<259 12NS4`9:9 HAU6G42568 0123G9:H425 G7G978562<
:H97<:9:=
u7K57 HH2G96 G02w6:4`5AF G6<H74 N:H21X2568 HH73: 6 : 9:DK2 3H: 3707456924`5Ar
G7G978568 f 6 f . D7971A2 07<2969` D:D G7G978568 7G9:57H: X = {f , f } = I 9:DK2 37B:H69`
0 1 f 0 1
0212r73A 79 s D f 6 79 s D f H G4SU:2 074SU2568 5: Hr732 G6<H74: =
: 16GS5D:r >=> B .H 07D:N:5A 1:N46U5A2 H6NS:4`5A2 0123G9:H42568 :H97<:9:. GU69:_
0 0 1 1
]2;7 7G9:97D 016 3242566 5: 3 U6G4: 23656w H7 Hr735Ar 3:55Ar=

2Dw68 >= /B]22 0758962 :4;7169<:
R:GG<7916< B7422 G47K5S_ N:3:US=

) )}) !p! : Hr73 07G9S0:29 3H76U5:8 N:06G` 5:9S S0
1:4`57;7 U6G4: x . 5:U65:8 G <4:3X2;7 1:N183:= D75G91S M 1
61SF92 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF HAU6G4829 7G9:97D 016 P1 P2
3242566 x 5: 3 =
qH23< 3H2 ;1S00A G7G97856F 0
{s0 , s1 , s2 } 6 {p0 , p1 , p2 } = 1
i21H:8 ;1S00: G779H29G9HS29 G7G97856_ . D7;3: G423S_]6F
G6<H74 E97 w6J1: 52U957;7 1:N183: G:<7;7 <4:3X2;7 S2
1:N183: . 9129`2;7 07 <4:3X65G9HS 1:N183: . 6 9=3= q971:8 S1
1
;1S00: G779H29G9HS29 1:N183:< G U95A<6 57<21:<6=
: D:K3AF <7<259 :H97<:9 GU69:4 D:D7297 D746U2 P0
G9H7 <4:3X6r 1:N1837H . 6r <A 65921012961S2< D:D U6G47
6 348 E97;7 U6G4: 75 SK2 VN5:29Y 79H29= /G9:97D 1:H25 0 . R6G= >=^ IH97<:9. D7971AF 07
2G46 :H97<:9 5:r7369G8 H G7G978568r s 646 p . 1 2G46 3H76U57F N:06G6 U6G4: 701232
H G7G978568r s . p . 6 2 2G46 H G7G978568r s 646 p = 4829 2;7 7G9:97D 016 3242566
0 0
iSG9` :H97<:9 5:r7369G8 H G7G978566 = v7;3: . 22G46 5: 3 = H76U5:8 N:06G` 073:9G8

1 1 2
si
G423S_]6F G6<H74 1 . 97 GU69:5572 U6G47 SH246U647G` 5: Hr73 G <4:3X2;7 1:N183:=
46B7 5: 1 . 46B7 5: 22 = 4 . 46B7 5: 24 = 16 . = = = . 97 2G9`
5: 22n . n = 0 . 1 . = = = 291S357 N:<2969` . U97 HG2 E96 U6G4: 016 3242566 5: 3 3:_9 7G9:97D
1 = v7 2G9` 016 GU69AH:566 G6<H74: 1 H E96r G7G978568r 7G9:97D U6G4: SH246U6H:29G8 5: 1 =
PG46 K2 BS329 GU69:5 G6<H74 0 . 97 7G9:97D 52 6N<2569G8=
M7G978568 . 6 G779H29G9HS_9 <7<259:< . D7;3: :H97<:9 G7B61:29G8 074SU69` 5: Hr7
p0 p1 p2
32 U95AF 07 GU9S 1:N183= i16 GU69AH:566 1 U6G47 SH246U6H:29G8 5: 22n+1 . n = 0 . 1 . = = = qG2
U6G4: 9:D7;7 H63: 6<2_9 016 3242566 5: 3 7G9:97D 2 = i7E97<S 016 GU69AH:566 1 H E96r
G7G978568r 7G9:97D SH246U6H:29G8 5: 2 . 6<2557 07E97<S 016 b = 1 7GS]2G9H4829G8 0212r73
6N p H s =
0 2

R2NS4`9:97< HAU6G42568 H D752U57< :H97<:92 8H4829G8 G7G978562 7G9:57H: :H97<:9:= 48
97;7 . U97BA 074SU:9` B7422 G47K5A2 12NS4`9:9A . 6G074`NS_9 7B7B]2568 D752U5Ar :H97<:
97H= q 017G92FX2< G4SU:2 :H97<:9 1:GX618_9 H7N<7K57G9`_ 016H8NAH:9` D 0212r73:< 6
G7G978568< D:D6246B7 32FG9H68=
R:GG<7916< G4SU:F . D7;3: D D:K37<S 0212r73S <7K57 016H8N:9` 32FG9H62 V4
Y
HAH2G96 5:02U:9:9` G6<H74 646 G917DS G6<H747H =
) )}) ! .! : Hr73 07G9S0:29 3H76U5:8 N:06G` U6G4: . 5:U65:8 G <4:3X2;7 1:N183:=
x
qAH23692 3H76U5S_ N:06G` U6G4:
x + 1=
: 16GS5D2 >=L 07D:N:5A 9:B46U572 6 H6NS:4`572 0123G9:H42568 :H97<:9: . D7971AF 12X:
29 07G9:H4255S_ N:3:US= 7G978562 s G779H29G9HS29 G7G97856_ . D7;3: 2G9` 23656w: VH N:0:
M
G2Y. D7971:8 0212r7369 5: G423S_]6F 1:N183= @97 G7G978562 . D7;3: D 07G9S0:_]2<S U6G4S
1
<A HG 2]2 374K5A 37B:H69` 23656wS= q G7G978566 s SK2 52 5SK57 016B:H489` 23656wS. 9:D
D:D 75: V7G24:Y 5: 7357< 6N <4:3X6r 1:N1837H= q G7G978566 s 5SK57 017G97 D70617H:9`
0
016r738]62 G6<H74A 5: HAr73= M6<H74 E97 G02w6:4`5AF G6<H74 D75w: HH73:= [7;3: 75
0
016r7369. 527Br736<7 N:D75U69` HAU6G42562= M7G978562 f G7G978562 7G9:57H: HAU6G4256F=

i16 074SU2566 G6<H74: H G7G978566 527Br736<7 52 N:BA9` HAH2G96 23656wS. D7971:8
s1
VH N:0:G2Y=
q 9:B46w2 H D:K37F G917UD2 706G:5 0212r73= [17<2 G7G978568
π(x, b) H D797172 0212F39
:H97<:9 6N G7G978568 x 016 GU69AH:566 G6<H74: b . H 9:B46w2 SD:N:57 9:DK2 32FG9H62 a(x, b) .
D797172 BS329 HA074589`G8 016 0212r732=

1 0
put 1 S0 put 0 x b π(x, b)
?.
a(x, b)

0
s0
s0
0
1
s0
s0 >.

# put 1 h
s0 f
>

F S1
1
put 0
s1 0 s0
?

#
put 1
s1
s1
1

s1
f >

R6G= >=L IH97<:9. D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 3H76U5S_ N:06G` 5:9S1:4`57;7 U6G4: 5:U65:8
x
G <4:3X2;7 1:N183: 6 HAH7369 3H76U5S_ N:06G` U6G4: x + 1 =
Mr2<: 1:B79A D752U57;7 :H97<:9: G 32FG9H68<6 706G:5: H 0G2H37D732 >=O
b*+&,(- !f Mr2<: 1:B79A D752U57;7 :H97<:9: G 32FG9H68<6

x ← xs =

2G9` G423S_]6F G6<H74 b
;
x ∈ Xf
)&'}(n ,)#&(

x ← π(x, b)
G324:9`
32FG9H62 a(x, b)

7H74`57 U:G9A< 7B7B]2562< :H97<:9: 8H4829G8 :H97<:9 G 0:<89`_ N:07<65:_]6<
SG917FG9H7< G 5:B717< D7<:53 348 G7r1:52568 6 6NH42U2568 3:55Ar=
q D:U2G9H2 9:D7;7 N:07<65:_]2;7 SG917FG9H: U:G97 1:GG<:916H:_9 =

a(

4 )

%

( )

92D 7N5:U:29 VG970D:Y= 7HAF E42<259 D4:39G8 H G970DS GH21rS. 6 GH21rS K2 B219G8
M
E42<259. D7;3: 6NH42D:29G8= 7 56K56r E42<2597H G970D6 <7K57 37B1:9`G8 974`D7 07G42
6NH42U2568 HG2r E42<2597H . D7971A2 5:r7389G8 5:3 56<6 GH21rS=
M92D 01237G9:H4829 7U25` 7;1:56U255A2 H7N<7K57G96 r1:52568 3:55Ar= i7 GS96 37G9S0
79D1A9 974`D7 D 7357F 8U2FD2 0:<896 h D 97F . H D79717F r1:569G8 H21r56F E42<259 G92D:=
tG917FG9H7 0:<896 . D797172 07NH74829 7B1:]:9`G8 D 0176NH74`57F 8U2FD2 0:<896 07 57

<21S. 5:NAH:29G8

. =
/0123246< :H97<:9 G5:BK55AF G92D7< 348 r1:52568 G6<H747H . H D79717< 2G9` H7N<7K
57G9` H7 H12<8 0212r737H 32FG9H68 H63: 4 ) 6 %=
2Dw68 >= /B]22 0758962 :4;7169<:
2 G7HG2< 97U572 70123242562 <:;:N6557;7 :H97<:9: HA;48369 G423S_]6< 7B1:N7<

b{(&-)( d& d(&-
π

4) %

%

t :H97<:9: G7 G92D7< 529 56D:D7F 0:<896 D17<2 G:<7;7 G92D:= 2FG9H68 . D7971A2 <7K57
7GS]2G9H489` H7 H12<8 0212r737H <2K3S G7G978568<6 <:DG6<:4`57 017G9A= 2370SG96<7
6G074`N7H:9` SG47H5A2 7021:971A 646 H12<255A2 0212<255A2 348 r1:52568 6NH42U55Ar 6N
G92D: N5:U256F=
/B7N5:U6< G6<H74 . D7971AF 5:r7369G8 H H21X652 G92D: D:D =
R:GG<7916 G423S_]6F :H97<:9 G7 G92D7<= t 52;7 3H: G7G978568 7G9:57H:
Sf = {ok, bad}
6 7357 7BAU572 G7G978562 s = I4J:H69 Hr735Ar G6<H747H G7G9769 6N 3HSr GD7B7D 6 G6<H74:
7D75U:568 HH73: B = { , 1} PG46 016r7369 79D1AH:_]:8G8 GD7BD: . 97 :H97<:9
0
HA0745829 7021:w6_ 4 ) 07<2]:29 E9S GD7BDS H G92D= PG46 016r7369 N:D1AH:_]:8G8

GD7BD: . 97 :H97<:9 324:29 %= 7 2G46 G92D 0SG9 016N5:D7< E97;7 8H4829G8 c = ∅ . 97
7GS]2G9H4829G8 0212r73 H G7G978562 7G9:57H: bad = PG46 016r7369 G6<H74 D75w: HH73: 1. 97 H
N:H6G6<7G96 79 97;7 . 0SG9 :H97<:9 646 529. 7GS]2G9H4829G8 0212r73 H G7G978568 ok 646 bad =
i16H23< 9:B46wS. 706GAH:_]S_ JS5Dw6_ 0212r737H = q E97F 9:B46w2 <A 6G074`N7H:46
π
G6<H74 348 7B7N5:U2568 0176NH74`57;7 G6<H74:= @97 07NH74829 52GD74`D7 G917U2D . 7946
U:_]6rG8 46X` H 7357< G6<H742 . VGH215S9`Y H 735S G917UDS= q 9:B46w2 37B:H64G8 G974B2w
c . H D79717< N:3:9G8 N5:U2562 E42<259: H H21X652 G92D:=
4 )
x b c π(x, b) a(x, b)
s0 s0
∅ h
%
s0 bad
s0 s0
s0 1 bad h
s0 1 ∅ ok h
) )}) ! ! /012324692 D752U572 G7G978562 E97;7 :H97<:9: 348 Hr735Ar G47H 1. 1.
1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1 =
) )}) ! e! MS]2G9HS29 46 7BAU5AF D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF EDH6H:425925 07 12NS4`
9:9S HAU6G4256F 016H23557<S :H97<:9S G7 G92D7<
) )}) ! x! R:GG<791692 016H2355AF 56K2 D752U5AF :H97<:9 G7 G92D7< . D7971AF 65H21
961S29 Hr73572 G47H7= M7G978562 f 8H4829G8 G7G978562< 7G9:57H:= q 2;7 12:46N:w66 6G074`
NS29G8 57H72 527BAU572 32FG9H62 42+
3 3 H215S9` G6<H74 3 H 0797D Hr73:= u7K57 46
6G074`NS8 E97 32FG9H62 . GD75G91S617H:9` D752U5AF :H97<:9 G7 G92D7< . D7971AF : 3H: 1:N:
07H971829 HH235572 G47H7 H 6Gr7357< 07183D2 G6<H747H B 916 1:N: 07H971829 HH235572
G47H7 H 7B1:957< 07183D2 G6<H747H=
4 )
x b c π(x, b) a(x, b)
?
4 )
s0 s0
>
4
3 3 % 42+
3
s0 s0
s0 1 s0 1
s0 1 ∅ f

& "% !
&(&!"$
g9:D . <A HH246 183 H:K5Ar 075896F :4;7169< . 6G07456924` . 074579: 5:B71: 7021:w6F .
G47K57G9` HAU6G4256F . D752U5A2 :H97<:9A= [ E96< 0758968< <A BS32< H7NH1:]:9`G8 2]
52 1:N= [17<2 97;7 . <A 1:GG<791246 3HSr 6G074569242F
}*&{d%&*'(*n ! qA0745829 :4;7169<A 7B]2;7 04:5: . S<229 HA074589` :16J<296U2
GD62 7021:w66 . 6<229 GD74` S;7357 B74`XS_ H52X5__ 0:<89` . 0756<:29 D75G91SDw66

. . 6 31=
&'}'c ){(&-)(! i17G92FX22 SG917FG9H7 . D797172 <7K29 5:r7369G8 H 52GD74`D6r G7G978
568r . 7GS]2G9H489` 0212r73A <2K3S 56<6 6 HAH7369` G6<H74A G7;4:G57 706G:557F
017;1:<<2 h JS5Dw66 0212r737H= i7NH74829 7GS]2G9H489` 017G92FX62 0127B1:N7H:568
0797D: 3:55Ar= u7K57 07D:N:9` . U97 5: D752U57< :H97<:92 <7K57 12:46N7H:9` HG2 012
7B1:N7H:568 . D7971A2 <7K29 7GS]2G9H69` U247H2D6G07456924` G D752U57F 0:<89`_=
u57K2G9H7 N:3:U . 12X:2<Ar E96<6 6G074569248<6 . 1:N46U:_9G8= q 021H7< G4SU:2 E97
HAU6G42568 6 0127B1:N7H:568 3:55Ar G:<7;7 7B]2;7 r:1:D921:= I G 07<7]`_ D752U5Ar
:H97<:97H <7;S9 BA9` N:017;1:<<617H:5A 46X` 017G92FX62 0127B1:N7H:568 G47H 5:B71:
G6<H747H H 52D79717< :4J:H692=
: 6G074569242U247H2D2 <7K57 VE<S4617H:9`Y D752U5AF :H97<:9. : 5:7B7179 524`N8=
@97 6 2G9` 07D:N:924` 97;7 . U97 VHAU6G46924`5A2 G07G7B57G96Y U247H2D: HAX2 . U2< S D752U
57;7 :H97<:9:=

T:3:U6 . 12X:2<A2 6G074569242<U247H2D7< . 5:NAH:_9G8

= [752U57 . E97
70123242562 5237G9:97U57 97U57 . 07GD74`DS <A 52 3:46 <:92<:96U2GD6 G917;7;7 70123242568
6G074569248U247H2D:= /57 H N5:U6924`57F G920256 659S696H57= 7422 97U57 D4:GG HAU6G46
<Ar JS5Dw6F <A 70123246< 5: G423S_]2F 42Dw66 G 07<7]`_ :BG91:D957;7 6G074569248
<:X65A v`_165;:=
u7K57 GU69:9` . U97 HAU6G46<A2 JS5Dw66 E97 52D797172 073<57K2G9H7 JS5Dw6F H63:
f : B ∗ → B ∗ = :55A2 0176NH74`57F 016173A <7K57 N:06G:9` H H632 07G4237H:924`5G92F

23656w 6 5S42F . 527Br736<7 974`D7 HAB1:9` 735S 6N H7N<7K5Ar

= q:K
57 79<2969` . U97 52 GS]2G9HS29 9:D7;7 6G074569248 . G 07<7]`_ D79717;7 <7K57 BA47 BA
N:017;1:<<617H:9` 4_BS_ JS5Dw6_ H63: f : B ∗ → B ∗ = 74`X:8 U:G9` JS5Dw6F 9:D7;7 H63:

= uA 1:NB21< E97 07317B522 52 G423S_]2F 42Dw66=
M2<65:1 >= I4;7169<A 6 6G074569246

' $

: 42Dw66 BA46 701232425A G423S_]62 :BG91:D95A2 6G07456

9246 6G07456924Ù247H2D . D752U5A2 :H97<:9A 6 52GD74`D7 017G9Ar HAU6G469242F=
@96 6G074569246 6<2_9 1:N572 SG917FG9H7 6 12X:_9 1:N46U5A2 HAU6G46924`5A2
N:3:U6= q:K57 5:SU69`G8 32FG9H7H:9` H 1:<D:r 70123242557;7 6G074569248 6 07 5:
B71S E42<259:15Ar 32FG9H6F 6G074569248 H6329` 2;7 H7N<7K57G96 6 7096<:4`5A2
0S96 12X2568 07G9:H4255Ar N:3:U= :55AF G2<65:1 07GH8]5 01:D96D2 017;1:<<6
17H:568 :BG91:D95Ar 6G074569242F=
& %
# !"%
#
:6B7422 7B]6< 6G074569242< 8H4829G8 6G07456924Ù247H2D 75 G07G7B25 12X:9` X6

17D6F D4:GG HAU6G46924`5Ar N:3:U . HD4_U:8 N:3:U6 . 12X:2<A2 D752U5A<6 :H97<:9:<6 6
31S;6<6 :BG91:D95A<6 6G074569248<6=

48 52;7 017;1:<<S S37B57 0123G9:H489` H H632 = i21HA2 N:3:U6 07GH8]25A
017;1:<<617H:56_ 6G074569248U247H2D:=
) )}) a ! ! :06X692 5: 0G2H37D732 JS5Dw6_ . D7971:8 HAU6G4829 5:6<25`X22 7B]22 D1:9
572 3HSr 3:55Ar 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6G24=

) )}) a !e! gNSU692 706G:562 JS5Dw66 . 0123G9:H42557F H 0G2H37D732 >=Q. D7
(n)
971:8 374K5: 701232489` . 017G972 U6G47 n 646 529= R:B79:29 46 E9: JS5Dw68 gG01:H`92 2
9:D . U97BA 75: H2157 1:B79:4: 348 HG2r 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6G24 n = tD:K692 <:DG6<:4`572 U6G47
017H217D Vn mod i = 0 Y. D797172 <7K29 BA9` HA0745257 016 1:B792 3:557F JS5Dw66=
b*+&,(- ! I4;7169< 017H21D6 U6G4: 5: 017G979S. G7321K:]6F 7X6BDS

n
i ← 3
; i · i < n
n mod i = 0

. 7G17U5AF HAr73 6N w6D4:
. 2G46 5:X46 3246924`=

i ←i+2
i · i <n
! /
. :5572 U6G47 G7G9:H572= 57 32469G8 B2N 7G9:9D: 5: i =

; . :5572 U6G47 017G972=

) )}) a !x! :F3692 N5:U2568 . D7971A2 H2159 JS5Dw68 . 706G:55:8 H 0G2H37D732 >=Z 016
F
. .
n = 1 2 3 10 . = :F3692 7B]S_ J71<S4S=
) )}) a !f! :06X692 5: 0G2H37D732 JS5Dw6_ . D7971:8 348 3:55Ar 32FG9H6924`5Ar U6G24
a . b . c HAH7369. GD74`D7 1:N46U5Ar D7152F 2G9` S S1:H52568 a · x2 + b · x + c = 0 6 HAH7369
N5:U2568 E96r D7152F=
) )}) a !! :06X692 5: 0G2H37D732 JS5Dw6_ . D7971:8 D7971:8 5:r7369 U6G47 G07G7B7H
0123G9:H69` n H H632 GS<<A 5207H9718_]6rG8 0747K6924`5Ar w24Ar G4:;:2<Ar 071837D
G4:;:2<Ar 52H:K25= i73GD:ND: 706X692 12DS1G6H5S_ JS5Dw6_
(n, m) .
D7971:8 HAU6G4829 U6G47 G07G7B7H 0123G9:H42568 U6G4: n H H632 GS<<A 5207H9718_]6rG8

G4:;:2<Ar . D:K372 6N D7971Ar <25`X2 m =
) )}) a !y! :06X692 5: 0G2H37D732 JS5Dw6_ . D7971:8 3:5572 5:9S1:4`572 U6G47 1:N4:
;:29 H GS<<S 5207H9718_]6rG8 G920252F 3H7FD6= I 6<2557 . 348 G4SU:8 n = 5 75: 02U:
9:29 07G4237H:924`57G9` {0, 2} . 9:D D:D 5 = 20 + 22 . 348 n = 256 07G4237H:924`57G9`
6N 7357;7 E42<259: {8} . 9:D D:D 256 = 28 . : 348 n = 255 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 . 9:D D:D
255 = 20 + 21 + 23 + 24 + 25 + 26 + 27 =
b*+&,(- !y S5Dw68hN:;:3D:

n =
k ← n
;
br ←← 31
k > 0
k mod 2 = 1 . PG46 7G9:97D 79 3242568 k 5: 2 1:H25 1 =

r ← r·b

! b←b·b
. 242562 5:w247 B2N 7G9:9D:=
k ← k/2
r
;
) )}) a !-! :06X692 0G2H37D73 . D7971AF HAH7369 017G92FX62 :1r6<237HA 917FD6 . : 6<25
57 . HG2 917FD6 917FD6 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6G24 (a, b, c) . 9:D62 U97 a2 + b2 = c2 6 a 6 b 6 n . ;32 n
5:9S1:4`572 U6G47 . N:3:5572 074`N7H:9242<= MD74`D7 H12<256 1:B79:29 H:X D73 H N:H6G6<7
G96 79 n i7017BSF92 5:06G:9` 9:D7F 0G2H37D73 . H12<8 1:B79A D79717;7 GU69:F92 . U97 H12<8
HA07452568 E42<259:15Ar D7<:53 7365:D7H7 6 1:H57 7357F SG47H57F G2DS532 7;1:56U257
DH:31:96U57F JS5Dw62F C · n2 + D . ;32 C 6 D 52D7971A2 D75G9:59A=
) )}) a !"! M:<7706GAH:_]:8G8 07G4237H:924`57G9`
a1 , a2 , . . . G7G9769 6N 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6
G24 6 > 52 SBAH:29 ^ a H 97U57G96 1:H57 D746U2G9HS E42<2597H H 07G4237H:924`57G96 .
1:H5Ar n L a = 1 = /D:NAH:29G8 . SD:N:55A2 916 SG47H68 7357N5:U57 N:3:_9 E9S 07G4237H:
n
924`57G9` :06X692 0G2H37D73 . D7971AF HAU6G4829 a 07 N:3:557<S n = /w25692 . D:D 1:G99

1
H12<8 1:B79A H:X2;7 :4;7169<: H N:H6G6<7G96 79 n = i16H23< 021HA2 E42<259A 07G4237H:

n
924`57G96
a1 = 1, a2 = 2, a3 = 2, a4 = 3, a5 = 3, a6 = 4, . . . a9 = 5, . . . , a12 = 6.
M2<65:1 >= I4;7169<A 6 6G074569246
) )}) a !p! gNSU692 0G2H37D73 >=j. D7971AF HAH7369 HG2 017G9A2 U6G4: 79 37 = /w25692
2 n
H12<8 2;7 1:B79A= i12347K692 7096<6N:w6_ :4;7169<: . D7971:8 S<25`X69 H12<8 2;7 1:B79A
H 3H: 1:N: 646 B7422= S329 46 :4;7169< 1:B79:9` . 2G46 G917DS Vm ← k · 2 Y N:<2569` 5:
Vm ← k · k Y [:D 016<2157 1:G99 H12<8 1:B79A :4;7169<: G 17G97< n
b*+&,(- !- R2X297 @1:97GJ25:

a ← {0, 0, 0, .. . , 0, 0}

n =
a[1] . a[2] . = = = . a[n] =
/BC8H6< <:GG6H E42<2597H
;
.
k←2 k 6 n
a[k] = 0

k qAH232< 7U2123572 017G972 U6G47 =
. k
m 6 n
m ←k·2
/9<296< U6G4: . D1:95A2 . D:D G7G9:H572=
. k
! a[m] ← 1

m← m+k

;
k ←k+1

#%" "# !"% "
) )}) a ! .! R:GG<7916< 6G074569248 . S D79717;7 2G9` 735: 8U2FD: 0:<896 . H D79717F

x
<7K29 r1:569`G8 w2472 U6G47 6N 7912ND: [0, 2100 ] = gN5:U:4`57 x = 0 = gG07456924` S<229
HA074589` 3H2 E42<259:15A2 7021:w66 S<57K69` N5:U2562 x 5: 2 . 6 016B:H69` D N5:U256_
x U6G47 >
x ← 2 · x, x ← x + 1.
:06X692 D1:9U:FXS_ 017;1:<<S 348 E97;7 6G074569248 . H 12NS4`9:92 HA07452568 D79717F
074SU:29G8 x = 1000 =
) )}) a ! ! R2X692 0123A3S]S_ N:3:US 348 1:GX612557;7 5:B71: E42<259:15Ar D7<:53
x ← x + 1, x ← x − 1, x ← 2 · x, x ← 4 · x, x ← 16 · x.
) )}) a ! e! iSG9` 6G07456924` 6<229 735S 8U2FDS 0:<896 . H D79717F <7K29 r1:569`G8
x
7357 1:w675:4`572 U6G47= g 0SG9` 75 S<229 HA074589` 3H2 E42<259:15A2 7021:w66 016B:
H69` D U6G4S > 6 7B1:969` U6G47
1) x ← x + 1; 2) x ← 1/x.
gN5:U:4`57 H 8U2FD2 5:r7369G8 U6G47 = tD:K692 07G4237H:924`57G9` 32FG9H6F 348 E97;7
0
6G074569248 . D7971A2 016H7389 D
: x = 2/5 B x = 13/8 H 13/21 3 13/23 2 23/55 =
[:D7H <656<:4`5AF 1:N<21 017;1:<<A . D7971:8 074SU:29
x = 610/377

) )}) a ! x! R2X692 0123A3S]S_ N:3:US 348 G4SU:8 1:GX612557;7 <57K2G9H: E42<259:1

5Ar D7<:53
1) x ← 1/x; 2) x ← x + 1; 3) x ← x + 2; . . . ; 1001) x ← x + 1000.
#!! & %#(&%

q2N32 H N:3:U:r 073 D752U5A< :H97<:97< <A 0756<:2< 46B7 7BAU5AF D752U5AF :H97<:9.

46B7 D752U5AF :H97<:9 G 32FG9H68<6 H63: V Y. 016H8N:55A<6 D 0212r73:<=
) )}) a ! f! :F3692 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 G47H7 H :4J:H692
B=
{0, 1} 6 H7NH1:]:29 97 K2 G:<72 G47H7 . 974`D7 65H219617H:572 5S46 N:<2525A 5: 23656wA 6
5:7B7179=
) )}) a ! ! :F3692 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 G47H7 H :4J:H692
B=
{0, 1} 6 H7NH1:]:29 97 K2 G:<72 G47H7 . H D79717< 073183 63S]62 23656wA N:<2525A 7357F
23656w2F=
) )}) a ! y! :F3692 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 3H76U5S_ N:06G` 5:9S
1:4`57;7 U6G4: x . 5:U65:8 G <4:3X2;7 1:N183: . 6 HAH7369 3H76U5S_ N:06G` U6G4:
: x + 3 B 3 · x H 5 · x ; x mod 5
3 3x + 2 2 x · (x mod 3) K x/4 3242562 B2N 7G9:9D:=
) )}) a ! -! :F3692 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 G47H7 H :4J:H692
B = {a, b, c, . . . , x, y, z} 6 H7 H12<8 1:B79A D:K3AF 1:N . D:D HG912U:29G8 G47H7 V& 5& Y
HAH7369 G6<H74 = i17H21`92 1:B79S GH72;7 :4;7169<: 5: Hr732 && 5&& =
) )}) a ! "! :F3692 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 G47H7 H :4J:H692
B=
{a, b, c, . . . , x, y, z} 6 H7 H12<8 1:B79A D:K3AF 1:N . D:D HG912U:29G8 G47H7 V 35 3+ 35+ Y
HAH7369 G6<H74 . : D:K3AF 1:N . D:D HG912U:29G8 G47H7 35+ . HAH7369 G6<H74 2 =
) )}) a ! p! :F3692 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 G47H7 H :4J:H692
B = {a, b, c, . . . , x, y, z} 6 HAH7369 2;7 . S3:46H 073G917D6 H 021HS_ 7U2123` 6 3
H7 H971S_ 7U2123`= i17H21`92 1:B79S :4;7169<: 5: G423S_]6r G47H:r . 3 .
3 . 3 3 3 12NS4`9:9 374K25 BA9` 1:H25 33 3. 3 12NS4`9:9
. 3 3 3=
) )}) a !e.! R:GG<7916< G47H: H :4J:H69:r
B1 = {A, B, C} 6 B2 = {0, 1} = :06X692 D7
52U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF D:D6<46B7 7B1:N7< D7361S29 G47H: 6N B ∗ G47H:<6 6N B ∗ . : 6<25
57 . 1:N5A< G47H:< 6N :4J:H69: B G707G9:H4829 1:N5A2 G47H: 6N 1:4J:H69: B = 2
:06X692
1

9:DK2 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF 7GS]2G9H4829 . 97 2G9` 7B1:9572 0127B1:
2
N7H:562 G47H B ∗ H G47H: B ∗ = MS]2G9HS29 46 HN:6<77357N5:U572) 797B1:K2562 D73617H:562

f : B1∗ → B2∗ . 9:D72 U97 f 6 7B1:9572 797B1:K2562 f −1 12:46NS_9G8 H H632 D752U5Ar :H97<:
2 1
97H
) )}) a !e ! MS]2G9HS29 46 D752U5AF :H97<:9. D7971AF
: 074SU:29 5: Hr73 G47H7 0176NH74`57F 3465A H :4J:H692 B = {0, 1} 6 H7NH1:]:29 97 K2
)4277/174117. 767-.12. f : A → B " 67 767-.12. 0..1673 17.63 A 3 0.&
.16 17.63
B ,-2 67 -41. 0..16 24 A /701 6 767-.1 3 -41. 0..16
24 B 2 3 8/ 0..16 24 B /70.1 6 767-1 0..16 24 A 24 ,-.//.97 3763
676 0..16 ./2163.11.1= 4277/17411. 767-.125 14365
=
M2<65:1 >= I4;7169<A 6 6G074569246
G:<72 G47H7 . 57 G 7B1:95A< 07183D7< BSDH

B 074SU:29 5: Hr73 3H76U5A2 N:06G6 3HSr GD74` S;7357 B74`X6r 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6G24 . 6 H7N
H1:]:29 0 646 1 . H N:H6G6<7G96 79 97;7 . D:D72 6N 56r B74`X2
H 074SU:29 5: Hr73 3H76U5S_ N:06G` GD74` S;7357 B74`X7;7 U6G4: x . 5:U65:8 G7 G9:1X2;7
1:N183: . 6 H7NH1:]:29 N:06G` U6G4: x/3
; HA0745829 HAU6G42568 0123A3S]2;7 0S5D9: . 57 016 SG47H66 . U97 N:06G6 Hr7357;7 6 HA
r7357;7 U6G4: 5:U65:_9G8 G <4:3X2;7 1:N183:
3 074SU:29 5: Hr73 3H76U5S_ N:06G` GD74` S;7357 B74`X7;7 U6G4: x . 5:U65:8 G <4:3X2;7
1:N183: . 6 017H21829 017G972 757 646 G7G9:H572
3 0212H7369 U6G47 6N 3H76U57F N:06G6 H 32G896U5S_ 1:GG<791692 7B: H7N<7K5Ar 07183D:
w6J1
3 0212H7369 U6G47 6N 3H76U57F N:06G6 H X2G95:3w:9616U5S_ 1:GG<791692 7B: H7N<7K5Ar
07183D: w6J1
3 0212H7369 U6G47 6N H7G`<616U57F N:06G6 H 3H76U5S_ 1:GG<791692 7B: H7N<7K5Ar 07183
D: w6J1
2 074SU:29 5: Hr73 5:9S1:4`572 U6G47 . N:3:5572 H 32G896U57F G6G92<2 GU6G42568 . 6 017H2
1829. 32469G8 757 5: 11 646 529 1:GG<791692 7B: H7N<7K5Ar 07183D: w6J1

' $

gG07456924` U247H2D S<229 HA074589` :4;7169<A 7B]2;7 r:

1:D921: . 6 12X:2<A2 6< N:3:U6 5:NAH:_9G8 HAU6G46<A<6= 7 E97 70123242562
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<7K57 1:GG<:916H:9` D:D JS5Dw66 H63:
f : B ∗ → B ∗,
;32 B ∗ 7N5:U:29 <57K2G9H7 HG2r G47H H 52D79717< D752U57< :4J:H692 B = 7422
97;7 . <7K57 GU69:9` . U97 B = {0, 1} =
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M = {K, B, B 0 , π, xs , Xf }, B ⊂ B0, xs ∈ K, Xf ⊂ K, π : K × B 0 → K × B 0 × A.
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N:06G` 5:9S1:4`57;7 U6G4:=

({, ' e! !

N:<D5S97
f : N → N
g : N → N

1) x 7→ f (x) + g(x)
2) x 7→ f (x) · g(x)
3) x 7→ f (g(x))
4) x 7→ min y

f (y)=0
7D:N:924`G9H7 E97;7 S9H21K32568 37H74`57 3465572 6 <A 2;7 016H7369` 52 BS32<= /B
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5: 23656wS i(x) = x + 1 =

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6<28 JS5Dw66 /(a, b) 6 2n . <7K57 074SU69` 57HS_ JS5Dw6_ g(n, b) = /(2n, b) =
)/. 6726 ,7516 ,-7

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05.7. ,71562. !" .073.87 202 !"# $%&'

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6<229 017G97F G<AG4= iSG9` 3:5: 52D7971:8

JS5Dw68 f 79 52GD74`D6r :1;S<2597H= T:J6DG61S2< N5:U2568 HG2r :1;S<2597H H E97F JS5D
w66 . D17<2 7357;7= 7H:8 JS5Dw68 ψ 7012324829G8 D:D <656<:4`572 N5:U2562 E97;7 :1;S
<259: . 016 D79717< f = 0 =

SG91725 G423S_]6< 7B1:N7<= iSG9` 2G9` JS5Dw66 h(x) .
g(x, y, n) = v7;3: 016<252562 D 56< 7021:971: 016<696H57F 12DS1G66 3:9 JS5Dw6_ f (x, n) .
701232482<S_ 12DS1G6H57 U212N GH7 N5:U2562 f (x, n−1) = /0123242562 G7G9769 6N 5:U:4`57;7
SG47H68 6 X:;: 12DS1G66

( ) : f (x, 0) = h(x)
( ) : f (x, n) = g(x, f (x, n − 1), n − 1)
/9<296< . U97 N32G` HG2 0212<255A2 01656<:_9 w24A2 527916w:924`5A2 N5:U2568= i16 E97<
073 x <7K29 0756<:9`G8 52GD74`D7 :1;S<2597H x = (x , x , . . . , x ) =
PG46 H 70123242566 ^=^ 6GD4_U69` 7021:971 HN8968 <656<S<: :1;S<259: . 97 074SU69G8
1 2 m
D4:GG %,-({'& ,,d{'c z' =

M 97UD6 N12568 017;1:<<6G97H . 016<696H57 12DS1G6H5A2 JS5Dw66 E97 HG2 JS5Dw66 .
D7971A2 <7K57 N:017;1:<<617H:9` 6G074`NS8 :16J<296U2GD62 7021:w66 . SG47H5AF 7021:

971 6 7021:971 :16J<296U2GD7;7 w6D4: w6D4A . D 5:U:4S 6G07452568 D7971Ar U9D7
N:J6DG617H:57 U6G47 6921:w6F w6D4: . 6 E97 U6G47 D752U572 6 524`N8 6G074`N7H:9` 7021:971
=
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6921:w6F N:1:522 6NH2G957=
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48 U:G96U57 12DS1G6H5Ar JS5Dw6F . 9:DK2 D:D 6 H G4SU:2 JS5Dw6F . HAU6G46<Ar 5: <:
X652 v`_165;: . 2G9` H7N<7K57G9` VN:H6G:568Y 016 HA07452566 7021:971: HN8968 <656<S<:
:1;S<259:= PG46 :1;S<259: . 016 D79717< N5:U2562 JS5Dw66 1:H57 0 . 529. 97 12NS4`9:9 016
<252568 E97F 7021:w66 5270123245= v:D6< 7B1:N7< . U:G96U57 12DS1G6H5A2 JS5Dw66 <7;S9
BA9` 701232425A 52 016 HG2r N5:U2568r :1;S<2597H= :G96U57 12DS1G6H5A2 JS5Dw66 . D797
1A2 701232425A 348 HG2r N5:U256F :1;S<2597H . 5:NAH:_9G8 &#$,,d{'c- z'-=
i16<696H57 12DS1G6H5A2 JS5Dw66 07 07G917256_ 701232425A 348 HG2r N5:U256F :1;S
<2597H= 7 016 E97< . 756 52 G7H0:3:_9 G <57K2G9H7< 7B]212DS1G6H5Ar JS5Dw6F=
q2157 G423S_]22 S9H21K32562

({, ' e!e!

i7317B522 7 12DS1G6H5Ar JS5Dw68r <7K57 017U69:9` H 91S3:r [74<7;717H: I = = 6
[4656 M=[ =
q7N<7K57G9` VN:H6G:568Y 5279C2<42<72 GH7FG9H7 HAU6G46<Ar JS5Dw6F . 6 529 H7N<7K
57G96 529 :4;7169<: 7932469` <57K2G9H7 r717X6r . 56D7;3: 52 VN:H6G:_]6rY HAU6G46<Ar
JS5Dw6F=
(0 -.8-231 182 3,.-3. 0 7,21

/.0. ; 9= 88 80 3. 2073

182 3-42 3 1.8767-7 7-017 26.. = 56 97/ 2 ,74. - 7,028730
37 92,76.4 7 67 67 80 -.8-231 182 73,/ .6 80 7 3202 182 =
5/ -76 ,7 671.12 ,715625 -.8-231 182 .6 (0212 ; 9==

# (& #%&!# & (&"! "!'&
) )}) e! ! ,,&#*-) &d()'&{) 48 0176NH74`57F 017;1:<<A 348 <:X65A v`_165;:
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6 G47H: X 701232469` . 016<256<: 017;1:<<: M D X 646 529
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HG2;7 . G<7K29 701232469` . 2G9` 46 H7N<7K57G9` N:H6G:568 2G46 706G:562 52 G46XD7< B74`
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2G46 <7K29. 97 r79247G` BA 074SU69` J71<:46N7H:5572 706G:562 :4;7169<: 017H21D6=
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389Y <2G9: . D7971A2 <7;S9 016H2G96 D VN:H6G:56_Y= q 7BAU5Ar :4;7169<:r 016U657F VN:H6
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. SG47H62 D797
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<7K5A 46 9:D62 Hr735A2 3:55A2 . D7971A2 016H7389 D VN:H6G:56_Y=
7 7D:NAH:29G8 . E97 52 9:D= 6 H G4SU:2 :4;7169<7H 348 6G074569248hU247H2D:. 56 H G4S
U:2 <:X65 v`_165;: . :4;7169<: 12X2568 017B42<A 7G9:57H: 52 GS]2G9HS29= @9S 017B42<S
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JS5Dw66 <7K29 70123242469` . 8H4829G8 46 75: 7B]212DS1G6H57F D4:GG 7B]212DS1G6H5Ar
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5AF 5:B71 U6G24 646 G6<H747H <7K57 N:D73617H:9` H H632 G917D6= i7E97<S H :BG91:D95Ar
6G074569248r Hr735A2 6 HAr735A2 3:55A2 0123G9:H425A H H632 G917D6 G6<H747H=
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u:X65A v`_165;: 8H4829G8 . 5: D79717F N:06GAH:29G8 :1;S<259. 6 G D79717F U69:29
G8 074SU25572 N5:U2562= 259: 8H4829G8 B2GD752U57F 07G4237H:924`57G9`_ 8U22D . H D:K37F
6N D7971Ar <7K29 r1:569`G8 7365 G6<H74= 1S;7F H:K57F U:G9`_ <:X65A 8H4829G8
646 SG917FG9H7 S01:H42568 tt. D7971:8 H D:K3AF <7<259 H12<256 . 5:NAH:2<AF .
<7K29 5:r7369`G8 974`D7 5: 70123242557F 07N6w66 5: 42592 6 012BAH:9` H 7357< 6N 52GD74`

D6r = v:DK2 tt <7K29 U69:9` 6 06G:9` G6<H74 6N 97F 07N6w66 4259A . 5: D79717F
75 5:r7369G8= [:K3AF 9:D9 tt 0212<2]:29G8 H42H7 646 H01:H7 5: G7G235__ 07N6w6_ 5:
42592= i17;1:<<7F 348 <:X65A v`_165;: 5:NAH:29G8 797B1:K2562 . D797172 G9:H69 D:K37F
0:12 G7G978562 . U69:2<AF G6<H74 917FDS 57H72 G7G978562 . N:06GAH:2<AF G6<H74 . 5:01:H
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H7;7 G7G978568=
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8U2FD:<6= q 5:U:4`57< 0747K2566 ;747HD: SD:NAH:29 5: 5:U:47 021H7;7 U6G4:=
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HG9:9` 5: 5:U:47 021H7;7 U6G4:
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U97BA D752U572 G7G978562 D:K37;7 B47D: BA47 5:U:4`5A< G7G978562< 07G423S_]2;7= T:06

X2< 22 H H632 H7N<7K5Ar 0:1 . . . M . . . = [:D H6357 . 5:< 016X47G`
0173SB4617H:9` B47D . 07GD74`DS B47D 6<229 3H: D752U5Ar G7G978568 7GS]2G9H4829G8
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57 D752U572 G7G978562 B47D: 074SU647G` BA 7357H12<2557 5:U:4`5A< G7G978562< B47D7H
6 =
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48 D:K37F <6D17017;1:<<A BS32< 6G074`N7H:9` GH7F 5:B71 G7G97856F . 7B7N5:U:2<Ar D:D
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1 1
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0 i212r736< H 0 . 2G46 E97 D752w U6G
C1 D1 1 D1 D
4: . 65:U2 h H D1 =
M961:2< 23656wS 1
6 52G2< 22 H42H7=
D1 D2 D2
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D2 D2 1 D3
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D01 D 2 D 2 D

D20 D0 1 D30
2 M9:H6< 23656wS 6 H7NH1:]:2<G8 D
D30 1 E1
5:U:4S U6G4:=
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G6<7G96 79 97;7 . U957 646 52U957 U6G47 23656w H 3:557< G47H2= B = { , , } = q 5:U:4`57<
G7G978566 ;747HD: H6369 021HAF 42HAF G6<H74= q D75w2 07G4237H:924`57G96 G9769 G6<H74 =
) )}) ae!f! %,{&,)}{)' d*&{) i212H71:U6H:562 G47H: H :4J:H692

B = { , } = :
016<21 . 348 Hr73: 374K25 074SU69G8 12NS4`9:9 =
) )}) ae!!∗ i212<57K2562 3HSr U6G24 . N:3:55Ar H S5:157F G6G92<2 GU6G42568= 6G4: 1:N
32425A G6<H747< = M42H: 6 G01:H: 756 7;1:56U25A G6<H747< =
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7;1:56U2557;7 G6<H74:<6 6 =
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3
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n
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) )}) ae! ! i212H7369 5:9S1:4`572 U6G47 6N 32G896U57F G6G92<A GU6G42568 H 3H76U5S_=
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) )}) ae! e! /06X692 Gr2<S 07G9172568 uv. D7971:8 074SU:29 5: Hr73 :16J<296U2GD72
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<A 348 <:X65 v`_165;: G Hr735A< :4J:H697< G6<H747H B = {0, 1, A} = i21H:8 12:46NS29
JS5Dw6_ f : B ∗ → B ∗ . : H971:8 g : B ∗ → B ∗ = tD:K692 . D:D GD75G91S617H:9` <:X65S v`_
165;: M . D7971:8 12:46NS29 JS5Dw6_ f ◦ g . 97 2G9` 9:DS_ JS5Dw6_ . D7971:8 348 Hr735Ar
3:55Ar x H7NH1:]:29 f (g(x)) = q G4SU:2 VN:H6G:568Y M 646 M GU69:29G8 . U97 12NS4`9:9 1:
f ◦g
H25 undef )= R2X6H E9S N:3:US. HA 37D:K292 . U97 D7<07N6w68 HAU6G46<Ar JS5Dw66 8H4829G8
f g
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) )}) ae! y! u7K57 46 5: uv 12:46N7H:9` :4;7169< . D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 706G:562
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97< G4SU:2 . 2G46 3:55:8 <:X65: v`_165;: 52016<256<: D SD:N:55A< Hr735A< 3:55A<
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:H97<:9: . : 6<2557 . 074SU:29 5: Hr73 706G:562 D752U57;7 :H97<:9: 6 Hr735A2 3:55A2 348
52;7 6 H7NH1:]:29 D752U572 G7G978562 . H D79717< BS329 5:r7369G8 E<S461S2<AF D752U5AF
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) )}) ae! "! /w25692 3465S 017;1:<<A 0176NH232562 3465A :4J:H69: 5: U6G47 G7G97856F
uv. GD4:3AH:_]S_ 3H: U6G4: H 3H76U57F . H7G`<616U57F 6 32G896U57F G6G92<:r GU6G42568
[:D7H: BS329 3465: 017;1:<<A 348 G47K2568 U6G24 . N:3:55Ar H 16<GD7F G6G92<2 GU6G42568
)!05 /763 266 67 1822 -.024.. 32026.012 #212 2.6 32/ f :
G → G 9/. G " 67 17.637 3. 073 1.8767-797 871.1797 0326 /7,701.117. ,.201
0..167 undef 7763.6632 1.7,-./.0117 41.12 = -2 67 3.9/ 266 67 f :
=
undef 7→ undef 67 .6 f (undef) = undef

' $

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u:1D7H: . 6 5:7B7179= 7 016 E97< G47K57G96 12X2568 N:3:U 5: E96r 3HSr 6G074
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G47K57 5: <:X652 u:1D7H: . 31S;62 5:7B7179 017]2 12X:_9G8 5: <:X652 u:1D7
H:= uA 2] 1:N GJ71<S461S2< 70123242562 HAU6G46<Ar JS5Dw6F 6 H B7422 7B]2<
H632 GJ71<S461S2< 017B42<S 7G9:57H:= uA 37D:K2< 2 :4;7169<6U2GDS_ 521:N
12X6<7G9` 6 016H23< H D:U2G9H2 016<21: 2] 3H2 :4;7169<6U2GD6 521:N12X6<Ar
N:3:U6 017B42<S EDH6H:425957G96 017;1:<< 6 017B42<S 70123242568 1:N12X6<7G96
6:J:597H7;7 S1:H52568=
<:X65: 6 :4;716J<A u:1D7H: . HAU6G46<A2 JS5Dw66 . HAU6G46

924`5:8 EDH6H:425957G9` 6G074569242F . 017B42<: E<S48w66 6G074569248 . 017B42<:
7G9:57H: 017;1:<<A . 017B42<: EDH6H:425957G96 017;1:<<=
& %
'#"( & # &

qAU6G42568 7G57H:55A2 5: 01:H64:r 5:NAH:_9G8 0173SDw6755A<6= u:X65: u:1D7H:

E97 017G92FX6F HAU6G46924` . 7GS]2G9H48_]6F 0173SDw6755A2 HAU6G42568=
q 0:<896 <:X65A u:1D7H: r1:569G8 7357 D752U572 G47H7 . G7G9:H425572 6N BSDH D752U
X
57;7 :4J:H69:= /57 6N5:U:4`57 1:H57 Hr7357<S G47HS. : 07G42 7G9:57H: <:X65A HAr7357
<S G47HS= i127B1:N7H:562 G47H: X H <:X652 u:1D7H: 0176Gr7369 0S9< 07G4237H:924`57G96
<:4Ar 0127B1:N7H:56F N:<25 7357;7 073G47H: 5: 31S;72= q7N<7K5A2 N:<25A 706GAH:_9G8
%,){*)- %&d()'&{=
I4;7169<A 348 <:X65A u:1D7H: 0123G9:H48_9 G7B7F S071837U25572 <57K2G9H7 01:H64=
gG9716U2GD6 756 5:NAH:_9G8 )*+&,z-)-=
b → b0 Y 7N5:U:29. U97 021H72
iSG9` 6 0 52D7971A2 G47H: H :4J:H692 = i1:H647 V
b b B
G42H: Hr7K32562 073G47H: b H G47H2 X G423S29 N:<2569` 5: G47H7 b0 =
2D7971A2 01:H64: <7;S9 BA9` 07<2U25A D:D &'}'c = 48 E96r 01:H64 1837< G7 G9124
D7F <A BS32< G9:H69` 97UDS Vb →. b0 Y=
I4;716J< u:1D7H: <:X65: u:1D7H: 6G0745829 07X:;7H7= : D:K37< X:;2 . G47H7 .
X
N:06G:5572 5: 42592 . <736J6w61S29G8 G423S_]6< 7B1:N7<= R:GG<:916H:29G8 021H72 01:H647
6 017H21829G8 . <7K29 46 757 BA9` 016<25257= i1:H647 Vb → b0 Y GU69:29G8 %,-'-c- . 2G46
2Dw68 L = I4;716J<A u:1D7H:= qAU6G46924`5:8 EDH6H:425957G9` <:X65
G47H7 X G7321K69 073G47H7 b = PG46 021H72 01:H647 52 <7K29 BA9` 016<25257 . 1:GG<:916H:
29G8 G423S_]22 01:H647 . 6 9=3= PG46 D:D7246B7 01:H647 BA47 016<25257 . 97 5: G423S_]2<
X:;2 <:X65: u:1D7H: G57H: 5:U65:29 G 021H7;7 01:H64:= PG46 016<25829G8 D752U572 01:
H647 . 97 <:X65: 7G9:5:H46H:29G8=
PG46 6N HG2;7 G06GD: 01:H64 56 7357 52 <7K29 BA9` 016<25257 D 92DS]2<S G47HS. 97 <:X6
5: :1D7H: 9:DK2 7G9:5:H46H:29G8= v:D72 7D75U:562 1:B79A 657;3: GU69:_9 V:H:16F5A<Y.
u
57 <A BS32< GU69:9` E97 571<:4`5A< N:H21X2562< 1:B79A=
I4;7169< 1:B79A u:X65A u:1D7H: J71<:4`57 <7K57 0123G9:H69` H H632 0G2H37D73:
L =\ = 6G47 E97 3465: G06GD: 01:H64 073G9:57H7D
n {P , . . . , P } =
0 n−1
b*+&,(- x!" Mr2<: :4;7169<: 1:B79A u:X65A u:1D7H:

i←0

X ← X0
P 016<256<7 D X
i
P D752U572
X ← P (X)
i
i
N:H21X2562 1:B79A

i←0

i←i+1
i>n
N:H21X2562 1:B79A

R:GG<7916< N:3:US G47K2568 3HSr U6G24 H VS5:157FY G6G92<2 GU6G42568 6 12X:_]6F 2
:4;716J< u:1D7H:=
) )}) x! ! a*&' }d* { '),'& dd(- d}d*' iSG9` U6G4: 5: 42592 N:
3:_9G8 H G423S_]2< H632 0 = , 1 = , 2 = , 3 = , . . . = H: U6G4: H 6Gr7357<
G47H2 N:06G:5A 073183= :016<21 . 348 Hr7357;7 G47H: 12NS4`9:9 374K25 BA9` 1:
H25 . : 348 =
R2X2562 N:3:U6 GH7369G8 S3:4256_ w6J1A 574` . G D79717F 5:U65:29G8 N:06G` H9717;7
U6G4:= @97 <7K57 7GS]2G9H69` E97 0S9< N:<25A 0:1A G6<H747H . 5: M779H29G9HS_]6F
:4;716J< BS329 G7321K:9` 7357 01:H647 →. =
2FG9H6924`57 . <7K29 HG912969`G8 974`D7 7365 1:N 5: ;1:56w2 U6G24= @97 G97001:H647
6 07G42 2;7 016<252568 1:B79: <:X65A u:1D7H: SG02X57 N:H21X69G8= 7 527Br736<7 2]
1:GG<79129` G4SU:F . D7;3: 021H72 U6G47 1:H57 ? 6 N:06G:57 D:D = 48 E97;7 7G7B7;7 G4SU:8
G423S29 N:06G:9` 2] 7357 01:H647 →. . 6 H 697;2 074SU69G8 :4;716J< 6N 3HSr 01:H64
→.
→.
R:GG<7916< B7422 G47K5AF 016<21 SK2 6NH2G95S_ 5:< N:3:US SH246U2568 3:557;7
U6G4: 5: 1 =
) )}) x!e! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF SH246U6H:29 3:5572 5:9S1:4`572 U6G47 .
N:06G:5572 H 3H76U57F G6G92<2 GU6G42568 . 5: 23656wS= qr73 3H76U5:8 N:06G` 5:9S1:4`57;7
U6G4: n G47H7 H :4J:H692 B = {0, 1} = qAr73 3H76U5:8 N:06G` 5:9S1:4`57;7 U6G4: n + 1 =
48 12X2568 5:< 016329G8 1:GX6169` Hr7357F :4J:H69 37 :4J:H69: B = { , , , } =

SDH: BS329 G4SK69` 5:< DS1G717<= tH246U6H:9` U6G47 5: 23656wS <A BS32< 7BAU
5A< 7B1:N7< . 5:U65:8 G <4:3X2;7 1:N183: G:<7;7 01:H7;7= 48 5:U:4: 3706X2< H D752w
G47H: BSDHS = 48 E97;7 52r6917;7 32FG9H68 H :4;716J<:r u:1D7H: 527Br736<7 w24Ar 916
01:H64:

→

→

∅ →
q7N`<< 348 016<21: G47H7 = M 07<7]`_ E96r 01:H64 757 BS329 073H21;5S97 G423S_]6<
07X:;7HA< 0127B1:N7H:568<

PG46 017374K69` 07X:;7HA2 HAU6G42568 . 97 G57H: G1:B79:29 01:H647 L 6 H 5:U:42 G47H: 07
8H69G8 BSDH: . D7971:8 5: G423S_]6r X:;:r 073 32FG9H62< 01:H64 > 6 ^ BS329 0212<2]:9`G8
H D752w= T:92< G57H: H5:U:42 078H69G8 BSDH: . 6 9:D 3:422= 97BA E97;7 52 0176Gr73647 .
3706X2< G423S_]62 01:H64:=
:< 527Br736<7 3H6;:9`G8 H 01:H7 . N:<2588 23656wA 5: 5S46 . : D:D 974`D7 078H69G8
021HAF 574` . 7B1:969` 2;7 H 23656wS 6 N:D75U69` HAU6G42568= 48 E97;7 <7K57 BA47 BA
N:06G:9` 9:D62 01:H64:

→
→.
7 H79 H7017G DS3: 6r 07<2G969` 37 . 646 07G42 SK2 6<2_]6rG8 91r 01:H64= /D:NAH:29G8

6 979 6 31S;7F H:16:59 047r6= q 021HS_ 7U2123` 527Br736<7 N:<2569` 960 DS1G71: . N:<2569`
BSDHS 5: 31S;S_ BSDHS. 5:016<21 . BSDHS = SDH: 9:DK2 BS329 6;1:9` 174` DS1G71: 6
797B1:K:9` G7B7F H971S_ G9:36_ 017w2GG: HAU6G4256F= i745AF 5:B71 01:H64 HA;48369 9:D
→
→.

→

→

→

∅ →
i1:H64: U:G97 G423S29 1:G074:;:9` H 07183D2 . D7971AF 52 G779H29G9HS29 07G4237H:924`
57G96 6r 016<252568= q 3:557< G4SU:2 G5:U:4: G1:B:9AH:29 01:H647 Z . 0797<S U97 021HA2
089` 01:H64 52 <7;S9 BA9` 016<2525A= q 01:H7F U:G96 021HAr 0896 01:H64 2G9` 46B7 BSDH:
. 46B7 BSDH: . 6 07E97<S 756 52016<256<A D G47HS. G7G978]2<S 6N 23656w 6 5S42F= i1:H647
Z 37B:H4829 H 5:U:47 G47H: BSDHS = T:92< 5:U65:_9 G1:B:9AH:9` 01:H64: L 6 O BSDH:
0212<2]:29G8 H D752w. N:92< G1:B:9AH:29 01:H647 Q BSDH: N:<25829G8 5: . N:92< 5:
U65:29 1:B79:9` 01:H647 > N:<2582< HG2 07G423562 23656wA 5: 5S46 V021201A;6H:8Y U212N
56r BSDH7F . 6 . H D75w2 D75w7H . G1:B:9AH:29 N:H21X:_]22 01:H647 ^ N:<2582< 021HAF
G01:H: 574` 5: 23656wS


i1:H64`57 46 12NS4`9:9 074SU69 3:55AF :4;716J< u:1D7H: 348 Hr735Ar G47H

. . .

7B:H`92 52GD74`D7 01:H64 . U97BA :4;716J< HG2;3:
1:B79:4 01:H64`57 HG2;3:=
/9H29 5: 3:55AF H7017G G423S_]6F 348 G47H . G7G978]6r 6N 7356r 23656w 016H2355AF
:4;716J< 1:B79:29 52H2157 75 5: 56r VN:H6G:29Y. 97 2G9` 52016<256< D 56<= 48 97;7 .
U97BA E97 6G01:H69` . 527Br736<7 H G:<72 5:U:47 37B:H69` 01:H647 →. 1 =
g9:D . G N:3:U2F SH246U2568 U6G4: 5: 23656wS <A G01:H646G`= :GD74`D7 X617D D4:GG HA
U6G46924`5Ar N:3:U . D7971A2 <7K57 12X69` G 07<7]`_ :4;716J<7H u:1D7H: /D:NAH:29G8
75 G7H0:3:29 G D4:GG7< N:3:U . 12X:2<Ar G 07<7]`_ <:X65A v`_165;:=

" & !%!#% " # !#%& & "! " # !"%
:422 348 S37BG9H: :4;716J<A u:1D7H: <A BS32< 5:NH:9`

= I G <:X657F u:1D7H: BS32< GH8NAH:9` 52D79717;7 6G074569248 E96r 017;1:<<=
I5:47;6U57 . <:X65A v`_165;: BS32< 5:NAH:9`

. : <:
X657F v`_165;: BS32< 5:NAH:9` 6G074569248 . D79717;7 5SK57 017;1:<<617H:9` . HD4:3AH:8
H 52;7 706G:562 47;6D6 1:B79A <:X65A v`_165;:=
97BA ;7H7169` 017;1:<<:r 348 6G074569242F . 527Br736<7 6<29` 52D7971AF J71<:4`
5AF 8NAD N:06G6 E96r 017;1:<<=
v:D 5:016<21 . 47;6DS 1:B79A <:X65A v`_165;: <7K57 N:06GAH:9` H H632 9:B46wA .
706GAH:_]2F JS5Dw6_ 0212r737H <2K3S G7G978568<6 π . : E9S 9:B46wS <7K57 0123G9:H69`
H H632 7357;7 G47H: H 52D79717< D752U57< :4J:H692 . 6G074`NS8 G02w6:4`5A2 1:N3246924`5A2
G6<H74A 348 793242568 8U22D 6 G917D 9:B46wA= 7422 97U57 017;1:<<: 348 <:X65A v`_
165;: 374K5: 0123G9:H489` G7B7F J71<:4`572 706G:562 0896 E42<2597H {K, B, B 0, π, x , X } =
[:DS_ 6N H7N<7K5Ar J71<:4`5Ar 579:w6F HN89` 52 9:D H:K57= q:K57 . U97BA E9:s 579: f

w68 7357N5:U57 706GAH:4: SD:N:55A2 089` E42<2597H 6 BA4: 37G9:97U57 017G97F N:3:U:
659210129:w66 E97;7 706G:568 374K5: BA9` 1:N12X6<7F=
: <:X65:r u:1D7H: 6 v`_165;: 12:46NS_9G8 JS5Dw66 H63:
f : B ∗ → B ∗ ∪ {undef }.
@97 JS5Dw66 . D7971A2 074SU:_9 5: Hr73 G47H7 6N <57K2G9H: ∗ . 6 H7NH1:]:_9 G47H7 6N ∗ .
B B
57 657;3: 0176Gr7369 VN:H6G:562Y <:X65A= @97<S G4SU:_ G779H29G9HS29 12NS4`9:9 HAU6G
4256F undef =
) )}) x!x! i163S<:F92 017;1:<<A 348 <:X65 v`_165;: 6 u:1D7H: . D7971A2 52 7G9:5:H
46H:_9 GH7_ 1:B79S 56 016 D:D6r Hr735Ar 3:55Ar=
u57K2G9H7 HG2r JS5Dw6F H63:
f : B ∗ → B ∗ ∪ {undef }
SG47H57 7B7N5:U6< D:D C =

{c}d*(*n'& ~{{)*'('c- )

no,'+~{{ * '('c-
m
T:3:U6 348 <:X65 v`_165;: 6 u:1D7H: E97 N:3:U6 12:46N:w66 1:N46U5Ar JS5Dw6F
6N C = /D:NAH:29G8 . <:X65A u:1D7H: 6 v`_165;: HAU6G46924`57 EDH6H:42595A . 97 2G9` <57
K2G9H7 JS5Dw6F . D7971A2 <7K57 12:46N7H:9` H H632 017;1:<< 348 <:X65A v`_165;: . 6
<57K2G9H7 JS5Dw6F . D7971A2 <7K57 12:46N7H:9` H H632 017;1:<< 348 <:X652 u:1D7H: .
G7H0:3:_9= 7 <57K2G9H7 E96r JS5Dw6F 52 07D1AH:_9 w246D7< <57K2G9H7 HG2r JS5Dw6F
H63: f : B ∗ → B ∗ ∪ {undef } = v7 2G9` H215A G423S_]62 3H: S9H21K32568
>= u:X65: u:1D7H: 6 <:X65: v`_165;: HAU6G46924`57 EDH6H:42595A=

R2:46NS2<A2 5: E96r 6G074569248r JS5Dw66 5:NAH:_9G8 {c}d*-c-=
^= 6X` U:G9` JS5Dw6F 6N <57K2G9H: C 8H48_9G8 HAU6G46<A<6=
[17<2 921<657H HAU6G46<A2 6 52HAU6G46<A2 JS5Dw66 U:G97 6G074`NS_9 921<65A )*

+&,(-}d ,),l-c 6 )*+&,(-}d ',),l-c ) )}=
uA 52 BS32< 016H7369` 37D:N:924`G9H: 021H7;7 S9H21K32568= 48 2;7 37D:N:924`G9H:
37G9:97U57 GD75G91S617H:9`
<:X65A u:1D7H: 5: <:X652 v`_165;: 6 E<S48971
<:X65A v`_165;: 5: u:X652 u:1D7H:)= @97 92r56U2GD6 G47K5:8 . 57 7GS]2G9H6<:8 N:3:U:=
/ 97< . U97 9:D72 E<S48w68 6 E<S48971 <A 1:GGD:K2< 56K2=
q97172 S9H21K32562 5:NAH:_9 657;3: d{&d({&- '%&*'&(c -)l'c mno,'+) = i745A<
0165897 5:NAH:9` 9:D7F 5:B71 7021:w6F 646 9:D7F 5:B71 H7N<7K57G92F 6G074569248 . G 07<7
]`_ D79717;7 <7K57 12:46N7H:9` HG2 H7N<7K572 <57K2G9H7 JS5Dw66 HAB1:557;7 H63:= 7
6G074569242F G7 GH7FG9H7< D752U57G96 U6G4: E42<259:15Ar 7BC2D97H 6 E42<259:15Ar 32F
G9H6F . D7971A2 BA46 BA 0745A H D4:GG2 C . 017G97 52 GS]2G9HS29= u:X65: v`_165;: N:3:9
7012324255AF V079747DY. U212N D7971AF 7BAU5A2 6G074569246 017G97 52 <7;S9 V021201A;
5S9`Y= gG074569242F . D7971A2 HAU6G46924`57 EDH6H:42595A <:X652 v`_165;: . 5:NAH:_9
657;3: mno,'+%&*'c- 646 mno,'+~{{)*'('c-=
q 97< . U97 GS]2G9HS_9 52 HAU6G46<A2 5: <:X652 v`_165;: JS5Dw66 . 52G47K57 SB2369G8
5: 7G57H2 G1:H52568 <7]57G92F <57K2G9H: C HG2r JS5Dw6F H63: f : B ∗ → B ∗ ∪ {undef } 6
<57K2G9H: 017;1:<< 348 <:X65 v`_165;:=
71:N37 G47K522 0123C8H69` D75D1295S_ JS5D
w6_ . D7971S_ 524`N8 N:017;1:<<617H:9`=
)-79- /05 #21 -219 8767-5 02-.6 #21 -873 ,70.6 1 37/ 7,2&
12. ,-79-
A /05 #21 -873 2 37/17. 0737 x 3743-.6 -.4066 320.12
8767- 3.-10 #21 -873 3,70155 ,-79- A /05 37/ x = -2 67 .02 #21
-873 $432.6 % ,-2 3,701.122 ,-79- A /05 37/ x 67 2 ,-79- 0567- /70&

1 43216 = 17 67 .02 .6 0567- 2,70126.05 1 2,70126.0. 2 .6 ,-79-

-.#5 1.8767- 4/ 1 #21. 67 36762.82 ,70. -.#.12. 67 4/2 1

2,70126.0. =
7D:K2< . U97 GS]2G9HS_9 52HAU6G46<A2 JS5Dw66= u57K2G9H7 C HG2r JS5Dw6F

H63: f : B ∗ → B ∗ ∪ {undef } 52GU957= 2FG9H6924`57 . <57K2G9H: B ∗ 6
B ∗ ∪ {undef } GU95A . 07E97<S <7]57G9` <57K2G9H: JS5Dw6F H63: f : B ∗ →
B ∗ ∪ {undef } G7H0:3:29 G <7]57G9`_ JS5Dw6F H63: f : N → N . 97 2G9`
<57K2G9H7< HG2r B2GD752U5Ar 5:9S1:4`57N5:U5Ar 07G4237H:924`57G92F . D7971Ar
52GU9572 D746U2G9H7 q 97 K2 H12<8 . <57K2G9H7 HG2r HAU6G46<Ar JS5Dw6F
GU957= 2FG9H6924`57 . D:K37F HAU6G46<7F JS5Dw66 G779H29G9HS29 <:X65:
v`_165;:= u7K57 0163S<:9` 8NAD 706G:568 <:X65 v`_165;: 1:GG<791255AF
G07G7B 706G:568 <:X65A v`_165;: G 07<7]`_ 9:B46wA 8H4829G8 7356< 6N
9:D6r <29737H . 527Br736<7 974`D7 HH2G96 G6<H74A 1:N3242568 8U22D 9:B46wA
6 N:H21X2568 G917UD6 9:B46wA= g 97;3: D:K37F <:X652 v`_165;: <7K57
BS329 07G9:H69` H G779H29G9H62 D752U572 G47H7 706G:562 <:X65A H 52D79717<
:4J:H692= u57K2G9H7 HG2r G47H H D752U57< :4J:H692 GU957=
v:D6< 7B1:N7< . <7]57G9` <57K2G9H: JS5Dw6F H63: f : B ∗ → B ∗ ∪{undef } B74`X2
<7]57G96 <57K2G9H: <:X65 v`_165;:= T5:U69 GS]2G9HS_9 52HAU6G46<A2
JS5Dw66 . 97 2G9` JS5Dw66 . D7971A2 524`N8 12:46N7H:9` H H632 <:X65A v`_165;:=
67 /7843.65 1 8-. /28-.617 6.6282 = +/17 24 /7846.063 717317
1 /2971017 .67/. (167- = .871.1 ,70./736.0176. 10. 2 ./212
. 1..617. 8702.637 17.637 16-017411 ,70./736.0176. .97
7/.-26=
g9:D . <57K2G9H7 HG2r JS5Dw6F H63:

f : B ∗ → B ∗ 32489G8 5: 3H2 U:G96 HAU6G46<A2
6 52HAU6G46<A2 . 016 E97< <7]57G9` <57K2G9H: 52HAU6G46<Ar B74`X2 <7]57G96 <57K2
G9H: HAU6G46<Ar= 2HAU6G46<Ar JS5Dw6F 52GU9572 <57K2G9H7 . 97;3: D:D HAU6G46<Ar
GU9572=
/35: 6N 52HAU6G46<Ar JS5Dw66 E97
= 7 012K32 . U2<
0212r7369` D 1:GG<791256_ E97F JS5Dw66 6 GH8N:557F G 52F 017B42<A 7G9:57H: . 1:GG<7916<
N:3:US E<S48w66 7357;7 6G074569248 5: 31S;7<=
# (& ( $"" "# !"%
MJ71<S461S2< 7B]S_ 017B42<S E<S48w66 7357;7 6G074569248 5: 31S;7<
M1 348 6G074569248 >.

) )}) x!f! :57 3H: 6G074569248 g > 6 g^= :06X692 017;1:<<S g
D7971:8 074SU:29 5: Hr73 017;1:<<S M 348 6G074569248 g^ 6 Hr735A2 3:55A2 x . : H7NH1:
]:29 12NS4`9:9. D7971AF BA4 BA 074SU25 6G074569242< g^ 016 HA07452566 017;1:<<A M
2
2
5: Hr735Ar 3:55Ar x =
iSG9` JS5Dw68 1:H5: 12NS4`9:9S 6G07452568 017;1:<<A M 5: 6G074569242
1 (M1 , x)
g > 5: Hr735Ar 3:55Ar i 1
x = 17B42<: E<S48w66 N:D4_U:29G8 H 12:46N:w66 E97F JS5Dw66 5:
H9717< 6G074569242 g^=
M
~-*(&,&- d%&*'(* e ') d%&*'(
*

'{,d)*n'& -)
1
l'& mno,'+) km

g9:D . tuv E97 017;1:<<:E<S48971 . D7971:8 074SU:29 5: 42592 706G:562 3HSr 7BC2D
97H 706G:562 017;1:<<A a 348 <:X65A v`_165;: 6 706G:562 Hr735Ar 3:55Ar x 348 E97F
<:X65A= i7G42 1:B79A tuv 5: 42592 374K57 7G9:9`G8 97 . U97 7G9:47G` BA 016 1:B792 <:
X65A v`_165;: G 017;1:<<7F a 5: Hr735Ar 3:55Ar x . 97 2G9` tuv 374K5: E<S4617H:9`
1:B79S 0176NH74`57F 31S;7F <:X65A v`_165;:=
R2NS4`9:97< HAU6G42568 tuv 374K57 BA9` G47H7 . D797172 074SU647G` BA H 12NS4`9:92
HAU6G4256F 706G:557F uv 5: N:3:55Ar Hr735Ar 3:55Ar=
/365 6N H:K52FX6r 12NS4`9:97H N:D4_U:29G8 H G423S_]2<
t56H21G:4`5:8 <:X65: v`_165;: GS]2G9HS29=

7422 97;7 . 017B42<: E<S48w66 1:N12X6<: 348 0176NH74`57F 0:1A v`_165;
EDH6H:42595Ar 6G074569242F=
t56H21G:4`5S_ <:X65S v`_165;: 735S 6N H7N<7K5Ar GD75G91S617H:4 G:< I4:5 v`_
165;= R2:46N:w68 tuv 37G9:97U57 D7179D:8 . 2 706G:562 07<2]:29G8 5: G91:56wS 016H2
325: H D56;2 u65GD7;7 O =
[17<2 <:X65 u:1D7H: 6 v`_165;: <7K57 1:GG<:916H:9` 6G074569242F D:D6r46B7 8NA

D7H 017;1:<<617H:568 . 5:016<21 6G074569242F 8NAD: . M6 . 6 31= 48 52D797
1Ar 8NAD7H 6 GJ71<S4617H:5572 HAX2 S9H21K32562 G779H29G9HS29 97<S. U97 5: 8NAD2
<7K57 5:06G:9` 659210129:971 8NAD: =
i1:D96U2GD6 348 HG2r H7N<7K5Ar 0:1 8NAD7H . E97 S9H21K32562 H2157 6 B7422
97;7 . 0739H21K3257 01:D96D7F= M7N3:562 659210129:9717H 6 D7<06489717H 7357;7 8NAD: 5:
31S;7< 8H4829G8 07HG2352H57F 01:D96D7F 017;1:<<6G97H=
q G4SU:2 8NAD: M6 6<22< G423S_]22 H21572 S9H21K32562 5: 8NAD2 M6 <7K57 5:06G:9`
659120129:971 017;1:<< 5: 8NAD2 M6=
/D:NAH:29G8 . 5:46U62 E<S48971: 6G074569248 5: 5< G:<7< H42U9 521:N12X6<7G9` N:
3:U6 7G9:57H:
=
# (& #%&!# & #'&((
: 0123A3S]2F 42Dw66 <A GJ71<S4617H:46 017B42<S 7G9:57H:= t97U56< 2 J71<S46

17HDS= 48 E97;7 HH23< 0758962

0./.6 76.626 67 0525 7/1797 2,70126.05 1 /-97 2,70126.0. /-9797 62, 202
6797 . 797 " /737017 65 ,-862.85 4/ = 73-..11 87,6.-1 6.1707&
925 #2-787 ,-./630.1 32-601. #21 " #21 8767-. & 1 -.01
#21 = 717317 67 32-601. #21 /05 2,701.125 6&87/ 202 =
6&87/
6&87/ " 871/ ,-7.7- 32-6017 #21 3 8767- 87,202-65 ,-79- 1

548. 2 C] = 67 67 ,-79- 87,202-65 1. 3 #211 87/ ,-7.7- -.0&
17 #21 3 6&87/ 32-6017 #21 .6 372 ,-.2.63 = 67 ,743705.6 74/36
$& $ ,-207.125 !05 2,70473 125 .632 ,-207.12 1 173 202
=
1.61/-61 32026.01 #21 1. ,76-..65 41737 ,7/,-3056 ,-79-1 87/ 2
72-6 ,-207.125 ,.2017 ,7/ 6 -26.86-= ! 766717 /.6 1,26 ,7/ 6 -26.8&
6- 32-601 #21 2,7015 6&87/ =
(-7. 6797 0525 2,70126.0. 2,704.65 /05 4,8 ,-79- 3 42117 -.2.
879/ 3. 871/ ,.-./ 2,701.12. ,-77/56 ,-73.-8 1 $3-./717176%= /7 846 68.
67 3 3 7 -26.86-. 73-..11 ,-7.7-73 ,-2663.6 2/.5 32-602422
0522
37,07.12. 8767-7 5305.65 42.11 -.2 4,8 ,7437052 2,70156 1.87087
,-7.73 2,70126.0. 1 7/17 ,-7.7-. =

(-7. 10225 0567- 1.77/27 3,701.12. . -5/ 3763 =
' d()(d) &d()'&{) d%&*'(* (M, x)

1
M

x

M

0 1 M

x
v7 2G9` JS5Dw68 G9:9SG: 7G9:57H: G707G9:H4829 017;1:<<2 M 348 6G074569248 g > 6
Hr735A< 3:55A< 348 E97F 017;1:<<A G9:9SG 7G9:57H69G8 E9: 017;1:<<: 646 529. 646 .
31S;6<6 G47H:<6 . 016<256<: 3:55:8 017;1:<<: M D 3:557<S Hr73S 646 529=
) )}) x!! ,,&#*-) &d()'&{) 27Br736<7 12:46N7H:9` JS5Dw6_ G9:9SG: 7G9:57H: 6G
074569248 g > 5: 6G074569242 g^. 97 2G9` 527Br736<7 5:06G:9` 017;1:<<S M 348 6G07456
9248 g^. D7971:8 348 0:1A (M , X) 7012324829. 7G9:57H69G8 46 6G07456924` g > 016 HA074
2
1
52566 017;1:<<A M 5: Hr735Ar 3:55Ar X 646 529=
1
i17B42<: 7G9:57H: 521:N12X6<: 348 0176NH74`57F 0:1A v`_165;EDH6H:42595Ar

6G074569242F=
i17B42<: 7G9:57H: 7D:NAH:29G8 521:N12X6<7F . 2G46 H D:U2G9H2 6G074569242F g > 6 g^
B1:9` <:X65A v`_165;: . <:X65A u:1D7H: . 31S;6r HAU6G46924`57 EDH6H:42595Ar 6< 6G
074569242F . 646 1:N46U5A2 6r D7<B65:w66= @97 7357 6N H:K52FX6r 79D1A96F H 927166 HA
U6G4256F=
:H:F92 07017BS2< 07589` . 07U2<S E97 S9H21K32562 H2157= PG46 6G07456924` 7G9:5:H46
H:29G8 . 97 E<S48w68 HAU6G4256F 07NH74829 5:< 701232469` . 5: D:D7< 6<2557 X:;2 75 7G9:
57H69G8= I 2G46 529 PG46 75 52 7G9:57H64G8 5: 1000 X:;2 u7K57 791:B79:9` 2] 1000 . 6
2] 109 X:;7H= MD74` BA <57;7 X:;7H 6G074569248 <A 52 GE<S4617H:46 . E97 52 ;:1:5961S29
97;7 . U97 6G07456924` 52 7G9:57H69G8 56D7;3:= [752U57 . 2G46 6G07456924` 5:U65:29 07 w6D4S
017B2;:9` 7357 6 97 K2 <57K2G9H7 G7G97856F . 97 G1:NS <7K57 G324:9` HAH73 . U97 75 56D7;3:
52 7G9:57H69G8= 7 GS]2G9HS_9 G4SU:6 . D7;3: G7G978568 52 07H9718_9G8 . : 6G07456924` 56
D7;3: 52 N:H21X:29 GH72F 1:B79A= i16<217< 9:D7;7 G4SU:8 <7K29 BA9` :4;716J< u:1D7H: .
G7G978]6F 6N 7357;7 01:H64: M = { → } =
97BA 1:NH289` 644_N6_ GS]2G9H7H:568 12X2568 017B42<A 7G9:57H: . 016H23< 017G97F
016<21 :4;7169< Gr2<: 017;1:<<A L =s 017H21D6 92712<A 21<: . D7971:8 NHSU69 9:D
V2 GS]2G9HS29 9:D6r 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6G24 a . b . c 6 n > 2 . 9:D6r U97 an + bn = cn Y=
i17;1:<<: . 12:46NS_]:8 E979 0G2H37D73 . 7G9:57H69G8 974`D7 H 97< G4SU:2 . 2G46
92712<: 21<: 52H215:= v:D6< 7B1:N7< . :4;7169< . 12X:_]6F N:3:US 7G9:57H: . H
3:557< G4SU:2 374K25 BA4 BA 37D:N:9` 92712<S 21<: 6 HAH2G96 . U97 017;1:<<:
52 7G9:57H69G8= /0123242562 97;7 . 7G9:57H69G8 46 3:55:8 017;1:<<: . <7K57
GH2G96 D 37D:N:924`G9HS 7012324557;7 <:92<:96U2GD7;7 S9H21K32568 . 6 E97
S9H21K32562 <7K29 BA9` 37H74`57 G47K572= /D:NAH:29G8 . 7B]2;7 :4;7169<:
37D:N:924`G9H: 646 7017H21K2568 9:D6r S9H21K3256F 529=
i17B42<: 7G9:57H: H 0165w602 521:N12X6<: 524`N8 5:06G:9` :4;7169< . D7971AF BA
5: Hr73 074SU:4 706G:562 :4;7169<: 6 <7; 701232469` . 7G9:57H69G8 46 3:55AF :4;7169< 5:
J6DG617H:55Ar Hr735Ar 3:55Ar=
,71562. 767512. 2,70126.05 717 37/26 88 767512. ,562 2,70126.05 68 2 7&
67512. ,-305.97 6-763 2,70126.05 =

b*+&,(- x!p i17H21D: 92712<A 21<:

i ← 5
c ∈ {1, . . . , (i − 1)}
a ∈ {1, . . . , (c − 1)}
b ∈ {1, . . . , a}
n ∈ {3, . . . , i}
a + b = c
n n n
'}(n , (
) & )#&

i← i+1
u7K57 GD:N:9` . U97 7G57H5:8 016U65: 521:N12X6<7G96 N:3:U6 7G9:57H: E97 7021:971
w6D4: . D7971AF 1:B79:29 52701232425572 N:1:522 U6G47 X:;7H H 7946U62 79 G9:53:19

57;7 7021:971: w6D4: . D7971AF 0165897 6G074`N7H:9` 348 0212B71: E42<2597H <57K2G9H:
6NH2G957;7 1:N<21:=
g<2557 7021:971 w6D4:
8H4829G8 016U657F VN:H6G:568Y <57;6r 017;1:<<= i7E97<S.
012K32 . U2< 6G074`N7H:9` 7021:971 w6D4:
. 9]:924`57 017:5:46N61SF92 SG47H68 HAr73:
6N E97;7 w6D4:= 27Br736<7 . U97BA SG47H68 HAr73: 6N w6D4: HA0745846G` U212N 52D797172
D746U2G9H7 X:;7H 016 4_BAr D7112D95Ar Hr735Ar 3:55Ar D7112D957< G7G978566 r1:56<Ar
3:55Ar=
i16H23< Gr2<S 37D:N:924`G9H: 97;7 . U97 017B42<: 7G9:57H: 521:N12X6<:= 48 E97;7 <A
X617D7 BS32< 6G074`N7H:9` H7N<7K57G9` E<S4:w66=
:N7H< 073<57K2G9H7 5:9S1:4`5Ar U6G24 ,),l-c- . 2G46 JS5Dw68 fA . D7971:8 1:H5:
23656w2 5: E42<259:r E97;7 <57K2G9H: . 6 5S4_ h 5: 7G9:4`5Ar . HAU6G46<:
1, 2G46 x ∈ A .
A ⊂ N . A 1:N12X6<7 = fA HAU6G46<: . ;32 f : N → {0, 1}, f (x) =

0, 2G46 x ∈ A =
S5Dw6_ f 5:NAH:_9 ),)(,d(}d& z' -'&d({) A =
A
7D:N:924`G9H7 BS329 G7G9789` 6N U29A1r X:;7H
>= iSG9` 017B42<: 7G9:57H: 1:N12X6<:=
^= v7;3: <7K57 HAU6G46<7 N:0:1:<2916N7H:9` r:1:D9216G96U2GD62 JS5Dw66 f HG2r 1:N12
X6<Ar <57K2G9H . : 6<2557 . GS]2G9HS29 HAU6G46<:8 JS5Dw68 U(n, x) . n, x ∈ N 1:H5:8
0 646 1 . 9:D:8 U97 348 4_B7;7 1:N12X6<7;7 <57K2G9H: A 5:F39G8 m fA (x) = U(m, x) =
S5Dw68 U 5:NAH:29G8 '{,d)*n'& z' ,),l-c -'&d({=
L = R:GG<7916< JS5Dw6_ g
d(x) = 1 − U(x, x) = N HAU6G46<7G96 U(n, x) G423S29 HAU6G46
<7G9` d(x) = S5Dw68 d 8H4829G8 r:1:D9216G96U2GD7F JS5Dw62F 52D79717;7 <57K2G9H:
B = 7 52G47K57 N:<2969` . U97 JS5Dw66 d()x 529 G1236 G2<2FG9H: JS5Dw6F U(n, x) . N:
0:1:<2916N7H:55Ar 0:1:<2917< n . 9:D D:D 79 JS5Dw66 G 57<217< n 75: 7946U:29G8 H
97UD2 x = n =
O = v:D6< 7B1:N7< . G2<2FG9H7 JS5Dw6F
U(n, x) . ;32 n ∈ N . 52 G7321K69 d(x) . r798 07 701232
4256_ 757 374K5: G7321K:9` HG2 r:1:D9216G96U2GD62 JS5Dw66 1:N12X6<Ar <57K2G9H=
T5:U69 S56H21G:4`5:8 JS5Dw68 1:N12X6<Ar <57K2G9H 52 <7K29 BA9` HAU6G46<7F=

i74SU646 01796H712U62 G S9H21K32562< X:;: ^=
M:<A< G47K5A< X:;7< N32G` 8H4829G8 X:; ^= : E97< X:;2 527Br736<7 8H57 GD75G91S617
H:9` :4;7169< HAU6G42568 JS5Dw66 U(n, x) . 6Gr738 6N 01230747K2568 . U97 N:3:U: 7G9:57H:
1:N12X6<:=
M324:2< E97 H 52GD74`D7 X:;7H
^=>= u7K57 5:06G:9` 017;1:<<S. D7971:8 0212B61:29 HG2 G47H: 6N 52D79717;7 :4J:H69: B .
6N D79717;7 G7G9:H48_9G8 92DG9A 017;1:<<= M5:U:4: 75: 0212B61:29 7357BSDH255A2
G47H: . N:92< 3HSBSDH255A2 . 6 9:D 3:422= @9: 017;1:<<: 52 7G9:5:H46H:29G8=
^=^= u7K57 5:06G:9` 017;1:<<S. D7971:8 0212B61:29 HG2 D7112D95A2 017;1:<<A= 48 E97;7
37G9:97U57 HN89` 017;1:<<S G 0123A3S]2;7 X:;: 6 37B:H69` E9:0 017H21D6 G47H: 5:
97 . 8H4829G8 46 G47H7 D7112D957F 017;1:<<7F= @97 X:; HAU6G46<=
^=L = u7K57 5:06G:9` 017;1:<<S. D7971:8 0212B61:29 974`D7 9:D62 017;1:<<A . D7971A2
7G9:5:H46H:_9G8= 48 E97;7 37G9:97U57 HN89` 017;1:<<S G 0123A3S]2;7 X:;: 6 6G
074`N7H:9` 017w23S1S 017H21D6 017;1:<<A 5: 7G9:57H 9:D:8 017w23S1: 07 01230747
K256_ GS]2G9HS29= [17<2 97;7 <7K57 G324:9` 2] 3707456924`5S_ 017H21DS 5: 97 .
U97 12NS4`9:97< HA07452568 017;1:<<A 8H4829G8 0 646 1 = 48 E97;7 37G9:97U57 6N
HG2r D7<:53 HAH73: 1:N12X69` 974`D7 D7<:53A HAH73: 0 6 1 . G7H<2]55A2 G D7<:537F
N:H21X2568 HAU6G4256F=
^=O = u7K57 5:06G:9` 017;1:<<S. D7971:8 074SU:29 5: Hr73 5:9S1:4`572 U6G47 n 6 H7NH1:
]:29 92DG9 017;1:<<A . D7971AF BS329 HAH2325 017;1:<<7F G 0123A3S]2;7 X:;: n<
07 GU9S=
^=Q= u7K57 5:06G:9` 017;1:<<S. 12:46NS_]S_ JS5Dw6_ U(n, x) = 48 E97;7 527Br736<7
HN89` 017;1:<<S G 0123A3S]2;7 X:;: 6 073:9` 2F 5: Hr73 n = v2DG9 017;1:<<A . D797
1AF 75: H2159 H D:U2G9H2 12NS4`9:9: . 6 Hr735A2 3:55A2 x G423S29 5:01:H69` 5: Hr73
E<S48971S= R2NS4`9:9 HAU6G42568 E<S48971: G423S29 H215S9` H D:U2G9H2 12NS4`9:9: HA
U6G42568 JS5Dw66 U(n, x) =
T:<296< . U97 3:5572 37D:N:924`G9H7 016H23257 52 348 <:X65A v`_165;: . : 348 52D797
17;7 6G074569248 . 348 D79717;7 H7N<7K57 G324:9` HG2 S07<85S9A2 32FG9H68 . H U:G957G96 .
E<S48w6_ E97;7 6G074569248 5: 5< G:<7< 6 D7<07N6w6_ 017;1:<< 07 3HS< 3:55A< 017
;1:<<:< a 6 b G7G9:H42562 017;1:<<A c . D7971:8 12:46NS29 JS5Dw6_ . 1:H5S_ D7<07N6w66
JS5Dw6F . 12:46NS2<Ar 017;1:<<:<6 a 6 b =
7422 074572 37D:N:924`G9H7 <7K57 5:F96 H D56;2 \ =
# (& " & !%!#%" #'&((
[17<2 017B42<A 7G9:57H: 2G9` 2] w24AF 183 521:N12X6<Ar N:3:U= i16H23< 016<21
2] 7357F 52HAU6G46<7F JS5Dw66 . 348 E97;7 HH23< 0758962 EDH6H:42595Ar 017;1:<<=

M M

1 2

) )}) x!y! {{)*'('&d(n { )*+&,(-&{ :5A J71<:4`5A2 706G:568
M1 6 M2
g g
017;1:<< 348 6G074569242F > 6 ^= S5Dw68 1:G07N5:9. 12:46NS_9 756 7365:D7HA2

HAU6G46<A2 JS5Dw66 646 529. : 6<2557 . (a, b) 1:H5 1 . 97;3: 6 974`D7 97;3: . D7;3: 3:55A2
017;1:<<A 016<256<A D 7357<S 6 97<S K2 <57K2G9HS G47H 6 348 4_B7;7 Hr7357;7 G47H:
6N E97;7 <57K2G9H: 074SU:_9 7365 6 979 K2 12NS4`9:9= q 7G9:4`5Ar G4SU:8r Eq 374K57
BA9` 1:H57 0 = T:3:U: 5:06G:9` 017;1:<<S M 348 <:X65A gL . D7971:8 12:46NS29 3:55S_
3
JS5Dw6_=
PG46 H D:U2G9H2 6G074569242F g >. g^. gL B1:9` <:X65A v`_165;: 646 <:X65A u:1D7H: .

646 31S;62 v`_165;EDH6H:42595A2 6G074569246 . 97 E9: N:3:U: =
i17B42<A 7G9:57H: 6 EDH6H:425957G96 521:N12X6<A 646 01:D96U2GD6 521:N
12X65<: 6 348 017;1:<< . N:06G:55Ar 5: B74`X65G9H2 G7H12<255Ar 8NAD7H
017;1:<<617H:568= PG9` 0758962 v`_165;07457;7 8NAD: 017;1:<<617H:568
8NAD: 017;1:<<617H:568 . 5: D79717< <7K57 GE<S4617H:9` 1:B79S <:X65A
v`_165;: . 97 2G9` 5:06G:9` 017;1:<<S. D7971:8 074SU:29 5: Hr73 J71<:4`572
706G:562 017;1:<<A 348 <:X65A v`_165;: 6 5:U:4`572 G7G978562 4259A . 07G42
U2;7 H 97U57G96 E<S461S29 HG2 X:;6 1:B79A <:X65A v`_165;:= 48 9:D6r
8NAD7H 017B42<A 7G9:57H: 6 EDH6H:425957G96 97U57 521:N12X6<A= 7 2G9` 8NAD6
017;1:<<617H:568 . 52 8H48_]62G8 v`_165;0745A<6 . H U:G957G96 . 8NAD6 . H
D7971Ar 0731:NS<2H:29G8 D752U57G9` 0:<896 . 37G9S057F 017;1:<<2 D752U57G9`
:312G57;7 017G91:5G9H: 8U22D 0:<896 = : 9:D6r 8NAD:r 524`N8 G<7324617H:9`
H 07457F <212 B2GD752U5S_ 4259S <:X65A v`_165;:= 7 6 348 56r . 017B42<S
7G9:57H: 5: 01:D96D2 524`N8 12X69` . 9:D D:D E97 07912BS29 7U25` B74`X7;7
H12<256=
i17B42<A 7G9:57H: 6 EDH6H:425957G96 1:N12X6<A 46X` 348 017G9Ar 6G074569242F= v:D .
5:016<21 . 017B42<: EDH6H:425957G96 D752U5Ar :H97<:97H :4;7169<6U2GD6 1:N12X6<: 5:
6G074569248r . HAU6G46924`57 EDH6H:42595Ar <:X652 v`_165;:=
i12347K692 . D:D <7K57 017B42<S 7G9:57H: GH2G96 D 017B42<2 EDH6H:425957G96
6 5:7B7179. 97 2G9` D:D . 6<28 JS5Dw6_ G9:9SG: 7G9:57H: . 12:46N7H:9` JS5Dw6_
EDH6H:425957G96 Eq 6 5:7B7179=
iSG9` S 5:G D:D6<97 US37< 078H64:G` 12:46N:w68 JS5Dw66 7G9:57H:
IsApplicable 6G
074569248 g > 5: 6G074569242 gL = v7;3: GD75G91S61S2< 017;1:<<S A 348 6G074569248 gL .
D7971:8 0212B61:29 HG2 H7N<7K5A2 Hr73A 6 N:0SGD:29 E<S48971A 6G074569242F g > 6 g^
G 017;1:<<:<6 M 6 M 348 E96r Hr737H= i17;1:<<: A BS329 7G9:5:H46H:9`G8 . 974`

D7 2G46 12NS4`9:9A HA07452568 E96r 017;1:<< (M , x) 6 (M , x) 1:N46U5A= v7;3:
1 2
(A, {M1, M2}) 1:H57 > 97;3: 6 974`D7 97;3:. D7;3: 017;1:<<A M1 6 M2 52
1 1 2 2
EDH6H:42595A
A = 0212B61:9` HG2 H7N<7K5A2 x 6 N:D75U69` HAU6G42568 . 2G46 1 (M1 , x) 6= 2 (M2 , x);

(M , M ) = 1 −
1 2
(A, {M , M }).
1 2
(71.176 /-.1797 ,-76-163 5..8 ,562 5317 767-.1 1,-2.- 3 548. ,-79-&
2-73125 2 = 7 67 548 2 1.045 6-797 1436 -219&,701 = 482 ,-79-2-73&

125 3 8767- ,-767 1.6 ,715625 /-. 67 530565 -219&,7012 765 871.17 67
1. 7.6 /7326 2 $32026.017 72 % 1 ,-8628. = +,-./.026 76173265 /115 ,-7&
9- 1 2 202 1.6 ,-862.82 68. 0717 88 2 /05 ,-79- /05 #21 -219 =
! .6326.017 1 87,6.-
32&2617 -26.86-7 ,-79- 3/.05.65 232 6 ,562
2 2.117 67087 -4021 41.12 796 ,-2126 /-. 3 548. 2 = (71.176 /-.17&
97 ,-76-163 ,743705.6 ,-776-.6 3 871.17. 17.637 767512 ,562 2 7,-./.026
6. 8767-. ,-237/56 8 42802312 = 7 -4.- 17.63 3. 37471 767512 ,562
167087 3.028 2 6 2/.5 ,-862.82 1.7.632 =
q 32FG9H6924`57G96 GH736<7G9` 52GD74`D7 G47K522= i12K32 U2< N:0SGD:9` HAU6G42568

g
U1 (M1 , x) 6 U2 (M2 , x) 527Br736<7 SB2369G8 U97 017;1:<<A E<S48971A 6G074569242F > 6

g^ 52 VN:H6G5S9Y H7 H12<8 HAU6G42568= 48 E97;7 37G9:97U57 073:9` E96 E<S48971A G SD:
N:55A<6 :1;S<259:<6 5: Hr73 JS5Dw66 = PG46 7365 6N 56r VN:H6G:29Y. 97 6
31S;7F 374K25 VN:H6G:9`Y. 65:U2 756 52 EDH6H:42595A 6 017;1:<<: A N:H21X:29 1:B79S=

/B1:95:8 GH736<7G9`
(A, x) D Eq 7U2H635:= :55S_ 017;1:<<S G N:J6D
G617H:55A<6 Hr735A<6 3:55A<6 x 527Br736<7 017H2169` 5: EDH6H:425957G9` 017;1:<<2 .
D7971:8 HG2;3: N:H6G:29=
# (& &"(#%" "&&!%# #'# & !!"$
48 074579A D:1965A 016H23< 2]2 735S N:3:US. 521:N12X6<S_ 5: v`_165;EDH6H:42595Ar

6G074569248r=

) )}) x!-! "%, *' ,),l-&d( )z)'(&{&+& ,){'' :06X692 017;1:<<S
348 6G074569248 g . D7971:8 074SU:29 5: Hr73 706G:562 <57;7U425: P G 1:w675:4`5A<6
D7EJJ6w6259:<6 79 52GD74`D6r 0212<255Ar . 6 H7NH1:]:29 1 646 0 H N:H6G6<7G96 79 97;7
0SG97 <57K2G9H7 12X256F S1:H52568 P = 0 H 1:w675:4`5Ar U6G4:r 646 529=
i17B42<: GS]2G9H7H:568 12X2568 E97F N:3:U6 BA4: GJ71<S4617H:5: =
64`B2197< H

>s?? ;= 6 12X25: = u:968G2H6U2< H >sj? ;=
64`B219. D752U57 . GJ71<S4617H:4 GH7_ 017B42
<S B2N S07<65:568 v`_165;EDH6H:425957;7 6G074569248 97;3: <:X65: v`_165;: 2] 52
BA4: 0163S<:5:= /5 6G074`N7H:4 0758962 U9D7 G02w6J6w617H:557F 017w23S1A :4;7169
<:. 6G074582<7F U247H2D7< <:92<:96D7<=
T:<296< . U97 N:3:U: 70123242568 1:N12X6<7G96 G6G92<A :4;2B1:6U2GD6N S1:H5256F
S1:H5256F H63: P = 0 . ;32 G01:H: 79 N5:D: V1:H57Y G9769 <57;7U425 G 1:w675:4`5A<6
D7EJJ6w6259:<6 H D7<042DG5Ar U6G4:r :4;7169<6U2GD6 1:N12X6<:= :F325 12X:_]6F 2
:4;7169< . H12<8 1:B79A D79717;7 7;1:56U257 <57;7U4257< 79 U6G4: S1:H5256F 6 6r 1:N<21:
75 8H4829G8 H:K52FX6< :4;7169<7< D7<0`_92157F :4;2B1A=
M2;7358 H G:<Ar 1:N5Ar 7B4:G98r <:92<:96D6 8NAD6 6 ;1:<<:96D6 . :4;2B1: . 927168
U6G24. 5:F3257 <57K2G9H7 659212G5Ar :4;7169<6U2GD6 521:N12X6<A2 N:3:U6=
& "% !
&(&!"$
>= u7K57 07G91769` 6 S56H21G:4`5AF :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF <7; BA 6592101296

17H:9` 4_B7F :4;716J< . HD4_U:8 G:<7;7 G2B8=
^= uA <7;46 BA 37D:N:9` EDH6H:425957G9` <:X65A v`_165;: 6 <:X65A u:1D7H: D75
G91SD96H5A< 0S92< . : 6<2557 07G91769` <:X65S v`_165;: . D7971:8 <7;4: BA 6592101296
17H:9` 4_B7F 571<:4`5AF :4;716J< u:1D7H: 6 . 5:7B7179. 07G91769` :4;716J< u:1D7H: .
D7971AF 65921012961S29 4_BS_ <:X65S v`_165;:=
L = t<2562 1:B79:9` H 1:<D:r 1:N46U5Ar 6G074569242F 8H4829G8 H:K5A<= 2G<7918 5:
52D7971S_ 6GDSGG9H2557G9` <:X65A v`_165;: 6 <:X65A u:1D7H: 52016;7357G9` 348 12
X2568 01:D96U2GD6r N:3:U 756 3:_9 0123G9:H42562 7B :H97<:957< 6 0173SDw67557< 017
;1:<<617H:566 r798 5: 42Dw68r <A 6r 1:GG<:916H:46 D:D G123G9H7 70123242568 0758968
HAU6G46<7G96= q G7H12<255Ar 8NAD:r 017;1:<<617H:568 X617D7 1:G017G91:525A 12;S481
5A2 HA1:K2568
6 0127B1:N7H:568 G917D 5: 7G57H2 12;S4815Ar HA1:K256F

. D7971A2 07 GS96 8H48_9G8 1:GX612562< :4;716J<7H u:1D7H:= i123G9:H42562
7B :H97<:9:r 6 <:X652 v`_165;: 6;1:_9 D4_U2HS_ 174` H N:3:U:r G7N3:568 E42D91755Ar
HAU6G46924`5Ar SG917FG9H=

O = g328 07G9172568 E<S461S_]6r 017;1:<< 6 SG917FG9H X617D7 6G074`NS29G8 H D7<

0`_921:r= i7U96 56D7;3: 52 06XS9G8 017;1:<<A :4;7169<A H G6G92<2 075896F 6 01:H64
G6G92<2 D7<:53 D752U57;7 6G074569248 017w2GG71: D7<0`_921:= 74`X65G9H7 017;1:<<
G2;7358 06X29G8 348 52D79717F :BG91:D957F <:X65A . D7971:8 E<S461S29G8 017;1:<<7F
E<S489717< 5: 12:4`57< D7<0`_9212= i16U< E9: D75G91SDw68 <7K29 BA9` <57;7G9S025
U:97F . 97 2G9` G7G9789` 6N w207UD6 017;1:<< . D7971A2 0176NH7389 31S;62 017;1:<<A 348
31S;6r 6G074569242F 6 9=3=. 016 E97< <57;7D1:957 0176NH7369G8 0127B1:N7H:562 65J71<:
w66 6N 7357;7 0123G9:H42568 H 31S;72= [:D 56 G91:557 . E96 G47K5A2 07G9172568 0176Gr7389
6<2557 6N K24:568 U247H2D: S017G969` 6 G9:53:196N7H:9` 017w2GG 12X2568 01:D96U2GD6r
N:3:U= @<S48w68 H619S:46N:w68 HAU6G46924`5Ar <:X65 6 1:N46U5Ar SG917FG9H 8H4829G8
H:K5A< X:;7< 5: E97< 0S96=
Q= R2:4`5AF D7<0`_921 6 12:4`5AF 659210129:971 6<2_9 D752U5S_ 0:<89`= q G64S D7
52U57G96 0:<896 H7N56D:29 57HAF 960 7G9:57H: 52rH:9D: 0:<896= q GH8N6 G D752U57G9`_

0:<896 5: 12:4`5Ar D7<0`_921:r . H7017G S91:U6H:29
G<AG4= PG46 4259S u:X65A v`_165;: 7;1:56U69` . 97 017B42<: 7G9:57H: G9:529 1:N12X6<7F=
I5:47;6U5:8 G69S:w68 6 G 34657F G47H: H :4;716J<:r u:1D7H:= PG46 S <:X65A 7;1:56U25:
0:<89` . 97 U6G47 H7N<7K5Ar G7G97856F E97F <:X65A H G4SU:2 uv <57K2G9H7 G7H7DS0
5Ar G7G97856F tt 6 4259A D752U57 . : N5:U69. VN:H6G:_]62Y :4;7169<A E97 :4;7169<A .
D7971A2 016H7389 D w6D46U2GD7<S 07H971256_ G7G97856F <:X65A= q GH8N6 G E96< <7K29 07
D:N:9`G8 . U97 017B42<A :4;7169<6U2GD7F 521:N12X6<7G96 348 12:4`5Ar D752U5Ar D7<0`_

9217H 529= 7 N32G` 5:G 073G9212;:29 31S;:8 B23:
. D7971:8
7D:NAH:29G8 B74`X7F 348 w247;7 183: H:K5Ar 01:D96U2GD6r N:3:U 5:016<21 . 348 N:3:U6
017;57N: 07;73A . U6G42557;7 12X2568 N:3:U DH:597H7F <2r:56D6 . <7324617H:568 6 :5:46N:
J6N6U2GD6r 017w2GG7H H 3H6;:9248r . H 7D2:5:r . G745w2 6 31== M1236 :G02D97H HAU6G46924`

57F G47K57G96 BA46 5:NH:5A D7<B65:w6755:8 G47K57G9` 6
G47K57G9` 706G:568. H12<8 HAU6G4256F :4;7169<6U2GD:8 G47K57G9` 6 912BS2<:8 0:<89`=
i:<89` 6 G47K57G9` D75G91S617H:568 07D: 073H4:G95A U247H2DS 017;1:<<6G97H <57;7 . :
<2973A 71;:56N:w66 D1S05Ar 017;1:<<6G9GD6r 0172D97H B7422 646 <2522 6NH2G95A 6 791:B7
9:5A . 0:<89` 97K2 3247 5:K6H572= :6B7422 H:K5A< :G02D97< HAU6G46924`57F G47K57G96
8H4829G8 H12<8= 2 6<229 G<AG4: 06G:9` 017;1:<<S 1:GU9: 91:2D97166 1:D29A . 2G46 N:
H12<8 HAU6G42568 1:D29: SK2 070:39 H w24` 6 2 524`N8 BS329 071:N69` G123G9H:<6 01796
H71:D2957F 7B7175A= :D9 H12<2557F G47K57G96 6G074`NS29G8 . 5:016<21 . H G6G92<:r N:]69A
65J71<:w66= q D16097;1:J66 4_B7F X6J1 <7K29 BA9` 07925w6:4`57 1:GD1A9. 57 2G46 32
X6J17HD: 912BS29 0.5 <45= 429 GS<<:157F 1:B79A HG2r D7<0`_9217H H <612 . 97 X6J1 <7K57
GU69:9` 5:3K5A< U212N 0.5 <45= 429 N:X6J17H:5572 06G`<7 017G97 S91:969 HG8D6F G<AG4=
Z = qG2;3: . G7G9:H488 017;1:<<S 348 <:X65A . G423S29 7w256H:9` 1:N46U5A2 :G02D9A HA
U6G46924`57F G47K57G96 12X:2<7F N:3:U6= i7 D1:F52F <212 . 5SK57 6<29` r798 BA ;1SBA2
7w25D6= 74`X:8 U:G9` 5:06G:557;7 5: 3:55AF <7<259 D73: 52 6G074`NS29G8 6 52 BS329 6G
074`N7H:9`G8 . 9:D D:D 1:N1:B79U6D6 . 02123 92< D:D D73617H:9` . N:BA46 7w2569`
> 7BC< D73: 6 G47K57G9` 2;7 073321KD6 . U6G47 79324`5Ar GS]57G92F 6 D746U2G9H: GH8N2F
<2K3S 56<6
^ 912BS2<S_ 0:<89`
L H12<8 1:B79A 0163S<:55Ar :4;7169<7H=
M2<65:1 L = I4;716J<A u:1D7H:

' $

i1:D96D: 07G9172568 :4;716J<7H u:1D7H:= : 016<212 N:3:

U6 7 GD7B7U5Ar HA1:K2568r 6 SH246U2568 U6G4: 5: 23656wS <A 6NSU6< 7G57H5A2
0165w60A . 7B42;U:_]62 N:3:US 12X2568 :4;7169<6U2GD6N N:3:U H 1:<D:r <:X65A
u:1D7H:=
& %
&%"& #%#!"$ & '#"(# & # &

k)l') k),&{) E97 6G07456924` . 47;6D: 1:B79A D79717;7 N:3:9G8 5:B717< 01:H64
0127B1:N7H:568 Hr7357;7 G47H:= qr73572 G47H7 G7G9769 6N BSDH D752U57;7 :4J:H69: . : 01:
H64: SD:NAH:_9 D:D62 G423S29 G324:9` N:<25A VN:<2569` 073G47H7 5: G47H7 Y=
:B71A 01:H64 017;1:<<A 348 <:X65A u:1D7H: 5:NAH:_9 )*+&,z-)-=
i1:H64: S071837U25A= u:X65: u:1D7H: G5:U:4: 017BS29 016<2569` 021H72 01:H647 .
2G46 757 52 016<25829G8 D 92DS]2<S G47HS. 97 B219G8 H97172 01:H647 6 9:D 3:422 . 07D:
52 HG912969G8 01:H647 . D797172 <7K57 016<2569` D G47HS= i7G42 016<252568 D:D7;746B7
01:H64: <:X65: u:1D7H: G57H: 1:GG<:916H:29 021H72 01:H647= qAU6G42568 N:D:5U6H:_9G8 .
D7;3: HG912U:29G8 01:H647 . 07<2U25572 D:D G97001:H647=
/B7N5:U6< G6<H747< V Y 0SG972 G47H7 . : G6<H747< V Y 017B24=
R:GG<7916< G423S_]6F∅017G97F :4;716J< u:1D7H:

M = { → ∅.
/5 G7G9769 6N 7357;7 01:H64: . 07 D79717<S H7 Hr7357< G47H2 021H72 Hr7K32562 3HSr 073183
63S]6r 79D1AH:_]2F 6 N:D1AH:_]2F GD7B7D BS329 N:<25257 5: 0SG972 G47H7= @979 :4;716J<
1:G07N5:9 01:H64`5A2 GD7B7U5A2 HA1:K2568 G91SD9S1A. : 6<2557 . 01:H64`5A2 GD7B7U5A2
HA1:K2568 75 0127B1:NS29 H 0SG972 G47H7= R:GG<7916< D:D 75 791:B79:29 5: Hr7357< G47H2

→ → → → ∅.
i74SU646 H D:U2G9H2 12NS4`9:9: HAU6G4256F 0SG972 G47H7 =
∅
48 52D7112D957;7 GD7B7U57;7 HA1:K2568 12NS4`9:9 0127B1:N7H:56F 52 1:H25 0SG97<S
G47HS

→ → .
) )}) ax! ! 7D:K692 . U97 706G:55AF :4;716J< u:1D7H: 074SU69 H 12NS4`9:92 0SG972 G47H7
97;3: 6 974`D7 97;3: . D7;3: 5: Hr732 3:57 01:H64`572 GD7B7U572 HA1:K2562= i1:H64`572
GD7B7U572 HA1:K2562 7012324829G8 12DS1G6H5A< 7B1:N7<
• 0SG972 G47H7 8H4829G8 01:H64`5A< GD7B7U5A< HA1:K2562<

• 2G46 s 01:H64`572 GD7B7U572 HA1:K2562 . 97 s 97K2 01:H64`572 GD7B7U572 HA1:

K2562

• 2G46 3:5A 3H: 01:H64`5Ar GD7B7U5Ar HA1:K2568 . 97 2G46 6r 5:06G:9` 1837< . 97 G57H:
074SU69G8 01:H64`572 GD7B7U572 HA1:K2562=

:5572 70123242562 <7K57 N:06G:9` H H632
=

∅

i1:H64: HAH73: 52 G423S29 0S9:9` G 01:H64:<6 073G9:57HD6 :4;716J<7H u:1D7H:= i21
HA2 706GAH:_9 ;1:<<:96DS. 6 G 6r 07<7]`_ G91789G8 G47H: ;1:<<:96D6= q971A2 E97
01:H64: 0127B1:N7H:568 Hr7357;7 G47H:=
M423S_]6F :4;7169< u:1D7H: 017G97 3706GAH:29 H 5:U:47 G47H: G6<H74

M : {∅ →. 1.
T32G` 0SG972 G47H7 G9769 G01:H: 79 N5:D: G9124D6= @97 01:H647 016<25829G8 D 4_B7<S G47HS.
9:D D:D 0SG972 G47H7 D:D BA 5:r7369G8 H5:U:42 D:K37;7 G47H:= /B1:9692 H56<:562 5: 97 . U97
G9124D: H E97< 01:H642 07<2U25: 97UD7F= @97 N5:U69. U97 D:D 974`D7 E97 01:H647 HA074569G8 .
HAU6G42568 7G9:5:H46H:_9G8 . 6 92DS]22 G47H7 1:GG<:916H:29G8 D:D 12NS4`9:9 HAU6G4256F=
) )}) ax!e! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 017H21829 01:H64`57G9` GD7B7U57;7 HA
1:K2568= q G4SU:2 01:H64`57;7 HA1:K2568 12NS4`9:9 374K25 BA9` 1:H25 G47HS . : H G4S
U:2 5201:H64`57;7 G47HS B2N D:D6r46B7 3707456924`5Ar G6<H747H G01:H: 646 G42H: 79
E97;7 G47H:=
) )}) ax!x! R:GG<791692 :4;716J< u:1D7H:

→ ,
M1 =
→ .
q2157 46 . U97 E979 :4;7169< N:<2569 H G47H2 HG2 23656wA 5: 5S46 . : HG2 5S46 5: 23656
wA 97 0176N7F39. 2G46 5: Hr73 073:9` G47H7 q D:D7< G4SU:2 0176N7F39 7G9:57H
HAU6G4256F
M2 = 06X692 . U97 75 324:29= :D7F BS329

) )}) ax!f! R:GG<791692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: / [
12NS4`9:9 HAU6G4256F 5: Hr7357< G47H2 : B H ;
) )}) ax!! R:GG<791692 N:3:US L =^ 5: G91:56w2 O? . D7971:8 BA4: 1:N7B1:5: 5: 42Dw66=
R2X692 E9S N:3:US 348 G4SU:8 . D7;3: w6J1A Hr7357;7 G47H: N:06G:5A H 7B1:957< 07183D2
79 <4:3X2;7 1:N183: D G9:1X2<S=
) )}) ax!y! qA8G5692 . U97 324:29 :4;716J< u:1D7H:
M3 16G= => . D7971AF 5: Hr73 074S
L
U:29 G47H7 H :4J:H692 B = { , } . 6 6<229 1:GX61255AF :4J:H69 B 0 = { , , , , } = [:D7F
BS329 12NS4`9:9 HAU6G4256F . 2G46 5: Hr73 073:9` G47H:
, , ?
/06X692 <57K2G9H7 G47H . D D7971A< 016<256< 3:55AF :4;7169<= i7017BSF92 5:06G:9`

:4;716J< u:1D7H: G <25`X6< U6G47< 01:H64=
) )}) ax!-! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 01606GAH:29 BSDHS ! D Hr7357<S G47HS
G01:H: 016 SG47H66 . U97 :4J:H69 Hr7357;7 G47H: 2G9` B = {, , !} =
M2<65:1 L = I4;716J<A u:1D7H:
) )}) ax!"! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 01606GAH:29 BSDHS ! D Hr7357<S G47HS
G01:H: 974`D7 H 97< G4SU:2 . 2G46 H G47H2 016GS9G9HS29 BSDH: !=
) )}) ax!p! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 12:46NS29 0212H19AH:562 G47H: H :4
J:H692 { , } = q U:G957G96 G47H7 75 374K25 0127B1:N7H:9` H G47H7 =
) )}) ax! .! u736J6w61SF92 :4;716J< 6N N:3:U6 ML =s 9:D6< 7B1:N7< . U97BA 75 0212H71:
U6H:4 G47H: H :4J:H692 { , , 3} = /B1:9692 H56<:562 5: U6G47 01:H64 073G9:57H7D= :F3692
:G6<09796DS U6G4: 01:H64 073G9:57H7D H N:H6G6<7G96 79 1:N<21: :4J:H69:=
MS]2G9HS29 46 G07G7B 07G9172568 :4;716J<: . H D79717< U6G47 01:H64 017071w675:4`57
1:N<21S :4J:H69: PG46 3: . 97 016H23692 016<21 . 2G46 529. 97 37D:K692 07U2<S=
) )}) ax! ! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 12:46NS29 S3H72562 U6G4: . 0123G9:H
42557;7 H7 Hr7357< G47H2= gG074`NS29G8 G423S_]22 0123G9:H42562 U6G24
> VY. ^ VY. L VY. O VY. = = =
) )}) ax! e! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 12:46NS29 S3H72562 U6G4: . N:3:557;7
H 3H76U57F G6G92<2 GU6G42568= q U:G957G96 . 374K57 7G9:9`G8 . : G47H7 374K57
0127B1:N7H:9`G8 H G47H7 =
) )}) ax! x! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF D 5:9S1:4`57<S U6G4S. N:3:557<S H
3H76U57F G6G92<2 GU6G42568 . 37B:H4829 1 = q U:G957G96 . 374K57 0127B1:N7H:9`G8 H . G47H7

H G47H7 . : G47H7 H G47H7 =
) )}) ax! f! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 G47H7 . G7G978]22 6N
7356r 23656w . 6 H7NH1:]:29 H D:U2G9H2 12NS4`9:9: G47H7 6N 23656w H3H72 B74`X2F 3465A=
) )}) ax! ! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 12:46NS29 S<57K2562 5:9S1:4`5Ar
U6G24 . N:06G:55Ar 073183 5: Hr7357F 42592 9:D . D:D E97 706G:57 H N:3:U2 ML =>> T:06G6
U6G24 H7 Hr7357< G47H2 63S9 31S; N: 31S;7< 073183=
) )}) ax! y! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 B65:1572 G47H7 6
H7NH1:]:29 G47H7 6N 23656U2D . ;32 U6G47 23656U2D 1:H57 U6G4S 5S42F H 6Gr7357< G47H2=
) )}) ax! -! u7K57 46 GD75G91S617H:9` :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73
5:9S1:4`572 U6G47 n . N:06G:5572 H 3H76U57F G6G92<2 GU6G42568 . 6 H7NH1:]:29 G47H7 6N n
23656w PG46 3: . GD75G91S61SF92 2;7 . 2G46 529 37D:K692 . U97 524`N8=
) )}) ax! "! :06X692 :4;716J< u:1D7H: . D7971AF 074SU:29 5: Hr73 G47H7 G7G978]22 6N
n 23656w 6 H7NH1:]:29 H D:U2G9H2 12NS4`9:9: G47H7 6N : n2 23656w B 2n 23656w=

→ ,



→ ,





→ ,

,


,
 
→ → ,


 
∅ →
 

 
→ , 
→ ,
  

  
→ ,

M2 = → , M3 = M4 = → ,

 →
, 

 → , 
 → ,

→. ∅,

 

∅ →. ∅. → ,
 




→ ,





→ ,




→ ∅.

R6G= L => /06G:568 :4;716J<7H u:1D7H:

M4 . D7 71AF 5: Hr73 074SU:2 G47H7 H :4J:H6 2

) )}) ax! p! R:NB216 2 :4;716J< u:1D7H:

B = { , , , , , } . 0123G :H48_]22 G7B7F 47;6U2GD72 HA1:K2562 G7 GD7BD:<6 6 BS42HA<6
7021:w68<6 47;6U2GD72 gg
6 47;6U2GD72 g 6 H7NH1:]:2 12NS4` : HAU6G42568
3:557;7 47;6U2GD7;7 HA1:K2568= i16716 2 7021:w66 <25`X2 . U2< S 7021:w66 = M6<H74

7B7N5:U:2 . : G6<H74 = /06X6 2 <57K2G H7 G47H . D D7 71A< 016<256<
3:55AF :4;716J<= 71:B7 :F 2 2;7 :D . U 7BA H G4SU:2 52D7112D 57;7 HA1:K2568 5: Hr732
12NS4` : BA4 1:H25 = i17H21` 2 01:H64`57G ` 1:B7 A :4;716J<: 5: G47H:r .
=

#%"
" &&"
A = { , , 3} N:3:5A :4;716J<A P . Q 6 R
) )}) ax!e.! q :4J:H6 2
3
→ 3,
P : { 3 → 3 , Q : { 3 → 3 , R: 3 → 3.
q2157 46 . U 7 JS5Dw68 . 12:46NS2<:8 :4;716J<7< . 8H482 G8 D7<07N6w62F JS5Dw6F . 12:
R
46NS2<Ar :4;716J<:<6 P 6 Q = / H2 7B7G5SF 2=
) )}) ax!e ! :N7H< :4;716J< u:1D7H: &,)}{)o$- . 2G46 H D:K37< 01:H642 073G :
57HD6 3465: 42H7F U:G 6 B74`X2 3465A 01:H7F U:G 6= 7D:K6 2 . U 7 348 SD71:U6H:_]6r
:4;716J<7H 017B42<: 7G :57H: :4;716 <6U2GD6 1:N12X6<:=
) )}) ax!ee! :N7H< :4;716J< u:1D7H: '*'o$- . 2G46 H D:K37< 01:H642 073G :
57HD6 3465: 42H7F U:G 6 B74`X2 46B7 1:H5: 34652 01:H7F U:G 6= 7D:K6 2 . U 7 348 52S3
4658_]6r :4;716J<7H 017B42<: 7G :57H: :4;716 <6U2GD6 1:N12X6<:=
2Dw68 O = NAD6 6 <2 :8NAD6

' $
GG G !" #G $ %!"$ &' H( &'
#H!"$ G )*$ H+F, &' % *G $ H+F -#.
% G&, % G& #G % G&/0 1 2, '3* )G 34 G 3 3.
3 5$ 6G 70 8 )359 G#!"'H9"G& # #G9 !29 H*G!&
%9*G $ H+F,'#G$ H )9F #!"G F 9:0 ; E9F ! .
: 9 + #' G& G &' #G& %!"$ &' H -9&' /,
GH % -9:/ <E 3G.;30 8 )359 9H G#!"'H9"G& H
5!" F=$ ! :&$0
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& -#!"G &/, % G& -!2)*G &/ #G9% G& -)9& #!"G &/ .
9:, G9 0
& %
C!" &' D E9 9!, G 9 23!& #$59G& )99" #2.
G930 EG9 '#G %9*G $ H+F G #F"4 :%, ' H %9*.
G $ #:F G ) D E9 %!"F &' , ' F HG G = !0 G' #.
2H& 9 + &H!&49G& %!" &' 0 E9 GG #H! #G9&
9$ #2 *H9 #5! 5!& +52 &' #2H& -%!"
#G/0
; E9F ! : #' G& G G !" H+ %!" &' 0
IJKL MNOPQRSTKU VLWXWYTKU PKNOZ[TQ\
]H!" G )* H+& D E9 G!H ' G ) , 9 +9 G99"G& 9
%9*G 2 H+&, G! ' 2 3)9" HG ' _ %9*
__ G $ #:F
*G!0 ;#, 9 H+& ((1 ∗ 2) + (3 ∗ 4)) G99G& ^^ ^ D E9 5 ' #H!"$
G )*$ H+F 0
]H5H # #H!"$ #H!"$ G )*$ H+F(
#H!" #H!"
^_, ^_ ^_, ^^_ ^__, ^_ ^_ ^_ ^_, ^^__ _ ^, ^^_, ^__ ^^_, ^^^_ ^
]H5H G92 #5! +G9H #H!"$ G )*$ H+F0
]H!" G )* H+& D E9 9 #5+G9H G!H H !%H9
_
B = { ^, } , GG9&F ' 5 H3$ G ) D ' H4FF 9 H4FF 0
GG, *9 #H!" G )* H+ GG99 ' *H92 *G! GH!H, 9
5!& +5F 9 H4FF G ) 5!+ )9" #& ' H4F&0 `G!H& HG9H
*G! 9 H4F$ G ) *G! ' H4F$ G ) 5G99*, *9) H+
)! #H!"0
]#)3 59" #5! +G9H #H!"$ G )*$ H+F0

!"#!$ %&' ' #'( & &' !()# %*+,# -'"#!!
,!%( .*- '/0!1 %*+* %2' +()3 (!+ ' # ,!%(4 5'*- '/0!16 ' *#7 ,!%(
.*- '/0!1 %*+* .,# ' # ,!%( 5'*- '/0!18
99 #5! + !2 #&G9"( +5& ' H4F& G ) 5!+ 9" #.
34 9 H4F34 G ) 3, G9&F34 !H H0
]H5H 532 #5!, GH #H!$ HH50
: ;'%%.! <=>?@A> ?B?CD>E
F GGH ∅
F GGH ^ F _
F GGH F F
I.! &' !(' %( 4. !#.& .! '.) %( 4/0! +'5 8 &' !( 5#','.6
,. &4%. %( $ ($.%$ &' !()#- -'"#! 8 J. &' !( 5#','.6 ,. %K
(! #*. &' !()# -'"#! *4"!.) %*+*'!6 . &(4,!.%$ %# ' &' !()#'$8
L . .) &' !( E %(! 5'&!%'.) &' !()#- %*+,#- -'"#!$ $6 . &(4K
,!.%$ &' !()# -'"#!8 J% %( '6 *.- "# &(4,!.) M - %.!N % &0)/
4*'5'##-1 &' !(6 & #'5- '/.%$ <=>?@AOPBQ@ RSCTCUPBQ@ ?B=>VWP@XQ@8
;#, G! #5G9H9" #3G9 G!H HG9 S H #H34 *G9" H92 #H!, 9
#!3* G!H ^_, '*9 G!H ^_ - ! ' GH! S 0 YG! H E9 + #H! #5 G9H9"
_ __
G!H ^ ,9 #!3* G!H ^^ 0 Z )',#!"'3&G" H9 #H!,+ HHG9
G!H H5 ^^^[[[___0 \G#!"'3G& 9#" 99" #H!0 \G9 #H2 GH! S
#5G9H 5 ' HH5$ G!H, HG9 H92 GH! S 9+ #5G9H 5 '
HH5$ G!H -H'+, 532/0 Z , #, + H'&9" ^_ ^^^___ #!3*9"
G!H ^_ ^^^___0
E#G) #5!& &' G #F"4 #H! 'H9G& ]=>QQ>^@SC_` 0 <! #5)
29 $ GG 'H9G& 3G 6Z& !':& &' H #2H&70
a>QWU>P@Wb 132! G ) G#!"'349G& H &5 9: G#:!" GH! 23#.
#H 0 c9) #5* 39", *9 G ) '5G" &H!&49G& G#:!" GH!, '.
!4* $ H 5 H* (
F GGH ∅
F GGH d^d F d_ d
F GGH F F
\'5 5! GH! H #G&$ 29 )35 # H'+G9, ' !4*9" H 5.
H* 0
èfghhgijkg l min opiqpfkg (V , V , P, S) r stp
VT l guvgqji ipfhjwguxwyz {jhqnunq |q wg}ph ~fjhpfp min tqg {jhqnug l nikfyqgg j g
T N
kfyqgg {knkjr
VN l guvgqji wpipfhjwguxwyz {jhqnunq r wp ~pfp{pkgj{ { VT |q wg}ph ~fjhpfp min ntjw {jh
qnu S r
P l knwpownp hwnp{iqn ~fgqju kgtnp ~fgqjun p{ix ~gfg (α, β) j g~j{yqgpi{ q qjtp α → β r stp
α j β wp~{iyp {unqg q guvgqjip B = VT ∪ VN r
S l wgoguxwy {jhqnu |pux sfghhgijkj r S ∈ VN
kgtyh wpipfhjwguxwyh {jhqnunh {qyqgpi{ hwnp{iqn qyqntjhyz j wpsn {unq q guvgqj
ip VT ptp tgupp hy tph fg{{hgifjqgix sfghhgijkj r kninfyz q kgtnh ~fgqjup {upqg {inji
ntjw wpipfhjwguxwy {jhqnu gkjp sfghhgijkj wgyqgi{
~j}ph ~fnp{{ qyqntg q knwipk{iwn{qnntwyz sfghhgijkgz unqn w q guvgqjip V T qyqntjhn

:& 0 G' 9&'
a>D>U> bb +9 !9 9" 53$ #5H$ #5!
#!"$ )*.
$ +
0
a>D>U> bb ] +9, *9 !534F 5 #! 9 + '549 &' #!"$ )*.
$ +
0
F GGH ∅
F GGH d^d F d_ d F
`9+5 # !5
'5* +9 # +9 & *50 ; )35"9 9+ D
9 &' 9" + 9 6#55$
7 6*5$ *5 9
70
Y 9" 9 + '5*, &' &' #!"$ )*$ +
0
a>D>U> bb ;#=9 !29, 9
#'H9 #!" )* +&,
9 9" #!3*9 $5 ! ' ) 'F9 F ! ' 9 9 92,
&!&9 & ! 5H ! #!"
)* + ! 90
a>D>U> bb ;#=9 !29, 9
# * !3 n 59 * ! #!"$ )*$
+
5! 2n 0
]5 ' ( ] 99 3 00 Z # ' !" )*$ +
,
+5
' 9$ # 9! #39" ' 9!* 0 ]! 99 9& !534F( !
) 9 9 &, 9 5H # 52! $, ! ) ' 4F& D 9 # 52.
! '0 \ '+ #!" )* +& 5! 6 99 9349
'+ #39& # 9!* 2% G 0
0 0

!& +5
= 92 2% + # *99" * ! # ) , 9 + 5.
)9" & 5 H ' = A 0
99"& +& '5* # )* +& !534F&(
a>D>U> bb ;#=9 !29, 9
# * !3 n 59 #!" )*
+& 5! 2n 0
9, *9 9 '5* + =9", #!"'3& *4%!/0 ; # 9 5!& 9
'5* # * ! #!"$ )*$ +

3 = %% 9,
#'!9
9 * ! )*$ +
)!"=
5! - 3
!29
)359 )99" != 5!2/0
j {jhqnug X r p{uj p{ix ~fgqjun qjtg X → ... r q kninfnh kgty wpipfhjwguxwy {jhqnu q ~fgqn
og{ij hnwn ghpwjix wg ntwn j qyqntjhyz j wpsn {unq j ~nuojix q jinsp wwnp {unqn w
fjhpw fgujowyp ~fgqjug j n{p{iqu fgujowyp ghpwy wpipfhjwguxwyz {jhqnugz q ~fg
qyz og{iz ~fgqju hnwn ~n{uptnqgipuxwn fg{}jfix hwnp{iqn qyqptpwwyz {unq j fgujowyz
{jhqnunq {p {unqgr kninfyp hnwn qyqp{ij j {jhqnug S wgyqgi{ {unqghj r qyqntjhyhj j
sfghhgijkj juj yknh r kninfy gtgi sfghhgijkg
ntfnwpp n sfgvgz tpi snqnfji{ q upkjj tp{x ~nt sfgvnh hnwn ~nwjhgix wgnf

inopk wg ~un{kn{ij r {nptjwwwyz {ifpunokghj

WNO LVOONO
;)! # 9H
%!"
9
5!& # & &' #F"4 #!
5 35) 5!& *! #"49 5 &!&9 & % < 3 .;3 -<;C,

. , /, 9& )! ')9 5!& # & &' 0
\ 253 <9
9939 959 - !/ #3)! !
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/0 ] 39, 9 959 # & #! 3 .
'$ #! 5, 5#!9!" '+ 9&, 9 #'!&49 '# 9"
9 #! )! H 0
)35 #!"'9" = , 23!&$ +&$0
\9 # # & &' :!$ * !(
$%&'(') GGH F*(%+ ,%-*(%'.$%&'(')
,%-*(%'.$%&'(') GGH /0*( *& 0*( *&1
F*(% GGH d1 d 2 d3 d
/0*( *& GGH d4 d 2 d5 d 2 d6 d 2 d7 d 2 d8 d 2 d9 d 2 d: d 2 d; d 2 d< d
0*( *& GGH d= d 2 /0*( *&
0 0 ( E9 * & 52 &' :!$ * !0

>
E! GGH #!"'349 & 5!& '5!& 52 ! +&, 2 # .
4F20 \9 !"& *9 6 27 99 939 4'3 6!70 E! 9* !
-9!" !, 9 ' *2 5&9 &/ '# 49 & 5$ .
* $0
132! ) #!"'349 5!& 23## 0 E#:!"
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)@ 9, 9
A 5 9 +9 # 39 99" !4) * ! - ', 1 ', 2 .
', 000/0 E! 6 7 99 & # ! )@ 9, 9
+9 9 39 99" -#:!"
!4* B 0 ' ! 1 '/0 :, ! 6C7 99 & # ! )@ 9, 9
+9
# 39 99" !4) * ! ' )!"= 0 -1 ', 2 ', 000/0
;#, ' ! F # #!3
F GGH dD d ^dE d 2 dF d_+ ^dG d 2 dH d_I
+ 9 !
D J DE J DF J DGJ DH J DE GJ DF G DGGJ DE GGJ DGGGJ DE GGGJ DGHGGJ DEHGGH J [[[
9 !534F # !
" (
K GGH F 0 + I L
8 +9 )9" '# 5 #&9 )*$ #! 5, )' #!"'& #:!".
$ ' 5(
K GGH F 0 M L
0 GGH ∅
0 GGH 0
M GGH ∅
M GGH M
:& 0 G' 9&'
Z
? )' #:4 #:!"2 $+5& 6A7 #:4 2 92 $+.
5& 6 7 + '# 9" #F"4 53$ )*$ #?!0 \ #A !5 !3* 5 '
#! &!&9 & 3 0 #!"' ! , C #'!&9 '# 9"
#! )! 9 0
NQ[QY[VLQ[ PKNOZ[TQ P WXNOTW\ MWRSVLW\ TWOQQ
G' %9* $ +
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; '5* ')9 #2. !" 3!&9 + )'*9" 2 !4*$
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, .
9
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:0 ;#,
8 9 I 3 8 I 9
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5 6 I 1 3 ^ _ ^ _
8 I 9 1 5 I 6
4 5 6 7 8 I 1 3 3 ^ ^ ^ ___
4 5 3 6 1 7 I 8
99 9:& '9 & )9
#!"
9:
0 9"9, *9 9 #
%*+*! "# &4%.!.) D + #.#+3 )359 9#99" & 5'*0
A]C=@^Q b 1!" 3!&9 +

)9
#!"
9:

!" 9" !534F
! c #
$
switch(c)
% G &'() *+,-. ⇒
/ *99" # !534F :%

9#9 9" $ * ! X 0

1 2 - /

3 ^ _ X 0
G H d d ⇒ " 0
4 ^ _ ^ ^_
G H dI d ⇒ 56 -7 585 I 585 ^_ _0
9
^ _ ^ ^__
G H d1 d ⇒ 56 -7 585 1 585 ^__ __0
^ _ ^ ^
G H d3 d ⇒ 56 -7 3585 1 585^ 0

^ _
G H dHd ⇒ : .;&< .(.() <+'=> 585^_0
$ end switch
% " !"
#
/ "#
Z !&9.* !9!" 9 $ +

9 9 # 99" %.*'0
1+5 *9 * ! #F9 & 9 , 9!" 9*9 & %9* &
#:&, ' 9 *949 & 5 !9 - ? 22 -/, @ ? 22 -//, 5 #'59 &
99 934F& #:& -3 ! )'* H 'H'5*
6 I7/, '3!"99 ' 9 &
9 -2 - ? @//0 999 !29 * !& #5 9! 5 # 5 5 0 0
a>D>U> bAb ]59 %9* + 64 5 I 6 1 7 3 8 7 ' )9
#!"
9: #*34 !2)* 34 9:40
E!539 999", *9 5 !3* 9 '# !29 #A 5 5 5 )9.
4F
#2 # 5! 0 1 *99"A 5
99!" * ! c9 5!9", !
+ 9*49 & 9:9!" * ! <! ) 35), ! ) $5 # 93#!
#9 !, #9 )@ 9, * ! 9! " 5 )@ 90 8)*

9 9&9 #2 ! * 2 !' 9 90 $5

#9 ! ')49
#9 )! 3#$ 5:, 9 '49 ^CSWP>Q@ , #2 !'9 3+
)99 #9 9 0
8#= + 9 #!, 9 '549 + 9 9$ %9* $ .
+
)9
#!"
9:(
'5 GGH ,FM
'5 GGH '5 d d '5 d 1d
'5 GGH '5 d d '5 d 3d
'5 GGH '5 d d '5 d Id
'5 GGH '5 d d '5 d d
99 #! !539 5#!9" FH #!, # 4F ! "0 +.
9 ! , 5$ ' ! " 239 )9" :! ! 5
99!" * .

!0 9" !" 9:
'# * !0 ]#)3
9 9&9!" # 9" #F"4
Y
# ! &' '# 5
99!"$ * !0 8)99 ! #)!, 9

# 39 9 39 +53 53& +& '5 0 8 )$5 5!& 92, *9) 5 * !

6 !#! "7 5 * !0

1 9#9A 9" '# " 6 5 6 37 3 8 I 7 B (2/((3 − (−4)) ∗ 5) , ! A

(2 − 3)/(4 ∗ (−5))
+ ! ) 3 9#99" 3 3
')9 #:!" 9, 9 # + 93 #! '549 99 93.
4F &' 3 #2 %!#.'*%!,%*! '#'(!5'.-0 99 #2 239 #'9"
!, 5 ' '5$ #!, 5!9" )! !+ 5
9&0
\ * 9 9 9 E*-8% + '59" 3 ' = #&9" #!, # 99"
+53 #!3 99 9 %. ! 9 !539 #&9" !9 #
* 9 #!, *9) #!3*9" 9* '* !, 9

99 !
* 9 #!0
E 9 5!& '5& 9 * $ !'9 D 95!"& )=& 90 <!
#5) # 9 9 +9 3'9" 5 39: 9 E*-8% DGG0
]5H '5 " !=" # 9
# #!, # 4F !" 3!&9 +

)9
#!"
9:(
'5 G ,FM H 4

2 '5 '5 d1 d H 4 1 5

2 '5 '5 d3 d H 4 3 5

2 '5 '5 dI d H 4 I 5

2 '5 '5 d d H 4 5

]!3* $5 9 #!, 9
239 #23 E -ECC/, 9&
E*- %
8
)359 29 !" 3!&90
Z
#5$5 D 99* & 2:& #2 D 9! 9@! 9# '.
)9 !+$ 90 99 # 9
# 9)+9 9.#$5 # = '5*
D #$5 9 #2, =4F$ '5*3, #2, 9 2&9" #2, .
9
=49 '5*30 Z 9.#$5 25& 249 3F 934 !" 53 9
#"49$ 90
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D(n) = D(bn/2c) + D(dn/2e) + 1, D(0) = D(1) = 0.

D(n) = D(n − 1) + D(n − 2) + 1, D(0) = D(1) = 0.

D(n) = (D(n − 1) + D(n − 2))/2 + 1, D(0) = D(1) = 0.

D(n) = (D(n − 1) + D(n − 2))/2 + n, D(0) = D(1) = 0.

D(n) = D(d2n/3e) + 1, D(0) = D(1) = 0.
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5=;1 1"/ 29 /131 2

/27
2320
%)
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& G, s
% 1
u ∈ V [G] \ {s} &
!

d[u] ← ∞
c[u] ←
#
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*
d[s] ← 0
c[s] ←
+
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Q←s
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Q 6= ∅ &

(Q)
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&
c[u] ←
-
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3/ 5
7 43/29/ 2; 202
25=295
2; 5008 /131 : 4/<151; 13
205 6 29
Q
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27=1 43/"35<<8 3/72 4/=1 /51=:0/ 29=1

75?; 13
208 29 /131 2 2 =; 75> / 13
208 /431 1=;?; 1 13
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Q
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8=2 2 0/81 /
053>10081 13
2
08 /
5=;?; 7/01
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52 c
1/ 13
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8 /<15: /
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208 73/<1 13
208 s
1=81 /" 5 +
5="/32< 05/ 2 757?02
:
1=? 13
206 /0 /
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0/>1/
1=8 13
20 @ A/ 01/
053>10081 4/75 13
208 6 / 1:
1=81 4;05
05 7531 1381 13
208 @ A/ /
053>10081 13
208 6
/7310/2 7//38 1B 01
2=1 /508 057/01
6 B3081 13
208 @ A/ /
053>10081 13
208 2=1 /5008<2
/7310/;<2
=; 75> / /
053>100/ 13
208 v 9051021 π[v] 759851 05 13
20 u 6 29 7//3/
13
205 v
8=5 /
053>105 13
205 u ;=;1; 431
110027/< 13
208 v 75> /
13
208 73/<1 s 1: 3/0/ / 20 431
110027 52 π[u] 95 51 131/ 05 <0/>11
+
13
20 "35 5 /301< 1315 ;=;1; 13
205 s 14/75 431
110027/
u → π[u] → π[π[u]] → π[π[π[u]]] → . . .
/
/3B; 05 13
201 s 6 =; 7//3/ π[s] 01/431 1=10/ π[s] = nil
52 π 4/9/=;1 /50/2: 4: / 500/ 13
208 7 +
s =?
/ 13
201 u 5
1 4/ 5950/ 5=11
7 7 6 π[s] = nil
A/ 4: ;=;1; / 02< 29 7355
2 41 <1> s
s
2 u π[u] = s
/;02< 6 4/1< A/ 5="/32< 05/ 2 7355
2 u
4: 5</32< 13
208 4/=1 /51=:0/2 6 75
7/ /0 4/45 5=2 /131 : 1=2205 A/ 4/=1 / π[v] = u
d
51=:0/2 01
851 055=5 /131 : 4/45 5? 5 v
13
208 6 7//381 </>0/ 95 / 20
5" 4/45: 014/31
100/ 29 13
208 s =; 572 13
20 d = 1 /55; π[w] = v
2 29 /131 2 <8 21< <1>081 2<
1=81 13
208 w
5721 13
208
4/<1108 7/01
/131 2 2 =;
02 9051021 d
1 350/ 2 /7/=:7 /131 : 29 2 131/ 431
11002
,
*
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=5 "3445 5 13
20 d = 1 6 / /
35
/5 7/ 6 95 551</1 <52/< π
2 /7310/2 6 <8 05 B< 5 13
208 d = 2 05=/"20/ /
35
/5 1 13
208 d = 2

<8 05 B< 1 13
208 d = 3 2 57 5=11 3448 13
20 / 2057/8<2 905102;<2

d 2 1319 /131 : 4=/B008<2 "3445<2 3445 d = K 431 5=;? /
/
3/0

/=086 3543/350;?1 ; 29 13
208 s 6 05
5"1 K
35
585; 4/=1 /51=:0/ 13
208 29 A/"/
3/05 6 5="/32< 05/ 2 2 7=5 B 7/01
/131 2 13
208 29 3/05
d = K + 1
3/"/1 /75951=:/ /"/ 6 / d 6 82=;1</1 5="/32</< 4/275
23206 350;1;
35/;02? / 13
208 6 50/

102< =/>0/: /42500/"/ 5="/32<5 1< 25: 6 / "35 431 5=;1;
2 1 427/ <1>0/2 5 202
25=295
2? 5008 31
1; O(V ) /4135
2 5> 5; +
/
053>1005; 13
205
1 /
5=105 /131 : 2 951<
1 35<5325:;
27=1 01
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208 <8 43/13;1< 1 <1>081 01 13
208
/A/< 3/72 032 1
27=/
84/=0108 01
/=11 P |Adj(v)| = O(E)
359 /A/< =/>0/: 5="/32<5 3505 O(V + E) v∈V
="/32< 4/275
2320 /10: 5/ 432<10;1; 05 4357271 /0/0/< /0 24/=:

91; =; 05/> 102; 7355
2 41 "35 5 / 2057/8<2 15<2 3B
13
+
57 29<102; 31<; 35
/8 5="/32<56 1=2 <8
1< 24/=:9/5: 431

5=1021 "35 5 2 1 <532
8 <1>0/2 29<102 //1?2< /
359/< 43/
1 3

/3/ 1 5="/32< 7//38 4/ 95 500/< π[u] =; 43/29/=:0/ 13
208 u
3/2 95 31<; O(V ) 7355
2 4: 29 s u
3/1
2< 432<13/< 24/=:9/502; 5="/32<5 ;=;1; 95 55 4/275 7355
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2320 A/ 75 350/1 4/=1 359<135
n × n 5: ;11 =5
23205
7
,
17
2; ="/32<8 05 "35 5 /
/ "35 5
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20
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/ 2</ 05 2 7355
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2
3205 6 02>02 4358
3/13:1 6 / 5="/32< /0/5008 05 6 35
/51
1< =51 31<; 6 43/4/3
2/05=:0/1 4=/5 2 =5
23205

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20 /=251; / 4/275
2320 1< 6 / /0 4851; 2 2
"=
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053>1022 017//3/ 13
208 5="/32< 359 4131/
2 7 1B /
35
/71 6 2 /93551; 7 2/ 0/ 13
201 6 /=:7/ 4/=1 1B /
35
/72
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20 6

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20
%)
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& G
% 1
u ∈ V [G] &
!
c[u] ←
#
π[u] ← nil
$ ) %
&
'
time ← 0
* % 1 13
20
u ∈ V [G] &
+ ()
c[u] =
, (u)
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&
) %
&
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%)
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h[\[]]Yr {VXnYiVj
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nVo]V a^dcWicUt W lVnVGtr Wie\YrGej lVWie\Va[Ueit]VWUc u[pVaq
z2 = AND(x1 , x2 )
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IPCJ CL.C J zcWUen^
B1 = {NOT, AND, OR, XOR}, B2 = {NOT, AND, OR},
B3 = {XOR, AND}, B4 = {NOT, AND}, B5 = {NOT ◦ AND}

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3 +'4$ &/ AND +'! $ $&4'" / & 5 &<
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AND OR XOR ! $$#110'( 44 /10'( &/
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Q IJ
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(+1 4 & $ % &/ &/
∗ x ⊕ y)
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x ⊕ y ⊕ z ∗
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%'-++!&' '*'; !(! ;

{AND, OR, NOT}
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4&0) &3$ 5
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1 3#"1 + 0(01% #'!/ 5 +"''# 13/2)
ANDPMJCL.C iVpcdeWZVe a^X[oe]ceg a ZVUVXVn ]eWZVitb
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ZV Yiea^_ leXene]]^_ WVe\c]e]^ VleX[|cej AND ]eZVUVXê ch leXene]]^_ a TUVn a^X[b
s
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x1 & x3 & ¬ x2 , x3 , x2 & x3 , ¬ x1 & ¬ x2 & ¬ x3 & ¬ x4 .
}2"+$ 0 13/ 41 4! 5 0 ! 1 (7 +'4' #'!/ 0' ) '3$ &<
1
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x1 x2 x3 g(x1 , x2 , x3 )

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x1 x2 x3 → AND<0('

→ ( ¬ x1 & ¬ x2 & ¬ x3 )

→ ( ¬ x1 & x2 & ¬ x3 )

→ ( x1 & ¬ x2 & ¬ x3 )

→ ( x1 & ¬ x2 & x3 )

→ ( x1 & x2 & ¬ x3 )
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¬ (a & b) = ¬ a | ¬ b, ¬ (a | b) = ¬ a & ¬ b.
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Q IJJ *&31

AND(x, y) 4+ &/ OR NOT )

3 *&31 OR(x, y) 4+ &/ AND NOT )
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}

} }
}

}
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x y
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1 + x + y + x · y)
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3 XOR 5 AND )

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x1
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