C.

1 MICROCALCULATOARE

Bibliografie:

1. Calculatoare personale – Introducere în utilizare – Ed. Fis

2. Limbaj C – Ed. Fis

, 6WUXFWXUDJHQHUDO D XQXLFDOFXODWRUSHUVRQDOSF= )

1.1. Schema bloc

UCC
ROM
Memorie UAL
LQWHUQ RWM CPU Controler
COP întrerupere
CACHE CTC
CLOCK

BI
DB (8,16,32,64...)
AB (8,16,32,64...)
CB

Resurse Floppy InteUID  LPT ,QWHUID 

memorie Hard standard COM nestandard
H[WHUQ Cd USB

Periferice I/O LQWUDUHLHúLUH Periferice I/O LQWUDUHLHúLUH

DB – data EXVPDJLVWUDO GHGDWHFXO LPHDPDJLVWUDOHLGH

AB –DGUHVVEXVVDXPDJLVWUDO GHDGUHVH
CB –FRPDQG¶VEXVVDXPDJLVWUDO GHFRPHQ]L
([LVW UHJOHPHQWDWHVWDQGDUGHGHPDJLVWUDOHFDUHSUHFL]HD] GLVSXQHUHDILHF UHLOLQLLD
celor 3 magistrale, în interior accesul la acestea efectuâmdu-se prin intermediul unor sloturi.

6LVWHPHGHLQWUDUHúLLHúLUH I/O
CTC – controler temporizator ceas

BI –LQWHUID GHPDJLVWUDO
CPU – central procesor unity

UAL –XQLWDWHDGHDULWPHWLF úLORJLF

COP – coprocesor matematic
CLOCK – ceas
UCC –XQLWDWHGHFRQWUROúLFRPDQG

1.2. Microprocesorul ( S)
(VWHFUHLHUXORULF UXLFDOFXODWRUILLQGGRWDWGLQFRQVWUXF LHFXXQVHWPLQLPDOGH
LQVWUXF LXQLvQOLPEDMGHDVDPEODUHPQHPRQLFLLQVWUXF LXQLFDUHVHUHIHU ODRSHUD LL
DULWPHWLFHúLORJLFHRSHUD LLFXúLUXULRSHUD LLGHLQWUDUHLHúLUH
 3HQWUXDSHUFHSHLQVWUXF LXQLOHGHOLPEDMGHQLYHOvQDOWHVWHQHYRLHGHFRPSLODWRDUH
WUDQVODWRDUHGHOLPEDMSHQWUXDWUDGXFHLQVWUXF LXQLOHGLQOLPEDMHOHGHQLYHOvQDOt
mnemonicile vQ DVDPEODUHVDXFRGPDúLQ vQ HOHVGH S
8Q SXQFWGHYHGHUHFRPHUFLDODVXSUD S

Micro procesor Pc c Sistem de operare

Intel (AMD,DURON...)
IBM Microsoft (Windows)
80X86

Motorola APLLE Machintosh

68X....

,%0DSXVODGLVSR]L LDFRPHUFLDQ LORUvQF GHODvQFHSXWGRFXPHQWD LDúLVWDQGDUGHOH

Obs:

GH ED] SHQWUX3&DVWIHOvQFkWúLFDOFXODWRDUHOHSURGXVHGHFHOHODOWHILUPHVXQW
1.

compatiblile IBM.
675$7(*,('(0$5.(7,1*128 
0LFURVRIWDPRQRSROL]DWVXFFHVLYSLD D GHVRIWPRQGLDO SULQPHWRGHHFRQRPLFHOD
OLPLWDOHJDOLW LLJHQHUkQGFRQIOLFWHúLDF LXQLvQMXVWL LH
2.

Caracteristici comparative ale microprocesoarelor

8086
80286 IUHFYHQ D I= - Hz
386
486

a b c d e

F Hz O LPHDEXVFP SUH nr. de tranzistori cache

1500 64, 128 100

a )UHFYHQ D HVWHXQDGLQWUDSULQFLSDOHOHFDUDFWHULVWLFLDOHXQXL S GHWHUPLQând în fapt

viteza de lucru a pc-ului.
Este un semnal periodic Semnal periodic

T – perioada semnalului

 VHPQDOXOVHSURSDJ vQWUH
este intervalul de timp în care

2 puncte omoloage T

2
 )UHFYHQ D HVWHLQYHUVXOSHULRDGHLXQXLVHPQDOf(Hz) = 1
T(s)

8QVHPQDOFXIUHFYHQ D GH+] corespunde unei perioade de 1s.

f=50 Hz – IUHFYHQ D FXUHQWXOXLLQGXVWULDOHFKLYDOHD] FXRSHULRDG GHVVDXVHPQDOXOvúL
VFKLPE SRODULWDWHDGHRULSHVHFXQG 

– PLOLDUGPLLRSHUD LLPDúLQ SHVHFXQG

f = 1,5G = 1500000000 – 1 miliard 500 milioane Hz

S Q  P F G 8% GD K N 0 * 7
-12 -9 -6 -3 -2 -1 2 3 6 9 12

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
b O LPHDEXVXULORUVDXPDJLVWUDOHLHVWHGDWGHP ULPHDUHgistrilor care compun
PLFURSURFHVRUXO&XFkWP ULPHDUHJLVWULORUúLO LPHDPDJLVWUDOHLHVWHPDLPDUHFXDWkWHVWH
mai mare viteza sistemului de calcul aferent.
c –

QU GHWUDQ]LVWRULLQWHJUD L – S IDFHSDUWHGLQFDWHJRULDFLUFXLWHORULQWHJUDWHSHVFDU IRDUWH

ODUJ 9/6,vQVHQVXOF LQWHJUHD] SHDFHODúLFLSPLOLRDQHúL
d

chiar miliarde de tranzistori

e
–

1.3. SODFD GHED] (mother board) - vezi bibliografie

1.4. UHVXUVHGHPHPRULHLQWHUQ - bitul
1.4.1. QR LXQHDúLP ULPHDPHPRULL
XQLWDWHDIXQGDPHQWDO GHPHPRULHHVWHELWXOFDUHHVWHRYDULDELO ORJLF ERROHFDUDFWHUL]DW
prin faptul c DUHQXPDLYDORUL

Bitul a fost implemenWDWSULQGLIHULWHXQLW L GHPHPRULHLQHOHGHIHULW  FLUFXLWHELVWDELOHFX

Istoric

tuburi electrice, circuite cu tranzistoare...

0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 - Bayte (octet)

MSB LSB
LSB – last bit
MSB – mous significal bite (cel mai semnificativ bit)
bite 1 - 1
4 bite la un loc = digit
8 bite la un loc = octet
16 bite la un loc = world (16)
32 bite la un loc = double world (32)

Ex. Memoria este organizDW PDWULFHDOvQQRGXULOHPDWULFHLILLQGEL LLFDUHFRQ LQLQIRUPD LD

C.2

ELQDU FDUHeste 0 sau 1.

Obs: Din punct de vedere matematic cu exactitate diIHUHQ D GLQWUH octet, kilooctet ... nu este
103 ci 210 = 1024 § 103

3
Parametrii caracteristrici ai memoriei:

- WLPSGHDFFHVODPHPRULHH[LVW PHPRULLGLQFDWHJRULDFKDFHFXWLPSGHDFFHVIRDUWH

- capacitate de memorare

PLF GDUúLDOWHUHVXUVHGHPHPRULHQXmite resurse de memorie – HDD, CD cu timp de

- mod de organizare -PHPRULHLQWHUQ SULQFLSDO  GHOXFUXS VWUHD] temporal datele

acces mult mai mare)

úL SURJUDPXODUHYLWH] PDUHGHDFFHVGDUFDSDFLWDWHGHVWRFDUH
PLF
- PHPRULHH[WHUQ DX[LOLDU  S VWUHD] LQIRUPD LDSHVXSRUW
H[WHUQFDSDFLWDWHGHVWRFDUHPDUHGDUYLWH] GHDFFHVPLF
- modul de adresare - acces direct sau aleDWRUvQVLWXD LD în care se poate accesa orice
nRG VDXFHOXO ORFD LHDPHPRULHLLQGHSHQGHQWGHSR]L LDVD
- aFFHVSR]L LRQDOVDXVHFYHQ LDOORFD LLOHVHSRWDFFHVDQXPDLvQWU-o
DQXPLW RUGLQH
1.4.2. RAM (random access memory)
0HPRULHFXDFFHVDOHDWRU$FHDVW GHQXPLUHYDIL5:0PHPRULHGLQFDUHVHSRDWHúL
FLWL GDU úL VFULH read and rewrite memory). Ea are un caracter volatil în sensul pierderii
FRQ LQXWXOXLXWLORGDW FXGLVSDUL LDWHQVLXQLLGHDOLPHQWDUHPDLPXOWFKLDU5DP-urile sunt de

DRAM (dinamyc random access memory) –WUHEXLQGV ILH

2 categorii SRAM (static random access memory)

DFFHVDW Fu un ciclu de refresh PHPRU\ UHvPSURVS WDUH FLFOX JHQHUDW SHULRGLF GH S 'LQ
SXQFW GH YHGHUH ORJLF HVWH RUJDQL]DW GHDVHPHQHD VXE IRUP PDWULFLDO vQ QRGXULOH PDWULFHL
ILLQG SODVDW FkWHRFHOXO GHPHPRULH
n – coloane (n = 8, 16, 32, 64 )
m = linii (103, 106...)
5DPXO WUHEXLH V DLEH FDSDFLWDWHD GH PHPRUDUH VXILFLHQW GH PDUH SHQWUX D SHUPLWH
vQF UFDUHD programelor dorite. În cazul în care RAM-ul nu este suficient de mare programul
HVWH vQF UFDW SDU LDO SHQWUX UXODUHD VD H[HFXWkQGX-VH RSHUD LL GH VZDS cu memoria (HDD),
OXFUX FDUHGXFHODVF GHUHDYLWH]HLVDXLPSRVLELOLWDWHDUXO ULL
Variante de RAM
SIMM – single inline memory module
DIMM – double inline memory module
SDIMM –

1.4.3. ROM (read only memory)

FRQ LQXWXO VHS VWUHD] FKLDUúLODGLVSDL LDWHQVLXQLLGHDOLPHQWDUH

Este memoria din care se poate în principiu numai citi având un caracter nevolatil

$UH XQ URO YLWDO OD SRUQLUHD VLVWHPXOXL vQ HD VH S VWUHD] SURJUDPHOH VWULFW QHFHVDUH
pentru derularea transferului între componenteDYkQGDSOLFD LLPDMRUHODSRUQLUHDRULF UXLSF

PROM –SURJUDPDEOHUHDGRQO\PHPRU\FRQ LQXWXOHVWHVFULVGHXWLOL]DWRUGDURGDW VFULVQX

Variante de ROM

se mai poate modifica)

EPROM –HUHDVHEOHSURJUDPDEOHUHDGRQO\PHPRU\PHPRULHFDUHVHSRDWHúWHUJHSUin

EEPROM –VHSRDWHúWHUJHúLUHvQVFULHI U XWLOL]DUHDVXUVHORUGHUDGLD LLXOWUDYLROHWHFLVH

flash-ultraviolete)

XWLOL]HD] R WHQVLXQHHOHFWULF ULGLFDW SHQWUXúWHUJHUHDFRQ LQXWXOXL

FLASH ROM – actualele memoii ROM pentru ultimele pc. SHQWUXvQVFKULHUHúLúWHUJHUHQX
mai sunt necesare tensiuni ridicate ci numai tensiuni normale.

4
1.4.4. 9DULDQWHSHQWUXvPEXQ W LUHDOXFUXOXLFXPHPRULD

([LVW VLWXD LL vQ FDUH PHPRULD QX SRDWH U VSXQGH UDSLG VROLFLW ULORU S În aceste
a) CACHE

VLWXD LL VH LQWURGXF VW UL GH DúWHSWDUH ZDLWLQJ VWDUH FDUH HYLGHQW P UHVF WLPSXO GH U VSXQV
$VWIHO RGDW FX FUHúWHUHD SHUIRUPDQ HORU S DX DS UXW úL PHPRULL PDL UDSLGH FX WLPSLL GH
U VSXQVGHRUGLQXOQDQRVHFXQGHORUGDUFDUHDXSUH XULPDLPDUL
S-DX J VLWúLDOWHGRX VROX LL
D PHPRULHFKDFKHFDUHFRQVW vQLQWHUSXQHUHDXQXLEORFUDSLG65$M între SúL'5$0
([LVW XQ FRQWUROHU FDFKH FDUH vQFHDUF V PHQ LQ vQ PHPRULD FDFKH GDWH VDX
LQVWUXF LXQLSHFDUH SOHYDVROLFLWDvQPRPHQWXOXUP WRU
b) divizarea ram-uOXLvQGRX VDXPDLPXOWHEDQFXULSULQLQWHUFDODUH
1.4.5. 2UJDQL]DUHDORJLF úLDGUHVDUHDPHPRULHL
2ULFH VLVWHP GH FDOFXO vúL JHVWLRQHD] UHVXUVHOH SH ED]D DGUHVHORU GH PHPRULH
5HVXUVHOHDGUHVDELOHVXQWPHPRULOHúLSRUWXULOH)LHFDUHGLQWUHDFHVWHUHVXUVHDXF WHRDGUHV
ELQHSUHFL]DW vQV -úL GHGRFXPHQWD LDRULJLQDO SXV ODGLVSR]L LHGH,%0

LPT –LQWHUID SDUDOHO OLQHSULQWHUDFFHVLELO GLQH[WHULRUSULQFRQHFWRUXOGHGH

Ex:

pini, este format GLQUHJLúWULLVDXSRUWXULSHELWLÂ8 = úLDO-OHD HVWHSLQXOGHPDV

(GND-ground)
Port1 - 0x378 Port3 – 0x37a

&HOHSRUWXULDXILHFDUHFkWHRDGUHV ELQHSUHFL]DW
GND
Port2 – ox379
Adresa AB data bus

Out port (ox378 , ox )

11111111

,QVWUXF LXQHDRXWSRUWWULPLWHODDGUHVDKH[DFRQ LQXWXOXQXLRFWHWIRUPDWGLQGH

 FDUHYDJHQHUDODFHLEL L DOEDVWULLGHODSRUWXOWHQVLXQLKLJKORJLFOXFUXYL]LELOILHFX
DMXWRUXOXQXLLQVWUXPHQWGHP VXU FDUHLQGLF DSUR[LPDWLY9ILHSULQLQWHUPHGLXOXQXLled

2ULFH UHVXUV ILH F HVWH PRXVH PHPRULH LQWHUQ VDX H[WHUQ  FRQWUROHU YRU IL
care se aprinde .

gestionate de p. numai prin adres 

ÌQ FD]XO PHPRULHL SURSULX ]LVH XWLOL]DUHD DGUHVHORU FRQGXFH OD QR LXQHD GH KDUW D
memoriei (MM – memory map)

0h Orice circuit de memorie areORFD LLGHPHPRULH, FRQ LQXWXO

aFHVWRUORFD LLILLQGGDWHOHORFD LLFDUHSRWILDFFHVDWHSULQ
TVI
03 ffh
BIOS

ComparD LHFXFRUHVSRQGHQ D SRúWDO vQFDUHLQIRPD LDGLQWU-o

Adress 8 intermediul adreselor.
DOS

sFULVRDUHHVWHGDW  GDUFDUe SRDWHILWUDQVPLV ODGHVWLQDWDU

-- -- -- --.. ---
-.. - - . –. . ----

shell #1 prin intemediul adresei.

TPA

shell #2

mem. video
9 fffh
ROM date
ffffh BIOS

5
 p. JHVWLRQHD] WRDWH UHVXUVHOH XQXL VLVWHP GH FDOFXO JOREDO $FHVWHD VH vPSDUW vQ 
C.3

mari categorii - porturi

DPEHOH FDWHJRULL GH UHVXUVH VXQW JHVWLRQDWH FX DMXWRUXO FHORU  PDJLVWUDOH GDWH DGUHVH úL
- memorie

ÌQ GRFXPHQWD LD  ,%0 HVWH SUHFL]DW DORFDUHD DGUHVHORU SHQWUX WRDWH UHVXUVHOH
comenzi.

sistemului.
0x378 0x37a TVI oh

BIOS 033fA
DOS
-- -- -- --.. ---
GND -.. - - . –. . ----

ox379
shell #1
TPA

shell #2

S- au exemplificat XUP WRDUHOH

Mem.

D SHQWUXSRUWXULLQWHUID /37
Video
9 fffh

SDUDOHO  PDWHULDOL]DW SULQWU-un BIOS ffffh

ROM

 FRQHFWRUSHSLQLvPS U LWvQUHJLVWULLSRUWSHEL L ILHFDUHúLXQSLQGHPDV JQG

ILHFDUHGLQWUHFHOHSRUWXULDXFkWHRDGUHV ELQHSUHFL]DW IL[  FRPXQ SHQWUXWRDWH
calculatoarele pc. compatibile.
Ex: adresa primului port este 378 hexa
În mod similar toate resursele hard au alocate adrese pentru porturile componente
Ex: adrese pentru portul controlerului video

b) memorie vQ PRG VLPLODU úL DFHDVWD HVWH JHVWLRQDW FX DMXWRUXO DGUHVHORU $GUHVHOH VXQW
Adrese pentru portul controlerului de întrerupere 8259

DORFDWHIL[GHF WUHVWDQGDUGHOHGLQGRPHQLX
([PHPRULDYLGHRDUHXQvQFHSXWGHDGUHV úLRP ULPHELQHSUHFL]DW  )LHFDUHpixel
 FRPSRQHQWDOHFUDQXOXLDUHFkWHR]RQ GHPHPRULHVDXRFWH LFRUHVSRQGHQW vQ
PHPRULD YLGHR(YLGHQWFXFkWUH]ROX LDHFUDQHORUDFUHVFXWFXDWkWHVWHQHYRLHGHPDL
PXOW PHPRULHYLGHRvQFRUHVSRQGHQ 

1.4.5. ,QWHUID DUHDKDUGVRIWVLVWHPXOGHRSHUDUHúLRSHUD LLHIHFWXDWHODvQF UFDUHDVDXOD

S U VLUHDVLVWHPXOXL

Procesor Dos Bios (s.o.)

UTILIZATOR comenzi

Sistemul de operare

Bios
Leader (ROM)

periferice

0HPRULDLQWHUQ

Ccp Dos Bios

Leader Sector de boot config. sys. Auto exe c. bat

6
 5HVXUVHGHPHPRULHH[WHUQ
1.5.1. *HQHUDOLW L
1.5.

5HVXUVHOHGHPHPRULHH[WHUQ VXQWQHFHVDUHvQGRX VLWXD LL

- strict în timpul rXO ULL XQXL SURJUDP DWXQFL FkQG UDPXO QX HVWH VXILFLHQW DS UkQG VLWXD LD
QHGRULW F QGVHIDFHRSHUD LXQHGHVZDSFX+''– XO RSHUD LHFDUHJHQHUDODUHFRQVHFLQ H
QHJDWLYHGDWRULW IDSWXOXLF UHGXFHYLWH]D F
- pentru arhivarea, depozitarea programelor de mari dimensiuni
1.5.2. Floppy

HD 1,44 M
Sectoare
clustere

Pist 

wenable
Fig.a
'LQSXQFWGHYHGHUHORJLFRULFHGLVFHVWHRUJDQL]DWvQSLVWHVHFWRDUHúLFOXVWHUH
([SORDWDUHDUHVXUVHORUGLVFXOXLHVWHDVLJXUDW GHVLVWHPXOGHRSHUDUH8QILúLHUQXHVWHFRPSXV
QHDSDUDW GLQ VHFWRDUH úL FOXVWHUH DGLDFHQWH FL DFHVWHD VXQW GLVSHUVDWH SH VXSUDID D GLVFXOui,
OHJ WXUDvQWUHHOHILLQGDVLJXUDW SULQLQWHUPHGLXOXQRUSRLQWHULDGUHVH - fig.a). Fiecare sector
SRLQWHD] VSUHXUP WRUXOYH]LSURJUDPHVSHFLDOL]DWHvQJHVWLRQDUHDGLVFXULORU

1.5.3. HDD – Hard disk-ul

punct de vedere constructiv úi logicQXGLIHU PXOWGHIORSS\GDUGHUHJXO HVWHIRUPDWdin mai

Face parte din categoria memorilor externe de mare capacitate – 200 – 500 G. Din

DOF WXLHVFXQFLOLQGUX5 PkQYDODELOHUHVWXOFRQVLGHUD LORUH[SXVHODIORSS\

multe discuri cu un ax concentric. Totalitatea mai multor piste omoloage de pe discuri diferite

1.5.4. CD – 8QLW L GHGLVFXULGHWLSFRPSDFW

Din punct de vedere istoric:
- disc optic 1970
- 1982 concernele Sony & Philips au pus la punct

GLJLWDO D LQIRUPD LHLVXFFHVXOILLQGXULDúGLQSULPXODQ

pentru prima data CD-uri audio realizându-se stocarea

vânzându-VH ]HFLGHPLOLRDQHGHXQLW L8OWHULRUGLQDQLL

1985 cd-XULOHDXvQFHSXWV ILHúLSHQWUXPHPRUDUHD
LQIRUPD LLORUQXPHULFH
Analogic = continu (liniar)
Numeric = digital (binar, boole, logic)

A A
Cod numeric

t Dt t

7
 'LQSXQFWGHYHGHUHLQIRUPD LLOHVXQWGHQDWXU DQDORJLF VXQHWHOHHPLVHGHRYLRDU 

infRUPD LHLvQVHQVXOF GLQLQIRUPD LDDQDORJLF VH [WUDJHFkWHXQHúDQWLRQODLQWHUYDOXOGH

tehniciile moderne numerice (digitale) din ultimile decenii au realizat un caracter numeric al

WLPS'WLDUILHFDUHGLQDFHVWHúDQWLRQVHFRGLILF QXPHULFvQDPSOLWXGLQH
6H YRUEHúWHGHVSUHRLQIRUPD LHTXDQWL]DW vQWLPSúLFRGLILFDW vQDPSOLWXGLQH
Logic aU ILFDLQIRUPD LDDQDORJLF V ILHPDLILGHO GDURGDW FXvPEXQ W LUHDWHKQLFLL
QXPHULFHRFKLXOúLXUHFKHDXPDQ QXPDLSHUFHSHFDUDFWHUXOQXPHULFúLDVWIHOSHSLD D
PRQGLDO V-au impus din ce în ce mai mult tehnicile numerice.
C.4
n

Lac protector

5D] UHIOHFWDW aluminiu

LC plastic
spiral
5D] 

LQFLGHQW
)RWRGLRG ODVHU

Opr –RJOLQG SDU LDOUHIOHFWDW GLRG HPL WRDUH

'LRGDHPL WRDUHHPLWHUD]DLQFLGHQW  DFHDVWDDMXQJHSHVXSUDID D &'-ului de unde se

YD UHIOHFWD'LRGDHPL WRDUHWRWGHWLSODVHUHPLWHIaVFLFROXOvQLQIODURúXDYkQGSXWHUHPLF 
înainte de a ajunge pe discIDVFLFROXOHVWHFRQFHQWUDWGHROHQWLO FRQYHUJHQW  3URFHQWXOGH
UD] UHIOHFWDW GHSLQGHGHVXSUDID D vQW OQLW SHGLVF5D]DUHIOHFWDW DMXQJHSHRIRWRGLRG
ODVHUFDUHWUDQVIRUP VHPQDOXOOXPLQRVvQVHPQDOHOHFWULFFDUHDSRLHVWHDPSOLILFDWúLFRGLILFat

Din punct de vedere fizic YDULDQWDFODVLF GH&'HVWHFRPSXV GLQWUHLVWUDWXUL

numeric pentru a fi exploatat.

9DULDQWHvPEXQ W LWHDOH&'-urilor
Plastic, aluminiu, lac protector

- CD-RW –SXV ODSXQFWGHILUPHOH0LWVXELVKL3KLOLSVúL6RQ\

Pentru îQVFULHUHSH&'VHUHDOL]HD] VFKLPEDUHGHID] D PDWHULDOXOXLGLVFXOXL

- SULPXOGHSXWHUHPDUHFDUHWRSHúWHDOLDMXOUHDOL]kQGvQVFULHUHD
folosindu-se 3 lasere:

- DO WUHLOHDGHSXWHUHPLF SHQWUXFLWLUH
- al doilea de putere medie pentru stergere

6H P UHúWHFDSDFLWDWHDGHPHPRUDUHODQLYHOXOD*
- DVD (digital versatile disc)

II 3RVLELOLW L GHWUDQVIHUDGDWHORUGHLQWUDUHLHúLUH,2

2.1 *HQHUDOLW L
ÌQWUHJXOSURFHVGHIXQF LRQDUHDXQXL F VHUHGXFHîn fapt la comunicarea dintre S úL
resursele pe careDFHVWDOHJHVWLRQHD] DVWIHOvQWUH S úLUHVXUVHDUHORFXQWUDQVIHU
ELGLUHF LRQDOGHGDWHUHDOL]DWGXS PDLPXOWHPHWRGH
Mem. i

mem.e –PHPRULH H[WHUQ

mem.i –PHPRULHLQWHUQ Perif.2

perif.1,2 – periferic 1,2 p Mem. e

Perif.1

Port 1

8
 Exemple de date transmise între p úL UHVWXOUHVXUVHORr:
- S WUDQVPLWHODLPSULPDQW FRGXOASCI al unui character
- LPSULPDQWDFRQILUP SULPLUHDvQEXQHFRQGL LLDFDUDFWHUXOXL
- S trimite un bit la portul paralel LPT
3UREOHPDFDUHVHSXQHvQIDSWHVWHGHVHUYLUHDVLPXOWDQ D WXWXURUUHVXUVHORUGXS
anumitH FULWHULLGHGHVHUYLUHúLGHSULRULWDWHSHQWUXILHFDUHGLQWUHUHVXUVHOHVLVWHPXOXLH[LVW
FkWHXQSURJUDPVXEUXWLQ  FRPSRQHQW D VLVWHPXOXLGHRSHUDUHVSHFLDOL]DW úLDIODW ODR
DQXPLW DGUHV  p úWLHDGUHVDILHF UHLsubrutine de deVHUYLUHDILHF UXi periferic. De fapt nu o
úWLHFLDFHDVWDHVWHPHPRUDW vQ520

78 h – adresa adreseiSRLQWHUODSRLQWHUXQGHVHJ VHúWHSURJUDPXOGHWUDWDUHDvQWUHUXSHULL

Ex:

79 h – adresa adresei programului pentru servirea primei întreruperi de la WDVWDWXU

cerute de mouse

Program pentru servire mouse

78 h a.9h
a.9h Program efectiv de tratare
a mouse-ului
79 h b.7h 3URJUDPSHQWUXGHVHUYLUHDvQWUHUXSHULLWDVWDWXU

7a h f.3h
3URJUDPSHQWUXGHVHUYLUHDvQWUHUXSHULLWDVWDWXU

b.7h
TVI (table vector interupt)

DYDULDQWDGLUHFW
3XU úLVLPSOXVHWUDQVPLWGDWHGHOD S vQVSUHH[WHULRUúLVHFLWHVFGDWHGLQH[WHULRUVSUH
S I U QLFLRYHULILFDUHSUHDODELO 
Ex:
Outport (0x378, 0xff)i

6HWULPLWHODDGUHVD[KXQRFWHWúLDQXPHIILDUHVWHDGUHVDSULPXOXLSRUWDO/37
z = import (0x379)i

6HFLWHúWHFRQ LQXWXOGHODFHOGH-DO GRLOHDSRUW[KFDUHVHWUDQIHU YDULDELOHL]

p QXúWLHúLQXDUHGHXQGHV úWLHFDUHUHVXUV GRUHúWHV ILHVHUYLW GHDFHHDV-a introdus o

Dezavantajul metodei:

YDULDQW SHUIHF LRQDW D DFHVWei metode úL DQXPH

&RQIRUPDFHVWHLPHWRGHILHFDUHUHVXUV SHULIHULFSRUWare câte un fanion (flag)

b) varianta prin interogare (pooling)

care GDF HVWHSXVSHYDORDUHDVXJHUHD] OD S F SHULIHULFXOUHVSHFWLYGRUHúWHV ILHGHVHUYLW

mp Din punct de vedere flagul este implementat

Metoda este mai HILFLHQW GHFkWYDULDQWD“a”

printr-un circuit numit basculant bistabil (cbb)

 GDUDUHGH]DYDQWDMXOF VHFRQVXP WLPSFX

bus

F1 F2 LQWHURJDUHDILHF UXLSHULIHULF
Perif.1 Perif.2

9
 *HQHUDOLW L
C.5
2.1.
Memi.
in Perif.

mp out

Mc

2.2. Transfer de date

- 2.2.1 – direct
- 2.2.2 – pooling

f f f

 VHSLHUGHWLPSFXLQWHURJDUHDILHF UXLSHULIHULF
Dezavantajele metodei 2.2. prin program sunt:

amânare aYkQG FRQVHFLQ H FDWDVWURIDOH

2. nu se pot servi în timpi real perifeicele sau alte resurse care trebuie deservite imediat. Orice

([2LQVWDOD LHLQGXVWULDO vQPRPHQWXOvQFDUHDSDUHRDYDULHWUHEXLHvQWUHXSW

GHVI úXUDUHDQRUPDO úLLQVWDODWHDOWHSURJUDPHFDUHWUDWHD] VLWXD LLOHGHFUL] 
Real time – deservirea în timpi minimi pentru realizarea obiectivelor propuse

2.3. Direct Memori Access

mem

DMA
BA
Mp
BD
BC

Controler DMA periferic

8x237

3HULIHULFXOVROLFLW FHUHUHDGHWUDQVIHUGHLQIRUPD LLVSUHFRQWUROHUXO'0$$FHVWD

Etapa I

WUDQVPLWHFHUHUHDVSUHPLFURSURFHVRUÌQYDULDQWDFODVLF WUDQVIHUXOGHLQIRUPD LLVHUHDOL]H]

FXDMXWRUXOWUDVHXOXLOXQJFXURúXWUHFkQGSULQPLFURSURFHVRUFRQVXPkQGGHFLWLPSúLUHVXUVH

9DULDQWD'0$SUHVXSXQHWUDQVIHUXOGLUHFWGHGDWHvQWUHSHULIHULFúLPHPRULHOXFUX
de unde rezulta dejavantaj.

UDSLGúLI U FRQVXPGHUHVXUVH'LQSXQFWGHYHGHUHKDUGDFHVWOXFUXVHUHDOL]HHD] vQPRGXO

XUP WRU
- ODDFFHSWDUHDFHUHULL'0$GHF WUHPLFURSURFHVRUDFHVWa trece într-R VWDUHGHZDLWDúWHSWDUH

- GLQ DFHVWPRPHQWVHSRDWHUHDOL]DGLUHFWWUDQVIHUXOGHGDWHvQWUHPHPRULHúLSHULIHULF
iar controlul asupra magistralelor este predat controlerului de DMA

2.4. Transferul datelor prin intermediul întreruperilor

SURFHGHHOHWUDWDWHDQWHULRUVXQWQHHILFLHQWHFkQGSHULIHULFXOLPSXQHFDRSHUD LLOH,2V
a) punerea problemei

VHUHDOL]H]HVWULFWODDQXPLWHPRPHQWHH[LVWkQGVLWXD LLFkQGVHQHFHVLW R GHVHUYLUHSURPSW

(ex: avarie într-R LQVWDOD LHVLWXD LHvQFDUHFRQVHFLQ HOHDUILFDWDVWURIDOHGDF WUDQVIHUXO,2
nu s-ar realiza la timpul cerut

- sincronizarea microprocesorului cu exteriorul nepierzându-VH DVWIHOQLFLRGDW

Avantajele metodei întreruperilor:

- HOLEHUDUHDPLFURSURFHVRUXOXLGHVDUFLQDH[SORU ULLUHSHWDWHDLQWU ULORUFD]XOSRROLQJ

10
- SRVLELOLWDWHDGHWUDWDUHLHUDUKLF GXS SULRULW L
- GHWHFWDUHDUDSLG D XQRUVLWXD LLDQRUPDOHvQIXQF LRQDUHDVLVWHPXOXL
b) clasificarea întreruperilor

-FDX]DWHGHLQVWUXF LXQLVSHFLalizate
1. întreruperi soft:

-FDX]DWHGHHYHQLPHQWHLQWHUQHDOHPLFURSURFHVRUXOXLH[GHS úLUH

RYHU )ORZGHFDSDFLWDWHVDXvPS U LUHFX
2. întreruperi hard - mascabile

F PRGXOGHWUDWDUHúLU VSXQVXOPLFURSURFHVRUXOXLODRFHUHUHGHvQWUHUXSHUe
- nemascabile

Program
principal
ae MicURSURFHVRUXOGHFLGHGDF HVWHRSRUWXQV
VHUYHDVF vQWUHUXSHUHDFHUXW  'DF QXRVHYHúWH
af

SURJUDPXOSULQFLSDOVHGHVI úXDU PDLGHSDUWHGDF GDVH

ag
ba

Cerere de întrerupere
S U VHúWHWHPSRUDOSURJUaPXOSULQFLSDOúLSUHG WHPSRUDO
Int. request da controlul programului de tratare a întreruperii respective.

fig.1 nu Program
principal

'XS H[HFX LDWHUPLQDUHDSURJUDPXOXLGHWUDWDUHD

ae
af
ag

GH XQGHDFHVWDDIRVWS U VLW
întreruperii se revine în programul principal exact în punctul ba

6H UXOHD] SURJUDPXOSULQFLSDOFDUHHIHFWXHD]
Ex: Cerere de întrerupere da
Int. request

QLúte calcule matematice în MATCAD. În acest moment

f1

VH HIHFWXHD] FOLNVWkQJDPRXVHVDXVHDSDV SHDQXPLWHILJ

f2
nu

taste speciale. În DFHDVW VLWXD LH se va întrerupe programul

SULQFLSDOúLVHYDGDFRQWUROXOSURJUDPHORUGHWUDWDUHDvQWUHUXSerilor
PRXVH VDXvQWUHUXSHULWDVWDWXU  $GUHVHOHGHvQFHSXWDDFHVWRUSURJUDPHIHVWHVWDELOLW GH

3HQWUXvQWUHUXSHULOHSHULIHULFHVWDQGDUGDGUHVHOHVXQWIL[HúLFRQWLQXHvQ79,
creatorul sistemului de operare (fig.2)

6H SXQHSUREOHPDH[LVWHQ HLPDLPXOWRUDFWLYLW L VLPXOWDQFDUHVROLFLW WRDWH

d) întreruperi multiple arbitraje

vQWUHUXSHULOH6HSXQHSUREOHPDSHFLQHVHUYHVFúLvQFHRUGLQH2SHUD LHQXPLW DUELWUDM

GDUELWUDMFRQFUHWL]DWGHF WUHPLFURSURFHVRU
Variante de arbitraj

G XWLOL]DUHDFRQWUROHUXOXLGHvQWUHUXSHULHVWHFHDPDLXWLOL]DW PHWRG úLFHDPDL

d2) arbitraj soft efectuat de microprocesor

IRORVLW vQFDOFXODWRDUHOHDFWXDOH

LQWU ULOH DORFDte de pe controler. Controlerul cere

Perifericele pot cere întreruperi fiind legate direct la
Cerere de întrerupere

 vQWUHUXSHUHDODPLFURSURFHVRULDUGDF DFHDVWDHVWH
DFFHSWDW $FNQROLJHVHSUHG FRQWUROXOVXEUXWLQHL
Int. Rq.
8259
mp
1 2 3 4 5 16
Int. Ack.

programabil îQ VHQVXOF SRDWHILSURJUDPDWSHQWUX

respective. Controlerul 8259 este un circuit
mouse

LHUDUKL]DUHDFHUHULORUvQPDLPXOWHPRGDOLW L
WDVWDWXU

&HUHUHDFFHSWDW

- WUDWDUHSUHIHUHQ LDO D FHUHULORUWUDWDUHFLFOLF

11
 1RXW L SF– (ultimul capitol)
C.6

III
IV PRUWXULúLLQWHUIH H VWDQGDUGSF
4.1. ,QWHUID D SDUDOHO /37
'HQXPLUHD/37HVWHLQL LDO vQID]D vQFDUHLQWHUID D HUDIRORVLW H[FOXVLY3HQWUX
SURWRFROXOFXLPSULPDQWD$VW ]LHDSRDWHILXWLOL]DW SHQWUXRULFHDSOLFD LHIRORVLQGFHL
bites ai conectorului de 25 bites.
2 2
Registru de Registru
date in/out 0x378h 0x379h FRPDQG LQ
4 4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 GND

2
37ah

Fiecare dintre cei  UHJLVWULLFRPSRQHQ L ai portului paralel au câte 3 adrese posibile

4 In/out

GHRDUHFHSHQWUXXQXOúLDFHODúL3FVXQWSRVLELOHPDLPXOWHLQWHUIH H /37VLPXOWDQ

3HQWUXXQ3FFXLQWHUIH H FRQHFWRULYRUILUHJLVWULLGHGDWHXQXOODDGUHVDK

Ex:

6H VXEOLQHD] LPSRUWDQ D GLIHULW D QXP UXOXLGHSLQLSHGH-R SDUWHGDUúLDDGUHVHL

cel de-al doilea 378h iar cel de-al treilea la 478h.

ILHF UXLUHJLVWUXSHGHDOW SDUWH

a) QR LXQHDGHDGUHV D SRUWXOXLIRORVHúWHVRIWXOXLvQVHQVXOF S JHVWLRQHD] UHVXUVHOH
pc. (memorie + porturi) prin intermediul adreselor

9UHPV DSULQGHPOHduri conectate la registrul de date, se vor transmite 8 de 1 la adresa 378

Ex:

Outport (0x378 , 0x ff) –LQVWUXF LXQHD³&´FDUHUHDOL]HD] WUDQVPLWHUHDFHORUGHOD

 EQXP UXOILHF UXLSLQGHSHFRQHFWRUVHUYHúWHKDUGXOXLSHQWUXDVHúWLLXQGHVHIDFH

11111111 registrul de date

fizic conexiunea cu elementul respectiv. În exemplul anterior evident cele 8 leduri se vor

$QXPL L UHJLVWULLFXPHVWHFHOGHGDWHHVWHGHWLSúLLQúLRXW$O LLQXPDLGHWLSLQVDX

conecta la picioarele 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.

Out –GLQ SXQFWGHYHGHUHDO S vQVHDPQ WUDQVIHUXOGDWHORUGLQVSUH S VSUHH[WHULRU

numai de tip out.

In – citirea unor date din exterior spre interior

4.2 ,QWHUID D VHULDO
$FHDVWDVHPDLQXPHúWHFRPX]XDOHDHVWHFXELWHVSLQLGDUH[LVW úLYDULDQWHSH
sau pe 25
- XWLOL] ULX]XDOHPRXVHPRGHPLPSULPDQW  DOWHFDOFXODWRDUH

Standar rata de transfer

PDJLVWUDO acces 100 kb/s

Rs 232C 215 b/s

IRAA 4Mb/s

12
4.2. USB (Universal serial buss)
Introducerea acesteia a avut ca scop înlocuirea porturilor specializate VHULDO úLSDUDOHOúL
GH DVHPHQHDvQORFXLUHDGULYHUHORULQWHUIH HORUVSHFLDOL]DWHSHQWUXWDVWDWXU  PRXVHMR\VWLF

- RULFH LQWHUID FXXQSHULIHULFHVWHPRQWDW GLUHFWvQVSD LXOLQRXWDO S RFXSând deci:

Dezavantajele variantelor actuale:

- o adreV GHSRUW
- o linie de întrerupere
- un canal DMA (direct memory acces)

S GHWHFWHD] H[LVWHQ D SHULIHULFHORUGRDUODSRUQLUHDFDOFXODWRUXOXL

- cuplele (conectorii) pot diferii de la un periferic la altul

- orice periferic are un driver propriu FDUHHYLGHQWWUHEXLHvQF UFDWOa pornirea

-

- IDFLOLWDWHDSOXJDQGSOD\DIRVWJkQGLW WRFPDLSHQWUXHOLPLQDUHDDFHVWRUGH]DYDQWDMH
calculatorului

- PRGHO XQLFSHQWUXFDEOXúLFRQHFWRU
Avantajele noului sistem USB sunt:

- DORFDUHDDXWRPDW D DGUHVHORUSHQWUXSHULIHULFH
- SHUPLWHFRQHFWDUHDSkQ ODGHSHULIHULFH
- SHUPLWHFRQHFWDUHDúLGHFRQHFWDUHDDXWRPDW  vQWLPSXOIXQF LRQ ULLFXUHFXQRDúWHUH
DXWRPDW
ÌQHVHQ 86%HVWHRPDJLVWUDO VHULDO  ODHDSXWkQGX-se conecta 2 tipuri de echipament
- GH WLSKXEFDUHODUkQGXOHLVXSRUW DOWHKXE-XULúLSHULIHULFH
- GH WLSIXQF LHVDXSHULIHULF

Hub root
Fizic sistemul este cu 4 fire astfel:

hub Periferic V+
date+
hub periferic periferic date-
-
V
IXQF LH
hub
hub

VHPQDOGLIHUHQ ÄGDWH+ - date- “

Datele sunt transmise de fapt cu un

5H HOHGHFDOFXODWRDUHúLLQWHUQHW
C.7

V
5.1. *HQHUDOLW L
Printr-R UH HDGHFDOFXODWRDUHVHvQ HOHJHFRQHFWDUHDFDOFXODWRDUHORUvQWUHHOHDVWIHO
vQFkWV ILHSRVLELOVFKLPEXOGHLQIRUPD LL'LQSXQFWGHYHGHUHLVWRULFUH HOHOHDXDS UXWSULPD
GDW vQFDGUXOSHQWDJRQului dezvoltându-VH XOWHULRUSkQ ODQLYHOXODFWXDOFXOPLQkQGFX
LQWHUQHWXOFDUHHVWHvQIDSWFHDPDLYDVW UH HDGHFDOFXODWRDUH

N2

N1,N2,N3...-QRGXULOHUH HOHL
N1 N6

&DOFXODWRUVXUV &DOFXODWRUGHVWLQD LH
N4

N3 N5

13
 ÎntreQRGXULOHUH HOHLLQIRUPD LLOHSRWILWUDQVPLVHvQPRGXOFHOPDLYDULDWDVWIHOILEU
RSWLF  FDEOXFRD[LDOVDXWRUVDGDWUDGLRVDWHOLW
5.2. 7LSXULGHUH HOHúLPHGLLGHWUDQVPLWHUHDLQIRUPD LLORU
5.2.1. Local Arian NetworkUH HOHORFDOH
Caracterizate printr-R GLVWDQ UHODWLYUHGXV vQWUHFDOFXODWRDUHOHFRPSRQHQWHFDEOX
RSWLFFDEOXWRUVDGDWúLFRD[LDO
S-DX LPSXVGRX FDWHJRULLGHUH HOHPDLFXQRVFXWH
Sta ie
Host server
Sta ie
Sta ie

Host server

Sta ie Sta ie Sta ie

Sta ie Sta ie Sta ie

I. II.

9DULDQWD,,XWLOL]DUHDXQRUUHSHUWRDUHSHHPLWHUHKXEFXUROGHGLVWULEX LHIRUPDWDUH

Varianta I. în stea cu un calculator Host sau server

úLDPSOLILFDUHDVHPQDOXOXL
5.2.2. 5H HOHSHDULHODUJ
ÌQFDGUXODFHVWRUDH[LVW XUP WRDUHOHSRVLELOLW L GH transmitereDLQIRUPD LLORr:
a) modem
numeric
modem Linie telefonic DQDORJLF 

CNA – FRQYHUVLHQXPHULFDQDORJLF
CAN – FRQYHUVLHDQDORJLFQXPHULF
q

t t
t

/LQLDWHOHIRQLF HVWHFDUDFWHUL]DW SULQWU-un semnal analogic (continu) caracterizat

printr-R YDULD LHFRQWLQX DPSOLWXGLQHWLPS

FDOFXODWRDUHORUVHOXFUHD] QXPDLFXGRX QLYHOHDYDULDELOHORUQXPHULFHúLORZúLKLJK

Calculatorul este un dispozitiv numeric (digital sau discret) mai mult chiar în cazul

variabilele numindu-se lRJLFHVDXERXOHQH(YLGHQWF SHQWUXDWUDQVPLWHVHPQDOHGHOD

FDOFXODWRUODOLQLDWHOHIRQLF úLLQYHUVWUHEXLHI FXW R FRQYHUVLHQXPHULFDQDORJLF GHOD
FDOFXODWRUODOLQLH&1$úLDQDORJQXPHULF GHODOLQLHODFDOFXODWRU&$1
Pentru aceste conversiL H[LVW FLUFXLWHLQWHJUDWHVSHFLDOL]DWHQXPLWHFRQYHUWRDUH&$1
úL&1$(OHLQWU vQFRPSRQHQ D PRGHPXOXL
DAC – digital analog convertor
ADC – analog digital convertor

–vQ DPSOLWXGLQHYDORDUHDPRPHPWDQ HVWHUHSUH]HQWDW SULQWU-un cod numeric

t –LQWHUYDOXOGHWLPSODFDUHVHIDFHHúDQWLRQDUHDHúDQWLRQDUHvQWLPS
q
vorbindu-se de quantificare în amplitudine

14
b) transmisie prin satelit

focar
SDUDERO
Avantaje: -YLWH] FDUHHVWHvQIDSWYLWH]DOXPLQLL
- ocolirea obstacolelor

-DFRSHULUHDGLVWDQ HORUPDUL
- flexibilitate

EutelSat –  VDWHOL L JHRVWD LRQDULSHRUELW

Exemple de firme:

c) transmisie prin unde radio

d) alte variante (ATM, frame, relay...)
5.3. Sistemul de nume pe internet
6WDQGDUGHOHDFWXDOHDXLPSXVXQVLVWHPIRUPDWGLQPD[LPXPQXPHGHVS U LWHSULQ
punct.
nume1.nume2.nume3.nume4
grad de generalizare

3H SR]L LDGLQGUHDSWDFDUHHVWHFHDPDLJHQHUDO DSDUHILHDEUHYLHUHDGH DU ILHGH

URL - uniform resurseble locater

RUJDQL]D LHRUJQHWFRP

6LVWHPXO85/VHIRORVHúWHvQFHOHDSOLFD LLPDLGHVvQWkOQLWHDOHLQWHUQHWXOXL
D DGUHV PDLO @k.ro
Cont client url

b) adrese pentru pagini sau siteuri de internet

http – seSXQHRS LRQDOLQGLFkQGWLSXOGHSURWRFRO$OWHWLSXULGHSURWRFROWWSúLWHOQHW

[http:\]www.google.com

www – World Wide WHESkQ] GHSDLDQMHQ– cel mai cunoscut sistem de localizare a
LQIRUPD LLORU

&RPSDUD LHvQWUHLQWHUQHWúLDOWHVLVWHPHGHWUDQVPLVLHDGDWHOor
C.8
5.4.

acces utiliz.
9LWH] SUH VHFXULWDWHVLQFURQL]DUHPXOWLSOLL

Internet 1 /h
Telefon
10 /h
3RúWD
2
WUDGL LRQDO

Sincronizare – posibilitatea de a se consWUXLXQGLDORJvQWUHSDUWLFLSDQ L7RFPDLGDWRULW

DFFHVXOXLSUDFWLFDvQWUHJLLXPDQLW L ODXQVLWHUH]LG H[WUDRUGLQDUDIRU D LQWHUQHWXOXL
5.5. BrowVHUH ORFDOL]DUHDúLUHJ VLUHDLQIRUPD LLORU
To browse –DU VIRL
ÌQSURVSHFWDUHDVLWHXULORUGHZHEVHIRORVHúWHWHKQLFDKLSHUWH[WXOXL

15
http:\\www.britney spears.com http://www.britney spears/connect.com

3ULQSR]L LRQDUHDFXUVRUXOXLPRXVHXOXLSHXQFXYkQWFKHLHRILJXU  XQVLPERO

IRUPD DFHVWXLDVHVFKLPE vQWU-R PkQ úLVHDFFHVHD] SDJLQDGHUDQJLQIHULRU6LPXOWDQ
adresa site-XOXL HVWHFRPSOHWDW FXHOHPHQWHVSHFLILFHQRLLSDJLQi.
3DJLQD SULQFLSDO D VLWH-ului include Britney Spears connect... iar subpagina ne
SUH]LQW ODQ XULOHGHVXESDJLQi SH FDUHYUHPV QHFRQHFW P
Ex:

6LPLODUSR]L LRQkQGX-ne pe preview more VH LQWU vQWU-R SDJLQ GHUDQJXOHWF

Browsere ii – internet explorer
nn – netscape navigator
5.6. & XWDUHDLQIRUPD LHLPRWRDUHGHF XWDUH
%URZVHUHOHDQWHULRDUHVXQWHILFLHQWHvQP VXUDvQFDUHVHFXQRDúWHDGUHVDH[DFW D
VLWHXOXLF XWDWÌQFD]FRQWUDUVHXWLOL]HD] SURJUDPHGHF XWDUHPRWRDUHGHF XWDUHFDUH
asiJXU DFHVWOXFUXwww.google.com
& XWDUHDDUHORFGXS FXYLQWHFKHLHFDUHSRWUHSUezenta autorul, domeniul, zona
www.yahoo.com www.altavista.com

JHRJUDILF 
3ULQGHPDUDUHDSURFHVXOXLGHF XWDUHVHDILúHD] JUXSDWHvQSDFKHWHGHFkWHWRDWH
VLWHXULOHFDUHFRQ LQWLWOXULOHvQFDGUXOF URUDLQWU vQFRPSRQHQ FXYLQWHOHF XWDWH
)LHFDUHWLWOXFRQ LQe denumirea comSOHW  DGUHVDGHVLWHGLPHQVLXQLúLDOWHLQIRUPD LL
5.7. E-mail
5.8. Crearea paginii de web
5.9. Download

C.9

VI Introducere în echipamente periferice

6.1 Modulul video Pixel 1,1 Pixel 1,2
a) schema bloc MM
MD
mem.
Mp. MA ecran

ASCI f linii 28,a

Generator Controler
caracter video monitor
f cadre Mem. Ecran
Mat
(video)
puncte
Semnal
video Fig. 2
Fig.1

16
 Controlerul video este conectat la magistrala sistemului de date, adreseúL FRPHQ]L
Acesta trimite pentru fiecare caracter codul ASCI aferent úL SULPHúWHPDWULFHDGHSXQFW
DIHUHQW FDUDFWHUXOXLVSHFLILF XQXLDQXPLWIRQW

IUHFYHQ  OLQLLGH IUHFYHQ cadre si semnal de frecvent video.

Controlerul video are sarcina de a controla direct monitorul transmitând semnale de

$UHORFDW vQ00VDXRFWH L
Mem. ecran (fig.2)

MM – memory map

Adresa de început a zonei de PHPRULH HFUDQVDXYLGHRHVWHIL[ úLSUHFL]DW vQFDGUXO

sistemului de operare

b1 –XWLOL]DUHDGLUHFW a limbajelor de nivel înalt& 3DVFDO-DYDH[LVW IXQF LLVSHFLILFH

b) mijloace de gestiune video

QXPLWHIXQF LLJUDILFHFDUHSHUPLWGLUHFWWUDVDUHDXQHLOLQLLFHUFKDúXU ULJURVLPHGHOLQLL

6LPXOWDQFXDILúDUHDXQXLHOHPHQWJUDILFPHPRULDHFUDQDIHUHQW ILHF UXLSL[HOHVWH
vQVFULV DGHFYDW

b3 –XWLOL]DUHDIXQF LLORU'RVúL%LRV
b2 – utilitare

ÌQWUHUXSHUHDVRIWLQWKHVWHvQWUHUXSHUHDDIHUHQW VHUYLFLLORUYLGHRDFHDVWDRIHU 

VHUYLFLLYDORDUHDGRULW ILLQGvQVFULV vQUHJLVWUXO$K al microprocesorului.

'H VHUYLFLLKVWDELOLUHDGLPHQVLXQLLúLIRUPHLFXUVRUXOXL
 KVWDELOLUHDSR]L LHL
Ex.

03 h FLWLUHDSR]HLúLGLPHQVLXQHDFXUVRUXOXL
)XQF LLOHVSHFLILFHILHF UHLvQWUHUXSHULDVLVWHPXOXLGHRSHUDUHVXQW foarte utile din perspectiva
FUHDWRUXOXLGHVRIWFDUHQXWUHEXLHV PDLFUHH]HDQXPLWHVHUYLFLLVSHFLILFHFLSRDWHIRORVLL
GLUHFWSURJUDPHOHSXVHODGLVSR]L LHGHF WUHVLVWHPXOGHRSHUDUH

6HXWLOL]HD] OLPEDMXOFRGPDúLQ VDXOLPEDMXOGHDVDPEODUHVSHFLILFILHF UXLPLFURSURFHVRU

b4 – scrierea direct în mem. ecran

Ex.

(VWH RLQVWUXF LXQHvQOLPEDMGHDVDPEODUHFDUHvQFDUF vQmemorie la adresa 283 fh valoarea

LD 283 fh, 1ah

1a care VHYDVFULHvQPHPRULDHFUDQúLYDDOWHUQDLPDJLQHDHFUDQXOXLvQVHQVXOF YD

UHSUH]HQWDXQSXQFWGHRDQXPLW FXORDUH
c) SO FLYLGHR
Istoric:
au fost MDA
EGA SVGA
VGA

- QXP U GHOLQLLúLFRORDQHJHVWLRQDWH
Caracteristici:

- QXP U GHSXQFWHDOHPDWULFHLFXFDUHVHJHQHUHD] FDUDFWHUHOH

- QXP U GHSDJLQLHFUDQFXFDUHVHOXFUHD]
- QXP U FXORUL

17
d) moduri de lucru

-HFUDQXOHVWHvPS U LW vQ OLQLLúLFRORDQHODLQWHUVHF LDILHF UHLOLQLLúLFRORDQH va fi

d1 – modul text

înscris un caracter care în modul cel mai simplu poate fi gestionaW FXQXPDLRFWH L
Codul ASCII - 28

Culoare Culoare caracter

caracter Intensitate culoare
pâlpâire

Folosindu-VH QXPDLELWLDWkWSHQWUXFXORDUHFDUDFWHUFkWúLSHQWUXEDFNJURXQGHVWHFODUF
paleta de culori se reduce la 23=8 culori
000 – alb
001 –URúX

d2 –PRGXOJUDILFODFDUHHFUDQXOHVWHvPS U LWvQSL[HOL1XP UXOGHSL[HOLGHSHHFUDQG GH

111 – negru

IDSWUH]ROX LDVDXILQH HDLPDJLQLL

C.10

e1- descktop – CADT RAY TUB CRT –HVWHDVHP Q WRUFXFRQVWUXF LDWXEXOXLFLQHVFRS

e) monitoare

de la un televizor.
luminator

)LODPHQWXOHVWHFHOFDUHUHDOL]HD] HPLVLD
Uy

tHUPRHOHFWULF  HOHFWURQLLHPLúLGHF WUHHOHPHQW

G2

filament SHUPLWDFFHOHUD LL GHODFDWRGODDQRGGDWRULW

luminoscent apare tocmai GDWRULW ERPEDUG ULL

katod tensiunii foarte înalte de ordinul KV. Efectul
G1 Ux Anod +

HFUDQXOXLGHF WUHH- DFFHOHUD L, pe ecran fiind

SUHY ]XWXQVWUDW special numit luminofer.
10 – 30 KV

(OHFWURQLLSDUFXUJXOWHULRU]RQDFHORUGRX JULOH*úL*JULO de accelerare focalizare

9HQHOG8OWHULRUHOHFWURQLLLQWU vQVSD LXOFHORUGRX SHUHFKLGHSO FLGHGHIOH[LSHUHFKHDGH
SO FLU[ FXDMXWRUXOF UHLDVHUHDOL]HD] EDJDMXORUL]RQWDOúLo a doua pereche pe YHUWLFDO
DOLPHQWDW FX8\FXDMXWRUXl F UXLDVHUHDOL]HD] EDJDMXOYHUWLFDO
&HOHGRX WHQVLXQL8[úL8\VXQWDVWIHOVLQFURQL]DWHvQFkWV UHDOL]H]Hbalierea
ecranului.

(VWH HYLGHQWF WHQVLXQHD8[úL8\úLVHPQDOXOGHVSRWWUHEXLHV ILHSHUIHFW

VLQFURQL]DWHFDUHvQWHOHYL]LXQHDWUDGL LRQDO VHFKHDP 69&

7UHDSW 
Semnal util Sincro linii Sincro cadre
sincro linii

În cazul desktopurilor colorH[LVW  IDVFLFROHúLVWUDWXULGHluminoform alese ca fiind

Obs:

QHFHVDUHSHQWUXRE LQHUHDvQWUHJLLSDOHWHGHFXORULURúXYHUGHúLDOEDVWUX

e2 - LCD (liquid cristal display) Laptop, Notebook

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 )XQF LRQDUHD/&'– XOXLVHED]HD] SHSULQFLSLXOSRODUL] ULLOXPLQLLDGLF VFKLPEDUHD
SURSRU LHLXQHLUD]HGHOXPLQ DWXQFLFkQGWUHFHSULQDQXPLWHPHGLLDUHSURSRU LLYariabile
dictate de starea mediului
Avantajele LCD – ului

- JUHXWDWHIRUP  SRUWDELOLWDWH
- consum mic de curent

- FRQVLGHUHQ IL]LRORLF SURWHF LDRUJDQLVPXOXL

- QX VXQWHPLVHUDGLD LLOHQRFLYHFDUDFWHULVWLFH&57

- UH]ROX LHPDLVODE
Dezavantajele LCD – ului

- GLQDPLF PDLVF ]XW vQVHQVXOF H[LVW R DQXPLW LQHU LH la schimbarea imaginii

- SUH XOHVWHGH-3 ori mai mare decât CRT
- VWU OXFLUHPDLVF ]XW
6.2 Scanere
HFKLSDPHQWSHULIHULFFDUHSRDWHSUHOXDLPDJLQLLOHGXS IRWRJUDILLWH[WHWLS ULWHGHVHQH
GH PkQ , gravuri
-

document

CCD

surs

5D]DGHOXPLQ HPLV GHVXUV HVWHUHIOHFWDW GHGRFXPHQWDSRLGHRJOLQG DMXQJkQG

SH &&'FDUHHVWHXQGLVSR]LWLYFXFXSODMGHVDUFLQ ILLQGGHIDSWXQFRQYHUWRUDLQWHQVLW LL
OXPLQLLvQVHPQDOHOHFWULFvQSULPDID] DQDORJLFFDUHXOWHULRr este convertit în semnal

)RUPDWXO GHLHúLUHXWLOL]HD] ILúLHUHIRDUWHPDULH[SHQWUXRLPDJLQHFRPSOH[ $4 fiind

numeric.

necesar peste 10 M. S-DX LPSXVGRX WLSXULGHIRUPDWH%03– tehnica bitmap

Peste desenul de scanat se suprapune un rastru astIHOLPDJLQHDYDILvPS U LW vQSL[HOL

GHSHQGHQWGHUH]ROX LDVFDQHUXOXLSHQWUXILHFDUHSL[HOILLQGDORFDWXQQXP U GHEL L vQIXQF LH

)RUPDWXOYHFWRULDOvQFDUHILúLHUXOVHUHDOL]HD] SHED]DXQHLGHVFULHULPDWHPDWLFH
de paleta de culori

stabilindu-se: lXQJLPHDGLUHF LDSR]L LDvQFDUHVXQWGHVHQDWHOLQLLFHUFXUL

VII Semnale logice stanGDUGúLFXSODUHDFDOFXODWRUXOXL

conducerea proceselor

7.1 Familii logice standard

ÌQHOHFWRUQLFDGLJLWDO QXPHULF VDXGLVFUHW  V-au impus anumite familii de circuite

calculúL vQSHULIHULFH3HXQSODQPDLJHQHUDOHVWHDFHHDúLSUREOHP FXQRUPDUHDSDUDPHWULORU

logice în ideea de a exista o compatibilitate între circuitele numerice utilizate în sistemele de

WHQVLXQLLGHDOLPHQWDUHvQLQGXVWULHúLEXQXULFDVQLFHWHQVLXQHDÄ8´QRPLQDO 9/50Hz).

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 )DPLOLLOHFHOHPDLUHSUH]HQWDWLYHúLFDUDFWHULVWLFLOHORUVXQW
Puterea

TSL –WKUHHVWDWHORJLFVLVWHPHFXWUHLVW UL

Timp consumata pe
propagare”ns” poarta “mw”
Frecventa
max.”Mhz”
TTL – tranzistor tranzistor logic

ECL –IDPLOLHORJLF FXFXSODUHSULQHPLWRU

TTL S 10 100
TSL 3 22 1000
ECL 1 50 10000
MOS
BULE
20
200
0.5
10-6
100
----
MOS – metal oxid semiconductor

ÌQIXQF LHGHWLSXODSOLFD LHLVHYDDOHJHIDPLOLDGHFLUFXLWHDGHFYDWH

7.2 Caracteristicile familiei TTL

Vo min –WHQVLXQHDRXWPLQLP SHQWUXFDV VH

a) valorile nivelelor logice
U[v]

Vi min –WHQVLXQHDGHLQWUDUHPLQLP SHQWUXDVH

realizeze nivelul high sau 1 logic
Vo min
2,4 high
V Vi min

Vi max –WHQVLXQHDPD[LP GHLQWUDUHSHQWUXD

2 realiza nivelul 1 logic
0,8 Vi max

Vo max –WHQVLXQHD PD[LP GHLHúLUHSHQWUXDVH

0,4 low se realiza nivelul 0 logic
V Vo max

=RQ LQWHU]LV FDUHJHQHUHD] LQFHUWLWXGLQH

Realiza nivelul 0 logic

(0,8– FDUHWUHEXLHV ILHHYLWDW vQDSOLFD LLOHFXFLUFXLWHORJLFH

num rul maxim de circuite care se pot conecta la intrarea unui circuit logic sau OD LHúLUHD
b) fan I/O

acestuia uzual acestea sunt de peste 10

d) timpul de propagare – timpul de înWkU]LHUHODSURSDJDUHDLQIRUPD LHSULQFLUFXLWXO

c) marginea de zgomot

e) SXWHUHDFRQVXPDW
respectiv ;

7.3 Caracteristicile familie MOS

'LQS FDWHQLYHOHOHORJLFHVSHFLILFHWUDQ]LVWRDUHORU026GLIHU GHFHOVSHFLILF
tranzistoarelor TTL astfel încât pentru a cupla cele 2 tipuri de circuite este nevoie de circuite
speciale de adaptare.
U[v]
Vo min
5 high “1”
V Vi min
3,5

1,5 Vi max
0 low “0”
V Vo max

7.4 Cuplarea calculatorului cu exteriorul

ÌQYHGHUHDFRPHQ]LLHFKLSDPHQWHORUSHULIHULFHúLDSURFHselor industriale între
FDOFXODWRUúLH[WHULRUWUHEXLHLQWHUSXVHDQXPLWHEORFXULvQIXQF LHGHFRPSOH[LWDWHDúLSHULFROXO

ÌQILJXU VHUHG FD]XOLQWU ULORUORJLFHvQWU-XQ FDOFXODWRUGHFLFLWLULLVW ULLXQXLSURFHV

procesului comandat.

Bloc Bloc Bloc separare Bloc

exterior atenuator filtrare galvanica formator mc

bloc atenuator – are rol de a adapta nivelul de tensiune exterior ex : 12v la nivelele cerute de
familia de circuite logice utilizate

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bloc filtrare – OXFUHD] vQVSHFLDOvQGRPHQLXOIUHFYHQ úLDUHUROXOGHDHOLPLQD(rejecta)
DQXPLWHIUHFYHQ H QHGRULWH
A

FTS – filtrulWUHFH VXVODV V WUHDF QXPDLIUHFYHQ HOHPDLPDUL

FTS

GDFkWRDQXPLW IUHFYHQ GHSUDJQXPLW I0

f0
F
A

FTJ –ILOWUXOWUHFHMRVODV V WUHDF QXPDLIUHFYHQ HOHPDLPLFL

GHFkWRDQXPLW IUHFYHQ
FTJ

FTB –ILOWUXOWUHFHEDQGDODV V WUHDF QXPDLIUHFYHQ HOH

cuprinse într-XQ DQXPLWGRPHQLXGHIUHFYHQ FXSULQV
f0 f1
FTB

între f0 úLI1
A

FOB
FOB –ILOWUXRSUHúWHEDQGD

%ORFXOGHVHSDUDUHJDOYDQLF – are rolul de a izola din punct de vedere electric

FDOFXODWRUXO GHH[WHULRU8]XDOL]RODUHDVHUHDOL]HD] SULQcelule foto
HOHFWULFHúLHVWHDEVROXWQHFHVDU FkQGVHOXFUHD] ODWHQVLXQLSHULFXORDVH
úL úRFXULGHWHQVLXQL

DFHVWHDV ILHFRPSDWLELOHFXVWDQGDUGHOHSRU LORUUHVSHFWLYH.

Blocul formator – are rol de a prelua semnalele de intrare în calculator astfel încât

- VHPQDOHQHIDYRUDELOHODRSRDUW ORJLF
da

nu

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