CNC Machine Report

Khaja Shoaib Moin ID: U0974546
University of Huddersfield
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND ENGINEERING
Msc in Engineering Control System & Instrumentation
Module NME 3521-Modelling of Electromechanical control

systems
Module Tutor - Dr Crinella Pislaru
ASSIGNMENT 1
Report on a CNC machining centre and its application
Submitted by:
Khaja Shoaib Moin
ID: U0974546011
Email:Khaja_sm@hud.ac.uk
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Table of contents............................................................................. 02
List of tables..................................................................................... 03
List of figures.................................................................................... 03
Introduction...................................................................................... 06
Chapter 1
1.1 Resolution……………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
1.2 Repeatability………………………………………………………………………………………..... 11
1.3 Accuracy……………………………………………………………………………………………... 12
Chapter 2
2.1 Description of basic structural elements………………………………………………………… 13
2.2 Elements of a feed drive axis…………………………………………………………………….. 16
Chapter 3
Improving machine tool performance………………………………………………………………..... 20
Chapter 4
4.1 Cutting force-induced errors…………………………………………………………………………… 23
4.2 Build-Up-Edges………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
4.3 Chatter……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 24
4.4 Other factors affecting the surface finish……………………………………………………………... 24
Chapter 5
5.1 Geometric errors………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
5.2 Need for geometric calibration…………………………………………………………………………. 27
5.3 Thermal errors…………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
5.4 Need for thermal calibration……………………………………………………………………………. 27

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Chapter 6
6.1 Passive vibration control…………………………………………………………………………….. 30
6.2 Active vibration control………………………………………………………………………………. 30
6.3 Method for passive vibration control……………………………………………………………….. 30
6.4 Method for active vibration control…………………………………………………………………. 32
Chapter 7
7.1 Laser interferometer…………………………………………………………………………………. 35
7.2 Ball-bar system……………………………………………………………………………………….. 36
7.3 Talyvel…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 37
7.4 Artefacts………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38
Chapter 8
8.1 Description of constituent components of CNC machine tool axis drive system……………… 40
8.2 Parameters and physical elements………………………………………………………………… 44
Chapter 9
9.1 Interpolation technique………………………………………………………………………………. 46
9.2 Plane selection……………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
9.3 Rigid tapping………………………………………………………………………………………….. 47
9.4 CNC software…………………………………………………………………………………………. 47
9.5 Part programming…………………………………………………………………………………….. 48
9.6 Feed rate optimization............................................................................................................. 48
Conclusion......................................................................................... 49
References.......................................................................................... 49
LIST OF TABLES
1.1 Various equipments used for machine tool calibration…………………………………………….. 35
1.2 Effect of distribution in different parts of CNC machine tool axis…………………………………. 44
LIST OF FIGURES
0.1 Classifications of CNC machines.............................................................................................. 06
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0.2 Picture of three axis CNC machine.......................................................................................... 07

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0.3 Picture of five axis machine.................................................................................................... 07
0.4 Arrow series 2 vertical milling machine................................................................................... 08
2.1 Structure of three axis vertical milling machine........................................................................ 14
2.2 Picture of bed........................................................................................................................... 14
2.3 Picture of table...........................................................................................................................15
2.4 Picture of column....................................................................................................................... 15
2.5 Picture of spindle........................................................................................................................ 15
2.6 Picture of saddle........................................................................................................................ 16
2.7 Elements of feed drive axis........................................................................................................ 16
2.8 Cylindrical guideway and hydrostatic slideway........................................................................... 17
2.9 Construction of linear bearings guide rails...................................................................................17
3.1 Formation of BUE.........................................................................................................................20
3.2 Built-Up-Edge phenomenon on effective rake angle.................................................................... 21
3.3 Graph of stability for a machine tool............................................................................................. 21
4.1 Formation of BUE......................................................................................................................... 24
6.1 Types of application of a vibration absorber................................................................................ 31
6.2 Application in vibration absorber.................................................................................................... 32
6.3 Method for active vibration control................................................................................................. 33
7.1 Experimental setup of laser interferometer.................................................................................. 35
7.2 Experimental setup of ball bar system.......................................................................................... 36
7.3 Picture of Talyvel.......................................................................................................................... 37
7.4 Artefacts using systems................................................................................................................ 38
7.5 Equipments to calibrate used to measure geometric errors......................................................... 38
8.1 Block diagram of CNC machine tool axis drive in simulink 1........................................................ 40
8.2 Possible block diagram of analog controller................................................................................. 41
8.3 Block diagram of a servo amplifier................................................................................................ 42
8.4 Block diagram of DC motor........................................................................................................... 42
8.5 Diagram for load model.................................................................................................................. 43
9.1 CNC controller (MCU) for analog feed drive.................................................................................. 46
9.2 Selection of plane and arc direction............................................................................................... 47

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INTRODUCTION
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BRIEF HISTORY:
INTRODUCTION TO CNC MACHINES
Controlling a machine tool by means of prepared program, which consists of blocks, or series of
commands/numbers, is known as numerical control. Numerical Control [NC] for machine tools was
introduced in 1950 by Prof. John T Parsons. The first CNC machine was built at the Massachusetts
institute of technology [MIT] in 1953 by joint efforts of US Air force, MIT and the Parsons Corporation.
The CNC machine basically entails three main regions:-

• The control system
• The drives (driving elements) and
• The machine tool
CLASSIFICATION OF CNC SYSTEMS: The classification of CNC machine is shown

in below tree diagram.
CNC
Motion Control loop Axes Power supply
2 and 3 4 and 5
Point to point Continuous
axes axes
system path system
system system
Open loop Closed loop Electric power Hydraulic power

systems system systems systems
Pneumatic
power systems
Figure 0.1: classification of CNC machine tools

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Three axis CNC machine:
1. In 3-axis CNC vertical machine, the working table moves along x- and y-axis, and the tool along z-
axis.
2. In machining, tool orientation is fixed, either in vertical or horizontal direction.
3. If all surfaces to be machined are accessible by the cutter in one setup, a 3-axis CNC machine is
used
Figure 0.2 Three axis machine
Five axis CNC machine:
• X-, Y-, and Z- Axis Motions and A- and B- axis Rotations (Simultaneously)
• Tool orientation can be changed simultaneously during machining.
• If some surface patches to be machined are not accessible by the cutter in one setup, a 5-axis CNC
machine is used.
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Figure 0.3 five axis machine

The below report is on Arrow series 2 VMC which is a three axis machine
Arrow Series 2 vertical machining centres
The above mentioned have been fitted with an array of productivity options by
manufacturer Cincinnati Machine, high-speed spindle is available on Arrows equipped with the
Siemens Acramatic control. The motor-driven spindle with HSK 63 tooling provides excellent balance
and vibration-free performance. Generous torque capacity ensures high performance in semi finishing
hardened steels and machining aerospace materials that involve high metal-removal rates.
Specifications: Arrow 2 VMC has User-friendly interface design; customized GE Fanuc 18i-M CNC
control. This control employs the latest Pentium technology to support future upgrades and enhanced
with graphical simulation.
The x-y-z travel of Arrow Series 2 centres provides a work envelope as large as 3,048 x 762 x 770
mm for work pieces weighing up to 3,000 kg. Linear-scale feedback standard on the x- and y-axes
maintains positioning accuracy and repeatability of ±3 µm and ±1 µm, respectively, across the entire
travel range. Below is shown look of machine. [19]
Figure 0.4: Arrow 2 VMC [19]
Topics covered by report:
The report covers chapters which have got all the necessary areas that give a clear understanding of
CNC machine tools and their application.
Chapter one covers “resolution, repeatability and accuracy when applied to CNC machine tool topic”.
Chapter two describes “the basic structural element of a machine”. Chapter three is focused on the
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cutting process, cutting forces and describes the phenomenon of Chatter and BUE. Chapter four
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analyses Error occurring during cutting tool and workpiece and introduction for BUE. Chapter five
explains need for geometric and thermal calibration of machine tools. Chapter six deals with active
and passive vibration control techniques and related explanation for cause and compensation of
vibrations in machine. Chapter seven describes methods of compensating geometrical errors in
machine tool it covers techniques of laser interferometer, ball bar systems and related topics.
Chapter eight provides explanation of CNC machine tool axis drive. With block diagram of a typical
CNC Machine tool axis drive, the components of it are briefly explained. Chapter 9 explains the
Interpolation technique, some part of programming and feed rate optimization method.
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CHAPTER 1
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CHAPTER 1
1. Define Resolution, Repeatability and Accuracy when applied to a CNC machine tool
1.1 Resolution:
Definition 1: [1] Defines the term resolution refers to the smallest increment or dimension that the
control system can recognise and act upon, this is not the same as accuracy.
Overall resolution is that of the fine devices multiplied by its number of cycles
in the complete range of motion of the slide.
Definition 2: [2] Defines resolution is as the error of mobility or the smallest generable movement.
In servo control, it is defined as the smallest value (digital, analogue) the sensor can indicate
(noise level).
Definition 3: [18] describes the smallest possible movement of a system. Also known as step size,
resolution is determined by the feedback device and capabilities of the motion system.
 Typically CNC machine tools have resolution of 0.0025nm or better

 Resolution plays a prominent role in accuracy of machine tools and leading to cause
major repeatability errors.
1.2 Repeatability:
Definition 1: It is irreproducible errors in bearing or leads screws and is the limit of accuracy
attainable in a particular machine.
While calculating the accuracy component will be considered correct

if its dimensions lie anywhere within tolerance band. If a certain slide position is commanded
many times in succession, there will be a drift, or scatter in the positions actually taken up by
slides .This scatter is a measure of repeatability of system.
Definition 2: Repeatability is the ability of a motion system to reliably achieve a commanded

position over many attempts. Manufacturers often specify unidirectional repeatability. This is the
ability to repeat a motion increment in one direction only. This specification side-step issue of
backlash and hysteresis, and therefore is less meaningful for many real world applications where
reversal of motion direction is common.
Definition 3: Repeatability may be defined as value below which the absolute difference between
two single test results obtained under same conditions
 A typical repeatability specification for a CNC machine would be + or – 0.005mm.
1.3 Accuracy:
Definition 1: The smallest unit of movement that a machine can consistently and repeatedly
discriminate. [2]
Absolute accuracy = on axis accuracy ± Abbḗ error

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Definition 2: machine accuracy is the accuracy of the movement of the carriages and
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tables. [1] This is influenced by:

1. The geometric accuracy of the alignment of the slide ways

2. The deflection of the bed and other features due to load
3. Any temperature gradients existing though the machine
4. The accuracy of these screw thread of any drive screws, and the amount of
backlash(lost motion)
5. The amount of twist (wind-up)of the shaft which will influence the measurement of
rotary transducers (last motion)
6. The responsiveness and accuracy of the control system
7. Wear of moving parts.
Definition 3: Accuracy is the absolute, steady state deviation of a control variable from a
specified set point, while consistency indicates the deviation exhibited by the steady –state
value after the transient process caused by disturbance variables have settled. Consistency is
generally more important than accuracy.[3]
Example: A speed is to be maintained at 200rpm. The actual speed, however, is only198 rpm.
The accuracy is accordingly (198-200) rpm= -2rpm.
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CHAPTER 2
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Chapter 2
Describe briefly the basic structural elements of a CNC machine.
The structure of three axis vertical milling machine is shown in below diagram
Figure 2.1: structure of three axis vertical milling machine (lecture notes 1 c.pislaru 2010)
From above diagram we can notice basic structural elements of CNC machine are Bed, table,
column, spindle, slideways, guideways, ball screw, motor, encoder and nut (which are considered as
elements of feed drive axis).
2.1 Description of basic structural elements
Let us have brief description on basic structural elements as listed above
Bed:
It is the means of holding and moving the work and tool. It comes under the linking structure and
generally made up of cast iron. it supports the table mounted on base guideways, this structure can
be clearly understood by the diagrams shown further . It is transverse in longitudinal direction which is
X axis. [4]
Figure 2.2: Picture of bed [4]
Table:
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It is placed upon the saddle for the purpose of holding the work piece and moving it in desired position
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in X axis on commanding. It is made up of cast iron.[4]

Figure 2.3 Picture of Table [4]
Column:
This is vertical orientation made of cast iron, with column it is possible to move head up on down and
perform the process of cutting or milling.[4]
Figure 2.4: Picture of column [4]
Spindle:
Rotating spindle: all work or tool carrying spindles rotating aped are subjected to deflection and thrust
forces depending on nature of work being performed. To increase stability and minimize torsional
strain on the spindles they are designed to be short and stiff as possible, and the final drive to the
spindle is located as near to front bearing as possible. It is basically categorized into two types they
are Brush type and Brushless spindles or AC spindles, Rotational movements are controlled by the
spindles by circular bearings. [5]
Figure 2.5: Picture of spindle [5]

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Saddle:
It has the Y axis motion perpendicular to X axis in the CNC vertical milling machines and this saddle
is mounted in between the bed and table. It is made up of solid cast iron. [4]
Figure 2.6: Picture of saddle [4]
2.2 Elements of a feed drive axis.
Figure 2.7: elements of feed drive axis drive lecture notes (c.pislaru 2010)
Let us have brief description of above shown elements
Slideways
A slideway is used to control the direction, or line of action, of the translational movements of the
carriages or table on which the tools or work are held.
The alignment of the slideways to each other and to the axis of spindle is
critical. The shape and size of the work produced depends not only on the accuracy of the amount of
movement, but also on the direction of the relative movements of the tool and the work. There are
different forms of slideways such as cylindrical, vee, flat and devotional. [18]
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Figure 2.8 cylindrical guideway and hydrostatic slideway [18]
Linear bearings with balls, rollers or needles:
Because of the problem of metal to metal contact the relative high amount of friction is generated,
which exits between the faces in contact, typically 0.15 for lubricated steel sliding on steel. A number
of machines have flat roller bearings fitted to the carriages to provide a rolling motion rather than
sliding motion. The rollers are in contact with the guideways machined on the bed of the machine.
To reduce the problem of machining an accurate form on the

bed of the machine, hardened steel rails with special guide forms (figure....) may be bolted on the
casting of the machine tool. [1]
Figure: 2.9 construction of linear bearings guide rails [18]
Actuating mechanisms: (Screw and nut)
Of all elements of CNC machine tool, the efficiency and responsiveness of actuating mechanisms
(drive unit) have the greatest influence on accuracy of the work produced.
For the efficient drive unit there are number of essential requirements:
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a) The drive must be stiff and responsive.

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b) There must be virtually no backlash in the drive
c) The drive must be free running with the low temperature rise.
d) There should be freedom from high frequency vibrations.
The actuating mechanisms are provided by screw and nut; rack and pinion; and ram and position.
Screw and nut: These are effective for short to medium length (100 mm to 8m) movements. There
are types of screw and nut used on CNC machines which provide low wear with continued accuracy
over a long life, reduced friction and smooth action, higher efficiency and better reliability. These are
recirculation ball screw and hydrostatic screw.
Recirculating ball screw: For the open loop and closed loop systems, recirculation ball screw is widely
used. The thread form used with these screw is shown in below figure and is known as „Gothic arch‟
the balls rotate between the screw and the nut at the same point they returned to start of the thread in
the nut. There must be minimum backlash in the screw and nut. [18]
Motor: The motor are of two types which are servo motor or stepper motor. The servomotor is a
standard DC motor which is coupled with some feedback to detect position errors; they are much
cheaper compared to stepper motor. The stepper motor does not have a commutator. It is controlled
by selectively turning the coils on and off. [18]
Encoder: it is a transducer which provides series or parallel digital value of linear or angular
movement. It is used to measure the position of X, Y and Z axis. Encoders are basically of two types
they are absolute encoders and pulse generators. The absolute encoder monitors table position. [18]
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CHAPTER 3
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Chapter 3
Study methods for improving machine tool performance during machining process.
The need to continually improve on machining process necessitates the identification and modelling
of all factors that affect product quality in the machining process. Machine tool vibration during
machining has been a focused area in the manufacturing community. A typical example of vibration
would be the boring machining process where the slender boring bar is susceptible to vibration. It is
often that vibration is observed which is contributed by both the low rigidity of the work piece and low
rigidity of the tool post structure.[6]
There are two types of vibration which are usually associated with
turning operations, forced and self-excited. Forced vibrations can be caused by many factors,
including the vibration of the lathe itself at different resonance frequencies. Non-continuous circular
cross sections of the work piece being machined will also result in forced vibration. Discontinuous
geometry, such as holes, key ways and slots which are located on the circumference of the cutting
edge and the work piece every time the tool passes over the discontinuity and starts to engage in
cutting again. An example of this would be turning a square piece of the stock to make a round
extension or a grooved (keyed) bar. The impact of the edges on the tool will cause vibratory motion of
the tool. [6]
Self excited vibration, also called chatter, is usually caused by the

material removal process itself. There are several factors which can influence this. An example, the
cutting tool experience a phenomenon called built-up-edge, or BUE, during machining. As illustrated
in below figures 1,x and 1.x, the presence of BUE may cause variation of the effective rake angle
during machining. A large height of BUE introduces a large effective rake angle, leading to a low
cutting force, and vice versa. Such variation if the cutting force can cause tool vibration in a self-
excited mode. In cylindrical turning operations, chatter is frequently encountered during the machining
of long slender bars. The deflection of bar in the thrust direction increase while the tool moves to the
middle of bar and may initiate the primary or regenerative chatter, leading to self- excited vibration of
the workpiece. [7]
[7]
Figure 3.1 formation of BUE

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Figure 3.2: Built-up edge phenomenon on effective rake angle [7]
A non-homogeneous distribution of the micro hardness in the workpiece material can also cause
chatter. Because of the difference in hardness of the microstructure, the presence of different phases
of different phases in the microstructure leads to the cutting force produced during machining to vary
instantaneously.
To reduce the effect of chatter, it is usually assumed that by increasing the stiffness of the cutting tool,
chatter will be diminished. On the other hand, damping of the entire carriage and of the toolpost
holder also reduces chatter, but at the expense of accuracy. Fundamentally, chatter is caused by a
lack of adequate dynamic stiffness in the machine structure, which can be traced to lack of inherent
damping in the structures.
A typical stability chart for machine tool is used by many researchers is shown in below figure three
borderlines of stability can be identified which for classification purpose will be called lobed, tangent
and asymptotic. The lobed borderline of stability is the exact borderlines are very difficult, and many
factors complicate the usefulness of the stability charts. However, stability charts present a general
picture of vibration patterns observed during machining.
Figure 3.3: stability chart for a machine tool [7]

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Chapter 4
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Chapter 4
Analyse the errors occurring between the cutting tool and work piece
Metal cutting is the process of removing material from a workpiece in the form of chips using single-
or multi-point cutting tools with an absolute defined geometry. To some extent, the performance of a
cutting tool determines the cutting behaviour and the process capability. In order to adopt a design of
high performance cutting tools, it is important to understand the tool- workpiece interfaces, the
mechanism of surface generation, forces generated between them and the errors occurring between
cutting tool and workpiece. [8]
4.1 Cutting force-induced errors:
1. Vibration: the transmission of the vibrations generated during the cutting action can excite
some of the eigen-freqencies of the machine components. Isolation measures or component
redesign can significantly reduce these parasitic shifts.
2. Material instability errors: most of the no ceramics materials have the tendency to leap from
an unstable to stable, including variations in geometry. Hence, it is important to use heat
treated components to secure increased stability.
3. Instrumentation errors: unwanted sensor errors can occur when the measurement loop is not
separated from the force loop. Abbe errors would be amplified for larger Abbe offsets.
4. Cantilevered loading errors: when a cantilevered load is placed on translation stage, non
symmetrical moment loads are created. Shear and bending forces include deflection in the
stage structural elements. In an X-Y assembly, the cantilevered load acting on the lower axis
increases as the load traverses to the extremes of the upper axis. A position error in the Z
direction occurs due to a combination of Y-axis deflection and X-axis roll.
5. Tool deflection: one of the major causes of machining error is cutting deflection of the tool
shaft due to cutting force. This error is observed especially when small diameter mill cutters
are being used. This error can lead to contouring in accuracies that are negligible. [2]
The surface roughness plays a prominent role in cutting tools; theoretically surface roughness can be
achieved only if the all irregularities, such as built-up edges (BUEs), chatter and inaccuracies in the
machine tool movements are eliminated completely. However, this cannot happen in practice. It is
impossible to achieve the above –mentioned perfect conditions. One of the main factors contributing
to actual surface roughness is the occurrence of built-up edges, which deteriorates the theoretical
tool-workpiece replication. The larger the built-up edge, the rougher is the surface produced.
4.2 Built-up edges (BUEs):
Causes of formation:
In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip-tool contact length, lot of stress and
temperature develops in the secondary deformation zone at the chip-tool interface. Under
such high stress and temperature in between two clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding
may locally take place due to adhesion similar to welding. Such bonding will be encouraged
and accelerated if the chip tool materials have mutual affinity or solubility. The well-meant
starts forming as an embryo at the most favourable location and thus gradually grows.
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With the growth of the BUE, the force, F (shown in Fig. 5.11) also gradually increases due to wedging
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action of the tool tip along with the BUE formed on it. Whenever the force, F exceeds the bonding
force of the BUE, the BUE is broken or sheared off and taken away by the flowing chip. Then again
BUE starts forming and growing. This goes on repeatedly.
• Characteristics of BUE
Built-up-edges are characterized by its shape, size and bond strength, which depend upon:
• work tool materials
• Stress and temperature, i.e., cutting velocity and feed
• cutting fluids application governing cooling and lubrication.
Figure 4.1: formation of built-up-edges
Effects of BUE formation:

Formation of BUE causes several harmful effects, such as:
• It unfavourably changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing increase in cutting forces and
power consumption
• Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting forces and thus
induces vibration which is harmful for the tool, job and the machine tool.
• Surface finish gets deteriorated
• May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at its rake surface by adhesion and flaking
Occasionally, formation of thin flat type stable BUE may reduce tool wear at the rake face.
4.3 Chatter
Chatter is an abnormal tool behaviour which it is one of the most critical problems in machining
process and must be avoided to improve the dimensional accuracy and surface quality of the product.
It causes excessive tool wear, noise, tool breakage, and deterioration of the surface quality, it
inessential to detect and prevent its occurrence.
A varied uncut chip thickness in the cutting process induces variations in the cutting force, which
repeatedly induce tool vibration. This phenomenon is called the regenerative effect and is a major
source of chatter
4.4 Other factors affecting the surface finish:
a) Dynamic errors in the machining variables, including cutting speed, tool feed, and depth of cut,
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which are mostly caused by the machine movement errors; b) cutting tool geometry errors, including
initial geometrical errors and errors due to tool wear; c) work piece material heterogeneity, such as
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grain boundaries, impurity and existing defects etc; d) tool-work piece interface conditions, including
cooling tool, and machine tool chatters, due to these factors, the actual surface roughness.
Among the above factors, the geometrical error of cutting tools has the most direct effects on surface
roughness and plays an important role in determining the quality of the surface. Some geometric
factors which affect achieved surface finish include nose radius, rack angle, cutting edge angle and
cutting edge sharpness and evenness. To design and fabricate high quality and wear-resistance
cutting tools is the first step for high quality machining. [8]
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Chapter 5
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Chapter 5
Explain the need for geometric and thermal calibration of the machine tool
5.1 Geometric errors:
Usually these errors constitute the largest source of inaccuracy and are dominant under machine
cold-start conditions. Their usual sources are
1. Within the machine due to design

2. Inaccuracies built-in during assembly
3. Results from tolerance of components used on the machine
4. Concerned with quasistatic (thermodynamic process) accuracy of the motion surface relative
to each other
And their characteristics are smooth and continuous, can exhibit hysteresis and random or
systematic behaviour. [2]
5.2 Need for geometric calibration of machine:
There is clear need for some kind of “shape tolerance” to the limit the amount of geometric
inaccuracy in component shape and form. Such tolerances are known as geometrical tolerances
and are the subject of BS308 PART III (engineering drawing standards).
Geometrical calibration should be

applied to CNC machine for all requirements which are critical to function or interchange ability.
However, if the machinery and techniques used in the production of components can be relied upon
to produce the required standard, then geometrical tolerance need not be specified. CNC machining
applications generate curves by a series of discrete steps via circular interpolation. Geometrical
tolerance may thus have particular relevance when dimensioning curved features. [9]
5.3 Thermal errors:
The thermal error accounts for 40%-70% of the total dimensional and shape errors in precision
machines. It is more effective to compensate for thermal errors rather than using expensive and high
precision components for the machine construction. Thermal errors could have either quasistatic or
dynamic behaviour. The possible origins are known here:
 Environmental temperature changes

 Heat from cutting action and swarf (Fine metallic filings)
 Heat from bearings
 Gears and hydraulic oil
 Drives and clutches
 Pumps and motors
 Guideways
 External heat sources
 Heating and cooling provided by cooling systems
 Thermal memory from previous conditions
5.4 Need for thermal calibration: in order to come over this below mentioned errors thermal
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calibration is required.
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1. Spindle axial growth: heat induced into the spindle will cause a thermal axial
expansion thus lifting the tool position in the Z-axis.
2. Spindle axial drift: heat will cause a radial expansion of the spindle combined with a
radial drift of the spindle axis in X-axis or Y-axis. This is a result of the complex effect
of heat to the spindle bearing and structure.
3. Spindle displacements holder deformation: the thermal distortion of the spindle
will cause two inclination angles around the X- and Y-axis. thus two errors
components of the tool tip will come up in X- and Y-axis.
4. Expansion of the lead screw drive: the heat produced on the lead screw as a result
of friction on the bearings and the screw nut will include thermal positional errors.
5. Expansion and bending of machine column: the machine column can have
several distortion modes depending upon the pattern of heat distortion in it. In general
this will include a volumetric error vector.
6. Expansion and bearing of machine bed: this can have a serious effect over
positional, angular, squareness, parallelism, etc.., accuracy of the machine bed for 3-
axis milling machine, these errors can cause large Abbe error components and must
be searched along the X and Y axis drives.
7. Work piece thermal deflection: the heat generated from the cutting action can
significantly deform the work piece in complex 3D modes, especially for the thin
walled components or hard-cut conditions.
8. Thermal parasitic errors: the heat distribution in a machine cannot be precisely
predicted thus there can be some special conditions which affect drive components,
thus causing unexpected parasitic errors. [2]
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Chapter 6
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Chapter 6
Describe existing methods for passive and active vibration control.
Vibration control is the use of a sensing device to detect the level of vibration in a system and an
actuation (forcing) device to apply a forcing to the system so as to counteract the effects of vibration.
In some such devices, the sensing and forcing functions are implicit and integrated together. The
nature of vibration may be clearly flexural or torsional or longitudinal.
Vibration control may be subdivided into the following two broad categories.
 Passive vibration control

 Active vibration control
6.1 Passive vibration control:
Passive vibration control involves modification of the stiffness, mass and damping of vibrating system
to make the system less responsive to its vibratory environment, as the name passive control is
specified the passive elements are used such as masses, springs, fluid dampers or damped rubbers.
6.2 Active vibration control:
Active control systems do not require external assistance they depend essentially upon a source of
power to drive „active device‟ which may be electro mechanical, electro hydraulic or electro pneumatic
actuator. They depend upon sensors on the structure which detects the vibration, upon computer
which process signals and upon power amplifiers which receive the processed signals and drive the
actuators to reduce vibration. [11]
Generally active vibration control methods are necessarily more costly than passive methods, but
some problems are so intense that active vibration alone can cure them.
6.3 Methods for passive vibration control:
There are four basically different approaches
1. Vibration control by structural design

2. Vibration control by localized additions
3. Vibration control by added damping
4. Vibration control by resilient isolation
The most commonly adopted method for passive vibration control is done by vibration absorbers and
dampers let us have brief description on methods
Un damped Vibration Absorber:
It is possible to reduce the unwanted vibrations by extracting the energy that causes these
vibrations. The extraction of this energy can be established by attaching to the main vibrating system
30
Page
a dynamic vibration absorber, which is simply a spring-mass system.
Figure 6.1: two types of application of a vibration absorber; (a) reduction of the response to forcing
excitation for reducing the force transmitted to the support structure, (b) reduction of the response to
support motion. [11]
A vibration observer may be used for vibration control as shown in above figure. Here the primary
system whose vibration needs to be controlled is modelled as an undamped, single-DOF- mass-
spring system the objective of the observer is to reduce the vibration response 𝑦𝑝 of the primary
system as a result of a vibration excitation f (t). But the force 𝑓𝑠 that is transmitted to the support
structure, as a result of vibratory of the system is given by 𝑓𝑠 =𝑘𝑝 𝑦𝑝
The frequency domain equation for the system is given by
(𝑘𝑝 + 𝑘𝑎 -𝜔2 𝑚𝑝 ) − 𝑘𝑎 𝑦𝑎 = f
(𝑘𝑎 -𝜔2 𝑚𝑎 ) 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑘𝑎 𝑦𝑝
 Here 𝑚𝑝 and 𝑘𝑝 are the mass and the stiffness of the primary system
 And 𝑚𝑎 and 𝑘𝑎 are the mass and the stiffness of the absorber response.
𝑘𝑎
And if ω= then 𝑦𝑝 = 0.
𝑚𝑎
Thus if the absorber is tuned so that its natural frequency is equal to the excitation frequency, the
primary system will not undergo any vibration and hence is perfectly controlled.
Hence from above we can state the following characteristics of un damped vibration absorber
 It is effective only for single excitation frequency

 for best effect, it should be “tuned” such that natural frequency is equal to the excitation
frequency
 The amplitude of motion of observer is proportional to the excitation amplitude and is
31
inversely proportional to absorber stiffness.
Now from formal analysis, considered transfer function of an undamped vibration absorber can be
Page
written as
𝑘 𝑝 (𝑘 𝑎 −𝜔 2 𝑚 𝑎 )
G (ω) =
𝑚 𝑝 𝑚 𝑎 𝜔 2 − 𝑘 𝑎 𝑚 𝑝 +𝑚 𝑎 +𝑘 𝑝 𝑚 𝑎 𝜔 2 +𝑘 𝑝 𝑘 𝑎
Vibration dampers:
Vibration dampers are dissipative devices. They accomplish the function of vibration control through
direct dissipation of vibration energy of the primary (vibrating) system. As a result, however, there will
be substantial heat generation and associated thermal problems and component wear.
Consider a vibrating system that is modelled as an undamped single-DOF mass-spring system

(simple oscillator). In this case the magnitude of excitation response transfer function will be a
resonance with theoretically infinite magnitude hence acts as a destructive system therefore adding a
simple damper as shown in below figure will correct the system. Hence equation can be written as
 mӱ- bẏ+ ky-f(t)
Figure 6.2: application in vibration absorber [11]
𝜌 2 −𝑟 2
The transfer function of system with absorber is given by
𝑟 4 𝜌 2 1+µ −1 𝑟 2 .𝛼 2
Where
µ is absorber mass or primary system mass, ρ is absorber natural frequency or primary natural
frequency, r is excitation frequency or primary system natural frequency. [11]
6.4 Method for Active vibration control:
A schematic diagram of an active vibration control system is shown in next page. In this process the
dynamic system whose vibrations need to be controlled is monitored and its response is measured
using sensors for feed back into the controller then the sensed signal is compared with desired
response and error to generate proper control signal. Where as in open loop control system there is
no sensor and feedback but both feedback and feed-forward schemes may be used in same control
system.
During process of vibration control the actuators receives control signal and drives the system with
external components for control actuation and signal conditioning will be needed to convert control
signal to a form which is compatible with existing actuator. The digital signal is converted into analog
signal with digital to analog converter and that analog signal is to be amplified and filtered hence
32
power source is required to condition signal causing major difference between passive and active
systems.
Page
Figure 6.3 method for active vibration control [11]
In feedback control systems, sensors are used to measure the response that enables the controller to
determine whether it is operating properly. A sensor unit that senses the response may automatically
convert (transducer) this measurement into suitable form. After conditioning the signal it is converted
into analog. [11]
33
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Chapter 7
34
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Chapter 7
Examine the types of equipments and their purpose when used for the geometric calibration of
machine tools
Various equipments used for machine tools calibrations are listed below
errors equipments
Linear positioning Laser interferometer
Straightness Laser, straight edge
Rotational Laser, Talyvel and two dial gauge
Squareness Granite square artefact and dial gauge , ball
Bar and laser (optical square, diagonal test)
1.1 Table: various equipments used for machine tools calibration (lecture notes Dr. c. Pislaru
2010)
7.1 Laser interferometer:
[2] Explains Laser interferometer is the key instrument used to access a number of geometric
errors in machine tools.
The purpose of the equipment is to inspect a CNC machining performance by characterizing its
axes in terms of positioning, repeatability, lost motion and the affects of Abbe – offset during
calibration. Main objectives that can be achieved by this laser interferometer are
 To determine the positioning accuracy performance of an axis of a CNC machine tool

 To identify possible causes of accuracy degradation.
Below is the configuration to measure the straightness
35
Figure7.1: Experimental setup of Laser interferometer. [2]

Page
Procedure
 the laser interferometer is set to take readings along x-axis of the CNC machining center
with MDSI open CNC controller at a height to the table surface as shown in above figure
 target positions: 30mm equally spaced target positions are selected over a stroke of 480
mm. Five runs in each direction along the x-axis
 Positions at previous targets over the stroke are recorded for several runs with out any
compensation values in the CNC controller.
 Wavelength compensation: since the wave length is dependent upon reflective index
of the air, it is necessary to compensate for environmental conditions. Air temperature,
pressure, and humidity are recorded to obtain wavelength compensation using Elden‟s
equation
 Error data is obtained by plotting the specifications
 Using Talyvel electronic level, the pitch motion of x-axis at 30mm intervals is measured to
evaluate possible Abee error corresponding to that axis.
7.2 Ball Bar system:
The purpose of ball bar link is to characterize circular motion provided by either a milling machine
with the combination of two axes, or, in the lathe machine. It is expected to verify the eccentricity
and geometric errors such as squareness and deformation errors.
The main objectives that can be achieved by ball bar system is
 To investigate the contouring characteristics of a CNC Machining Center.

 To investigate silent features of the contouring/polar results in respect of error sources of
the machine.
Figure7.2: experimental setup of ball bar system [2]
Procedure:
 A 100mm kinematic ball bar system complete with calibrated setting bar is used with the
quick setting sleeve from the hardware. The center of the two reference spheres coincide
36
with each other in the center of the x-y reference plane of the machine.
Page
 The machine is programmed to produce a 360 degree clockwise circle with a 100mm
radius and a feed of 1000mm/min with a tangential approach to the start point and a
tangential exit. The start and exit point was at 202 degrees in the xy plane.
 The above point is repeated
 And the 1000mm/min is changed to 4000mm/min in above step
 Measured results are displayed on pc and observed the last motion (backlash) in the x-
and y- axes using the software. [2]
7.3 Talyvel:
Figure 7.3 picture of Talyvel [12]
Talyvel Electronic Level systems provide versatile and precise measurement for a wide variety of
industrial; they combine exceptionally high accuracy, stability and repeatability with fast response and
operational convenience. Used for measuring straightness, flatness or absolute level.
Some applications for which Talyvel systems have become universally accepted:
 Checking slideways for straightness and twist
 Checking columns for squareness to slideways
 Checking the surface plates for flatness
 Monitoring the settlement of large machinery
 Measuring the camber on rolls
Function:
It consists of two systems
1. Level unit
2. Display unit
Level unit: This unit offers stable, high accuracy measurement. Its pendulum type transducer is
suspended on wires and is silicon oil damped to reduce the effects of mechanical vibration during
measurements. This unit incorporates a clamp knob which, when screwed in, secures the pendulum
during transport.
Display unit: This unit is powered by mains. A selector switch allows results to be displayed as angle
in arc seconds or as a gradient in mm/metre or 0.001 in/in. The display also flashes to indicate an off
scale condition. An analogue meter indicates the direction of tilt of the Level Unit (eg for setting Micro
Alignment Telescope line of sight horizontal) and can be switched to a fine ±10 second range, which
is very practical when setting to gravity. A “Low Bat” signal indicates the need to recharge the
batteries. There is also a damping switch to
Smooth/average out the measurement reading. Standard 3.5m cables are supplied with
Talyvel 5; optional extension cables enable Talyvel 5 to be used at distances up to 100 metres (300
feet) from the Level Unit. This distance can be further extended to 800 metres (1/2 mile) by using
cables with a built-in signal strengthening amplifier.
The front panel also incorporates an adjuster to set the display reading to zero for one Level Unit (A).
37
The adjustment operates over approximately ±60 seconds. For absolute level indication the
adjustment is set to zero. [12]
Page
7.4 Artefacts:
In many systems Calibrated artefacts (an aluminium hole plate and a vertical detachable artefact),
previously calibrated on a coordinate measuring machine is considered. The artefacts are measured
on the machine tool and the coordinate points are transferred via serial interface, to a portable
computer where software acquire and process these points, comparing them to the calibrated values.
As a result, the errors of positioning, straightness and squareness are measured, attesting the
machine tool accuracy. These errors can be easily formatted to update the error compensation table
and process table at the CNC, enhancing the geometric behaviour of the machine. The software also
gives report of the errors, monitoring the machine accuracy condition. [13]
Below is figure of system in which artefacts are used to calibrate the geometric errors [13]
Figure 7.4 systems in which artefacts are used to calibrate
38
Figure 7.5: showing various equipments used to measure geometric errors. [13]
Page
Chapter 8
39
Page
Chapter 8
Provide a block diagram of a typical CNC machine tool axis drive system with a brief
description of its constituent components and their function. Postulate the parameters and
physical elements that affect the static and dynamic accuracy performance
Figure 8.1: Block diagram of CNC machine tool axis drive in SIMULINK 1 (lecture c.pislaru 2010)
8.1 Description of its constituent components and their function:
[15] Describes that a machine tool axis drive consists of three major blocks. CNC controller block, axis
actuator, mechanical system
The components shown in block diagram of machine tool axis drive system are:
Position control summer, controller, speed summer, pre amplifier, current loop sum, amplifier, speed
summer, dc motor, load model, tachometer, encoder,
Let us have a brief details about the elements and there functions
P.T.O
40
Page
controller model: the block diagram of an analogue controller is shown below
Figure 8.2: possible block diagram of analogue controller [14]
The demand feed rate and positions are represented mathematically as a

reference pulse frequency and a reference pulse stream duration respectively, the calculation block,
Embedded within the controller, monitors the motion control of the machine tool using linear and
circular interpolation routines. The position demand signal (X c) with the machine feed back position
encoder signal (X m) .the encoder is modelled as a constant (K enc) converting motor angular velocity
to a pulse frequency, the difference between two signals is called error ε and is sent to control the
machine tool motion system through a digital to analogue converter simultaneously, the controller is
capable of generating a velocity feed forward (VFF) output to aid response.
The error is multiplied by the gain of the position loop K v and is converted into a velocity value .this is
summed algebraically with VFF and the result is transformed into a digital value in the range ±10v.
Digital to analogue (D/A) converter has the role to transform a digital

dimensional signal into an analogue signal. The main advantage derived from the controller of a
modern CNC machine tool being a digital computer are:
 Many loops can be controlled or compensated through time sharing

 Changes in software allow parameter alterations to be made in order to achieve the desired
control response
 The controller is able to perform supervisory applications. [14]
Pre-amplifier and amplifier models:
Below is shown the possible diagram of servo amplifier considering the connections with other
components of the DC drive
41
Page
Figure 8.3: possible diagram of a servo amplifier considering connections with other components of
DC drive [14]
The output of the D/A converter (±10 v) is compared with the output of the tachogenerator and the
voltage difference is amplified by the servo amplifier. This has two components:
The pre-amplifier (PA)- consists of an operational amplifier sensitive to the difference between signal
generated by the D/A converter and the tachogenerator feedback and providing voltage amplification.
The power amplifier- supplies the DC motor with the required value of armature voltage. The armature
voltage will be stabilised whenever the voltage difference at the input of a PA reaches zero. This will
ensure correspondence between the rotational speed of the DC motor and the reference signal
generated by the D/A converter.
The two components yield good DC gain for steady –state functioning and
a large bandwidth for a good transient response. The pre-amplifier works with low voltage (± 15 v) and
low current (1mA) while the power amplifier needs high voltage(110 v) and high current (60A). [14]
D.C. motor:
The below is shown the block diagram of DC motor
Figure 8.4: block diagram of DC motor [14]
The motor used is permanent magnetic motors (PMM) which has many advantages over other types
of motors like
Linear available torque-speed characteristics, high stall torque, reduced frame size and lighter motor
for a given output power.
The transfer function obtained from the electrical and dynamic equations is
1/𝐾𝑒
𝐺𝑚 (s) =
𝑠𝑇𝑚 +1 (𝑠𝑇𝑒 +1)
𝐾𝑒 - Motor voltage constant [ V/(rad/s)]
𝑇𝑚 - Mechanical time constant for the motor
𝑇𝑒 - Electrical time constant for the motor

42
Page
Load model:
The load model is the output provided to reactive torque from ball screw and from the summation of
the inputs of ball screw inertia provided input from angular acceleration, ball screw drag, fixed end
friction torque provided input from angular velocity of ball screw pulley, slideway friction it can be
clearly understood by the below block diagram
Figure 8.5: diagram for load model (lecture notes Dr. C.pislaru 2010)
The equations for load model are:
T reaction = Tp2 + T BSd + T BSi + TSF + T friction

Where Tp2 - torque due to driven pulley inertia
𝑑𝜔
T𝑝2 = J 𝑝2 2
𝑑𝑡
T BSd - torque due to ball screw drag
T BSd =μWBS ω2
T BSi - torque due to ball screw inertia where T BSi = s JBS ω 2
𝑝2
TSF - torque due to slideway friction where TSF = (µ𝑊 + 𝑠𝑀)𝜔2
4𝜋 2 𝜂
T friction - torque due to friction in bearings
2 𝑇
Friction = 𝑀0 +𝑀1 = 𝑓0 10−7 (𝜐𝜂 3 𝑇 3 + µ1 𝑓1 𝐹( )
2
Where M0 - load - free component, M1 - load - dependent component [14]
Tachometers:
A tachometer is a smaller permanent magnet dc motor mounted directly on the rear of the
servomotor‟s shaft. The tachometer produces a voltage proportional to actual velocity of the motor
shaft. It has a factory set of constant and an adjustable gain that enables tuning of the velocity feed
back loop. The transfer function between the actual motor velocity and the tachometer circuit output is
𝑣 (𝑠)
given as 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑔 𝐻𝑔
𝜔 (𝑠)
Where 𝑣𝑡 (𝑠) is the output voltage of the tachometer, 𝜔(𝑠) is the actual angular velocity of the motor
shaft, 𝐻𝑔 is the tachometer constant, 𝑇𝑔 is the adjustable tachometer gain, and s is Laplace operator
43
Page
8.2 Parameters and physical elements that affect the static and dynamic accuracy performance
The interval of time between input and output and the quality of the output signal for an axis drive
from CNC machine tool are affected by disturbance such as:
 Resistant force due to friction
 Forces dependent upon acceleration and speed
 Deformation of the control elements caused by operating forces and loading conditions.
The effects of disturbance could be classified in three categories:
1. “non-linearity‟s-
2. Effect of noise on saturable elements
3. Effect of elements tolerances – these effects the gain and time constants of the system
and therefore the dynamic and static accuracy.”
These effects manifest themselves in different parts of the machine tool axis drives as is shown in
below table
They affect static and dynamic accuracy of the machine tool, terms that specify the performance
of this system.
Parameters effecting dynamic and static accuracy are listed below

 Velocity bandwidth
 Check overshooting
 Backlash
 Dead band
 Coulomb friction
 Position gain
 Resonance frequencies for different elements
 Damping coefficients
Part of motion control system Effects of disturbance

controller Quantisation
Effects due to sampling time
Saturation limits
Effects due to interpolation
Mechanical transmission Dead band
Backlash in the driving elements and slideways
stiffness
1.2 Table: the effects of distribution in different parts of CNC machine tool axis drive. [14]
44
Page
CHAPTER 9
45
Page
Chapter 9
Describe the controller operation and optimisation methods related to it
Controller operation of CNC machine
The below is shown the block diagram of CNC controller for analogue feed drive
Figure 9.1: CNC controller (MCU) for analogue feed drive (Pislaru .C, 2010)
Cutting of work piece in CNC machines are done by programming G codes for interpolation techniques, below
is the detail description of interpolation technique and types of interpolation
9.1 Interpolation technique:
 The interpolator is a vital part of the MCU, allowing the simultaneous movements of two or more axes
 The coordinated movement of these axes allows the machine tool to move the cutter or the workpiece in
a constant tool path to generate :
-
- Linear interpolation- Straight line and angular moves
- Circular interpolation –arc and circular moves
- Helical interpolation- thread and helical forms
- Parabolic and cubic interpolation- for complex shapes
Let us have a brief discussion on above mentioned topics
Circular interpolation: this was developed to overcome the difficulty in programming arcs and circles. It allows a
programmer to make the cutting tool follow any circular path ranging from small arc segment to full 360 degrees
circle for machining arcs or full circles, outside and inside radii.
There is usually an automatic selection of XY plane
as the default value. There are limitations of the maximum radius by the capacity of the machine tool.
However, simultaneous control for circular interpolation on two axes and linear interpolation on the
46
third axis can be provided.

Page
Linear interpolation: It involves moving the cutting tool from one position to another in a straight line with this
type programming it is possible to program all tapers or angular surfaces; it may also be used to stimulate arcs
and circles.
Helical interpolation: For the XY plane, the tool will move in a circular motion in the XY axes and
linearly in Z, simultaneously. Helical interpolation is used for threading, spiral, and rough boring
applications.
Parabolic interpolation:
It is Control of a cutter path by interpolation between three fixed points, with the assumption that the
intermediate points are on a parabola. [15]
9.2 Plane selection:

The CNC controller operates the plane selection by programming G codes as listed below
G17 for xy plane
G18 for xz plane
G19 for yz plane
The below shows diagram explains the selection of plane and arc direction
Figure 9.2: selection of plane and arc direction [15]
9.3 Rigid tapping

Rigid tapping or synchronous feed tapping is most common in CNC machines. The rigid tapping cycle
operates by synchronizing the machine spindle rotation so as to match the thread pitch. There has
been difficulty in matching the machine and pitch of the specific tap used. Operation of machine and
actual pitch of the tap have slight discrepancies. As tap becomes dull, the pressure required to start
the tap into the whole decreases. This results into more compression stroke within the tap driver
which is used before the tap begins to cut thereby causing shallower tapping depth.
9.4 CNC Software
As every computer existing operates on software same as with Computer in CNC is being operated
by means of software.
There are three types of software used in CNC system they are listed below
1. Operating system software
2. Application software and
47
3. Machine interface software

Let us have a brief description about this software‟s
Page
 Operating system software:

This deal with the part program and manipulate corresponding control signal to drive machine tool
axes. It is read only memory (ROM) stored in the machine control unit (MCU). This software has
editor function, a control program and an executive program. Editor allows machine operator to
accept inputs and edit part programs. It also allows all file management functions .The control
program decodes instructions of the part program and performs calculations and interpolation.
 Application system software:

Application system software controls numerical control part programs which are written for
machining applications.
 Machine interface software:

Machine interface software operates communication link between the machine tool and CPU.
This enables CNC auxiliary function to be accomplished. Ladder logic diagrams are used in
this software. [15]
9.5 Part programming:

Part programming represents the machining sequences, or blocks, used to produce a desired
component shape. Each block starts with letter N followed by the block sequence number. These
blocks consist of several words. A word starts with a character followed by number that represents a
specific command for machine tool.
The starting word G represents the preparatory function and the M represents the miscellaneous
function in program and F, S represents the feed and spindle speeds respectively and T is the tool
number. x, y, and z letters are the scalars representation of motion length in particular axis.
Part programming with CAD systems:

This system has graphical representation or displays. Each geometric statement can be made
interactively by moving mouse. CAD has advantages of allowing visual inspection of the part
geometry on the computer workstation. Most of CAD systems allow 3D construction. [16]
9.6 Feed rate optimization:

A feed rate optimization technique has been developed for minimizing the cycle time in machining
spline tool paths. Axis velocity, torque and jerk limits are considered throughout the motion in order to
ensure smooth and linear operation of the servo drives with minimal tracking error. Feed modulation
is achieved by manipulating segment durations which define the overall minimum jerk feed profile.
Long tool paths are handled by applying a windowing technique. The optimized feed profile allows
nonzero acceleration and jerk values at segment connections, resulting in continuous and smooth
motion within the velocity, torque, and jerk limits of the drives. The cycle time reduction obtained with
48
the proposed technique is demonstrated in high speed contouring experiments. [17]

Page
Conclusion
CNC machines are considered to be a very important aspect in engineering design process. Its
applications are very wide and it is versatile, CNC machine tool has many advantages over other
conventional machining. The CNC machine has reliable features of resolution and repeatability. The
CNC machine tool features high efficiency, high speed and high accuracy. Some of the errors are
easily reduced during the machining process and the techniques discussed in report are useful to get
error free response.
REFERENCES
PAPER BASED RESOURSES

BOOKS:
[1] Gross H (2001), Electrical feed drives in automation MCD Corporate Publisher.
[2] Samir Mekid (2009),Precision machine design and error measurement, Publisher: Boca Raton Fla.
; London : CRC
nd
[3] Gibbs, David(1987),An introduction to CNC machining 2 edition, publisher: London : Cassell
[9] Barry Leatham- jones (1999), introduction to computer numerical control , publisher: A Pearson
Education
[10] Denys J Mead (1998), passive vibration control , publisher: Chichester : Wiley,
[11] Clarence W.de silva (1999), Vibration and fundamental practice , publisher: CRC press Boca
Raton
[16] Yusuf Altintas (2000), Manufacturing automation metal cutting mechanics, machine tool
vibrations, and CNC design. Publisher: Cambridge University Press
[18] G.E THYER (1991), Computer numerical control of machine tools. 2nd edition, Oxford: Newnes
publisher.
Theses & dissertations:
[14] Dr. c. pislaru 2001 parameter identification and hybrid mathematical modelling techniques applied
to non-linear control systems. Ph. d thesis
Journals:
[6] “Theory of self-excited machine-tool chatter” journal of engineering for industry, november
1965,p.447-454.
[7] “Basic mechanics of metal-cutting process,” journal of applied mechanics, vol.11, transactions of
the asme, vol.66,1944, P.A-168.
[8] Machining Dynamics: Fundamentals, Applications and Practices by Kai Cheng Cutting force-
49
induced errors
Page
ELECTRONIC RESOURCES
WWW pages
[4] Iron casting manufacture.(2006).CNC structural elements. Available from: <

http://www.yjfcasting.com/Gray-iron-casting.htm > Accessed 3 March 2010.
[5] Spindle Manufactures.(2008).CNC spindle. Available from: < http://www.spindlesworld.com/cnc-

spindle.html > Accessed 28 February 2010.
[12] Taylor Hobson precision.(2006).TALYVEL/CLINOMETERS FOR ANGULAR

MEASUREMENT. Available from: < http://www.zimmerman.com.tw/uploads/TalyvelEnglish.pdf >
Accessed 8 March 2010.
[13] Federal University of Santa Catarina. (2005).AN ALTERNATIVE TECHNIQUE TO THE

GEOMETRIC TEST OF MACHINING CENTERS. Available from: <
http://www.aspe.net/publications/Annual_2001/PDF/PAPERS/LSMETRO/1122.PDF > Accessed 2
March 2010.
[19] Cincinnati Machine Ltd. (2002). Arrow Series 2 vertical machining centre. Available from: <
http://www.gaec.com/catalog/articles/cincinnati1.htm> Accessed 26 February 2010
Electronic journals
[17]Y. Altintas and K. Erkorkmaz. (2007). “Feed rate Optimization for Spline Interpolation in High
Speed Machine Tools” Available from: <
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B8CXH-4P37B1V-
2K&_user=10&_coverDate=12/31/2003&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&v
iew=c&_searchStrId=1250265988&_rerunOrigin=google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersio
n=0&_userid=10&md5=e69bccdffdb6a9628fc566983d7bbd3c > [Accessed 12 March 2010].
Electronic books
[15] Stephen F. Krar, & Arthur Grill. (2001) Computer numerical control simplified. Available at
<http://books.google.com/books?id=I4HIz7l7zikC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Computer+numerical+cont
rol > [Accessed 06 March 2010]
50
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Khaja Shoaib Moin ID: U0974546

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND ENGINEERING

Msc in Engineering Control System & Instrumentation

Module NME 3521-Modelling of Electromechanical control

Module Tutor - Dr Crinella Pislaru

Report on a CNC machining centre and its application

Khaja Shoaib Moin

2.2 Elements of a feed drive axis…………………………………………………………………….. 16

4.4 Other factors affecting the surface finish……………………………………………………………... 24

5.2 Need for geometric calibration…………………………………………………………………………. 27

5.3 Thermal errors…………………………………………………………………………………………… 27

5.4 Need for thermal calibration……………………………………………………………………………. 27

6.2 Active vibration control………………………………………………………………………………. 30

6.3 Method for passive vibration control……………………………………………………………….. 30

6.4 Method for active vibration control…………………………………………………………………. 32

7.2 Ball-bar system……………………………………………………………………………………….. 36

8.2 Parameters and physical elements………………………………………………………………… 44

9.2 Plane selection……………………………………………………………………………………….. 47

9.3 Rigid tapping………………………………………………………………………………………….. 47

9.4 CNC software…………………………………………………………………………………………. 47

9.5 Part programming…………………………………………………………………………………….. 48

9.6 Feed rate optimization............................................................................................................. 48

0.2 Picture of three axis CNC machine.......................................................................................... 07

0.3 Picture of five axis machine.................................................................................................... 07

0.4 Arrow series 2 vertical milling machine................................................................................... 08

2.1 Structure of three axis vertical milling machine........................................................................ 14

2.2 Picture of bed........................................................................................................................... 14

2.3 Picture of table...........................................................................................................................15

2.4 Picture of column....................................................................................................................... 15

2.5 Picture of spindle........................................................................................................................ 15

2.6 Picture of saddle........................................................................................................................ 16

2.7 Elements of feed drive axis........................................................................................................ 16

2.8 Cylindrical guideway and hydrostatic slideway........................................................................... 17

2.9 Construction of linear bearings guide rails...................................................................................17

3.1 Formation of BUE.........................................................................................................................20

3.2 Built-Up-Edge phenomenon on effective rake angle.................................................................... 21

3.3 Graph of stability for a machine tool............................................................................................. 21

4.1 Formation of BUE......................................................................................................................... 24

6.1 Types of application of a vibration absorber................................................................................ 31

6.2 Application in vibration absorber.................................................................................................... 32

6.3 Method for active vibration control................................................................................................. 33

7.1 Experimental setup of laser interferometer.................................................................................. 35

7.2 Experimental setup of ball bar system.......................................................................................... 36

7.3 Picture of Talyvel.......................................................................................................................... 37

7.4 Artefacts using systems................................................................................................................ 38

7.5 Equipments to calibrate used to measure geometric errors......................................................... 38

8.2 Possible block diagram of analog controller................................................................................. 41

8.3 Block diagram of a servo amplifier................................................................................................ 42

8.4 Block diagram of DC motor........................................................................................................... 42

8.5 Diagram for load model.................................................................................................................. 43

9.1 CNC controller (MCU) for analog feed drive.................................................................................. 46

9.2 Selection of plane and arc direction............................................................................................... 47

INTRODUCTION TO CNC MACHINES

The CNC machine basically entails three main regions:-

CLASSIFICATION OF CNC SYSTEMS: The classification of CNC machine is shown

Motion Control loop Axes Power supply

Open loop Closed loop Electric power Hydraulic power

Figure 0.1: classification of CNC machine tools

Three axis CNC machine:

2. In machining, tool orientation is fixed, either in vertical or horizontal direction.

Figure 0.2 Three axis machine

Five axis CNC machine: