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ELECTRIC HEATING
• When current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot. When a
magnetic material is brought in the vicinity of an alternating magnetic field, heat is
produced in the magnetic material.
• Similarly it was found that when an electrically insulating material was subjected to
electrical stresses, it too underwent a temperature rise (Dielectric heating).
There are various method of heating a material but electric heating is considered to be far
superior for the following reasons:
(i)Cleanliness:
• Due to complete elemination of dust and ash, the charges to maintain cleanliness are
minimum and the material to be heated does not get contaminated.
(ii)Ease of control:
• With the help of manual or automatic devices, it is possible to control and regulate the
temperature of a furnace with great ease.
(iii)Uniform heating:
• Whereas in other forms of heating a temperature gradient is set up from the outer
surface to the inner core.
• The core being relatively cooler, in case of electric heating, the heat is uniformly
distributed and hence the charge is uniformly heated.
• Electric heating equipments normally do not require much attention and maintenance
is also negligible.
• Hence labour charges on these items are negligibly small as compared to alternative
methods of heating.
• Otherwise when switched ON from room temperature to go upto say 1200˚C, the low
resistance at initial stage will draw excessively high currents at the same operating
voltage.
• If temperature is negative the element will draw more current when hot.
• A higher current means more voltage, a higher temperature or a still lower resistance,
which can instability of operation.
• Its melting point should be sufficiently higher than its operating temperature.
Otherwise a small rise in the operating voltage will destroy the element.
• The resistivity of the material used for making element should be high.
• This will require small lengths and shall give convenient size.
• Otherwise oxidised layers from the surface will flake off changing the resistance of
the filament and giving it a smaller life.
vi)Ductile
• To have convenient shapes and sizes, the material used should have high ductility and
flexibility.
• Some furnaces have to open or rock while hot. The element material should withstand
the vibrations while hot and should not break open.
viii)Mechanical Strength
• The material used should have sufficient mechanical strength of its own.
CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING
Resistance Heating:
• This method is based upon the I2R loss. Whenever current is passed through a
resistive material heat is produced because of I2 R loss.
• The charge may be in the form of powder pieces or liquid. The two electrodes are
immersed in the charge and connected to the supply.
• In case of D.C or single phase A.C two electrodes are required but there will be three
electrodes in case of three phase supply.
• When metal pieces are to be heated a powder of high resistivity material is sprinkled
over the surface of the charge to avoid direct short circuit.
• The current flows through the charge and heat is produced. This method has high
efficiency since heat is produced.
• This method has high efficiency since heat is produced is charge itself. Though
automatic temperature control is not possible in this method.
• But it gives uniform heat and high temperature. One of the major application of the
process is salt bath furnaces having an operating temperature between 500˚C to
1400˚C.
• The bath makes use of supply voltage across two electrodes varying between 5 to 20
volts.
• For this purpose a special double wound transformer is required which makes use of
3Ф primary and single phase secondary. This speaks of an unbalanced load.
• The variation in the secondary voltage is done with the help of an off load tapping
switch of the primary side. This is necessary for starting and regulating the bath load.
Advantages :
• High efficiency.
• In this method the current is passed through a highly resistance element which is
either placed above or below the over depending upon the nature of the job to be
performed.
• The heat proportional to I2R losses produced in heating element delivered to the
charge either by radiation or by convection.
• Both A.C and D.C supplies can be used for this purpose at full mains voltage
depending upon the design of heating element.
Application :
• This method is used in room heater, in bimetallic strip used in starters, immersion
water heaters and in various types of resistance ovens used in domestic and
commercial cooking.
Arc Furnaces
• There are two common types of arc furnaces: (1)Three-phase furnace and (2)Single
phase furnace.
• Single phase furnaces are used for the manufacture of gray iron casting also.
• Three phase furnaces are used for power ratings from 250KVA, 10,000KVA and
capacities upto 25 tonne.
• Generally graphite electrodes are used. As they are subjected to volatilization, they
are to be replaced.
• The arc temperature is between 3000 and 3500˚C, so that the process is carried out
between 1500˚C and 2500˚C.
2)Reactors
4)Control panel
• The chamber in which arc is struck is placed on a metal frame work. The chamber is
lined inside with a refractory linning, which is acidic or basic in nature.
• The electrodes arc inserted from the top or sides of the chamber, and are placed in
such a way as to be replaced easily or adjusted easily.
• The arc is struck directly with the charge, when a current flows through it and
produces intense heat, which results, in high temperature.
• Although some furnaces up to 100 tonne are made, generally furnaces up to 25 tonne
are in general use.
• Stirring action is automatic and gives a uniform product. It is used for alloy steel
manufacture and gives a purer product.
Merits:
• It is very simple and easy to control the composistion of the final product during
refining process.
Demerits:
• It is very costlier.
• Eventhough it is used for both melting and refining but wherever electric energy is
expensive it is economical to use cupola for melting and arc furnace for refining.
Application:
• Electrodes are inserted from the sides and the heat produced is transmitted by
radiation to the charge.
• This furnace is used for only single phase supplies. Also the capacity of the furnace is
limited up to 100 tonne.
• The furnace is rocked thoroughly to ensure, that the metal will cover the refactory
lining and prevent it from reaching high temperatures.
Application:
Induction heating:
• Induction heating processes make use of currents induced by electromagnetic action
in the material to be heated.
• The coil is magnetically coupled with the metal to be heated which acts as secondary.
• An electric current is induced in this metal when the a.c current is passed through the
primary coil.
2. Coreless type
• It consist of an iron core, crucible and primary winding connected to an a.c supply.
• The charge is kept in the cruicible, which forms a single turn short circuited
secondary circuit.
• The current in the charge is very high in the order of several thousand amperes. The
charge is magnetically coupled to the primary winding.
• The change is melted because of high current induced in it. When there is no molten
metal, no current will flow in the secondary.
• To start the furnace molten metal is poured in the oven from the previous charge.
• The magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary is very weak, therefore the
leakage reactance is very high. This causes low power factor.
• It must be closed. For starting the furnace either molten metal is poured into the
crucible or sufficient molten metal is allowed to remain in the crucible from the
previous operation.
• It has a vertical channel for the charge, thus the crucible used is also vertical. The
construction of ajax wyatt vertical furnace is shown in fig.
• The principle of operation is that of a transformer in which the secondary turns are
replaced by a closed loop of molten metal. The primary winding is placed on the
central limb of the core.
• Hence leakage reactance is comparatively low and power factor is high. Inside of the
furnace is lined with refactory depending upon the charge.
• The top of the furnace is covered with an insulated cover which can be removed for
charging. Necessary arrangements are usually made for titling the furnace to take out
the molten metal.
• The molten metal in the ‘V’ portion acts as a short circuited secondary. When primary
is connected to the a.c supply, high current will be accumulated at the bottom and
even a small amount of charge will keep the secondary completed.
Advantages:
• Since both primary and secondary are on the same central core, its power factor is
better.
Applications:
• This furnaces is used for melting non ferrous metals like brass, zinc, tin, bronze,
copper etc.
• In such furnace an inductively heated element is made to transfer its heat to the
change by radiation.
• It consists of an iron core linking with the primary winding and secondary. In this
case secondary consists of a metal container forming the walls of the furnace.
• When the primary winding is connected to the supply, current is induced in the
secondary of the metal container.
• So heat is produced due to induced current. This heat is transmitted to the charge by
radiation.
• The portion AB of the magnetic circuit is made up of a special alloy and is kept inside
the chamber of the furnace.
• The special alloy will loose its magnetic properties at a particular temperature and the
magnetic properties are regained when the alloy will cooled.
• As soon as the furnace attains the critical temperature the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit increases many times and the inductive effect correspondingly decreases
thereby cutting off the heat supply.
• The bar AB is removable type and can be replaced by other, having different critical
temperature. Thus the temperature of the furnace can be controlled very effectively.
• Hence for compensating the low flux density, the current supplied to the primary
should have sufficiently high frequency.
• The flux set up by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The
heating effect of the eddy currents melts the charge.
• Stirring of the metals takes place by the action of the electromagnetic forces. Coreless
furnace may be having conducting or non conducting containers.
• Fig shows a coreless induction furnace in which container is made up of conduting
material.
• The container acts as secondary winding and the charge can have either conducting or
non conducting properties.
• Thus the container forms a short circuited single turn secondary. Hence heavy current
induced in it and produce heat. This heat produced is transferred to the charge by
convection.
• To prevent the primary winding from high temperature, refactory linings are provided
between primary and secondary windings.
• Fig shows a coreless induction furnace in which the container is made of ceramic
material and the charge must necessarily have conducting properties.
• The flux produced by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The
heating effects of the eddy currents melt the charge.
• Stirring action in the metals takes place by the action of the electromagnetic forces.
Advantages:
Dielectric heating:
• Dielectric heating is also sometimes called as high frequency capacitance heating.
• If non metallic materials ie, insulators such as wood, plastics, china clay, glass,
ceramics etc are subjected to high voltage A.C current, their temperature will increase
in temperature is due to the conversion of dielectric loss into heat.
• The dielectric loss is dependent upon the frequency and high voltage. Therefore for
obtaining high heating effect high voltage at high frequency is usually employed.
• The metal to be heated is placed between two sheet type electrodes which forms a
capacitor as shown in fig. The equivalent circuit and vector diagram is also shown in
fig.
• When A.C supply is connected across the two electrodes, the current drawn by it is
leading the voltage exactly 90˚.
• The angle between voltage and current is slightly less than 90˚, with the result that
there is a inphase component of the current (IR).
• This current produces power loss in the dielectric of the capacitor. At normal supply
frequency the power loss may be small.
• But at high frequencies, the loss becomes large, which is sufficient to heat the
dielectric.
Advantages:
Applications:
Welding:
• Welding is the process of joining two similar metals by heating. The metal parts are
heated to melting point. In some cases the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to
plastic stage and are fused together.
Electric welding:
• In electric welding process, electric current is used to produce large heat, required for
joining two metal pieces. There are two methods by which electric welding can be
carried out. These are
2. Arc welding.
1. Resistance welding
a) Butt welding
b) Spot welding
c) Seam welding
d) Projection welding
e) Flash welding
2. Arc welding
Resistance welding:
• In resistance welding heavy current is passed through the metal pieces to be welded.
Heat will be developed by the resistance of the work piece to the flow of current.
H=I2Rt
Where,
I= Current in amperes.
R= Resistance in ohms.
• The A.C supply is given to the primary winding of the transformer through a
controlled contactor.
• The welding transformer is a step down transformer. The secondary voltage is in the
order of 1 to 10 volts. But the current may range from 50 to 1000 amperes.
i) Butt welding:
• In this process heat is generated by the contact resistance between two components.
• In this type of welding the metal parts to be joined end to end as shown in fig.
Sufficient pressure is applied along the axial direction.
• A heavy current is passed from the welding transformer which creates the necessary
heat at the joint due to high resistance of the contact area.
• Due to the pressure applied, the molten metal forced to produce a bulged joint.
Spot welding is usually employed for joining or fabricating sheet metal structure. This
type of joint only provides mechanical strength and is not air or water tight.
Spot welding arrangement is shown in fig. The plates to be welded are placed overlapping
each other between two electrodes, sufficient mechanical pressure is applied through the
electrodes. The welding current flows through electrodes tips producing a spot weld. The
welding current and period of current flow depend on the thickness of the plates.
Arc welding:
• An electric arc is the flow of electric current through gases.
• An electric arc is struck by short circuiting two electrodes and then with drawing them
apart by small distance.
• The current continue to flow across the small gap and give intense heat.
• The heat developed by the arc is also used for cutting of metal.
Carbon arc welding:
• The electrode is made of carbon or graphite and is to be kept negative with respect of
the work.
• The work piece is connected to positive wire as shown in fig. Flux and filler are also
used.
• If the electrode is made positive then the carbon contents may flow into the weld and
cause brittleness.
• The heat from the arc forms a molten pool and the extra metal required to make the
weld is supplied by the filler rod.
• This type of welding is used for welding copper and its alloy.
• In metal arc welding a metal rod of same material as being welded is used as an
electrode.
• The electrode also serves the purpose of filler. For metal arc welding A.C or D.C can
be used.
• The work piece is then suddenly touched by the electrode and then separated from it a
little. This results in an arc between the job and the electrode.
• A little portion of the work and the tip of the electrode melts due to the heat generated
by the arc.
• When the electrode is removed the metal cools and solidifies giving a strong welded
joint.
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ELECTRIC DRIVES AND CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
• An electric motor is a better prime move for driving mechanical load than hydraulic,
steam or diesel engines as it is possible to control the performance of an electric
motor is quite easy.
• For obtaining electric drives, both A.C and D.C motors are used. However A.C
system is preferred.
• It is easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises within the prescribed limits
and it is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without appreciable loss of
power.
• Inspite of the advantages of A.C system sometimes it becomes essential to use D.C
energy as industrial drive.
Electric drive
1. Individual drive
3. Multimotor drive
• Transmission of power from one place to other can be done with the help of cables in
stead of long shaft etc.
Individual drive
• Individual drive consist of single motor is used to drive one individual machine.
• In some cases the motor, along with its control equipment, may form an integral part
of the machine, which results in better appearance, cleanliness and safety.
Advantages:
• If there is a fault in one motor other machines will not be affected since they are
working independently.
• Each operator has a complete control of his machine. He can vary its speed, if
necessary and stop while not in use. Thus no load losses can be eliminated.
Disadvantages:
• A group drive consist of a single large motor, which operates a number of machines.
• The driven machines are connected to these pulleys and belts for their required speed.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
• If most of the machines are idle the main motor will operate on load with less
efficiency.
Multimotor drive
• In multimotor drives separate motors are used for operating different parts of the same
mechanism.
• Eg in case of an overhead crane, different motors are used for hoisting, long travel
motion and cross travel motion.
• Such drive is also essential in complicated metal-cutting machine tools, paper making
machines, rolling mills.
Selection of motors
• An industrial process needs a particular electric drive for its successful and efficient
operation which in turn calls for appropriate selection of the driving motor.
• While selecting a motor, the following factors must be taken into consideration:
a. Electrical characteristics
• Running characteristics
• Starting characteristics
• Speed control
• Braking
b. Mechanical characteristics
• Types of enclosures
• Bearings
• Transmission of drive
• Noise level
• Continuous rating
d. Cost
• Capital cost
• Running cost
• The first three are the technical factors and the last one is the economic factor.
• Many a time, there are conflicts between the technical and economic factors, but in
any commercial organization, the economic factor overpowers the technical factors as
the correct choice of a motor is one which gives the required service at the minimum
overall cost.
• Since the load on a motor is an integral part of the drive system we study various
types of loads.
• It is essential that the motor characteristics match with those of the load for stable
operation of the system.
Electrical characteristics
Running characteristics
• The running characteristics of a motor include the following speed- torque or speed-
current characteristics, losses, magnetizing current, efficiency and power factor at
various loads.
• The magnetizing current and power factor are to be considered in case of A.C motors
only.
Starting characteristics
• The starting torque developed by a motor should be sufficient to start and accelerate
the motor at its load to the rated speed in a reasonable time.
• E.g motors driving grinding mills or oil expellers, traction work etc.
• The torque necessary to accelerate the motor and its load to the desired speed.
• The torque of a D.C motor is proportional to the product of field flux (Ф) and
armature current (Ia).
i.e., T α ФIa
Where
Ф= field flux
• In DC shunt motor, the field current is constant from no load to full load.
• Hence the starting torque is directly proportional to the armature current i.e. (T α Ia).
• In D.C series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
• Hence the field current, armature current and load current is same (ie Ia=Ise=IL). hence
field flux and armature flux also same ie., Фse= Фa.
• Since the series field flux is proportional to the armature current upto saturation
point, the torque produced is proportional to the square of the armature current up to
saturation point.
ie T α ФIa
Hence T α Ia2
• Hence the torque is directly proportional to Ia (T α Ia). hence after A, the torque
current characteristics is a straight line.
• Since the starting torque is directly proportional to square of armature current, and the
starting torque of D.C series motor is very high.
• So it can be used where large starting torque is required such as in electric trains,
cranes, lifts and hoists.
• In cumulative compound motor the series field flux add with the shunt field flux.
Hence the total flux is higher than that of the shunt motor.
• So the torque developed in this motor is more than that of shunt motor for the same
armature current.
• In differential compound motor, the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux.
Hence the total flux is lesser than that of the shunt motor as shown in fig.
• During the starting period, the squirrel cage induction motor has low starting torque
and take high starting current.
• The condition for maximum starting torque is R2=X2. During the starting period X2 is
higher in compare to rotor resistance R2.
• Therefore if the rotor resistance R2 increases the starting torque also increases(since T
α R2).
• It is not possible to increase the rotor resistance on squirrel cage induction motor.
• The outer cage is made of high resistance metal bars whereas inner cage is made of
low resistance copper bar.
• The inductance of the inner bar is higher than that of outer. Fig shows the double cage
rotor.
• At the time of starting, the motor induced current is at the line frequency and hence
inner cage has a high reactance(X2=2 f’L).
• Therefore, the rotor current will flow through the outer cage, with the result that the
starting torque is high (since T α R2).
• During normal running the reactance of the inner cage decreases (since rotor current
frequency f’ is decreased) and hence the rotor current flows through the low
resistance inner cage.
• In slip ring induction motor, extra resistance can be added in the rotor circuit during
the starting period.
• Hence a high starting torque is produced. In addition, it also limits the starting current.
• It requires some provision for starting. An extra winding known as starting winding is
provided on the stator.
• The starting winding is of high resistance and low reactance. They are connected
across the supply.
• This type of motor is called split phase motor. When the motor picks up the speed at
75% of synchronous speed, a centrifugal switch is open and disconnects the starting
winding.
• If a capacitor is used for spilt the phase at starting then it is called capacitor start
motor . the main winding is connected directly across the line.
• The starting winding is connected in series with the capacitor through centrifugal
switch and connected across the single phase supply.
• In permanent capacitor motor the capacitor remains in the circuit during starting and
running.
• The magnetizing current and power factor are to be considered in case of A.C motors
only.
N α Eb
N α V-Ia Ra
• This indicates that speed of D.C shunt motor decreases with increase in armature
current due to loading.
• The percentage of speed change will be about 5% at full load due to armature
resistance drop. But due to armature reaction, the flux is weakened.
• Hence the speed will increase. (N α (Eb / Ф)). This increase in speed compensates the
drop in speed due to Ia Ra drop.
b) Speed-Torque characteristics
• We know
T α ФIa and
N α (Eb / Ф).
T α Ia ----------------------------- (1)
Ia= KT
N α Eb
From equation (3) we know that, when the torque increases, speed decreases as shown in fig.
Performance curve
• Fig shows the performance curves of D.C shunt motor. These curves are namely
torque, speed, current and efficiency., each plotted against output power.
N α Eb/Ф
N α (V- IaRa)/ Ф
• When supply voltage V is kept constant, the speed of the motor will be inversely
proportional to flux N α (1 / Ф).
• On the light loads the flux produced will be weak and therefore the speed will be
dangerously high.
• For small value of flux Ф, the speed will be very high. Hence the shape of the curve
will be hyperbolic.
• When the load current increases, the flux also increases, after saturation the flux
remains constant.
• Therefore the speed will be constant and low at heavy loads as shown in fig.
N α (V-IaRa)/ Ф
N α V/ Ф -------------------------- (1)
• We know that,
T α Ф Ia
T α Ф. Ф (since Ia α Ф)
T α Ф2
Ф2 =T
Ф2 = √T ------------------------- (2)
N α V/√T
• From the equation, speed is inversely proportional to torque. Hence the characteristics
curve is hyperbolic in shape.
• In D.C series motor, as torque increases with decrease of speed. Hence series motor is
suitable for operating cranes, lifts, trains etc.
Performance curve
• These curves are namely torque, speed, current and efficiency each plotted against
output power.
D.C compound motor
• If the series field flux and shunt field flux add each other, it is called cumulative
compound motor.
• If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, it is called differential compound
motor.
• In the cumulative compound motor, the series field emf increases with increase in
armature current. Hence cumulative compound motor has more flux than that of shunt
motor.
T α Ф Ia
• Hence torque of cumulative compound motor is greater than the shunt motor.
• In the case of differential compounded motor the field flux decreases when the
armature current increases, which reduces the torque. (since T α Ф Ia).
• The speed Vs armature current and speed torque characteristics of D.C compound
motors are shown in fig. in comparison with the shunt motor.
k = constant
S = slip
R2 = rotor resistance
X2 = rotor reactance
i.e., T α KSE22/ R2
• Hence the running torque of the motor depends upon the rotor resistance.
• From the above equation the running torque is inversely proportional to the rotor
resistance R2.
• Hence at lower value of slip, increasing the running torque the rotor resistance R2
should be very low.
• Since the cage motor rotor is short circuited, the rotor resistance is very low. Hence
cage induction motor has good running torque.
• For various values of R the family of speed torque characteristics shown in fig. when
the load on the motor increases the rotor speed falls down.
• Then the slip value increases. The torque increases with increase in slip upto rated
load.
• The torque will reach a maximum value at slip S=R2/X2. After the rated load, the
increased load on the motor will increase the slip and on the decrease the torque.
• Any further more increase in load on the motor results, the motor slowing down and it
finally stops.
• The stable operating region of the motor lies for the slip values S=0 and that
corresponds to maximum torque.
• Fig shows the performance curve of three phase squirrel cage induction motor namely
slip, current, power factor, efficiency and speed each plotted against power output.
• The running characteristics of slip ring induction motor are same as squirrel cage
induction motor.
• By introducing resistance in the rotor circuit at running, the torque can be increased.
• The motor is designed to provide improved starting characteristics (i.e. high starting
torque with low starting current).
• Inner cage has high inductance and low resistance whereas outer cage has high
resistance and low inductance.
• At the time of starting inner cage offers high reactance. Because the frequency of
rotor current is very high. (since at starting slip=1, hence frequency of rotor current f’
increases, since f’ = s f).
• Hence most of the current flows through outer cage where resistance is high. Thus
more starting torque is developed.
• After the motor has picked up its full speed, the frequency of rotor current becomes
very low.
• Therefore most of the current flows through the inner cage. Hence at running, copper
losses are reduced and the efficiency of motor is increased.
• The speed- torque characteristics of double cage induction motor are shown in fig.
• Fig shows the speed torque characteristics of single phase induction motor. It has no
self starting torque.
• The repulsion start and capacitor start motors are the most common types of single
phase induction motors.
• Single phase induction motors are used in domestic appliances like fans, refrigerators,
vacuum cleaners etc.
Running characteristics of universal motor.
• Its speed torque characteristics are same as series motor speed-torque characteristics.
• Universal motors are used in vacuum cleaners, sewing machines, portable drills and
other small power drives.
Speed control
• By cascading of motors
Braking
• When the load is removed from an electric motor and supplied to it be disconnected it
will continue to run for sometime due to inertia.
• The braking system should be reliable and quick in action. The braking torque must
be controllable.
• While selecting a motor for a particular drive, the mechanical characteristics are also
taken into account.
1. Types of enclosures
2. Bearings
3. Noise
4. Transmission of drive
Types of enclosures
• All the major parts of the motors such as windings, bearings, insulation etc are to be
protected from the surroundings contaminated air.
• In an industry the air surrounding the motors may contain metal, dust, oil, mist, water,
dust inflammable fumes etc. also accidents may occur to persons coming in contact
with the moving parts.
a) Open type
• This type can only be used where the atmosphere and surroundings are
free from all contaminations and surrounding air completely dry.
• The advantage of this type of motor is that the cost of cooling is very
low.
• But this type is rarely used since there is no protection to the motor
parts.
• This type of enclosures does not protect the motor against dirt and dust.
• But larger bodies and big insects cannot enter into the machine.
• This motor has ventilating opening provided in such a way that drops of
liquid or solid falling on it vertically are prevented to enter inside.
• This type of motor cannot be used where inflammable dust particles are
present in the surrounding air.
• This type of motors has solid frames and end shields but no opening for
ventilation.
• They are cooled by surface radiation only. In this type machines no dirt or
foreign matter can enter and block the air passage.
• E.g saw mills, coal handling plants and stone crushing quarries.
• In this type, the ventilation ducts are provided in such a way that drops of
liquid or solid particles reaching the machine at any angle between vertical
and 100˚ from it cannot enter the machine.
• Hence these motors are used in coal mines, gas plants, oil refineries etc.,
• Air is drawn through pipe from outside the building, where clean air is
available and forced to cool the motor.
Bearings
• Bearings are the parts of machines which house and support the main shaft.
• Ball or roller bearing consist of an inner and outer race and cage containing steel
roller or balls.
• The outer race is attached to the housing(end cover) and the inner race is attached to
the shaft.
• When the shaft rotates, the steel ball also rotates. Hence the friction of the shaft is
minimized.
• It occupy less space. But the initial cost of ball and roller bearings is high.
• It is used in three phase induction motor where smaller air gap is possible.
• The rotating shaft is supported by bearing component and is rigidly fixed to the frame
of the machine.
• It has self lubricating properties due to capillary action.
• It is lubricated by a metal ring freely rotating on the shaft carrying oil to the bearings.
• It is mainly used in direct coupled drive such as fan and universal motor.
• Because of larger wear of bearings, this type of bearing is used in larger air gap
induction motor.
Transmission of drives
1. Direct drive
2. Belt drive
3. Rope drive
5. Gear drive
Direct drive
• In direct drive, motor is coupled directly to the driven machine with the help of solid
or flexible coupling.
• It is more efficient and requires minimum space and it is the simplest method.
• It can be used where driven and driving machine speed are same.
Belt drive
• In belt drive, belt is used to transmit the power from motor to driven machine through
pulley system.
Advantages
• Greater flexibility in the original design of a plant is possible.
• It gives convenient speed ratio thereby high speed motors can be utilized.
• The tendency of slipping especially under heavy loads is reduced because it will
absorb a portion of the shock of suddenly applied loads.
Rope drive
• This method for transmission for power is used, when it is not possible to employ belt
drive.
• The advantages of rope drive are negligible slip and ability of taking sudden loads.
Chain drive
Gear drive
• Gear drive is used when high speed motor is to drive a low speed machine.
• The coupling between the two is through a suitable ratio gear box.
Noise
• Noise is the another important features to be considered while making the selection of
a motor.
• It should be kept as low as possible in the workshops, hospitals and other domestic
purposes.
• The noise may be due to bearing, vibrations, magnetic pulsations and faulty
foundations.
• The rating of motor is the amount of power which it can deliver without becoming
unduly hot. The rating of a motor is classified as follows.
1. Continuous rating.
Continuous rating
• This is the rating or the output of a motor which can be delivered continuously for
long periods without exceeding the permissible temperature.
• This rating is applicable to drives like fans, pumps, textile, mills etc. which operate
continuously for long periods.
• This is an output that a motor can give for specified short time without exceeding the
permissible temperature rise.
• Such motor is loaded for short period of time and is then put off for sometime.
• As per IS 4722 – 1968 various load time variations are encountered the eight standard
classes of duty.
1. Continuous duty.
Continuous duty
• Continuous duty denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque to reach steady
state temperature. The load time and temperature time graph are shown in fig.
• Paper mill drives, compressors, conveyers, centrifugal pumps and fans are some
examples of continuous duty.
• It denotes the operation of motor at constant load for short period followed by rest to
cool down to the original starting temperature.
• Short time duty timings are generally 10, 30, 60 and 90 minutes.
• The load time and the temperature time graph are shown in fig.
• Crane drivers, drives for household appliances, sluice gate drives, valve drives and
machine tool drives are some examples of short-time duty.
• It denotes the operation of motor a sequence of indential duty cycle each of constant
load and rest period.
• In this duty, heating of machine during starting and braking operation is negligible.
• Fig shows the load time and temperature time graph. Pressing, cutting and drilling
machine drives are some examples of intermittent periodic duty.
• This is intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting cannot be
neglected.
• Thus it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation at a constant load and rest
period.
• The operating and rest periods are too short to attain the steady state temperature in
one duty cycle.
• Its characteristics are shown in fig. in this duty heating of machine during braking is
considered to be negligible.
• Some examples are metal cutting, drilling tool drives, mine hoist drives for lift trucks.
• This is the periodic duty where heat losses during starting and braking cannot be
ignored.
• Thus it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation with constant load, a
braking period, and a rest period.
• Several machine tool drives, drives for electric suburban trains and mine hoist are
some examples of this duty.
• The operation of motor has a sequence of indentical duty cycle, each consisting of a
period of operation and a period of operation on no load.
• Thermal equilibrium is not reached in one duty cycle. Its characteristics are shown in
fig.
• This duty is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by a period of running
at constant load is followed by a period of running at no load instead of rest.
• Pressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine drives are the examples.
• Operation of the motor has a sequence of indentical duty cycle, each cycle is having a
period of running at one load and speed and followed by another period of running at
different speed and load.
A paper mill requires a drive which must fulfill the following requirements
• Relative speed of rolls should be constant otherwise the paper may be tearing.
• It is required to adjust the speed at any one group of rolls relative to other in order
to draw the paper.
• The motor required for these mills should have high starting torque about 2 to 2.5
times the rated torque.
• The ward leonard speed control of D.C motors or slip ring induction motors are
used.
• The motors employed must have high starting torque with constant speed.
• The motors used must be totally enclosed and moisture proof to prevent entry of
dust and moisture enter into machine.
• Hence totally enclosed, fan cooled, high torque double cage induction motors are
used.
4. Cement mills
• Various types of loads available in a cement factory and the motor used for them
are given below
• The lime stones are broken into smaller sizes in the crushing mill.
• Hence three phase slip ring induction motor is used because it has high
starting torque.
• Three phase Squirrel cage induction motors used for slurring pumps
and agitators.
• The starting torque required is less in most of the machine tools since they
start up light.
• Therefore 3 phase squirrel cage induction motor is used for machine tool
application.
• Different speed operation is obtained by using two or three speed motor with
suitable gear combination.
• D.C shunt motors are used for machine tool application like planners where
rapid reversal, and wide speed control are required.
• In the case of grinders, totally enclosed motors are used to prevent metallic
dust getting into it.
• The essential requirements for a lift are high overload capacity, high smooth
accelerating torque of 2 to 2.5 times the full load torque at starting and
maximum degree of silence.
• D.C compound motor and three phase slip ring induction motor are used for
lifts and hoists.
• The conveyors are required to transport bulk materials like coal, are sand on
either flat belt or bucket system.
• The prime mover used for the alternator is steam turbine by varying the
voltage and frequency of alternator the speed of motor is controlled.
• Air compressors are used for pneumatic drill, 3Ф induction motors are used to
drive compressors.
• A.C 3 Ф slip ring induction motors provided with fly wheel are used.
12. Pumps
Centrifugal pump
• The liquid handled by the pump does not enter the motor.
Reciprocating pump
• A reciprocating pump requires two times the full load torque at starting.
• The single phase split phase induction motors are used for draught fan.
• The single phase split phase induction motor has shunt characteristics and so
the operating speed is almost constant.
• Single phase capacitor start and run motors are used for ceiling fan.
• The D.C series motors are used for cranes because they have high starting
torque.
• Because they have high starting torque, which helps the motor to reach the
speed in a short time and also prevents the motor from stalling in case of
heavy loads.
• For starting and special adjustments proper graded rotor resistance is used
with slip ring induction motor.
16. Mines
• The winder consists of two cages and a rope for transporting material from
bottom of the mine to the surface.
• Ventilating fans are used for circulating fresh air. A 3 Ф squirrel cage
induction motor is used for ventilating fan if no speed control is not required.
• Centrifugal pumps are used to pump out the water falling through the rock
layers. It requires high starting torque therefore a 3 Ф slip ring induction
motor is used for pumps.
• Small universal motor is used for various domestic appliances such as for
domestic refrigerators, shavers, vacuum cleaner, mixi, cloth washing machines
etc.,
Choice of drive
(ii) Convenience
(v) Cost
• The choice of motor speed is the most important factor as it not only affects
the performance of motor but also overall cost.
• The dimension and, therefore, the first cost of a motor for a given output are
approximately inversely proportional to the speed, so for the some output kW
the cost of a high speed motor is less than that of a slow speed motor.
• In case of induction motor, the efficiency and power factor decreases with
decrease in speed.
• Thus for a low-speed drive high speed motor using a reduction gear is usually
found cheaper than a low-speed direct-coupled motor.
P = TN/975η kW
---------------------------------- (1)
Where,
• In case of linear motion, the rating of the motor required is given by,
P = F x v/2 x 102 η kW
------------------------------------ (2)
Where,
P = F x v/2 x 102 η kW
P = ρQH/102 η kW
Where,
η varies from 0.8 to 0.9 for reciprocating pumps and from 0.4
to 0.8 for centrifugal pumps.
P = Qh/102 η kW
Where,
For small power fans, the efficiency η may be taken as 0.6 and for
large power ones it may reach a value up to 0.8.
P = F x v/ 102 x 60 η kW
Where,
• These losses are then compared with Qnom, the losses corresponding to the
continuous duty of the machine when operated at its nominal rating.
• This method presupposes that when Qav = Qnom, the motor will operate without
temperature rise going above the maximum permissible for the particular class
of insulation.
• The loss diagram of the electric motor is shown. The rating of the electric
motor can be found from method of successive approximations.
• The losses of the motor are calculated for each portion of the load diagram by
referring to the efficiency curve of the motor. The average losses are given by
• The average losses as found from eqn (1) are compared with losses of selected
motor at rated frequency.
• In case the two losses are equal or differ by a small amount the motor is
selected.
• However, in case the losses differ considerably, another motor is selected and
the calculations repeated till the motor having almost the same losses or the
average losses is found.
• This method is accurate and reliable for determining the average temperature
rise of the motor during one work cycle.
• This method is based on the assumption that the actual variable current may be
replaced by an equivalent current Ieq which produces the same losses in the
motors as the actual current.
Ieq = √(I12t1 + I22t2 + I32t3 + ……+ In2tn) / ( t1 + t2 + t3 + ……+ tn)
• The heating and cooling conditions in self ventilated machines depend upon
its speed. At low speed the cooling conditions are poorer than at normal
speeds.
• The equivalent current as found from eqn should be compared with the rated
current of the motor selected and the conditions Ieq < Inom should be met.
• The machine selected should also be checked for its overload capacity.
• In case the overload capacity of the motor selected is not sufficient it becomes
necessary to select a motor of high power rating.
• It may not be easy to calculate the equivalent current especially in cases where
the current load diagram is irregular as shown in fig.
• The value of the integral may be found with the help of integral.
• The current values obtained by this method are sufficiently accurate for
practical purposes.
• For the selection of suitable capacity of the motor it often becomes necessary
to use torque or power load diagrams.
• The equivalent torque or power is found in the same manner as the equivalent
current.
• Assuming constant flux and constant power factor, the torque is directly
proportional to current and, therefore, the equivalent torque is:
• At constant speed or where the changes in speed are small, the equivalent
power is given by:
• The “equivalent current method” is the most accurate out of all the above
methods discussed above.
• This method may be used to determine the motor capacity for all uses except
where it is necessary to take into account the changes in so ‘constant losses’
i.e. the iron and mechanical losses.
• The “equivalent torque method” cannot be used for cases where equivalent
current method cannot be applied.
• It cannot be used for selection of motor rating for cases in which the field flux
does not remain constant like D.C series motors and for squirrel cage
induction motors under starting and braking conditions.
• A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not consume any power, since in a
half cycle what so ever power is received from the source by these
components the same is returned to the source.
• This power which flows back and forth(i.e., in both directions in the circuit) or
reacts upon itself is called “reactive power”.
• It may be noted that the current in phase with the voltage produces active or
true or real power while the current 90º out of phase with the voltage
contributes to reactive power.
• In a R-L circuit, reactive power which is the power developed in the inductive
reactance of the circuit, is given as:
W = VA cos Ф
VAR = VA sin Ф
VA = W/ cos Ф
VA = VAR/ sin Ф
(i) All A.C motors (except overexcited synchronous motors and certain
types of commutators motors) and transformers operate at lagging
power factor.
(ii) Due to typical characteristics of the arc, are lamps operate at low
power factor.
(iii) When there is increase in supply voltage, which usually occurs during
low load periods (such as lunch hours, night hours etc.,) the
magnetizing current of inductive reactances increases and power factor
of the electrical plant as a whole decreases.
(iv) Arc and induction furnaces etc. operate at a very low lagging power
factor.
(v) Due to improper maintenance and repairs of motors the power factor at
which motors operate fall.
• The installation of power factor improvement device, to raise the power factor
results in one or more of the following effects and advantages:
• It is known that static capacitor/ condenser takes current which leads the
voltage by nearly 90º.
• Capacitors connected in series with the line neutralize the line reactance.
• The capacitors, when connected in series with the line, are called “series
capacitor”, and when connected in parallel with the equipment, are called
“shunt capacitors”.
• Shunt capacitors are used in factories, plants and also on transmission lines.
• Series capacitors are used on long transmission lines as they provide automatic
compensation with the variations in load.
Advantages of capacitors
1) Small losses (less than 0.5 percent) or higher efficiency (say 99.6).
3) Easy installation.
4) Little maintenance.
5) Long life.
6) Greater reliability in service.
7) Flexible in operation.
Besides p.f improvement, capacitors are employed to perform the following functions
also:
1) To reduce losses.
ФL = Angle of lag,
ФM = Angle of lead,
Ф = angle lag
• Synchronous condensers are usually built in large units and are employed
where a large quantity of corrective kVAR is required.
• From the fig we observe that angle of lag(Ф) is much smaller than ФL ; thus
overall factor is improved from cos ФL to cos ФM by the use of synchronous
condenser.
Advantages
• A finer control can be obtained by varying the field excitation.
Disadvantages
• The cost is higher than that of static capacitors of the same rating, except in
size above about 5000 kVAR.
• Comparatively lower efficiency, due to losses in rotating parts and heat losses.
• Increase of short-circuit currents when the fault occurs near the synchronous
condenser.
• The p.f of an induction motor falls mainly due to its exciting current drawn
from the A.C. supply mains, because exciting current lags behind the voltage
by 90º.
• Such an excitor may be mounted on the same shaft as the main motor or may
be suitably driven from it.
• Shunt and series type of phase advancers are available according to whether
the exciting winding of the advancer is connected in parallel or series with the
rotor winding of the induction motor.
Use of phase compensated motors:
• As mentioned earlier, the use of phase advancers may not be economical for
induction motors below 150 kW output.
• These motors are however very costly and require more maintenance than
plain induction motors.
• As such these motors are chosen when we are sure that they will be loaded to
rated output for most of the time and that they will effect more saving in the
energy cost due to higher p.f than the additional expenses incurred on them.
-----------------------------*********************-------------------------------
ELECTRIC TRACTION
• The locomotive in which the driving or tractive force is obtained from electric motors
is called Electric traction.
i) Electric trains
Traction systems
ii)Diesel-electric drive
1. High adhesion coefficient, so that high tractive effort at the start is possible
to have rapid acceleration.
2. The locomotive or train unit should be self contained so that it can run on
any route.
8. Braking should be such that minimum wear is caused on the brake shoes,
and if possible the energy should be regenerated and returned to the supply
during braking period.
4. Petro-electric traction.
6. Electric drive.
• Steam engine drive, though losing ground gradually due to various reasons, it
is still the amply adopted means of propulsion of railway work in
underdeveloped countries.
• In this type of drive, the reciprocating engine is invariably used for getting the
necessary motive power.
Advantages
• Simplicity in design.
• Simplified maintenance.
• The locomotive and train unit is self contained, therefore, it is not tied to a
route.
• It is cheap for low density traffic areas and in initial stages of communication
by rail.
• Operational dependability.
Disadvantages
• Steam locomotive cannot be put into service at any moment as time is required
for raising of steam.
• Since driving wheels are very close, hence more concentrated adhesive weight
is required.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• In an I.C engine electric drive the reduction gear and gear box are eliminated
as the diesel as the diesel engine is to drive the D.C. generator coupled to it at
a constant speed.
• This type of drive is finding considerable favour for railway work and
locomotives of this type are being widely used.
Advantages
Disadvantages
• There is a necessity to provide special cooling system for the diesel engine in
addition to motor-generator set.
Petrol-electric traction:
• This system, due to electric conversion, provides a very fine and continuous
control which makes the vehicle capable of moving slowly at an imperceptible
speed and creeping up the steepest slope without throttling the engine.
• In this system the locomotive carries the secondary batteries which supply
power to D.C. motors employed for driving the vehicles.
• This type of drive is well suited for frequently operated service such as for
local delivery of goods in large towns with maximum daily run of 50 to 60
km, shunting and traction in industrial works and mines.
• Battery vehicles are started by series-parallel for starting and running at the
speed upto half maximum speed and in series for running at full maximum
speed.
Advantages
• Battery driven vehicle is easy to control and very convenient to use.
• Absence of fumes.
Disadvantages
• The major disadvantages of this type of drive are the small capacity of
batteries and the necessity for frequent charging.
Electric drive:
• Here the drive is by means of electric motors which are fed from overhead
distribution system.
Advantages
• As it has no smoke, electric traction is most suited for the underground and
tube railways.
• The motors used in electric traction have a very high starting torque. Hence, it
is possible to achieve higher accelerations of 1.5 to 2.5 km/h/s as against 0.6 to
0.8 km/h/s in steam traction.
• By the use of electric traction high grade coal can be saved, since electric
locomotives can be fed either from hydroelectric stations or thermal power
station which use cheap low-grade coal.
• Owing to complete absence of smoke and fumes, this system is healthier from
the hygienic point of view.
• The vibrations in electrically operated vehicles are less as the torque exerted
by the electric motor is continuous.
• Electric equipment can withstand large temporary overloads and can draw
relatively large power from the distribution system.
Disadvantages
• High initial cost of laying out overhead electric supply system. Unless the
traffic to be handled is heavy, electric traction becomes uneconomical.
• Power failure for a few minutes can cause traffic dislocation for hours.
• Communication lines which usually run parallel to the power supply lines
suffer from electrical interference. Hence, these communication lines have
either to be removed away from the rail track or else underground cables have
to be used for the purpose which makes the system still more expensive.
• Whereas steam locomotives can use their steam for heating the compartments
in cold weather very cheaply, the electric locomotives have to do it at an extra
cost.
• In cold countries a service locomotive is required to run up and down the line
in order to prevent the formation of layer of ice on the conductor rails.
• It is the curve drawn between speed of train in km/hour along y-axis and time
in seconds along x-axis.
• The speed time curve gives complete information of the motion of the train.
• This curve gives the speed at various times after the start and run directly.
• The distance travelled by the train during a given interval of time can be
obtained by determining the area between the curve and the time axis
corresponding to this interval.
• A typical speed time curve for main line service is shown in fig. This curve
consists of five sections.
When all the starting resistances are cut out, the full voltage is
applied to the motor.
At the end of free running period supply to the motor is cut off and
the train is allowed to run under its own kinetic energy.
At the end of coasting period the brakes are applied to bring the
train to stop.
Types of services
2. Sub-urban service
3. Urban service
• In this service free run is longer duration. The duration of acceleration and
retardation is small.
• In city service the distance between the two stations is very short i.e., between
0.75 to 1 km.
• The time required for this run between the adjacent and retardation should be
sufficient high.
• Fig shows the speed-time curve for urban or city service. It will be seen that
there will be no free running period.
Tractive effort
= 1000 M kg
• Acceleration = α km/hr/sec
= α x 1000/3600 m/sec2
• When a train is accelerated in a linear direction, its rotating parts like the
wheels and armature of motors have to be accelerated in an angular direction.
• Therefore the accelerating mass of the train is greater than the dead mass of
the train.
• Generally the effective or accelerating mass is 10% more than the dead mass.
i.e. Me = 1.1 M
= 1000 Me kg.
i.e., Fa = Me x a
= 1000 Me x α 1000/3600
= 277.8 Me α Newtons
• While moving, the train has to overcome the opposing force due to the surface
friction and wind resistance.
• The train resistance depends upon various factors such as shape, size,
condition of track etc.
Fr = M x r Newtons
= 9.81 m/sec2
= (BC/AC) x 100
sin θ = G/100
-------------------- (2)
Fg = ± 9.81 MG Newton
Positive sign is to be used for upgradient and negative sign for down gradient.
Ft = F a + Fr + F g
Braking
• Braking is very frequent in electric drives to stop a motor in a reasonably short
time.
• For example a plannar must quickly be stopped at the end of its stroke and
sometimes must quickly be stopped at the end of its stroke and sometimes it is
necessary to stop the motor in order to prevent accident.
iii) Adequate means be provided for dissipating the stored energy that is
kinetic energy of the rotating parts.
iv) In case of a fault in any part of the braking system the whole system
must come to instantaneous rest or result in the application of the
brakes.
i) Mechanical braking
• The motor can be held at stand still. In other words the electric
braking cannot hold the motor at rest.
b) Rheostatic braking
c) Regenerative braking
Plugging
• At the end of the braking period the supply to the motor is automatically cut
off. This method of braking can be applied to the following motors.
1) DC motors
2) Induction motors
3) Synchronous motors
• The direction of m.m.f remains the same even during braking periods.
Series motors:
• The arrangements of connection before and after the braking are shown in fig.
Shunt motors:
• The arrangements of connections before and after braking for shunt motor are
shown in fig.
• When Eb = V then the voltage across the armature is 2V and at the time of
braking twice the normal voltage is applied to the resistance in series with the
armature at this time in order to limit the current.
• While the motor is being braked, the current is still being drawn from the
supply.
• This method requires energy from the supply for its action and not only the
kinetic energy of the motor is being wasted, but this energy is also being
dissipated.
TB α ФI ---------------------------- (1)
TB = K ФI ---------------------------- (2)
• Where K is a constant
N is the speed
K1 is a constant
• Wherever there is a load on the machine the load will also exert braking torque
due to it and then the total braking torque (T)
• In the case of induction motor its speed can be reversed by inter changing any
of the two stator phases which reverses the direction of rotation of motor field.
• Actually at the time of braking when the induction motor is running at near
synchronous speed.
• The point Q represents the torque at the instant of plugging one can notice that
the torque increases gradually as one approaches the stand still speed.
• The rotor current I2 can be calculated during the braking period from the
following relation and is plotted as shown.
I2 = SE2 / √ [Re2 + (SX2)2] ------------------- (13)
• Plugging can be applied to the synchronous motors, with the only difference
that the field on the rotor will be rotating in opposite direction to that of the
rotating field on the stator with the synchronous speed and the relative velocity
between the two will be twice the synchronous speed.
• This will meant that there is one synchronous motor torque but the same will
be produced by the induction in the starting winding.
• Since most of the motors are equipped with starting winding, a synchronous
motor provides satisfactory braking.
Rheostatic braking
• In this method of braking, the motor is disconnected from the supply and run
as generator driven by the remaining kinetic energy of the equipment that is
the energy stored in motor and load which are to be braked.
(i) DC motor
Dc motors
Shunt motor
• In this type of motor, the armature is simply disconnected from the supply and
is connected to as resistance in series with it, the field, winding remains
connect to the supply as shown in fig.
• The braking can be adjusted suitably by varying the resistance in the armature
circuit.
Series motor
• In this case of the connections are made as shown is fig during braking
operation.
• The motor after disconnection from the supply in made to run as a DC series
generator.
• The resistance inserted in the circuit must be less than the critical resistance
otherwise the generator will not be self exciting.
• When the series motor is disconnected from the supply the direction of the
armature current is reversed.
• In the case of a series motor the flux dependent upon the armature current
• In this case the stator is disconnected from the supply and is connected to DC
supply which excites the windings thereby producing a DC field.
• When the short circuited rotor moves it outs the steady flux produced in the air
gap due to DC current flowing in the stator produced in the air gap due to DC
current flowing in the stator and an e.m.f is induced in the rotor conductors.
• In this case the stator is shorted across resistance in star or delta and the
machine works like an alternator supplying the current to the resistance, there
by dissipating in kinetic energy in the form of losses in the resistances.
Regenerative braking
• In this type of braking the motor is not disconnected from the supply but
remains connected to it and its feeds back the braking energy or its kinetic
energy to the supply system.
• This method is better than the first and second methods of braking since no
energy is wasted and rather it is supplied back to the system.
D.C motors
Shunt motor
• This will quickly decrease the speed of the motor and will bring it to rest.
Series motor
• In this case, complications arise due to fact that the reversal of the current in
the armature would cause a reversal of polarity of the series field and hence
back emf would be reversed.
• No extra auxiliaries are needed for this purpose. This method is however very
seldom used for braking but its application is very useful to lifts and hoists for
holding a descending load at a speed only slightly above the synchronous
speed.
Tramways
• The tramway is perhaps the cheapest type of transport available in very dense
traffic.
• Two drum-type controllers, one at each end used for controlling the tramcar.
• The main frame of the car body is made from high tensile steel. Aluminium is
extensively used for bodywork.
• The under frame is of rolled steel sections. Seats are either in transverse
direction or a combination of transverse and longitudinal arrangement is used.
• The equipment is similar to that used in railways but the output is considerably
smaller and does not exceed 60 to 75 H.P.
Trolley-Bus
Serious drawback of tramway is the lack of manoeuvrability in congested areas and
noise; this is overcome by the trolley-bus drive.
• The lighting system in the car is low-voltage D.C supplied from a motor-
generator set connected in parallel with a battery. The vehicles are usually
provided with secondary batteries so that the vehicles can be manoeuvred in
case of emergency.
• Since the body of the car is insulated from earth on account of the rubber-tyred
wheels, it must be properly checked for adequate insulation resistance lest it
leaks and causes electric shocks to the passengers while boarding and
alighting from the bus. The insulation resistance is checked at the end of the
day.
• The advantages of AC propulsion drive are good reliability due to static power
conversion equipment.
• The important component of the AC traction is the three phase squirrel cage
induction motor.
• A popular car pair used in modern electric traction uses the pulse width
modulation inverter principle.
• Hence the speed and torque of the squirrel cage induction motor used for
traction can be adjusted in monitoring and braking, as well as in both
directions, of rotation with a fully static device, that is no operational contacts
are required.
• The PWMAC drives covers subway railcars, LRVS, trolley buses, diesel
electric and electric locomotives.
Class EA locomotive
• The four quadrant controllers rectify the AC voltage from the transformer to
2800V DC. The pulsating inverters invert the three phase voltage.
• The three phase voltage now fed into traction motors has a variable voltage
and frequency. The system can be used for regenerative braking.
• Three auxiliary converter feed the three-phase fan motors for oil cooling and
traction motor cooling, for rectifiers as well as the lubricating oil pump for
cooling compressor and pneumatic compressor.
• Here a natural physical phenomenon is used, the motor itself piloting the
converter that supplies it. Hence there is no need to fear unbalance in the
system.
ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES
Introduction
The processes based on the fact that electrical energy can produce chemical changes are
called Electrolytic processes. These processes are widely used for:
(i) Extraction of pure metals from their ores(e.g., copper, zinc, aluminium, magnesium
etc.);
All the processes mentioned above, though they appear differently in apparent detail, are
based on the principle of electrolysis.
• When a compound formed by electrovalent bond is dissolved in water which has high
dielectric constant results in the weakening of the electrostatic force of attraction
between the ionized atoms.
• This results in the charged ions to lead an independent existence. Consider the case of
a copper sulphate (CuSO4) dissolved in water.
• It dissociates into positively-charged copper ions (Cu++) and negatively-charged
sulphate ions (SO4--) moving freely in the solution.
• If two electrodes are placed in the electrolyte (i.e., CuSO4 solution) and one of them is
made positive and the other negative, the positively-charged ions travel towards the
cathode and the negatively-charged ions travel towards the anode.
• Each of the positively-charged copper ions (cations) reaching the cathode will take
two electrons from it and become a metallic atom of copper, and similary each of the
negative-charged sulphate ions (anions) reaching the anode will give up two electrons
to it and cease to be anion.
• Thus the copper is deposited at the cathode as metal. The sulphate ions collect at the
anode and react with water giving out oxygen:
• Oxygen is liberated as gas at the anode and H2SO4 is formed. If the cathode is made of
Cu, the sulphuric acid attacks it forming copper sulphate and liberating hydrogen:
H2SO4 + Cu = CuSO4 + H2
• Thus the copper of the anode goes into solution and copper from copper sulphate is
deposited on the cathode.
• During the process there is no accumulation of charge at any point in the circuit and
the mass of copper deposited at the cathode is exactly equal to that removed from the
anode.
• Michael Faraday (an English scientist) formulated the laws governing the electrolytic
processes, which are stated below:
That is m α Q α It
m = Zit
where,
If I = 1A, t = 1s and Z = m
“When the same quantity of electricity is passed through several electrolytes, the
masses of the substances deposited are proportional to their respective chemical
equivalents or equivalent weights. From this law it follows that the constant of
proportional to the chemical equivalent.
• The theoretical value of current required for depositing a given quantity of metal and
the time for which this current should be passed through the electrolyte can be
calculated from the Faraday’s laws, if electro-chemical equivalent of the metal is
known.
1. Current efficiency
2. Voltage
3. Energy efficiency.
Current efficiency:
In certain cases this efficiency is very low. For example in chromium plating it 12 to
15% (app.).
2. Voltage. The voltage that is essentially required to pass the current through an
electrolyte depends upon the potential drops at the electrodes and in the electrolyte. It
is, therefore, desirable that these drops are made as small as possible. This can be
achieved, in many cases, by adding special conducting agents to the electrolyte to
make it ( electrolyte ) a good conductor. For example dilute sulphuric acid is added to
copper sulphate bath in copper plating.
3. Energy efficiency. Owing to secondary reactions, the voltage actually required for
the deposition or liberation of metal is higher than the theoretical value which
increases the actual energy required.
Energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of theoretical energy to the actual energy
required for depositing a given quantity of metal.
Application of electrolysis
• Electro-deposition
i. Electroplating
iii. Electro-metallisation
iv. Electro-typing
• Manufacture of chemicals
• Anodizing
• Electropolishing
• Electro-cleaning or pickling
• Electro-parting or electro-stripping
i. Electro-extraction
ii. Electro-refining
Electro-deposition
• The process of depositing a coating of one metal over another metal or non-metal
electrically is called the electro-deposition.
• It is used for protective, decorative and functional purposes and includes such
processes as electro-plating, electro-forming, electro-typing, electro-facing, electro-
metallisation etc.
• Nature of electrolyte:
The electrolyte from which complex ions can be obtained provides a smooth
deposit.
• Current density:
The deposit of metal will be uniform and fine-grained if the current density is
used at a rate higher than at which the nuclei are formed. The deposit will be strong
and porous if the rate of nuclei formation is very high current density.
• Temperature:
• Conductivity:
• Electrolytic concentration:
• Addition agents:
• Throwing power:
• Polarization:
With the increase in the electroplating current density, rate of metal deposition is also
increased upto certain limit after which electrolyte surrounding the base metal
becomes so much depleted of metal ions that rate of deposition does not increase with
increase in current density. If current density more than this limit is employed, it will
result in electrolysis of water and hydrogen deposition on the cathode. This hydrogen
evolved, blankets the base metal which diminishes the rate of metal deposition. This
phenomenon is called polarization. Blanking effect can be reduced by agitating the
electrolyte.
Electroplating
or
• The electrolyte deposits are crystalline in nature. The crystals must be very fine in
order to get firm, coherent and uniform deposits. For this purpose, suitable
electrolytes should be used in the electrolytic bath and current density used should
have an appropriate value. The temperature should also be maintained at a proper
level.
• The articles to be coated with nobler metals should be in as high a state of purity as
possible.
1. Cleaning operation
2. Deposition of metal
Cleaning operation:
• Removal of rust, scale, oxides, or other inorganic coatings adhering to the base
metal/ work piece… To accomplish this various acids, alkali and salt solutions
are employed.
Deposition of metal:
Copper plating: