Boundary Layers

As a fluid flows over a body, the no-slip condition ensures

that the fluid next to the boundary is subject to large shear.
A pipe is enclosed, so the fluid is fully bounded, but in an
open flow at what distance away from the boundary can we
begin to ignore this shear?

There are three main definitions of boundary layer thickness:

1. 99% thickness
2. Displacement thickness
3. Momentum thickness
 99% Thickness y

U x

(x)

U is the free-stream velocity

(x) is the boundary layer thickness when u(y) ==0.99U
 Displacement thickness
y
There is a reduction in the flow
rate due to the presence of the
boundary layer

U u
y
This is equivalent to having a
theoretical boundary layer with
zero flow
d
Uu
 Displacement thickness
The areas under each curve are defined as being equal:

q    U  u  dy and q  δd U
0

Equating these gives the equation for the displacement

thickness:

 u
δ d   1  dy
0
U
 Momentum thickness
In the boundary layer, the fluid loses momentum, so
imagining an equivalent layer of lost momentum:
  
m   ρu  U  u  dy and m  ρU 2 δ m
0

Equating these gives the equation for the momentum

thickness:

u u
δ m   1  dy
0
U U
Laminar boundary layer growth
 + d
y
(x) dy

 x
Boundary layer => Inertia is of the same magnitude as Viscosity
a) Inertia Force: a particle entering the b.l. will be slowed from a velocity
U to near zero in time, t. giving force FI  U/t. But u=x/t => t  l/U
where U is the characteristic velocity and l the characteristic length in the
x direction.
Hence FI  U2/l
b) Viscous force: F  /y  2u/y2  U/2
since U is the characteristic velocity and  the characteristic length in the
y direction
Laminar boundary layer growth
Comparing these gives:
μl μl
U /l  U/
2 2 δ δ5 ( Blasius )
ρU ρU

So the boundary layer grows according to l

Alternatively, dividing through by l, the non-dimensionalised
boundary layer growth is given by:
δ 1

l Rl

Note the new Reynolds number ρUl Ul

characteristic velocity and Rl  
μ υ
characteristic length
Boundary layer growth
Length Reynolds Number

l
ρUl
Rl 
μ
 Flow at a pipe entry

d
U

l
If the b.l. meet while the flow is still laminar the flow in the pipe will be laminar
If the b.l. goes turbulent before they meet, then the flow in the pipe will be
turbulent
 Length Reynolds number and
Pipe Reynolds number
The critical Reynolds number for flow along a surface is Rl=3.2*105

um d
In a pipe, the Reynolds number is given by Re 


Considering a pipe as two boundary layers meeting, d=2a=2

and from above μl
δ5
ρU
The mean velocity in the pipe, um, is comparable to the free-stream velocity, U

ρU μl ρUl
Re  .10  10  10 Rl If Rl=3.2*105 then Re=5657
μ ρU μ
 Boundary layer equations for
laminar flow
These may be derived by solving the Navier-Stokes equations
in 2d.
u v 1 p μ   2 u  2 u  du
 0    2  2  
x y ρ x ρ  x y  dt

Continuity Momentum
U

Assume:
1. The b.l. is very thin compared to the length
2. Steady state
Boundary layer equations for
laminar flow
This gives Prandtl’s b.l. equation:

1 p μ  2 u u u
  u v
ρ x ρ y 2
x y
rate of change of u with
x is small compared to y

Blasius produced a perfect solution of these equations valid

for 0<x<3.2*105, and demonstrated the shape of the boundary
layer profile
 Blasius Solution
y' f' (or u/U) f''
0 0 0.332
1 0.330 0.332
5
2 0.630 0.323
3 0.846 0.267
y'

4 0.956 0.161
5 0.992 0.064
6 0.999 0.002
7 1.000 0.000

0
0 1
ρU
u/U y'  y
μl
 Laminar skin friction
The shear stress at the surface can be found by evaluating
the velocity gradient at the surface
u
τ0  μ
y 0

The friction drag force along the surface is then found by

integrating over the length
l
 u 
Ff  bμ    dx
0
y  y 0

where b is the breadth of the surface

 Laminar skin friction
From the Balsius solution, the gradient of the velocity
profile at y=0 yields the result:

U
τ 0  0.332μ R 0.5
x
x
 
The shear force can be obtained by integration along the surface
l
Ff  b  τ 0 dx  0.664UbμR l0.5
0

The frictional drag coefficient can then be calculated

Ff  12
Cf  1 2
 1.33R l
2 ρAU
 Force and momentum in fluid
mechanics - refresher
Newton’s laws still apply. Consider a stream tube:

u1,A1 u2,A2

q1=u1A1 q2=u2A2

mass entering in time, δt, is ρu1A1δt

momentum entering in time, δt, is m1 = (ρu1A1δt)u1
momentum leaving in time, δt, is m2 = (ρu2A2δt)u2
Impulse = momentum change, F = (m2 – m1)/ δt = ρ(u22A2-u12A1)
 The von Karman Integral
Equation (VKI)
C
U
2 -  1
y La y er
Bou n da r B
1 2 u2(y)
u1(y)

A x D

Flow enters on AB and BC, and leaves on CD

 VKI
The momentum change between entering and leaving the control volume
is equal to the shear force on the surface:
δ2 δ1

 τ 0 x   ρu 22 dy   ρu 12 dy ρU 2  δ 2  δ1 
Force on 0 0
fluid (CD) (AB) (BC)
By conservation of fluid mass, any fluid entering the control volume must
also leave, therefore
2 1
U ( 2   1 )   u2 dy   u1dy
0 0
δ2 δ1

  
 τ 0 x   ρ u 22  Uu 2 dy   ρ u12  Uu1 dy 
0 0
 VKI
As x 0, the two integrals on the right become closer and
the equation may be written as a differential:
δ 2 
 
 τ 0 dx  ρd  u  Uu dy 
0 
d  δ
u u 
 τ 0  ρU 2
  1  dy 
dx  0 U  U  
The integral is the definition of the momentum thickness, so
dδ m dU
τ 0  ρU 2
 ρδ d U if U(x)
dx dx
 Turbulent boundary layers
The assumption is made that the flat plate approximates to
the behaviour in a pipe. The free stream velocity, U,
corresponds to the velocity at the centre, and the
boundary layer thickness, , corresponds to the radius, R.
1/7 Power Law
From experiments, one possibility for the shape of the
boundary layer profile is
1
u y 7

 
U δ
and measurements of the shear profile give
1

 υ  4

τ 0  0.0225 ρU 
2

 Uδ 
 Turbulent boundary layers
Putting the expression for the 1/7 power law into the
equations for displacement and momentum thickness
δ 7
δd  , δ m  δ
8 72 =99%

d
m
 Turbulent boundary layers
dδ m 7 2 dδ
τ 0  ρU2
becomes τ 0  ρU
dx 72 dx

Equating this to the experimental value of shear stress:

1
7 d  υ  4

 0.0225 
72 dx  Uδ 

Integrating gives:
 15
 Ux 
δ  0.37x 
 υ 

The turbulent boundary grows as x4/5, faster than the

laminar boundary layer.
 Turbulent boundary layers
 15
7  Ux 
Momentum thickness δm  δ  0.036x 
72  υ 
dδ m
To find the total force, first find the shear stress τ 0  ρU
2

dx
then integrate over the plate length
l l
dδ m
Ff   τ 0 dx   ρU 2 dx  ρU 2 δ m
0 0
dx
For a plate of length, l, and width b,
 15
 Ul   15
(5 *105  R l  107 )
Ff  0.036 ρU lb 
2
C f  0.074R l
 υ 
 Logarithmic boundary layer
From the mixing length hypothesis it can be shown that
the profile is logarithmic, but the experimental values
are different from those in a pipe

u yV*
*
 5.56  5.85ln
V υ
0.455 A
and the friction coefficient Cf  
 log R l   2.58
Rl
 0.455 1.328  (0  R l  109 )
A   R crit
  log R   2.58 
R crit 
 crit

(A is a correction constant if part of the b.l. is laminar)

 Quadratic approximation to the
laminar boundary layer
Blasius (exact)

Quadratic
1
y/

0
0 1
u/U
Quadratic approximation to the
laminar boundary layer
Remember - boundary layer theory is only applicable inside
the boundary layer.
2
u y  y
 2  
U δ δ
This is sometimes written with =y/ and F()=u/U as

F η  2η  η 2

It provides a good approximation to the shape of the

laminar boundary layer and to the shear stress at the surface
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Laminar Sub-Layer