1.

Introduction

1.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Bernoulli’s theorem states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the
fluid occurs simultaneously whether with a decrease in pressure or the potential energy of the
fluid. It is named after the Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli. The apparatus used
in this experiment consist of a classical Venturi which is made of clear acrylic. There is a
series of wall tapping allow measurement of the static pressure distribution along the
converging duct and a total head tube is provided to traverse along the centre line of the test
section. These tapping are connected to a manometer bank incorporating a manifold with air
bleed valve. The unit has been designed to be used with a Hydraulics Bench to study the
characteristics of the flow through both converging and diverging sections. This test section
can be used to demonstrate those circumstances to which Bernoulli’s theorem may be applied
as well as in other circumstances where the theorem is not sufficient to describe the fluid
behavior. (2) (5)

Bernuolli’s principle complies with the principles of conservation of energy. In a

steady flow, at all points of the streamline of a flowing fluid is the same as the sum of all
forms of mechanical energy along the streamline. It can be simplified as constant practices of
the sum of potential energy as well as kinetic energy. Fluid particles’ core properties are the
pressure and weight. If a fluid is moving horizontally along a streamline, an increase in speed
can be explained due to the fluid that moves from a region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure and so with the inverse condition where the speed is decreased. In the case of a fluid
that moves horizontally, the highest speed occurs at the lowest pressure, whereas the lowest
speed is present at the most highest pressure. (1)
Bernuolli’s theorem usually relates to Bernuolli’s equation. The equation is express as below:

Where,
P = fluid static pressure at the cross section
p = density of the flowing fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity
v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
h*= total (stagnation) head

1.2 Equation Derivation

pg1
 Reduction of Bernoulli’s equation to find the flow rate
In the experiment setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we are considering lie
on the same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum z= 0) and thus the equation
reduces to:

For the experiment, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head as h*i where
the i represents the cross sections at different tapping points.
The stagnation pressure is obtained when a flowing fluid is decelerated to zero speed
by a frictionless process. In incompressible flow, the Bernoulli Equation can be used to relate
the changes in speed and pressure along a streamline for such a process.
If the static pressure is P at a point in the flow where the speed is v, then the
stagnation pressure P0, where the stagnation speed v0 is zero, maybe computed from

Therefore,

Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a point, it would
give the local flow speed.
If the velocity of the stream at A is v, a particle moving from A to the mouth of the
tube B will be brought to rest so that v0 at B is zero. By Bernoulli’s equation,

Total energy per unit weight at A = Total energy per unit weight at B

Since v0 = 0, thus P0 will be greater than P. So,

Therefore,

Thus, velocity at A is .

pg2
Theoretically, the measured velocity, , Pitot tubes may require calibration. The true
velocity is given by , where C is the coefficient of the instrument and h is the
difference of the head measured in terms of the fluid flowing. (3) (4)

2. Objective

• To understand the Bernoulli’s Theorem and the characteristics of the flow

through both converging and diverging sections

• To determine the flow rate and pressure of the water in the venturi meter

• To calculate the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter

• To measure the percentage error between theoretical and experimental data

• To compare the difference in between the calculation of using Bernoulli

equation and Continuity equation

3. Equipment

pg3
Figure 1: Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit

pg4
4. Procedures:

Experiment_1: Discharge Coefficient Determination

i. The equipment of the venturi meter has been set up as shown in Figure 1.

ii. The hypodermic tube is withdrawn from the test section.

iii. The discharge valve is adjusted to the maximum measurable flow rate of the venturi
and will only be achieved when tube 1 and 3 give the maximum observable water
head difference.

iv. The water flow rate is measured using volumetric method and the manometers
reading is recorded after the level stabilizes.

v. Step 4 is repeated with at least three decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve

vi. The actual flow rate, Qa is obtained from the volumetric flow measurement method.

vii. The ideal flow rate, Qi is calculated from the head difference between h1 and h3 using
the equation provided.

viii. A graph of Qa VS Qi is plotted and the discharge coefficient, Cd which is the slope is
obtained.

Experiment_2: Flow rate measurement with venturi meter

i. The equipment of the venturi meter has been set up as shown in Figure 1.

ii. The hypodermic tube is withdrawn from the test section.

iii. The discharge valve is adjusted to a high measurable flow rate.

iv. The water flow rate is measured using the volumetric method and the manometer
reading is recorded after the level stabilizes.

v. Step 4 is repeated with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.

vi. The venturi meter flow rate of each data is calculated by applying the discharge
coefficient obtained.

vii. The volumetric flow rate with venturi meter flow rate is compared.

Experiment_3: Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration

i. The equipment of the venturi meter has been set up as shown in Figure 1.

pg5
 ii. All the manometer tubings are checked to ensure that they are properly connected to
the corresponding pressure taps and are air-bubble free.

iii. The discharge valve is adjusted to a high measurable flow rate.

iv. The water flow rate is measured using volumetric method after the level stabilizes.

v. The hypodermic tube connected to manometer #H is gently slide so that the end
reaches the cross section of the Venturi tube at #A. The readings from manometer #H
and #A is noted down after some time. Manometer #H reading shows the sum of the
static head and velocity heads as the hypodermic tube is held against the flow of fluid
forcing it to a stop. Manometer #A reading shows the pressure head because it is
connected to the Venturi tube pressure tap, which does not obstruct the flow, thus,
measuring the flow static pressure.

vi. Step 5 is repeated for other cross section (#B, #C, #D, #E, #F)

vii. Step 3 to 6 is repeated with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.

viii. The velocity, ViB is calculated using the Bernoulli’s equation

ix. The velocity, ViC is calculated using the continuity equation

x. The difference between two calculated velocities is determined.

5. Results

5.1 Experiment_1: Discharge Coefficient Determination

Data Analysis:

Table 1

Throat Diameter, D3 (mm) 16.0

Inlet Diameter, D3 (mm) 26.0
Throat Area, At (m2) 2.011×10-4
Inlet Area, Ai (m2) 5.309×10-4
g (m/s2) 9.81
ρ (kg/m3) 1000

Table 2: Flow rate and the height of each manometer

Qav hA hB hC hD hE hF hA - hC Qi
(LPM) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (m) (LPM)
11.8977 250 241 192 224 232 239 0.058 13.9100
11.4921 240 233 195 219 225 230 0.045 12.2500
10.6421 230 225 191 214 218 223 0.039 11.4000
pg6
 7.3233 220 217 195 208 211 214 0.025 9.1309

Volume of water for Qav = 13L – 10L Time taken to collect 10L water for the first Qav
= 10 L = 50.43 s

For the first Qav = 10L / (50.43 /60)min

= 11.8977 LPM
≈ 11.90 LPM

For Qav=11.8977LPM,
Qi = [ At [ √ 2 × g × ( hA – hC ) ] ] / √ 1 – (At/Ai )2
= [ 2.011 × 10-4 m2[ √ 2 × 35316 m/min2 × ( 0.058m ) ] ] /
√ 1 – (2.011 × 10-4 m2/5.309×10-4m2 )2
= 0.01391 m3/min × 1000L/1m3
= 13.91LPM

Graph 1: Qav vs Qi

Cd = Gradient
= (11.8977 – 7.3233)LPM / (13.9100 - 9.1309)LPM
= 0.9572

5.2 Experiment_2: Flow rate measurement with venturi meter

Table 3: Flow rate and the height of each manometer

pg7
 Qav hA hB hC hD hE hF
(LPM) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
11.8977 250 241 192 224 232 239
11.4921 240 233 195 219 225 230
10.6421 230 225 191 214 218 223
7.3233 220 217 195 208 211 214

Table 4: Theoretical and practical flow rate with percentage error

Qav hA - hC Qi Calculated Flow Rate Error

(LPM) (m) (LPM) (LPM) (%)
11.8977 0.058 13.9100 13.3147 10.60
11.4921 0.045 12.2500 11.7257 1.99
10.6421 0.039 11.4000 10.9121 2.47
7.3233 0.025 9.1309 8.7401 16.21
Cd = 0.9572

Qa = Cd × Q i
= 0.9572× 13.9100 LPM
= 13.3147 LPM

Error = |Qav – Qa| / Qa × 100%

= | 11.8977 LPM – 13.3147 LPM | / 13.3147 LPM × 100%
= 10.60%

5.3 Experiment_3: Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration

Table 5: Flow rate used (Liter/Min)

Volume (L) 10 L
Average Time (min) 0.52 min
Flow Rate (LPM) 19.2308 LPM

Table 6: Velocity calculated by using Bernoulli’s equation and Continuity equation

Cross Using Bernoulli equation Using Continuity Difference

Section equation
# h*=hh hi ViB = Ai = π Di2 / 4 Vic = Qav ViB - ViC
(mm) (mm) √[2*g*(h*- (m) / Ai (m/s)
hi)] (m/s)
A 290 252 0.8635 5.3093×10-4 0.6037 0.2598
B 286 238 0.9704 3.6644×10-4 0.8747 0.0957
-5
C 279 145 1.6214 2.0106×10 1.5941 0.0273
-4
D 270 207 1.1118 3.1416×10 1.0202 0.0916
E 269 222 0.9603 3.8013×10-4 0.8432 0.1171
-4
F 266 236 0.7672 5.3093×10 0.6037 0.1635

For cross section #A,

19.2308 LPM = 19.2308 × 1/1000 m3 × 1/60 s
pg8
 = 3.2051 × 10-4 m3/s

ViB = √[2*g*(h*-hi)]
= √[2*9.81 m/s2*(0.290m - 0.252m)]
= 0.8635 m/s

ViC = Qav / Ai
= 3.2051 × 10-4 m3/ s / 5.3093×10-4m2
= 0.6037 m/s

ViB - ViC = 0.8635 m/s – 0.6037m/s

= 0.2598 m/s

pg9
6. Discussion

The aim of this experiment is to study the characteristics of flow through both
converging and diverging sections. During the experiment, water is fed through a hose
connector and we need to control the flow rate of the water by adjusting a flow regulator
valve at the outlet of the test section. The venturi can be demonstrated as a means of flow
measurement and the discharge coefficient has been determined.

Our result of the experiment is obeying the Bernoulli’s law which states that if a non-
viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then the pressure is lower at
constrictions where the velocity is higher and the pressure is higher where the pipe opens out
and the fluid stagnate. (3) However, there are some restrictions of using Bernoulli’s theorem
which include:

• Steady flow

• Incompressible flow

• Frictionless flow

• Flow along a streamline (5)

From the analysis of the results of experiment 1 (Table 2), we can conclude that the
height of water in manometer tube C (hc) is always the lowest even though we test it with
different flow rate (Qav). Moreover, the water level of manometer tube from hA to hC will
decrease whereas; the water level of manometer tube from hC to hF will increase. This is
because of the converging and diverging section of the venturi tube. There is a convergent
flow from A to C due to the diameter of the tube is narrowing while there will be a divergent
flow from C to F because of the tube is widening. Thus, according to Bernoulli’s theorem, as
fluid flows from a wider pipe to a narrower one, the velocity of the flowing fluid increases
and the pressure will decrease.

Besides, the difference in height of hA - hC is increasing while the flow rate (Qav) is
increasing. This has indirectly shown that the faster the flow rate, the bigger the pressure
difference between manometer tube A and C. In our experiment, the highest flow rate (Qav)
that we used is 11.8977liter/min, so we obtain the biggest difference which is 0.058m
between manometer tube A and C.

The flow rate (Qi) in experiment 1 is calculated by using the equation below:

pg10
 Where is equal to (hA - hC).

Therefore, Qi can be known as theoretical flow rate as it is calculated by using the

formula. However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than
that given by equation because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between the
inlet and throat. Therefore, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally
determined discharge coefficient, Cd that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. A graph of
Qav VS Qi (Graph 1) is plotted and the discharge coefficient, Cd which is 0.9572 is obtained.

For the results in experiment 2 (Table 4), the discharge coefficient is determined as
follow: Cd= (Qa/Qi).Thus, Qa is being calculated by multiplying the Cd with Qi and the Qa can
be known as theoretical data as it is calculated by using an equation whereas Qav is a practical
data.

Therefore, there must be some error if compare between practical and theoretical data
as shown in Table 4. The biggest error calculated by using our collected data is 16.21%
which is acceptable due to the parallax error of the readers. The most common weakness is
the observers have not read the water level properly where the eyes are not perpendicular to
the water level on the manometer. Thus, there are some small effects on the calculations of
our data.

The flow rate that we used for experiment 3 was 19.2308 liter/min which is also
shown in Table 5. For the result in Table 6, the height of water level for cross section C is the
lowest, 145mm but the velocity is the highest which is 1.6214m/s for Bernoulli’s equation
and 1.5941m/s for Continuity equation. This is because the diameter of C is the smallest
among all of the cross section, thus the velocity will be the highest, therefore the pressure will
be the lowest and hence the reading of the manometer will be the lowest.

In addition, for the difference of ViB - ViC (whereby the ViB is calculated by using the
Bernoulli’s equation and ViC is calculated by Continuity equation in Table 6), the reason of
the presence of the differences is because we are using two different equations to calculate
the velocity of the fluid. For an ideal answer, the V iB should equal to ViC as both of them are
the same velocity which is interrelated to the flow rate that we used. Due to the different
equation being used, the variables that consist in the equation will be different. For an
example, we measure the difference of water level in each manometer to determine the V iB in
Bernoulli’s equation, whereas we use the Qav to determine the ViC for Continuity equation. So,
the difference of water level and the Qav are the different variables that we measured
practically and all those figures are used for calculating the velocity. That is why there might
be some errors when taking the measurement of each data, causing the difference between the
value ViB and ViC.

7. Conclusion
pg11
 In conclusion, the result collected from the experiment is according to the Bernoulli’s
Theorem which is the highest speed is the one at the lowest pressure, whereas the lowest
speed is present at the most highest pressure. Due to the highest pressure of the water, it
causes the reading of manometer become the highest. This principle complies with the
principle of conservation of energy which it is the sum if all forms of mechanical energy
along the streamline.

During the converging section which is from manometer A to C, the diameter of the
venturi meter at this section is narrowing which means that the diameter of the tube is
decreasing. Furthermore, section C has the smallest diameter among all the cross section area.
Thus, it can create the highest velocity and hence it has the lowest pressure. This has
indirectly caused the reading of manometer C remain the lowest among all manometer tubes.
Meanwhile, the diverging section is begin from manometer C to manometer F. Therefore, the
reading of the height of manometer from C to F is increasing due to the pressure increased
because of the lowering of velocity along C to F. All the data collected and calculated are
obeyed the Bernoulli’s Theorem, even the discharge coefficient, 0.9572 that we obtained
from the slope of the graph is also within the acceptable range of 0.9 to 0.99.

However, there will be some errors when measuring the reading of each data due to
the parallax error and valve regulation problem. Due to the unstable reading of water level of
manometer, we believe that this has affected our result. Thus, some errors and differences
between the calculated flow rate and practical flow rate Qav have formed as we are
conducting the experiment manually. If we repeat the experiment by several times in order to
get the average value, we strongly believe that the errors can be minimized.

8. Precautions and Recommendation

• The eye of the observer should be parallel to the water level to avoid parallax error.

• Repeat the experiment several times to get the average value.

• Make sure the bubbles are fully removed.

• The valve should be controlled slowly to maintain the pressure difference.

• The valve should be regulated smoothly to reduce errors.

• Always wear protective clothing, shoes and goggles throughout the laboratory
session.

9. References
pg12
1. Bernoulli’s Theorem.(2010).Retrieved on February 6,2010 from
http://www.scribd.com/doc/39165346/Bernoulli-s-Theorem-Distribution-Experiment
2. Bernoulli’s Theorem .(2010).Retrieved on February 6,2010 from
http://www.solution.com.my/pdf/FM24%28A4%29.pdf
3. Bernoulli’s Theorem .(2001).Retrieved on February 6,2010 from
http://www.ceet.niu.edu/faculty/kostic/bernoulli.html
4. John F.Douglas. (2001). Fluid Mechanics (4th ed.). Pearson Education
Limited(pg.188)
5. Lab Manual: Bernoulli’s Theorem demonstration Unit

pg13