Electronics is an engineering discipline that involves the design and analysis

ofelectronic circuits. Originally, this subject was referred to as radio engineering. An

electronic circuit is a collection of components through which electrical current can flow
or which use electromagnetic fields in their operation.

The electronic circuit design and analysis rests primarily on two Kirchoff's laws in
conjunction with Ohm's law modified for AC circuits and power relationships. There are
also a number of network theorems and methods (such as Thevenin, Norton,
Superposition, Y-Delta transform) that are consequences of these three laws. In order
to simplify calculations in AC circuits, sinusoidal voltage and current are usually
represented as complex-valued functions called phasors. Practical circuit design and
analysis also requires a comprehensive understanding of semiconductor devices,
integrated circuits and magnetics.

Here you will also find electricity and magnetism reference, basic electrical engineering
formulas, calculators, and other related information.

Also see:
Electrical Engineering Reference: circuit laws and theorems;
Search online degree programs and courses from accredited schools;
The guides to distance learning and online schools.

FORMULAS FOR THE BASIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

IMPEDANCE VOLT-AMP EQUATIONS

ENERGY
CIRCUIT comple instantaneou
absolute RMS values for (dissipated on R or
ELEMENT x s
value sinusoidal signals stored in L, C)
form values
RESISTANC
R R v=i×R Vrms=Irms×R E=Irms2R×t
E
INDUCTANC
2πfL jωL v=L×di/dt Vrms=Irms×2πfL E=Li2/2
E
CAPACITAN
1/(2πfC) 1/jωC i=C×dv/dt Vrms=Irms/(2πfC) E=Cv2/2
CE
Notes:
R- resistance in ohms, L- inductance in henrys, C- capacitance in farads, f - frequency in
hertz, t- time in seconds, π≈3.14159;
ω=2πf - angular frequency;
j - imaginary unit ( j2=-1 )
Euler's formula: ejx=cosx+jsinx

EQUATIONS FOR SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS

CIRCUIT SERIES PARALLEL

 ELEMENT CONNECTION CONNECTION

Rparallel=
RESISTANC Rseries= 1/
E R1+R2+... (1/R1+1/R2+..
.)

Lparallel=
INDUCTANC Lseries= 1/
E L1+L2+... (1/L1+1/L2+...
)

Cseries=
CAPACITAN 1/ Cparallel=
CE (1/C1+1/C2+ C1+C2+...
...)

CALCULATIONS OF EQUIVALENT RLC IMPEDANCES

CIRCUIT CONNECTION COMPLEX FORM ABSOLUTE VALUE

Z=R+jωL+1/jωC

Series

Z=
1/(1/R+1/jωL+jωC)

Parallel
Note: you can download a reference sheet with these and other formulas in pdf file.

TRANSISTORS AND DIODES: THE BASICS

The properties of semiconductor devices are studied in college courses. The

introduction to the circuits including operation of diodes and transistors and basic
formulas can be found in various textbooks or handbooks, such as The Art of
Electronics. Below are some highlights.
The I-V characteristic of a diode is approximated by the Shockley equation:
I=Is×(enVd/Vt-1),
where Is - the reverse bias saturation current (~10−15 to 10−12 A for Silicon); Vd - voltage
drop in volts; Vt - the thermal voltage (~0.026V at room temperature), n - the "ideality
factor" (from 1 to 2).
At a fixed current I, forward voltage drop changes by about -2 mV/oC.

In a bipolar transistor collector current Ic in a linear mode is related to the base-emitter

voltage by the same Shockley (also called Ebers-Moll) equation, except for n=1. The
collector current relates to the base current IB by Ic=IB×h21, where h21 - static current
gain (typically 20-1000)). When Ic reaches a limit determined by the supply voltage and
the net external impedance in the collector circuit, the transistor is saturated.

MOSFET's behavior varies with the gate voltage Vg. When Vg<Vth, where Vth - gate
threshold voltage, the MOSFET is in OFF state with drain current Id≈0. When Vg>Vth
and the external load is such that Vd>Vg-Vth, the MOSFET is in an active region, in
which Id is proportional to the (Vg-Vth)2 and practically does not depend on the Vd.
Once Id reaches certain limit determined by an external circuit, MOSFET start acting as
a nearly constant resistance. In this mode Vds≈Id×Rdson, where Rdson - the ON-state
channel's resistance specified in data sheets as a function primarily of temperature and
gate voltage. Power MOSFETs are usually used as switching devices which operate in
either ON or OFF state.
Voltage:
Enter the source nominal voltage. Use the larger voltage of the system. Example: For a
120/240V Use 240V

Square Footage:
Measure the total square footage of the occupancy using the outside dimensions. Do not include
open porches, unused or unfinished spaces not adaptable for future use.

Small Appliance Branch Circuits:

Enter the number of small appliance branch circuits. At least 2 are required for dwelling
units.210-11(c)(1)Appliance Branch Circuit - A branch circuit that supplies energy to one or
more outlets to which appliances are to be connected, and that has no permanently connected
lighting fixtures that are not part of an appliance.

Laundry Branch Circuits:

Enter the number of laundry branch circuits.
At least 1 is required for dwelling units. 210-11(c)(2)

Fastened In Place Appliances:

Use Volt Amps or Watts. These are appliances you can not pick up and carry out of the house
without using some kind of tool. Examples of fastened in place appliances: electric water heater,
attic fan, disposal, trash compactor and dish washer. Do not include electric ranges, air
conditioners, clothes dryers or space heaters. Use the nameplate ratings. Horse power ratings
should be converted to Amps using T430.148, then converted to VA by multiplying by the rated
voltage (i.e. 120 volts)

Clothes Dryers:(optional)
Enter the rating in volt-amps. A clothes dryer is not required. If there will be no clothes dryers
then enter a zero. The minimum rating is 5000va so, use 5000va or the name plate rating which
ever is larger. If your rating is listed in kW then multiply that rating by 1000. for example 6kW =
6000va. The neutral load will be calculated at 70% of the dryer load.

Household Cooking Appliances:(optional)

Enter in kilo-watts the household cooking appliances rated over 1.75kW. Examples of
Household cooking appliances are Ranges, Ovens, Cooktops rated over 1.75kW. If there will be
no household cooking appliances over 1.75kw then skip this section. The neutral load will be
calculated at 70% of the total calculated load.

Heating or Air Conditioning:

Enter in volt-amps the larger of either the ac or heating loads. For example you have central
system comprising of an AC compressor(4000va), condenser fan(240va), air handler(345va) and
heat coils(15000va). You also have a space heater(3500va). Now what is the largest load that
will be running at any time? Will it be when you run the heating or the AC? You can eliminate
one since you will not be using both at the same time. When the AC is being used the
compressor, condenser, and air handler will be running. This gives us a total AC load of 4585va.
The total heating load is the sum of the heat coils, air handler and the space heater which in this
case is 18845va. I would enter 18845 and select the Heater button. If your compressor also
serves as a heat pump it should be added to the heating load.

Heating or Air Conditioning Neutral:

Enter the neutral load in Volt Amps. This is the same as the 120V load. Example: An AC system
usually consists of a condenser fan motor(208-240V), compressor motor(208-240V) and a
blower motor(120V). In this case I only need the Volt-Amps of the blower motor. Use the
nameplate ratings. Horse power ratings should be converted to Amps using T430.148, then
converted to VA by multiplying by the rated voltage (ie 120 volts). A 1/2 horse motor is a large
common blower motor. The same is true with heating find all the 120V loads in the system and
add them up. For this calculation Watts are the same as Volt-Amps.

Largest Motor:
Enter in volt-amps the larges motor. In most cases this will be the AC compressor. If this motor
is only listed in horse power it should be converted to Amps using T430.148, then converted to
VA by multiplying by the rated voltage (ie 120 volts). If this is a 120V motor check the neutral
box.
MAGNETIC UNITS CONVERSION

DEFINITIONS, ONLINE CALCULATORS, EQUATIONS IN SI AND CGS

Magnetic field
is one of two components of the electromagnetic field. It is a region where forces acting
on moving electric charges can be detected. Magnetic fields are created by moving
electric charges or variable electric field. The charge movement that creates magnetic
field may be macroscopic (currents in conductors), or microscopic (associated with spin
and orbital motion of electrons, resulting in "magnetic materials").
The SI unit for magnetic flux is the weber (Wb). If the magnetic flux changes by 1 Wb
over a time of 1s, then a voltage of 1 V is induced in a conductive loop encircling it: 1
Wb = 1 Vs.
The SI unit for magnetic flux density (magnetic induction) B is tesla (T): 1 T = 1
Wb/m2 = 1 Vs/m2.
Magnetic field with density of 1 T generates one newton of force per ampere of current
per meter of conductor.
When the magnetic fields generated by currents pass through some materials they
produce magnetization in the direction of the applied field. In ferromagnetics it results in
increased total field B. Quantity called magnetic field strength (or magnetizing
force) H is a measure of the applied magnetic field from external currents, independent
of the material's magnetic response. Quantity called magnetisation M defines the
material's response- it is magnetic moment per unit volume of material. Flux density
(magnetic induction) B describes the resulting field in the material. In power electronics
it is the main magnetic quantity used in calculation of the minimum required cross-
sectional area of power transformer cores for given voltage and frequency (see also:
engineering reference info on power transformer design).
The table below provides magnetic formulas in both SI and CGS systems and
conversion factors of magnetic units.

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY UNIT MAGNETIC FIELD STRENGT

CONVERSION CALCULATOR CONVERSION CALCULAT

Top of Form Top of Form

tesla [T]: ampere/meter [A/m]:

gauss [Gs, G]: oersted [Oe]:

weber/square meter: Bottom of Form

 weber/square centimeter:

maxwell/square meter:

maxwell/sq. centimeter:

line/square centimeter:

gamma:

Bottom of Form

Calculators' data are courtesy of www.unitconversion.org

SYMBO
QUANTITY SI UNIT SI EQUATION CGS UNIT CGS EQUATION
L

Magnetic
B tesla (T) B=µo(H+M) gauss (G) B = H+4πM
induction

H = N×I/lc H = 0.4πN×I/lc
Magnetic field ampere/meter oersted
H ( lc - magnetic (lc - magnetic
strength (A/m) (Oe)
path, m) path, cm)

Φ = B×Ac maxwell Φ = B×Ac

Magnetic flux Φ weber (Wb)
(Ac - area, m2 ) (M) (Ac - area, cm2 )

M=m/V M=m/V
ampere/meter (m- total magnetic (m- total magnetic
Magnetization M emu/cm3
(A/m) moment, moment,
V- volume, m3 ) V- volume, cm3 )

Magnetic
permeability µo newton/ampere2 µo= 4π×10-7 1 -
of vacuum

L=μoμN2Ac/lc L=0.4πμN2Ac/lc×10-8
Inductance L henry (Ac- area, m2, henry (Ac-area, cm2,
lc - magnetic path, m) lc - magnetic path, cm)

Emf (voltage) V volt V=-N×dΦ/dt volt V=-10-8N×dΦ/dt

Note: in the above equations: N- turns, I - current (in amps)

 PRIVACY CONTACT US DISCLAIMER and TER

UNDERSTANDING ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

It has been found experimentally that the intensity of various electrical effects is related to the amount of elec
charge that passes by a certain region per unit time. Therefore this quantity I=Q/t, which is called the ele
current, presents a special interest in EE.

Sponsore

In practice, the flow of the current is controlled by various electronic components. A network of interconne
components that can accomplish a certain task is referred to as electronic circuit. The circuits can be use
processing signals, information, or energy. A current can be measured by an instrument called anammeter. F
current to flow continuously, the circuit should have an energy source and a closed path.

When a charged particle is placed in an electrical field, it experiences a force that depends on its position. S
particle therefore has a potential energy associated with this position. When a particle moves from one poi
another, the amount of work done by the electrical field equals the drop in its electrical energy, which is b
converted into other forms of energy, such as mechanical motion, heat and light. The change in the elec
energy of a particle per unit charge as it moves from one point to another is defined as voltage or pote
difference between these two points: V=ΔE/q. The power transfer is then equals to:P=ΔE/t=V×q/t=V×I. Note
only voltage differences rather than absolute voltages have direct physical meaning. The voltage between
points can be measured by an instrument called a voltmeter. A voltmeter can be just an ammeter with a se
connected high-value resistor through which the current proportional to the measured voltage is forced to
For hobbyist electronic projects there are inexpensive digital multimeters that can measure voltage, current
resistance.

IMPEDANCE

The V/I relationships for energy storage components (inductors and capacitors) are described by differe
equations. In practical cases the handling of these equations quickly becomes unmanageable. That's why
analysis of the networks with sinusoidal signals usually uses complex exponentialsmethod. With this me
voltages, currents and impedances are represented by complex exponential functions (phasors) based on E
relationship ejx=cosx+jsinx, where j is imaginary unit. The lenght of the phasor is proportional to the magn
of the quantity it represents, and its angle represents a phase shift relative to some reference signal. This a
turning differential equations into algebraic equations. In linear AC networks with single-frequency sinus
voltage sources impedance Z is defined as the ratio of voltage phasor to the current phasor: Z=V/Ĩ
magnitude is the ratio of the voltage amplitude to the current amplitude, and phase is the phase shift betwee
current and the voltage.

Impedance in general is a complex number that can be calculate

using formulas for series and parallel connections. With known complex impedance, current phasor is Ĩ=V/Z.
pie chart ("wheel") illustrates relationships between voltage, current, impedance and power in linear networks
a sinusoidal input. These formulas are adaptations of Ohm's law and Joule's law for AC signals. In this "p
wheel":
V - rms voltage (volts);
I - rms current (amps);
Z - magnitude of impedance (ohms);
S - apparent power (volt-amps).
By knowing any two values of V, I, Z or S, you can find the values of the remaining quantities.
For a pure resistor Z=R, I=V/R, and S=P, where R - resistance, P - active power.
For impedance calculations and I-V relationships between basic electrical parts see Electrical Formulas.

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

Every circuit design involves the development of a schematic. A schematic diagram is a drawing w
components are represented by graphical symbols and that can communicate information about a circu
theory, the processes in electronic circuits could be described by Maxwell's equations and the physics
describing properties of materials. However, in practical design and analysis engineers consider idea
elements that reflect some essential aspects of the operation of the real devices. This allows describing
operation of the circuit with simplified equations that use circuit theory terms.

The basis for most circuit analysis technique is Kirchoff's current and voltage laws in conjunction with Ohm's
extended for AC. There are also a number of network theorems and methods (such as Thevenin, No
Superposition, Y-Delta transform) that are derived from these three laws.

The circuit design typically includes computer simulation, breadboarding and prototyping.

Electronic devices are normally assembled on printed circuit boards (PCBs) that mechanically support
electrically interconnect parts by using conductive traces, etched from copper sheets laminated onto an isol
substrate.

BASIC ELECTRONIC
REFERENCE EDUCATION AND CAREER
CIRCUIT DESIGN
INFORMATION RESOURCES
AND ANALYSIS

R, L and C impedances and volt-
amp relationships
Electronic Parts- online datasheet
search and cross reference
Engineering Jobs (SMPS design
and other)
Accredited online schools and
degree programs
Handbook of operational
amplifierapplications and OpAm
circuit collection
Digital Logic basics

Electrical Engineering reference, PCB layout jobs The DSP Guide: ADC & DAC
basic circuit theorems, online basics, sampling theorem, Four
textbooks Transform, FFT

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 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING REFERENCE INFORMATION

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM BASICS, CIRCUIT THEOREMS AND EQUATIONS

Electrical engineering Sponsored A

(EE) is a discipline that deals with electricity, magnetism and their applications. EE
applications include electronics, power conversion, data communications, computer science,
information technologies, and other. The term EE usually encompasses electronic
engineering or electronics. Electronics involves the design and analysis of electronic
circuits. In academia and electronic industry, the terms electrical and electronics engineer
often are used interchangeably.

Find Science and Engineering Degree Program Online

In other industries, the term electrical engineer may refer to those who deal with utility and
industrial power systems and other electric equipment. In any case, both disciplines are
overlapping.

The theoretical foundation for EE is electromagnetism. The theory of classical

electromagnetism is based on Maxwell's equations (see below), which provide a unified
description of the behavior of electric and magnetic fields as well as their interactions with
matter. In practice however, circuit designers normally use simplified equations of electricity
and magnetism and theorems that use circuit theory terms, such as Ohm's law modified for
AC circuits, voltage and current Kirchoff's laws, and power relationships.

This webpage is for those who already learned EE and needs a quick reference. Here you
will find electricity and magnetism basics, electronics reference as well as the career related
information on the web.

Also see:
Electronic formulas and impedance calculations;
Understanding the physics of electronic circuits;
Distance learning, online degrees from accredited schools, salary surveys;
Engineering Jobs

MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN FREE SPACE (in SI units)

LAW DIFFERENTIAL FORM INTEGRAL FORM

Gauss'
law for
electricity

Gauss'
law for
magnetis
m

Faraday's
law of
induction

Ampere's
law
 NOTES: E - electric field, ρ - charge density, ε0 ≈ 8.85×10-12 - electric permittivity of free space, π ≈
3.14159,
k - Boltzmann's constant, q - charge, B - magnetic induction, Φ - magnetic flux, J - current density, i -
electric current,
c ≈ 299 792 458 m/s - the speed of light, µ0 = 4π×10-7 - magnetic permeability of free space, - del operator

(ifV is a vector function, then .

V is divergence of V, ×V is the curl of V).

BASIC ELECTRICAL THEOREMS AND CIRCUIT ANALYSIS LAWS

RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER
THE LAW DEFINITION
LAWS

aw extended for AC circuits V=Z×Ĩ, where V and Ĩ - voltage and current

Lorentz force law and Drude model
gle frequency sinusoidal phasors, Z - complex impedance
for resistors
(for resistive circuits: Z=R and V=R×I )

The sum of electric currents which flow into any

f's Current Law (KCL) junction in a circuit is equal to the sum of currents Conservation of electric charge
which flow out

The sum of the voltages around a closed circuit

f's Voltage Law (KVL) Conservation of energy
must be zero

that Kirchhoff's laws can be derived from Maxwell's equations under static conditions, although historically they
eded Maxwell's equations.
can download a reference sheet with the above equations in a pdf file.

ELECTRICAL NETWORK THEOREMS FOR AC CIRCUITS

THE THEOREM DEFINITION CALCULATION
Thevenin's Theorem
Norton's Theorem
Superposition Theorem
Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
Delta to Wye Transformation
Star-Delta Transformation
Any combination of a single frequency
sinusoidal AC sources and impedances
with two terminals can be replaced by a
single voltage source V in series with an
impedance Z.
Any combination of a single frequency
sinusoidal AC sources and impedances
with two terminals A and B can be
replaced by a single current source I in
parallel with an impedance Z.
The current (voltage) phasor in any part
of a linear circuit equals the algebraic
sum of the current (voltage) phasors
produced by each source separately.
A voltage source delivers maximum
power to a adjustable when the source
and the load impedances are complex
conjugates of each other
A delta network of three impedances can Za = ZcaZab / (Zab+Zbc+Zca)
be transformed into a star (Y) network of Zb = ZabZbc / (Zab+Zbc+Zca)
three impedances
A star (Y) network of three impedances
can be transformed into a delta network
of three impedances
V - open-circuit voltage phasor
original circuit;
Z - impedance between the two
terminals with all voltage sourc
shorted and all current sources
opened.
I - short-circuit current phasor o
original circuit;
Z - impedance between the two
terminals with all voltage sourc
shorted and all current sources
opened.
To find an individual current (vo
from each source, short all othe
voltage sources and open all o
current sources.
Active components of the sourc
load impedances should be eq
and reactive components shou
have equal magnitude but oppo
sign.
Zc = ZbcZca / (Zab+Zbc+Zca)
Zab = Za + Zb + (ZaZb / Zc)
Zbc = Zb + Zc + (ZbZc / Za)
Zca = Zc + Za + (ZcZa / Zb)

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