Theories of Learning

Learning factors, if considered at all, are incorporated only after the language bas has been analyzed and
systematized. Language learning is conditioned by the way in which the mind observers, organizes and stores
information. In other word, the key to successful language learning and teaching lies not in the analysis of the
nature of the language but in understanding the structure and processes of the mind. Unfortunately, we still
know too little about how people learn. We must try and base what we do in the classroom on sound
principles of learning to improve the technique, methods and content of language teaching.
Until the twentieth century the was no coherent theory of learning available to the language teacher even there
were many empirical observations, but no coherent theory of learning emerged until psychology had been
established as a respectable subject of scientific enquiry.
These are five main stage of develo9pment which are relevance to the modern language teacher.

1. Behaviourism: learning as habit formation.

Characteristic:
Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement
Repetition and Pattern practice (drills, etc.)
Learner as passive receiver of information
Habits and other undesirable responses can be broken by removing the positive reinforcers.
Immediate, consistent, and positive reinforcement increases the speed of learning.
Once an item is learned, intermittent reinforcement will promote retention

The simple but powerful theory said that “learning is a mechanical process of habit formation and proceeds
by means of the frequent reinforcement of a stimulus-response sequence.
The basic exercise technique of a behaviourist methodology as pattern practice, particularly in the form of
language laboratory drills. One influential result is the audio-lingual method, which involves endless “listen
and repeat” drilling activities.

Pattern practice does have a place, but not exclusively (Audio-lingual method)
• Language learning is a habit formation resembling the formation of other habits. In other words,
language is learned in the way in which other habits are learned.
• Language learning is nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior or knowledge. It takes
place when experience or practice causes a change in a person's knowledge or behaviour.
• Language learning is an external event, because it involves an observable change in behaviour
brought about by the stimuli coming from the environment. It does not involve any unobservable change
in mental knowledge. All behaviors can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states
or consciousness.
• Only human beings have the capacity for language learning. They acquire a language as discrete
units of habits, independently trained, not as an integrated system.

Earliest scientific theory of learning (beginning of 20th century) - Pavlov -> Skinner.
Input-output model: If you can control what goes in, you can control what comes out (learning).
Method of doing so = Stimulus, Response, Reinforcement: e.g., tell dog “sit”, dog sits, dog gets pat.
Repeating this process often enough was seen as resulting in learning, as led to formation of correct habits.
In LT, led to language laboratory drills, e.g.,
Is this a pen?
No it isn’t.
Is this a pencil?
Yes it is. (etc.)
Based on view of learner as tabula rasa. Responsible for views in LT such as all errors must be
avoided/immediately corrected, translations should be avoided, etc., as otherwise inappropriate habits will
develop.

2. Mentalism: thinking as rule-governed activity.

Chomsky: thinking is rule governed, it is not habits, but rules that need acquiring.
If all language is a learned behavior, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others
before?’
According to Noam Chomsky, language is not a form of behavior, rather it is an intricate rule-based
system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. Learning consists not of
forming habits but of acquiring rules, a process in which individual experiences are tested and modified
by subsequent experience. This mentalist view of the mind led naturally to the next important stage – the
cognitive theory of learning

Behaviourism unable to account for creativity of language learning:

 novel utterances
 system-building
 Learning as rule-governed activity (Chomsky)
 habit formation vs. acquiring rules
 stimulus triggers search for underlying pattern
 hypothesis-testing

3. Cognitive Code: learners as thinking beings.

Learning as a thinking process
The learner is an active processor of information.
Problem-solving tasks, learning strategies

Learning and using a rule require learners to think to apply their mental powers in order to distil a workable
generative rule from the mass of data presented and then to analyze the situations where the application of the
rule would be useful or appropriate.
According to the cognitive theory, learning is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of
data. The basic technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task.
..
3 main aspects of learning:
 how knowledge is established
 how knowledge becomes automatic
 how new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s existing cognitive system

4. The affective factor: learners as emotional beings

People think, but they also have feelings. It is as if we believed that human beings always act in logical and
sensible manner. Learners are people. Even ESP learners are people. They may be learning about machines
and systems, but they will learn as human beings.
Particularly the learning of language, is an emotional experience and the feelings that the learning process
evokes will have a crucial bearing on the success or failure of the learning (Stevick 1976).
The importance of the emotional factor is easily seen if we consider the relationship between the
cognitive and affective aspects of the learners. The cognitive factor presupposes the affective factors of
motivation.
The emotional reaction to the learning experience is the essential foundation for the initiation of cognitive
process. How the learning is perceived by the learner will affect what learning, if any, will take place.

Positive learning cycle represented here:

The most influential study of motivation in

language learning has been Gardner and Lamber’s
(1972) study of bilingualism in French speaking
Canada. They identified two forms of motivation:
• Instrumental motivation; it is the reflection of an
external need. The learners not learning English
because they want, but rather because they need to.
The need may vary, but important factor is that the
motivation is an external one.

• Integrative motivation; On other hand, derivers

from a desire on the part of the learners to be
members of speech community that use a particular language. It is an internally generated want rather than an
externally imposed need.

Motivation appears as a complex and highly individual matter. Unfortunately the ESP world, has
apparently assumed that there is a simple answer relevance to target needs. ESP as much as any good
teaching, need to be intrinsically motivating. They should get satisfaction from the actual experience of
learning, not just from the prospect of eventually using what they have learnt.

Cognitive-affective interaction: can help to see two sides of learning as interconnected, with
affective aspect primary (see handout)

Also has process model, which has three main stages - generating, maintaining and retrospecting -
similar to cognitive-affective cycle diagram in some ways - but key point is that different kinds of motivation
involved in each of these phases, not a monolithic matter form this perspective. Motivation thus v. complex
and important learning factor, esp. in lang. learning.
 In terms of learning activities, the affective theory has lent support to the use of authenticity (real-life) in
LT, on grounds that likely to create greater interest -> motivation, and, e.g., group work, as caters to learners
working with friends, more positive emotional climate than being always under beady eye of teacher, etc.
5. Krashen: learning (conscious) and acquisition (subconscious) Both needed
Learning as an unconscious process
This reflects our view that for the second language learner both processes are likely to play a useful part
and that a good ESP course will try to exploit both.

Finally, learning can also be seen as conscious or unconscious process. Krashen has argued that formal,
conscious learning of grammar rules etc. not much use because they are too complicated to use in practice
most of the time, especially spoken communication. Therefore, better to think of L2 language learning being
mainly a non-conscious, informal acquisition process, like learning of L1.

Basic idea is that learners need to be exposed to input + 1, so-called “comprehensible input”, i.e., at next
stage up from current level. As a result of grappling with trying to understand, the necessary learning
processes will be stimulated, and the language knowledge will be acquired.