19.

0 EQUATIONS AND CONSTANTS

This section is a summary of the primary equations and constants that were derived and used
in this handbook. Except where indicated, distances in feet and weight in pounds.

19.1 Equations

 V   dV   H 
Acceleration factor AF = 1 +  t  ⋅  t  =  E 

 g 0   dH   H 

Aircraft geometric height (Edwards flyby tower) ∆htower = 31.422 ⋅ (grid reading)

T 
Aircraft pressure altitude (flyby tower data) H C a / c = H p tower + ∆htower ⋅  std 
 T 

 cos α 0 sin α 
Alpha transformation body to flight path [α ] =  0 1 0 
 − sin α 0 cos α 
Angle of attack α = tan −1 (Vbz Vbx )

Angle of attack (zero bank) α = θ − γ

(
Angle of sideslip β = sin −1 Vby Vt )
2
Aspect ratio AR = b
S

 cos β sin β 0
Beta transformation body to flight path [ β ] =  − sin β cos β 0 

 0 0 1 

Vbx  VtN 
  T  
Body axis airspeeds Vby  = [φ ] ⋅ [θ ] ⋅ [ψ ] ⋅ VtE 
T T

V  V 
 bz   tD 

Body axis pitch rate q = θ ⋅ cos φ + ψ ⋅ cosθ ⋅ sin φ

Body axis roll rate p = φ −ψ ⋅ sin θ

Body axis yaw rate r = ψ ⋅ cosθ ⋅ cos φ − θ ⋅ sin φ

 3.5
qC   VC 
2

Calibrated airspeed (VC < aSL ) = 1 + 0.2 ⋅    −1
PSL   a SL 
 

  q 
(1 3.5)
 
Calibrated airspeed (VC < aSL ) VC = aSL ⋅ 5 ⋅  C + 1 − 1 
  PSL   

166.9216 ⋅ (VC aSL )

7
qC
Calibrated airspeed (VC ≥ aSL ) = −1
PSL 7 ⋅ (VC aSL )2 − 1
2.5

 

    
2.5

    
 q    1   
Calibrated airspeed (VC ≥ aSL ) VC = aSL ⋅ 0.881285 ⋅  C + 1 ⋅ 1 −  2  
 PSL     VC    
7⋅
    aSL    
     

Cloverleaf method solves this equation (Vti + ∆Vt ) 2 = (VgN + VwN ) 2 + (VgE + VwE ) 2

= (1 + 0.2 ⋅ M 2 ) − 1
qc 3.5
Compressible dynamic pressure ( M < 1)
P

 7 
qC
Compressible dynamic pressure ( M ≥ 1) = 166.9216 ⋅  M 
2.5 − 1
P 
 ( 7 ⋅ M 2
− 1) 


Corrected net thrust Fn / δ

W 
 f 
Corrected thrust specific fuel consumption tsfc / θ =
Wf 
=
δ⋅ ( )
θ 

Fn ⋅ θ  Fn 
 δ 
 
  δ ( 4.2559) 
1

Density altitude H d = 1 −    / 6.87559 E − 6

 θ  
 

Density ratio σ = δ
θ

Drag (test day) Dt = Fnt − Fex t

221
Drag coefficient CD = D / ( q ⋅ S )

(
Drag coefficient CD = 0.00067506 ⋅ D δ ⋅ M 2 ⋅ S (pounds, feet2) )
Drag Coefficient CD = 0.000138263 ⋅ D δ ⋅ M ⋅ S (Kgs, m2)( 2
)
S 
Drag coefficient due to skin friction CD = C f ⋅  wet 
 S 

Drag Model (given M ) CD = CD min + K1⋅ ( CL − CL min ) + K 2 ⋅ ( CL − CLb )

2 2

K 2 = 0 when CL < CLb

VwN  Vt  VgN 

     
Earth axis winds VwE  = [ψ ] ⋅ [θ ] ⋅ [φ ] ⋅ [α ] ⋅ [ β ]  0  − VgE 
V   0  V 
 wD     gD 

2 ⋅π
2
C
Elliptic Wing Theory (M <<1) CL = ⋅α CDL = L
 2  π ⋅ AR
1 + 
 AR 

2
Vt
Energy altitude H E = H +
( 2 ⋅ g0 )

PE KE V 2 
Energy per unit weight E / Wt = + =H + t 
Wt Wt  ( 2 ⋅ g0 )

Equivalent airspeed Ve = σ ⋅ Vt

Excess thrust Fex = N x ⋅ Wt

Excess thrust Fex = [ Fg ⋅ cos(α + it ) − Fe ] − D

Excess thrust test Fext = N x ⋅ Wt

 Ax   cos β sin β 0   cos α 0 sin α   Abx 

   
Flight path accelerations  Ay  =  − sin β cos β 0  ⋅  0 1 0  ⋅  Aby 

A   0 0 1   − sin α 0 cos α   Abz 
 z 

222
  Ax   AN 
   
Flight path accelerations  Ay  = [ β ] ⋅ [α ] ⋅ [φ ] ⋅ [θ ] ⋅ [ψ ]
T T T T T
⋅  AE 
A  A 
 z  D


Flight path angle γ = sin −1  h 
 Vt 

 N x   Axf g 0 
   
Flight path load factors  N y  =  Ayf g 0 
 N  − A g 
 z   zf 0 

(VgN + VwN ) 
  Vt 
   
Flight path to earth axis transform  (VgE + VwE )  = [ψ ] ⋅ [θ ] ⋅ [φ ] ⋅ [α ] ⋅ [ β ] ⋅  0 
  0
(VgD + VwD )   

 dWt 
Fuel flow W f = −  
 dt 

Geopotential altitude g ⋅ dh = g 0 ⋅ dH

 r0 
Geopotential vs. geometric altitude H =  ⋅h
 ( r0 + h ) 

( )
Gross thrust Fg = Wa + W f ⋅ Vexit + Aexit ⋅ ( Pexit − P )

Groundspeed east VgE = Vg ⋅ sin(σ g )

Groundspeed north VgN = Vg ⋅ cos(σ g )

cosψ − sin ψ 0
Heading matrix (rotate about the z axis (or yaw)) [ψ ] =  sin ψ cosψ 0 

 0 0 1 

 LHVtest 
Heating value corrected fuel flow W ft = W ft ⋅  
 18, 400 

Ideal gas equation of state P = ρ ⋅ R ⋅ T

223
Incompressible dynamic pressure q = 0.5 ⋅ ρ ⋅ Vt = 0.5 ⋅ ρ SL ⋅ Ve
2 2

2
 r0 
Inverse square gravity law g = g 0 ⋅  
 ( r0 + h ) 

Kinetic energy KE = 0.5 ⋅  t  ⋅ Vt

W 2

 g 0

1.328
Laminar skin friction empirical formula C f =
RN

Lateral load factor N y = Ay / g 0

Lift coefficient CL = L / ( q ⋅ S )

(
Lift coefficient CL = 0.00067506 ⋅ L δ ⋅ M 2 ⋅ S (pounds, feet2) )
(
Lift coefficient CL = 0.000138263 ⋅ L δ ⋅ M 2 ⋅ S (Kgf, m2) )
Longitudinal load factor N x = H Vt + Vt g 0

Longitudinal load factor N x = Ax / g 0

Vt
Mach number M =
a

   
2.5
1
Mach number ( M ≥ 1) M = 0.881285 ⋅  C + 1 ⋅ 1 −
q  
 P    7 ⋅ M 2   
     

  q [1 3.5]

Mach number ( M < 1) M = 5 ⋅  C + 1 − 1
P 
  
Ve
Mach number from equivalent airspeed M =
(a SL ⋅ δ )
Normal load factor N z = − Az / g 0

Vt ⋅ γ
Normal load factor in climb N z = cos γ +
g0

224
 2
V 
Normal load factor in turn (constant altitude, zero wind) N z = 1 +  t ⋅ σ 
 g0 

Normal load factor in turn (constant altitude, zero wind) N z = 1

cos φ

Normal load factor times weight N z ⋅ Wt = L + Fg ⋅ sin(α + it )

 cosθ 0 sin θ 
Pitch matrix (rotate about y-axis) [θ ] =  0 1 0 

 − sin θ 0 cos θ 

Potential energy PE = Wt ⋅ H

Pressure altitude above 36,089 feet H C = 36089.24 − 20805.84 ⋅ ln δ ( 0.22336 )

1 − (δ )(1 5.2559) 
Pressure altitude below 36,089 feet H= 
( 6.87559 E − 6 )

Pressure ratio δ = P
PSL

{−[ 4.806343 E −5]⋅( H C −36089.24 )}

Pressure ratio above 36,089 feet δ = 0.22336 ⋅ e

Pressure ratio below 36,089 feet δ = (1 − 6.87559 E − 6 ⋅ H )

5.2559

Ram drag Fr = Wa ⋅ Vt

W 
Range (approximate) R = RF ⋅ ln  ts 
 Wte 

Vt
Range factor RF = ⋅ Wt = SR ⋅ Wt
Wf

225
 661.48 ⋅ M ⋅  t  Wte
W
 δ  dt
 W∫ts Wt
Range for constant altitude (approximate) R = −
W
 f 


δ⋅ θ 
 ( )
Wte
dt
Range for constant altitude (approximate) R = − RF ⋅
Wts
∫W t

661.48 ⋅ M ⋅  t 
W
 dt
 δ
Wte

Range for cruise at constant altitude R = − ∫ ⋅

Wts W  Wt
 f 

 (δ⋅ θ 
 )
Range for cruise at constant altitude R = ∫ Vt ⋅ dt

ρ ⋅ Vt ⋅ l
Reynolds number RN =
µ

Reynolds number RN = (7.101E + 6) ⋅ M ⋅ l ⋅ RNI

 (T + 110 )   δ 
Reynolds number index RNI =   ⋅ 2 
 398.15   θ 

1 0 0 

Roll matrix (rotate about x-axis) [φ ] = 0 cos φ − sin φ 

0 sin φ cos φ 
 cos β − sin β 0
Sideslip matrix [ β ] =  sin β cos β 0 

 0 0 1 

π 2 ⋅ CL
2
Slender Body Theory ( M ≈ 1) CL = ⋅ AR ⋅ α CDL =
2 π ⋅ AR

 V 
 0  
( )
Specific excess power Ps = H E = H +  t  ⋅ Vt  = N x ⋅ Vt
g

Vt
Specific range SR =
Wf

226
Speed of sound a = (γ ⋅ R ⋅ T ) = 661.48 ⋅ θ
δ
= (1 − 6.87559 E − 6 ⋅ H C )
4.2559
Standard day density ratio σ =
θ

Standard temperature above 36,089 feet T0 = 216.65 °K

Standard temperature below 36,089 feet T = 288.15 − 1.9812 E − 3 ⋅ H C

Standardized drag Ds = Dt + ( Ds′ − Dt′ )

Standardized excess thrust Fexs = Fext + ( Fns′ − Ds′ ) − ( Fnt′ − Dt′ )

(
Standardized fuel flow W fs = W ft + W fs′ − W ft′ )
Standardized net thrust Fns = Fnt + ( Fns′ − Fnt′ )

Takeoff excess thrust Fex + µ ⋅ (Wt ⋅ cos(θ rw ) − L ) = Fn − D − Wt ⋅ sin(θ rw )

Temperature correction to pressure altitude change ∆h =  T  ⋅ ∆H


 TSTD 
C

T T
Temperature ratio θ = =
TSL 288.15

Theoretical tanker downwash angle ε 0 =

( 2 ⋅ CLt )
(π ⋅ ARt )

4 ⋅α M 2 −1
CDL = α ⋅ CL =
2
Thin Wing Theory (M > 1) CL = ⋅ CL
M 2 −1 4

Fn ⋅ Vt
Thrust horsepower THP = (where Vt has units of feet/sec)
550

Thrust horsepower (user provided η and n ) THP = η ⋅ σ n ⋅ BHP ( )

Total energy E = KE + PE

227
 (
Total temperature Tt = T ⋅ 1 + 0.2 ⋅ M 2 )
True airspeed Vt = (V bx
2 2
+ Vby + Vbz
2
)
True airspeed down VtD = VgD + VwD

True airspeed east VtE = VgE + VwE

True airspeed magnitude Vt = (V

tN
2 2
+ VtE + VtD
2
)
True airspeed north VtN = VgN + VwN

G G G
True airspeed vector Vt = Vg + Vw

Vt  VtN 
  T  
True airspeed vector  0  = [ β ] ⋅ [α ] ⋅ [φ ] ⋅ [θ ] ⋅ [ψ ] ⋅ VtE 
T T T T

0 V 
   tD 

0.455
Turbulent skin friction empirical formula C f =
(log10 RN ) 2.58

2
Vt
Turn radius (constant altitude, zero wind) R =
g0 ⋅ (N z
2
)
−1

Vt
Turn radius (constant altitude, zero wind) σ g =
R

Vbx  Vbxi   0 r− q  l x 
     
Velocity rate corrections Vby  = Vbyi  +  − r 0 p  ⋅ l y 

V  V   q − p 0  lz 
 bz   bzi  

Weight Wt = m ⋅ g 0

228
 19.2 Constants

Conversion feet to meters = multiply feet by 0.3048 (exactly)

Conversion knots to feet/sec = multiply knots by 1.68781

Conversion pounds to kilograms = divide pounds by 0.45359237 (exactly)

Nautical mile ( NM ) = 1,852 meters

= 6,076.1155 feet

Reference gravity ( g 0 ) = 32.17405 feet/sec²

Reference radius of the earth ( r0 ) (from the 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere) = 20,855,553 feet

Sea level standard temperature ( TSL ) = 288.15 °K

Speed of sound at sea level standard day ( aSL ) = 1,116.4505 feet/sec

= 661.4788 knots

Standard sea level pressure ( PSL ) = 101,325 pascals (newtons/m2)

= 2,116.2166 pounds/feet²

Temperature in second segment of standard atmosphere ( T0 ) = 216.65 °K

Universal gas constant ( R ) 3,089.8136 feet²/(sec²°K)

Viscosity at sea level ( µ SL ) = 3.7373⋅10-7 slugs/(feet sec)

229