Other Macmillan titles of related interest Microcomputer Applications in Sthuctural Engineering 'W. H. Mosley and W. J. Spencer Reinforced Concrete Design by Computer R. Hulse and W. H. Mosley Prestressed Concrete Design by Computer R. Hulse and W. H. Mosley Computer Spreadsiveet Applications in Building and Surveying B. Cooke and S. V. Balakrishnan Practical BASIC Programming P.E. Gosling Program your Microcomputer in BASIC PLE. Gosling. Giit Engineering Materials, Second Kaition N. Jackson (ed.) Plastic Methods for Steel and Concrete Structures Stuart §, J. Moy. ‘Strength of Materials, Third Edition G.H. Ryder A Guide 10 the Preparation of CWil Engineering Drawings M.Y. Thomas Structural Theory and Analysis, Second Edition J.D. Todd Energy Methods of Structural Analysis - Theory, worked examples and problems BLA. Young REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN W. H. Mosley and J. H. Bungey Department of Civit Engineering University of Liverpool ‘THIRD EDITION MACMILLAN EDUCATION‘©W. H. Mosley and J. H. Bungey 1976, 1982, 1987 All rights reserved, No reproduction, copy or transmission (of this publication may be made without written permission No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance ‘with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended), ‘or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place, London WCIE 7DP. ‘Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages First published 1976 Reprinted 197, 1978, 1980, 1981 (twice) Second edition 1982 Reprinted 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986 Third edition 1987 Published by MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world Printed and bound in Great Britain at The Camelot Press ple, Southampton Bh Library Catatoguing in Publication Data Mosley, W. H, een Reinforced concrete design —3rd ed 1 Reinforced ones eanstaction Tie tl Bungey. 9H Soavesey PAR ’ ISBN 0-333-45182-1 ISBN 0-333-45183-X Pox Contents Preface to Third Edition Notation 1.1 Composite Action 1.2. Suess-Strain Relations 13 Shrinkage and Thermal Movement 14 Creep 1S Durability 1.6 Specification of Materials Limit States Characteristic Material Strengths and Characteristic Loads 23 Partial Factors of Safety 24 Global Factog of Safety 2 Limit State Design 3. Analysis of the Structure 3.1 Loads 3.2 Load Combinations 33. Analysis of Beams and Frames 3.4 Redistribution of Moments. 4 Analysis of the Section 4.1. Stress-Strain Relations 4.2 The Distribution of Strains and Stresses across a Section 4.3 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block 44° Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending 4.5 Rectangular Seetion with Compression Reinforcement at the Ultimate Limit State 4.6 Flanged Section in Bending at the Ultimate Limit State 4.7 Moment Redistribution and the Design Equations‘CONTENTS: 48 Bending Plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State 49 The Rectengular-Parabolic Stress Block 4.10 The Triangular Stress Block ‘Shear, Bond and Torsion Si Shear 5.2 Anchorage Bond $3 Laps in Reinforcement $4 Analysis of Section Subject to Torsionsl Moments Serviceability, Durability and Stability Requirements 6.1 Detailing Requiremonts 6.2 Span-Effective Depth Ratios 63 Calculation of Deflections 64 Flexural Cracking 65. Thermal and Shrinkage Cracking 6.6 Other Serviceability Requirements 67. Stability Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams 7A Preliminary Analysis and Member Sizing 7.2. Design for Bending 73. Design for Shear 74 Bar Spacing 7S. Continuous Beams 7 Cantilever Beams 7.7 Design for Torsion Devon of Rsinfoced Contes Site ‘Simplified Analysis £2 shesriSiae 8.3 Span-Effective Depth Ratios 8.4 Reinforcement Details 8.5. Solid Siabs Spanning in One Direction 8.6 Solid Slabs Spanning in Two Directions 8.7 Flat Slab Floors 8.8 Ribbed and Hollow Block Floors 8.9 Steir Slabs 8.10 Yield Line and Strip Methods otumn Desin ‘Loading and Moments 82 Short snd lees Columns 9.3 Reinforcement Details 9.4 Design of Short Columns 9.5 Nonrectangular Sections 9.6 Design of Slender Columns 9 88 1 98 103 106 107 412 113 47 119 134 141 144 147 1s4 156 159 174 180 180 187 188 192 192 193 198 200 201 209 24 222 26 230 239 229 2a 216 261 264 i CONTENTS 10 Foundations 10.1 Pad Footings 10.2 Combined Footings 103 Strap Footings 10.4 Strip Footings 10.5. Raft Foundations 10.6 Piled Foundations 11 Watersetaining Structures and Retaining Walls 11.1 Watersretaining Structures 11.2 Joints in Water-retaining Structures 11.3 Design Methods 114. Reinforcement Details 11.5. Retaining Walls 12 Prestressed Concrete 12.1 Principles of Prestressing 12.2. Methods of Prestressing 123 Analysis of Concrete Section Under Working Loads 12.4 Design for the Serviceability Limit State 12.5. Analysis and Design at the Ultimate Limit State Appendix Further Reading Index 270 23 280 284 286 289, 291 296 296 298 302 312, 316 327 327 330 333, 339 365 380 384 386Preface to Third Edition ‘The purpose of this book is to provide a straightforward introduction to the principles and methods of design for concrete structures It is divected primarily at students and young designers who requie an understanding ofthe basic theory and a concise guide to design procedures. Although the detailed design methods are generally according to British Standards, much of the theory and practice is of a fundamental natute and should, thezefoze, be useful to engineer: in other countries. Limit state concepts, as cecently introduced in the new Codes of Practice, are used and the calculations are in SI units throughout, ‘The subject matter has been arranged so that chapters 1 0 5 desl mostly with theory and analysis while the subsequent chapters cover the design and detailing of ratious types of member and structure. In order to include topics that are usually in an undergraduate course, there is chapter on earth-etaining end ‘woterztaining structures, and also a final chapter on prestessed concrete, Important equations that have been dorived within the text are highlighted by an asterisk adjacent to the equation number. In preparing the third edition of this book the opportunity has bean taken to rearrange the sequence of presentation of some material and make amendments to reflect developments in design practice. The principal changes ar associted ‘ith the introduction of the revised British Stendatd BS 8110 to replace CP 110. ‘This has led to extensive detlled changes, especially to numerial examples, many ‘of which are associated with the aim of achieving improved durability performance It should be mentioned that standard Codes of Practice such as B31 10 are always liable tobe revised, and readers should ensure that they ere using the latest edition of any relevant standard “Extracts from the British Standards are reproduced by permission ofthe British Standards Institution. 2 Park Street, London WIA 2BS, from whom complete copies can be obtained Finally, the authors wish to thank Mss B. Cotgreave wo prepared the diagrams and Mrs F. Zimmermann who typed most of the draft and final copies ofthe rmanuscript Notation ‘Notation is gencrally in accordance with BS 8110, and the principal symbols are listed below, Other symbols are defined in the tex! whore necessary. The symbols ‘for strain and f for stress have been adopted throughout, with the general system ‘of subscripts such that the frst subscript refers to the material, e— concrete, 's— steel, and the second subscript rafers to the type of stress. ¢ — compression, t— tension, Ay Cross-sectional ates of tension reinforcement ‘AL Cross-sectional aree of compression reinforcement Agy Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement in the form of bentup bars ‘Age Cross-seetional area of shear reinforcement in the form of links a Deflection > Width of section by Breedth of web or rib of a member By, Breadth of web or rib of a member d” Effective depth of tension reinforeement d’ Depth to compression reinforcement E, Static secant modulus of elasticity of concrete E, Modulus of elasticity of steel e Eccentricity F Ultimate load fox Characteristic concrete cube strength. Characteristic strength of prestressing tendons Service stress or steel stress Characteristic strengti of reinforcement Characteristic strength of link reinforcement POND, Ge Characteristic dead load ge Characteristic dead load per unit length or area Ay Overell depth of section in plane of bending hig Thickness of flange T Second moment of area ; ky Average compressive stress in the concrete for a rectangular-parabelic stress BlockT SESE" SPP MEARE Px NOTATION ‘A factor that relates the depth to the centroid of the rectangular- parabolic stess block and the depth of the neutral axis Lever-arm factor = #/d [fective height of @ column or wall Bending moment Ultimate moment of resistance ‘Axial load Ultimate Load per unit area ‘Axial load on @ column corresponding to the balanced condition Final presress force (chapter 12) Characteristic imposed load Characteristic live load per unit length or area Curvature of a beam at point x Depth of equivalent rectangular stress block Spacing of links along the member Torsional moment Perimeter Shear force Shear stress Ultimate shear stress in concrete Characteristic wind load Ultimate load per unit length Neutral axis depth Lever arm Modular ratio Partial safety factor for load Paria afety factor For strength Shrinkage strain Coefficient of friction Bar size Creep coefficient 1 Properties of Reinforced Concrete Reinforced concrete is a strong durable building material that ean be formed into ‘many varied shapes and sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender curved dome or shell Its utility and verstatility is achieved by combining the best features of concrete and steel, Consider some of the widely difTering properties of these two materials that ae listed below. Concrete Steel stuength in tension poor good strength in compression good good, but slender bars wall buckle strength in shear fair durability good corrodes if unprotected fire resistance good poor ~ suffers rapid loss of strength st high temperatures It can be soon from this list that the materials ere snore or less complementary. ‘Thus, when they aze combined, the steel is able to provide the tensile sirength and probably some of the shear strength while the concrete, strong in compression, protects the steel to give durability and fie resistance. This chapter can present ‘only a brief introduction to the basic properties of concrete and its steel reinforce- ‘ment. For a more comprehensive study, itis recommended that reference should ‘be made to the specialised texts listed in Further Reading at the end of the book. 1.1 Composite Action ‘The tensile strength of concrete is only about 10 per cent of the compressive strength. Because of this, nearly all reinforced conerete structures are designed on the assumption that the concrete does not resist any tensile forces, Reinforcement is designed to cerry these tensile forces, which are transferred by bond between ‘the interface of the two materials If this bond is nat adequate, the reinforcing bars 12 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘will just slip within the concrete and there will not be a composite action, Thus ‘members should be detailed so that the concrete can be well compacted around the reinforcement during construction. In addition, some bars are ribbed or twisted so that there is an extra mechanical grig. In the analysis and design of the composite reinforced concrete section, itis assumed that there is perfect bond. so that the strain in the reinforcement is identical to the strain in the adjacent conczete, This ensuses that thece is what is known as compatibility of strains’ across the cross-section of the member, The coefficients of thermal expansion for steel and for concrete are of the order of 10 x 10~® per °C and 7-12 x 10° per °C respectively. These values ate sufficiently close that problems with bond seldom arise from differential expan sion between the to materials over normal temperature ranges, loo A rt werner 4 WA som seen a sstrostion aa Reintorcament hacking Figure 1.1 Compasite action Figure |.1lutrates the behaviour ofa simply supported bearn subjected to bending and shows the position of steel reinforcement to resist the tense forces, ‘while the compression forces inthe top of the beam are caried by the conesete. ‘Wherever tension oveurs its lkely that cracking of the concrete will take place ‘his cracking, however, does not detract from the safety of the structure provided there is ood reinforcement bone to ensure that the cracks aro restrained from ‘pening so thatthe embedded steal cantinues to be protected from corrosion When the compressive or shearing forces exceed the strength of the concrete, then tee einforcement must again be provided, but in thes case itis only required to supplement the load-carrying capacity ofthe concrete. For example, compression reinforcement is generally required in a coluran, where it takes the form of vertical bars spaced near the perimeter. To prevent these bors buckling, steel binders are used to assist the restraint provided by the surrounding concrete. 1.2 Stress-Strain Relations The loads on a structure cause distortion of its members with resulting stresses and strains in the concrete and the steel reinforcement. To carry out the analysis and ‘cosign of a member it is necessary to have a knovledge of the relationship between these stresses and strains, This knowledge is particularly important when dealing ‘with reinforced concrete which is « composite material for in this case the analysis PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 3 of the stresses on a crosssection of a member must consider the equilibrium of the forces in the concrete and stecl, and also the compatiblity of the strains across the erosssection. 1.2.1 Conerere Concrete isa very variable material. having a wide range of strengths and stress- sirain curves. A typieal curve for concrete in compression is shown in figure 1.2. ‘As the load is applied, the vatio between the stresses and strains is approximately liner at fizst and the concrete behaves almost as an elastic material with virtually 2 full recovery of displacement ifthe load is removed. Eventuslly, the curve is 10 longer linear and the concrete behaves more and more as. plastic materiel. IF the load were removed during the plastic range the recovery would no longer be com plete and a permanent deformation would remain. The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be a constant value of approximately 0.0035, inres- peetive of the strength of the conerete. The precise skape of the curve is very dependent on the length of time the loud is applied, a {actor which willbe further discussed in section 1.4 on ereep. Figure 1.2 is typical for a short-term loading, stress Siren Figure 1.2 Seres-train curr for concrete compression Concrete generally increases its strength with age. This characteristic is lustra- ted by the graph in figure 1.3 which shows how tho increase is rapid at first, ‘becoming more gradual later. Some codes of practice allow the concrete stronath ‘used in design to be varied according to the age of the concrete when it supports the design load. A typical variation in strength of en adequately cured Ordinary Portland cement concrete, as suggested by BS 8110, is 7 days Lmonth 2months 3 months 6 months 1 year 20 30 33 35 36 37 Nim? BS 8110 does not permit the use of strengths greater than the 28-day value iB calculations, but the Modulus of Elasticity may be modified to account for age as shown overleaf.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN m _ i a 8 OF 7 26S 1 Ss Age of concrete (leg scale! Figure 13 Increse of concrete strength with age. Typleel curve far an Ordinary Postand cement concrete ‘Modulus of Elasticity of Conerete It is seen from the stress-strain curve for concrete that although elastic behaviour may be assumed for stresses below about one-third of the ultimate compressive strength, this relationship is not truly linear. Consequently itis necessary to define precisely what value is to be taken as the modulus of elasticity stress stain A number of alternative definitions exist, but the most commonly adopted is E=E, where B, isknown as the secant or static modulus. This is measured for a particular concrete by means of a stati test in which 2 cylinder is loaded to just above one-thitd of the corresponding control cube stress and then cycled back to zero stress. This removes the effect of initial “bedding in’ and minor stress redistri- ‘butions in the concrete under load. Lond is then reapplied and the behaviour will ‘then be almost linear the average slope ofthe line up to the specified stress is, token asthe value fer Ee. The testis described in detail in BS 1881 and the result fs generally known as the nstansoneous statie madulus of elasticity. ‘The dynamic modulus of elasticity. Fg, is sometimes referred to since this is ‘much easier to measure in the laboratory and there is fairly well-defined relation- ship between Ey und Fcq. The standard testis based on determining the resonant frequency of a laboratory prism specimen and is also described in BS 1861. tis also posible to obtain a good estimate of fq from ulteasonie measuring techni ues, which may sometimes be used on site To asses the concrete in an actuel structure, The standard test for Feq is on an unstressed specimen. It can be seen from figure 1-4 that the value obtained represents the slope ofthe tangent at 2er0 stress anid Bog is therefore higher than E¢. The relationship between the two modu is given by Static modulus £, = (1.25 Beg ~ 19) kN/onm? PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 5 ‘strass Eqldynomic) Eetetatic? Figure 14 Moduli of easttey of concrete ‘This equation is sufficiently accurate for normal design purposes. ‘The actual value of £ for a concrete depends on many factors related to the imix, but a general relationship is considered to exist between the modulus of clasticity and the compressive cube strength, Ranges of E, for various concrete grades whieh are suitable for design are shown in table 1.1. The magnitude of the ‘modulus of elasticity is required When investigating the deflection and cracking of aastructure, When considering short-term effects, member stiffnesses will be based fon the static modulus Bg, as defined above. If long-term effects are being consider- ced, it can be showa that the effects of creep can be represented by modifying the value of E, and this is discussed in section 6.3.2 Table 1.1 Short 1m modulus of elasticity of concrete 28 day characteristic Statie modulus Ee.25 ccube strength (Nim?) fes.28, (Xfm?) ‘Typical range Mean 5 19-31 5 30 20-32 26 40 22-34 28 50 24-36 30 60 26-38 2 ‘The clastic modulus at an age other than 28 days may be estimated from Eoyg* Be 004+ 06 feud feu28)6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN (0) High yreta staat BcaF strom Figure LS Stressstirin curves for stest 1.22 Steet Figure 15 shows typical stress-strain curves for (a) mild steel, and (3) high yield stec], Mild steel behaves as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the ‘ress up tothe yield, at which point there is «sudden ineresse in strain with no change in stress. After the yield point, mild steel becomes a plastic material and the sirain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value High yield ste! on the other hhand, does not have «definite yielé point but shows more greduel change from, an elastic toa plastic behaviour ‘The specified strength used in design is based on the yield stress for mild steel, whereas for high yield steel the strength i based on a specified proof ste, A 0.2 per cent proof sires is defined in figure 1.5 by the broken line drawn peraliel to the lear part of the stress-strain curve Removal ofthe 1oad within the plastic range would result in the stress-strain diagram following line approximately parallel to the loading postion ~ se line BC in figure 1.6, The steel will be left witha permanent strain AC, which i known as “sip: IF the steel is again loaded, the stress-strain diagram will follow the un- loading curve until it almost reaches the original stress at B and then it will eurve jn the dizecton of the fist loading. Thus, the proportional limit forthe second loading i higher than for the initial loading. This action is efeured to as ‘strain hardening’ or ‘work hardening strase ff Stroin Figure 1.6 Stain hardening PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ‘The deformation of the steel is also dependent on the length of tne the loed is applied, Under a constant stress the strains wil gradually increase — this pheno- renon is known as ‘cteep” or ‘relaxation’. The amount of creep that takes place cover period of time depends on the grade of ste! and the magnitude ofthe stress. Creep of the steel is of ttle significance in normal reinforced concrete work, but its an important factor in prestressed concrete where the presteessing steel very highly stressed 1.3 Shrinkage and Thermal Movement ‘As concrete hardens there is 4 reduction in volume. This shrinkage is liable to cause ‘racking of the concrete, but it also has the beneficial effect of strengthening the bond between the concrete and the steel reinforcement. Shrinkage begins to take place as soon as the conerete is mixed, and is caused initially by the absorption of the water by the concrete and the aggregate. Further shrinkage is caused by evaporation of the water which rises to the conerete surface. During the setting process the hydration of the cement causes a great deal of heat to be generated, and as the conerete cools, further shrinkage takes place as a result of thermal contraction. Even after the concrete hus hardened, shrinkage continues as drying ut persists over many months, and any subsequent wetting and drying can also ‘cause swelling and shrinkage. Thermal shrinkage may be reduced by restricting the temperature rise daring hydration. which may be achioved by the following provedures, (1) Use a mix design with a low cement content, (2) Avoid rapid hardening and finely ground oement if possible, G) Keep aggregates and mixing water cool (@) Use steel shuttering and cool with a water spray. (8) Strike the shuttering early to allow the heat of hyération to dissipate, ‘A low water-cement ratio will help to reduce drying shrinkage by keeping to a minimum the volume of moistuce that can be lost. If the change in volume of the concrete is allowed to take place freely without ‘restraint, there will be no stress change within the concrete. Restraint of the shrinkage, on the other hand, will cause tensile strains and stresses. The restraint ‘may be caused externally by fixity with adjoining members or friction against an earth surface. and internally by the action of the steel reinforcement. Fore long wall or floor slab. the restraint from adjoining concrete may be reduced by using system of consinicting successive bays instead of alternate bays. This allows the free ond of every bay 10 contract before the next bay is cast. Day-to-day thermal expansion of the conereto can be greater than the move: ‘ments caused by shrinkage, Thermal stresses and strains may be controlled by the seetion or Lsection,4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Frames Supporting Vertical and Laterat Loads feral loads on a structure may be caused by wind pressures, by rtsined earth, x tyolnie fren An brand rsmeatjesd toting force mst be ana ed forall the three loading combinations described in section 3.2.1, The vertical loading analysis can be caried out by the methods deseribed previsly for braced frames (ee page 35). The analysis forthe lateral loads should be kept separate and ‘the focees may be calculated by an elastic analysis or by s simplified approximate smathod. For preliminary design calculations, and alo for mediumsize regular Structures, 2 simplitied analysis may well be adequate. BS 8110 recommends that ary simplified form of analysis should assume points of contrflexure at the mid-lengths of al the columns and beams. A sult- ole approximate analysis isthe cantilever method. I assumes tt (1) Points of contraftexure are located at the mid.points of all columns and beams: and (2) The direct axial loads in the columns are in proportion to thelr distances from the centre of gravity of the frame. It ig also usual to assume that all the colurans in a storey are of equal cross-sectional area, Application of this method is probably best illustrated by an example, as follows, Example 3.5 Simplified Analysis for Lateral Loads — Cantilever Method Figure 3.20 shows a building frame subjected to characteristic wind loud of 3.OKN per mette height of the frame, This load i assumed to be transferred to the frame asa concentrated load at each floor level as indicated inthe figure. By inspection, there is tension in the two colurans tothe left and compression in the columns to the right; and by assumption 2 the axial foroes in columns are Proportional to their distances from the centre lie ofthe frame, Thos axial force in exterior column: axial force in interior column = 4,0P 1.0P The analysis ofthe frame continues by considering a section through the top- storey columns: the removal of the frame below this section gives the remainder show in figure 3.214. The forces in this subframe are calculated as fellows. (a) Axial Forces in the Columns Taking moments about point s, EM, = 0, therefore 5.25% 1.75 +Px6.0~Px 10.0 4Px 16.020 and therefore P= 0.135 kN thus ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 45 ease g EA] sou 4th 5 SE rose we] 3 a on am | & i a #4 wo «| 4 “| a ar wr q 2.0m 4AOm_60m Figure 3.20. Frome with lzort food (b) Vertical Shearing Forces Fin the Beams For each part of the subframe, 2 Fy = Ny =0.540N Py Ny +My = 0,675 kN therefore (©) Horizontal Shearing Forces # in the Columns ‘Toking moments about the points of contraflexure of each beam, EAf=0, therefore Hy 3.95 Ny 03. Hy =0.93 kN and (Hy +H) 1.75 — Ny ¥8.0— Ns x 2.0 Hy =1.70kN ‘The caleulations of the equivalent forces forthe Fourth floor (figure 3.21) follow a sunilar procedure as follows, (4) Axial Forces in the Columas For the frame above section tt’, 24M, = 0, therefore $.25 (3 x 1.75) + 10.8 x 1.75 +Px 6.0 —P x 100 — 4P x 16.0 PHOGTSEN therefore Ny =4.0P = 2.70 kN fy = 1.0P = 0.68 kN4% REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 97 1054 20879 :0544N fist loor Ny =2437KN My = 6.09KN se, t t Fy =10.23KN Fy =12.79 KN iyi l. fossa cto slgcoss lye 2099 ‘Te bending moments in the beams an columns a thet connections ean be 4 caloulated from these results by the following formulae sy beams Mp =F x $ beam span ‘e) Root columns Mfc = A$ storey height ose ome ons oes sat theron central ommecton ont vot sod oad My = 054x460 236 27s | 26 as o16ENm 10 t Me =0.93x 4x35 v 1 | hrs 2 16ENm them Les fos vere i rot r 20 ok ote 20 co) 4th Foor Figure 3.21 Subjrames a! rhe roof and fourth floor (€) Beam Shears A A 2.70 —0.54=2.16kN 2.70 +0,68 — 0.54 — 0.135 = 2.705 KN @) Column Shears Hy «1.75 40.93% 1.75 (2.70 0.54)3,.0=0 Hy =2.78kN Hy = $05 +8.28) ~ 2.78 =5.1 N Values calculated for sections taken below the remaining floors are third floor Ny = 7.03 kN Fy = 433 kN Hy =4.644N second floor Ny = 14.14 kN. Fy =T11KN Hy = 6.61 kN Ny = 1.76KN Fy =5.A1KN Hy ~8.49 KN My =3.53 kN Py =8.88 kN Hy = 12.145N 11g 1 16 Fea He 30 16 |__ssl_sa__és} a0 49 Ss a4 65 = 49 129] os BS es 81 Tio oe 150 a asl a: [a3 ie las saa 202] se]? 202 2, hs 220 Kor fee bse v5. ame aha 1 es 4 External ® ° 244 stare! ‘Colne Beoms olumn Figure 3.22, Moments (RN m) and reactions (kN Asa check at exch joint, 2Mfy = DM ‘The bending moments due to characteristic wind loads in all the columns and beams of this structure are shown in figure 3.22,48 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 3.4 Redistribution of Moments, Some method of elastic analysis is generally used to ealeulate the forces in a con rote structure, despite the fact that the structure does not behave elastically near its ultimate load, The assumption of elastic behaviour is reasonably tme for low stress levels; but a8 2 section approaches its ultimate moment of resistance, plastic ‘deformation will occur. This is recognised in BS 8110, by allowing redistribution ff the elastic moments subject to certain limitations. Reinforced concrete behaves in a manner midway between that of steet and concrete, The stress-strain curves for the two materials (Bgures 1.5 and 1.2) show the elastoplasic behaviour of steel and the plastic behaviour of concrete. The latter will fil ata relatively small compressive strain. The exact behaviour ofa reinforced conerete section depends on the relative quantities and the individuel properties of the two materials, However, sucha section may be considered virtually elastic until the stel yielés; and then plastic uatil the concrete fails in compression, Thus the plastic behaviour is limited by the concrete failure; or more specifcaly, the conoret failure limits the rotation that may take place ata seetion in bending. A typical moment-curvature diagram for a reinforeed eonerete member is shown in figure 3.23, EYES L concrate ast crock SPUN curvature: Figure 3.23. Typice! momencicurature diagram Thus, in an indeterminate structure, once a beam section develops its ultimate moment of resistance My. i then behaves as a plastic hinge resisting a constant moment of that value. Further loading must be taken by other parts of the struc- ture, with the changes in moment elsewhere being just the same as if areal hinge existed. Provided rotation of a hinge does not cause crushing of the conerete, further hinges will be formed until a mechanism is produced. This requirement is considered in more detail in chapter 4 ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE 49 Example 3.6 Moment Redistribution ~ Single Span Fixed-end Beam ‘The beam shown in figure 3.24 is subjected to an increasing uniformly distributed load. we 1 wi? Elastic span moment = “4 lastic span mer oA Elastic support moment In the case where the ultimate bending strengths are equal at the span and at the supports; and where adequate rotation is possible, then the additional load w, ‘which the member can sustain by plastic behaviour, can be found. stunt langth pooeiettienatetitaneny Loos tt iat Elastic BMD 8 Moles, a = © oe Additvona! erarnantsalogram <=” inges ct Aone) OS™ callopse eenanisin » seo Elestic © MO (Cottons loecs) zl Final Collapse BMD Figue3.24 Moment redistribution - one span beam At collapse wh? = WET + additional mid-span momento, * 1 rvid-span mi B where my © (wy£7)/8 as for a simply supported beam with hinges at A and C. Thus ee Boot ‘where is the load to cause the first plastic hinge; thus the beam may carry a load of 1.33 with redistribution.50 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN From the design potat of view, the elastic bending-moment diagram can be obtained for the required ultimate loading inthe ordinary way. Some of these ‘moments may then be reduced; but this will necessiate increasing others to min: tain the static equilibrium of the structure. Usually it is the maximum support moments which are reduced, so econemising in reinforcing stee| and also reducing congestion at the columns. The requirements for applying moment redistribution (@) Equilibrium between internal and extemal forces must be maintained, hence it is necessary to recalculate the span bending moments end the shear forces for the load case invalved. (b) At sections of largest moment the depth of neutral axis, x, is imited by x> Gy —04)d ‘where d = the effective depth, and ‘moment at section after redistribution moment at seetion before redistribution Ae This rule effectively prevents any reduction of the moments in columns Wich are priarily compression members with large values of x, and this is dealt with more fully in chapter 4 ———Eostie moments —-———Resietributed maments = 70% of elastic moments Reaisiebured decign moments, Figure 3.25. Redisertbuton of hogstng moments ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE sl (©) The moment of resistance of any section should be at least 70 per cent of the moment from the elastic analysis, hence allowing up to 30 per cent redistribution, This requirement ensures that there can be no ‘movement in the position of the points af vontraflewuze obtained fron ‘the elastic analysis as shown by figure 3.25. I thus also ensures that a sufflefent length of tension reinforcement is provided to resist cracking atthe serviceability limit state For unbraced structures over four storeys the redistribution is 10 10 per eent, to prevent lateral instability. ited Example 3.7 Moment Redistribution In example 3.3, figure 3.14 it is required to reduce the maximum support moment of Mga = 15OKN mas much as possible, but without increasing the span moment above the preseat maximum value of 126 KN m. 1302 1124150 2 10 7 ’ @ c D Tai a la} Grigine! Moments, txtim) . 12 opt? ” Woe 10 an Se - SS 128 125 (m) Reaisteisutes Moments tet 102 yes 102 168 wr (fe) Shears, (KN) Figure 3.26 Moments and sheors wth redistribution Figure 3.26a duplicates the original bending-moment diagram (part 3 of figure 3.14) of example 3.3 while figure 3.26b shows the redistributed moments, with the span moment set at 126 KN m. The moment at support B cen be calculated, using 8 rearrangement of equations 3.4 and 3.1, Thus Va = VMecax — Map) 20] and sta (Van 2) tan2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 1 kN/m, therefore Van = V{(026-+ 70) x2 x 51] = 141 kN (1-288) oon 142 KN my and 06 — 141 = 165 kN Reduction in Mya = 150 — 142 kNm _ 8x 100 150 Yan = 5.3 per cent In order to ensure that the moments in the columns at joint B are not changed by the distribution, moment Myc must also be reduced by 8 KN m. Therefore Myc =112-8=104KNm hogging Figure 3,26e shows the revised shearing-force diagram to accord with the redistei- buted moments. This example illustrates how, with redistribution (1) the moments ata section of beam oan be reduced without exceeding the maximum design moments at other sections (2) the values of the column moments are not affected; and (3) the equilibrium between external loeds and internal forces is meintained, 4 Analysis of the Section [A satisfactory and economic design of a concrete structuse rarely depends on a complex theoretical analysis. It is achieved more by deciding on a practical over- all layout of the structure, careful attention to detai] and sound constructional practice, Nevertheless the total design of a structure does depend on the analysis ‘and design of the individual member sections. Wherever possible the analysis should be kept simple, yet it should be based on. the observed and tested behaviour of reinforced concrete members. The thanipula- tion and juggling with equations should never be allowed to obscure the fund meatal prineiples that unite che anelysis. The three most important principles are (J) ‘The strestes and strains are rlated by the material properties, neduding the stress-strain curves for concrete and steel. (2) The distribution of strains must be compatible with the distorted shape of the eross section (3) The resultant forces developed by the section must balance the applied loads for static equilibrium, ‘These principles are true irrespective of how the stresses and strains are distributed, ‘or how the member is loaded, or whatever the shape ofthe crosssection. ‘This chapter describes and antlyses the action of a member section under load. It derives the basle equations used in design and also those equations required for ‘the preparation of design charts. Emphasis has been placed mostly on the analysis associated with the ultimate limit state but the behaviour ofthe section within the clastic eange and the serviceability Hit state has also been considered. Seetion 4.7 deals with the redistribution of the moments from en elastic a of the structure, and the effect it hes on the equstions derived and the design procedure, ys 4,1 Stress-Strain Relations Short-term stress-strain curves are presented in BS 8110. These curves are in an idealised form which can be used in the analysis of member sections. 334 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 4.1.1 Concrete ‘The beheviour of structural concrete (figure 4.1) is represented by a parsbolic strese-strain relationship, up toa strain ¢9, from which point the strain increases while the stress remains constant. Strain ¢ is specified as a function of the characteristic strength of the concrete (fey), a8 is also the tangent modulus at the origin, The ultimate design stress is given by DSF fon = 16S = 0.447 fg = 0.45 fo om 5 whore the factor of 0.67 allows for the difference between the bending strength ‘nd the cube crushing strength of the concrete, and 7q,~ 1.5 isthe usual partial safety factor for the strength of concrete when designing members cast sit ‘The ultimate strain of 0.0035 is typical for all grades of concrete, O67 fey Farapone i fy -2-annoa [te 00035, strain Figure 4.1. Short-term design stets-strain curve for concrete in comprewtion 4.1.2 Retnforcing Steel ‘The representative short-term design stress-strain curve for reinforcement i given in figure 4.2. The behaviour ofthe stel i identical in tension and compression, being linear in the elastic range up to the desi yield stress of fy yg, Where fy 18 ‘the charecerste yield stress and 7 i the partial factor of safety Within the elastic range the relationship between the stres and stain is stress elastic modulus x strain Axe ep so that the design yield strain is ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 3s Tension ond Compression 200KN/mm? Stroin Figure $.2. Short-term design sessstratn curve for reinforcement At the ultimate limit for fy = 460 Nfram? = 460)(1.15 x 200x 10°) =0002 andfor fy #250 N/mm? cy = 250/(1.15 x 200 x 10°) 00109 nfsey 5 =0-9x eae ) | eautest | [ewe rr) ws tmongulor rectengular+ euivetent porte: ceetanguar section strains stress sioens Figure 4.3. Section with strain digrem and stress Blocks 4.2 The Distribution of Strains and Stresses across a Section The theory of bending for reinforced concrete assumes that the concrete will crack in the rogions of tensile strains and that, after eracking, all the tension is56 REINFORCED CONCRETE DI carried by the reinforcement, Its also assumed that plane sections ofa structural ‘member remain plan after staining so that across the section there must be linear distribution of strains. Figure 4.3 shows the cross-section of « member subjected to bending, and the resultant strain diagram, together with three different types of stress distribution in the concrete. IGN (1) The triangular stress distribution applies when the streses are very realy proportional tothe strains, which generally occurs atthe losding levels encountered under working conditions an I, therefore. used at the serviceability limit tae (2) The rectangolar-parabotiestres block represents the distebution at failure when the compressive strains are within the plastic range and i ssasociated with the design forthe ultimate limit state (@) The equivalent rectanglarstess block i simplified alternative tothe sectangular-perabolic distribution As there is compatibility of strains between the reinforcement end the adjacent ‘concrete, the steel strains éy in tension and és. in compression can be determined from the strain diagram. The relationship between the depth of neutral axis (2) and the maximum concrete strain (éc.) and the steel strains is given by 42) wld ” where dis the effective depth of the beem and d’ is the depth of the compression reinforcement. Having determined the strsins, we can evaluate the stresses in the reinforcement from the stressstrain curve of figure 4.2, together with the equations developed in section 4.1.2, For analysis of a section with known steo strains, the depth of the neutral axis cam be determined by rearranging equstion 4.2 as a and x (a4) 1+ At the ultimate limit state the maximum compressive strain in the concrete s taken a5 0.0035, For steel with ino equation 44 160 N/mm? the yleld strain is 0.002. Inserting these values ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7 0.0035 Hence, to ensure yilding of the tension steel at the ultimate limit state: x >0636d ‘At the ultimate limit state it Is important that member sections in flexure should be ductile aad that failure should occur with the gradual yielding of the tension steel and not by a sudden catastrophic compression failure of the concrete, ‘Also, yielding of the reinforcement enables the formation of plastic hinges so that redistribution of maximum moments can occur, resulting ina safer and more economical structure. To be very certain of the tension steel yielding, the code of practice limits the depth of neutral exis so thst xP Gy — 08d where | -Moment at the section after redistribution ‘moment at the section before redistribution Thus with moment redistribution not greater than 10 per cent,and py, *0.9, xPOSd ‘This limit will normally be adopted for ultimate limit state design, but larger degrees of moment redistribution will require a smaller limit tox to ensure that plastic hinges can form, providing adequate rotation at the critical sections (see section 4.7 and table 41), 4.3 Bending and the Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block For the design of most reinforced concrete structures i is usual to commence the design for the conditions at the ultimate limit state, which is then followed by checks to ensure that the structure is adequate for the serviceability limit state without excessive cellection or cracking of the conerete. For this reason the analysis in this chapter will first consider the simplified rectangular stress block which can be used for the design at the ultimate limit stst. ‘The rectangular stress block as shown in figure 4.4 may be used in preference ‘to the more rigoroxs rectanguler-paraboli stress block. This simplified stress ‘distribution will faellitate che snalysis and provide more manageable design equations. in particular when dealing with non-rectangular cross-sections. It can be seen from the figure that the stress block does not extend to the ‘neutral axis of the section but has « depth s = 0.9 x. This will result in the centroid of the stress lock being s/2 = 0.45 x from the top edge of the section, which is very nearly the same location as for the more precise rectangular-parabolic stress block: also the arezs of the two types of stress block are approximately equal (see section 4.9), Thus the moment of resistance of the section will be similar using, calculations based an either of the two stress blocks58 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 0.0035 067 fey ‘ . 203! Pine 9-5 fy aa T J [7 0s] [e } Je ne Sa 4 rha l ote pa) e Fa Section Strains Stress Block Figure 48 Singly reinforced section with rectangular stress block ‘The design equations derived in sections 4.4 to 4.6 ace for redisteibution of ‘moments being not greater than 10 per cent, When a greater moment redistribue tion is applied. reference should be made to seetion 4.7 which describes how to modify the design equstions. 44 Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending Bending of the section will induce a resultant tensile force Py Sn the reinforcing steel. and g resultant compressive force in the concrete Fg. which acts through the centroid of the effective arca of concrete in compression, as shown in figure 4a, For equilibrium. the ultimate design moment, Af must be balanced by the nioment of resistance of the section so that M= Fog X= Fy 45) ‘where zis the lever arm between the resultant forces Fee and Fy. Fg = stress x area of action 0.45 fou x bs = 32 68) ‘So that substituting in equation 4.5 M= OAS fay bs x2 and replacing s from equation 4.6 M=0.9 foyb (d~2)2 an Rearcanging and substituting = Afb? fy (fa? - Gay +Kjo9=0 Solving this quadratic equation: [05+ yi0.25 — xj0.9) 48)" and ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 39 ‘which is the equation in the code of practice BS 8110 for the lever arm, 2, of a singly reinforeed section, In equation 4.5 F, fylTm Ag With Yyy = LIS O87 fyAy Honce i oy O87 hx Equations 4.8 and 4.9 can be used to design the area of tension reinforcement in 2 concrete section to resist an ultimate moment, M. 0-95 Compression reinforcement 0-85 ai requred ‘ ‘ » -t0| — t AS nom 2m \ ar 0-08 O10 015 0-156 Kem rod toy The % values on the K oxi mark the limits for singly reinfercea sections mith mament redistribution applied (see Section 4.7) Figue ss Lerevarm curve Equation 4.8 for the lever arm z can be used to set up 2 table and draw a lever- ‘arm curve as shown in figure 4.5, and the curve may be used to determine the lever «um, z, instead of solving equation 4.8.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘The upper limit of the leverazm curve, z = 0.9, is specified by BS 8110, The lower limit of 2 = 0,775 d is when the depth of neutral axis x =d/2, which is the ‘maxiraum value allowed by the code for a singly reinforced seetian in order 10 provide » ductile section which will have a gradual tension type failure as already described. With 2 = 0.775 d from equation 4.7) M= 09 foyb (0.775 d) x 0.775 d M0156 fou ba? lor 18 marked on the lever-arm diagram. The coefficient 0.156 has actually been calculated using the concrete stress as more precisely equal t0 0.67 fay! = 0.447 fey. instead of O45 fog ‘When’ Mu BP hes compression reinforcement is lso required to supplement the moment of resist: ance of the concrete =K>0156 Example 4.1 Design of a Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section The ultimate design moment 10 be sisted by the section in figure 46 is 185 KN m, Determine the area of tension reinforcement (4,) required given the characteristic nnateralstengths are fy = 460 Nfmm® and fey = 30 Nimm? 2260, any 440 ke bd hoy 185 x 108 therefore compression steel is not required. [ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 6 fos+ /(ors-- S)t wo fosr (025-22) = 369 mm (Oralternatively, the value of z = fd could be obtained from the lever-arm siagram, figure 4.5.) Lever arm: uM O87 hz 185 x 108 G87 5 460 x39 = 1253 mm? A Analysis Equations for a Singly Reinforced Section ‘The following equations may be used to calculate the moment of resistance of a ghven suction with a known area of steel reinforcement . For equilibrium of the compressive force in the concrete and the tensile force in the steel in figuie 4. Foo Fa 045 foyb %3= O87 Sy Ay Therefore depth of stress block is DBT FyAs (ny 045 fu and x=909 Therefore moment of rexstanos ofthe section is Mi Fg xt =08T fA, (922) =08T HAL («- 2824) a1) 09 fab ‘These equations assume the tension reinforcement has yielded, which will be ‘the case if x 0,636 d. If this isnot the cese, the problem would require solving by trying successive values of x untilro REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Foo = Fox With the steel strains and hence sitesses being determined from equations 4.2 and 4.1, to be used in equation 4.12 instead of 0.87 f,. Example 4.2 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Section in Bending Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the crost-seetion shows in figure 4.7 given that the characteristic strengths are f, = 460 N/mm? for the reinforce- ment and fo, 30 N/mm? for the cancrete. sst09 ost 2208, nse T Fc a lL [AF | f L lees a 4 z Figure 4.7 Analysts example ~ sgl reinforced section For equilibrium of the compressive and tensile forces on the section Feo = Fox therefore 0.45 fxyb8 = O87 fyAy 0.45 x 30 x 300 x5 = 0.87 x 460 x 1470 therefore 22145 mm and x= 910.9 = 145/0.9 = 161 mm ‘This value of x is less than the value of 0.636 a derived from section 4.2, and therefore the stecl has yielded and fax = 0.87 fy as assumed. Moment of resistance of the soction is Ma Fg xz = 0.87 fA, (4-9/2) 0.87 x 460 x 1470 (520 — 14572) x 10-* =263 KN m ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 03 the Ultimate Limit 4.$ Rectangular Section with Compression Reinforcement. State a) Derivation of Basic Equations It should be noted that the equations in this saetion have been derived for the case ‘where the reduction in moment ata section due to moment redistribution is not greater than 10 per cent, When this is not the cast, reference should be made to section 4.7 which deals with the effect of moment redistribution, a8 hey Ss => a bk section Steams Stress Block Figure4.8. Section wich compression rfnforcenient From the section dealing with the analysis of a singly reinforced section when M>0.156 fey bd® the design ultimate moment exceeds the mement of resistance of the concrete and therefore compression reinforcement is required. For this condition the depth of neutral axis, x3 0.5 d, the maximum value allowed by the code in order to ensure 1 tension failure with a ductile section, Therefore zad—s/2 0.9 .x/2 09x05 al2 ms¢ For equiltrium of the section in Figure 4.8, Fa Feo Fac so that withthe reinforcement at yield 087 fyAy= 0.45 foybs # 087 HyAi s=09xd/2=0.45 d 087 fy = 0.201 foybd #087 fy (4.13) and taking moments about the centroid of the tension steel, Ay6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN M= Fee X24 Pu (d-@) 0.201 faybd x 0.175 d+ 0.87 fA, (da) 0156 foubd® + 0.87 fyAi (dd) 4.14) From equation 4.14 M0156 fegbd? 0.87 f, @ a) Multiplying both sides of equation 4.13 by 2 = 0.775 d end rearranging gives = 2.156 foybd? , . 0874, x2 4 erg (41s) with 2 0.775 @ Hence te areas of compression steal, Aj, nd tension tel 4, con be ealeuated from equations 415 and 3.16, ‘Substituting A’ = 0.156 and K = Mfbd?f., into these equations thers into the same forms asin the code of practice, BS 8110, whi Ape RAK Vesta? uld convert Mee (ayy K foubl™ 4s . oar: 7“ @usy In this analysis it has been assumed that the compression steel has yielded so that the steel stress f, = 0.87 J. From the proportions of the strain distribution diagram: = 20088 (4.19) so that x At yield with f, = 460 Nimm? the steel strain yg = ¢, * 0.002, Therefore for yielding of the compression steel fy — 20 s045 (4.20)¢ x ”)~ poo3s 1s specified in the code, or with x =d/2 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 6s a a ‘The ratio of dd for the yielding of other grades of steel can be determined by using their yield strain in equation 4.19, but for values of fy less than 460 Nimm* the application of equation 4.2 will provide an adequate safe check. dd > 0.215, thon itis necessary fo calculate the sirain ég from equation 4.19 and then determine fg from Fac * Ex Xb, * 200000 bye ‘This valu of stress forthe compressive stel must then be used inthe denominator ‘of equation 415 in place of 0.87 fy in order to calculate the area 4, of compres- sion Steel, The ares of tension steel is calculated from a modified equation 4,16 such that 0215 (421) OU56faybd® , 4s y See A iS ae 4 oaR (6) Deen Charts FO | tees 0, ys 480, adr ero +08 a6 os * e a8 oO : os 0 18 20 25 30 35 100 Ag vod Figure4.9. Typical design char for dowdy rebaforeed beams ‘The equations forthe design charts are obtoined by taking moments about the neutral xis. Thos M= OAS fey 0.9.x ( — 0.9812) + eS Ot d') + fas 4-8) ‘This equation and 4.13 may be written in the form66 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Ay A, * fy At = 0.201 fin © the fs feu the 01 fa 5 (1 0.45)+ fe a ¢) tat ( 5) oe aod For specified ratios of Aj/bd, x/d and d'/d, the two non-dimensional equations cen be solved to give values for Ag/éd and Af/d? so that a set of design charts such as che one shown in figure 4.9 may be plotted. Before the equations ean be solved, the steel stresses fx: and fig must be ealeulated for each value of 2/d. This is achieved by first determining the relevant strains from the strain dagram (or by applying equations 42 and 4.3) and then by evaluating the stresses ftom the stss- strsin curve of figure 4.2. Values of xfd below 0.3 apply when moments are redistributed Example 4.3 Design of a Reerangular Section with Compression Reinforcement (Moment Redistribution Factor i, 2 0.9) “The section showin in figure 4.10 sto resist an ultimate design moment of 285 KN m, The characteristic material stengths are f, » 480 Nimm? and fou =30 Noun? Determine the areas of reinforcement required M bah 2 285 x 108 260 x 440 130 >0.156 therefore compression steal is required afd = 50/440 =0.11 <0.2 asin equation 4.21 and the compression steel will have yielded. ‘Compression steel: = 0.189 Aya EEK fogba® O87f, da") = (0.189 - 0.156) 30 x 087 x 460 (440 =319 10m Tension stot: 2 0.156 30) 0.87 460 (0.775 x 440) = 1726 +319 = 2045 mm? 4319 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 67 Jouso paris) A t fete Figute 4.10. Design example wth compression retorcement, 5p > 0.9 Example 4.4 Analysis of a Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Section Determine the ultimate moment of resistance of the cross-section shown in figure 4.11 given that the characteristie strengths aze fy = 460 Nimm? for the einforce rent and fay = 30 N/mm? for the concrete -45te4 289, far + Ty terse re Sand s-092| a-510 oom L bye2ne fe Section Stress Block Figure 4.11 Analysts exampie, doubly reinforced section For equilibrium of the tensile and compressive forees on the section’ Fas Foot Fee ‘Assuring intially thatthe steel stresses fg and fi are the design yield valves, then 087 fy Ag = 0.45 fey bs + 0.87 fy AS Therefore = 0874, Uy = A2) 045 feud = 287 x 460241 0.45 «30 x 280 = 189 mm 628)68 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN x= 5/0.9= 210m, xf = 210/510 = 0.41 <0.636 so the tension steel will have yielded, Also d'fx=S0/210= 0.24 <0.43 s0 the compression steel will also have yielded, as assumed, ‘Taking moments about the tension steel M= Food ~ 512) + Fg @—a') = OAS fou bs (d — 5/2) + 0.87 fy Agta — a") = 0.45 x 30 x 280 x 189 (510 — 189/2) + 0.87 x 460 x 620 (510 — 50) = 412x108 N mm Itthe depth of neutral axis was such that the compressive or tensile steel had not yielded. it would have been necessary to try successive values of x until Fut Foot Fi balances, with the steel strains and stresses being caloulated from equations 4.2, 4.3 and 4). The steel stresees at balance would then be used to calculate the ‘moment of resistance, 4.6 Flanged Section in Bending at the Ultimate Limit State —"—. 24 r A ss00x nf [oeeror one | of OT | a - Fat 1 Figuro 4.12 scion, eres Mock within the flonge, $< ig ‘T-sections and L-scetions which have their flanges in compression ean both be designed or analysed in z similar manner, and the equations which are derived can ‘be applied to either type of cross-section. As the flanges generally provide a large ‘compressive ares, itis usually unnecessary to consider the case where compression. steel is required; if t should be required, the design would be based on the principles derived in section 4.6.3 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 9 For the singly reinforced section itis necessary to consider two conditions: (2) the stress block lies within the compression flange, and (2) the stress block extends below the flange. 4.6.1 Flanged Section — the Depth of the Stress Block Lies Within the Flange, s iy then the procedure would then be similar to that in example 47. 4.6.2 Flanged Section ~ the Depth of the Stress Block Extends Below the Flange, s> he FFor the design of a flanged section, the procedure described in section 4.6.1 will check if the depth of the stress block extends below the flange. An alternative procedure is to calculste the moment of resistance, Mr, of the section with = hs, the depth of the flange (see equation 4.22 of example 4.6 following). Hence if the sign moment, Af, is such that M>My then the stress block must extend below the flange, and shy In this case the design can be cartied out by either: (@) using an exact method to determine the depth of the neutral axis, es in ‘example 4.6 or ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION a (b) designing for the conservative condition of x = d/2 as described at the end of this section, Example 4.6 Design of a Flanged Section with the Depth of the Stress Block ‘Below the Flange ‘The T-section beam shown in figure 4.14 is requited to cesist an ultimate di moment of 180 KN. The characteristic msterial strengths are f, = 460 Nimm?* an fey = 30N/mm®, Calculate the area of reinforcement required. x= 400 ast Tb 2380] a Fa ee Section sie a ee ‘ite fnwe Fer is the force developed in the Mange Frey is the force developed in the area of web in compression Moment of resistance. My. of the flange is My Fag 2, 145 fase he (d — de?) 420)" 45 x 30 x 400 x 100 (350 — 10/2) x 10°F 162 KN m <180 KN m, the design moment Therefor, the stress block must extend below the Mange. This now necesury to determine the depth, ty, ofthe web in compression, where ye =~ Ie For equlibrium Applied moment 18O= Fag 21 + Fon X2 = 162 +085 fadedn REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN = 162 + O45 x 30% 200 Sy (250 ~sw/2) x 10- 162 +2700 se (250 — 52) x 10-* ‘This equation can be rearranged into 8 = $005 + 13.33 4 10° Solving this quadratic equation fq = 28. mm So that the depth of neutral axis 100 + 280.9 = 142 mm Asx Fee so that > he ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION B by = 450 O45 fey “ nee + fa T2190 oe am ee dad | ural geaao) PP de oe [as2ai0 J 942300 stress section ue Figure 4.18 Analyse example ofa Tscrfon. s> hy and the force in the web is Fray 20.45 Fos bue (= hi) = 0.45 x 30 x 300 (6 — 150) x 10% = 4.05 (5 ~ 150) For equilibrium Fou = Fa ~Fet or 4.05 (5 ~ 150) = 964,5 — 911.2 Hence $= 163 mm 9/09 = 181 mm With this depth of newteal axis the reinforcement has yielded, as assumed, and Fegy = 4.05 (163 — 150) = 53 kN (If Fog > Fp, then the stress block would not extend beyond the flange and the Section would be analysed as in example 4.2 for a rectangular section of dimensions be xd) Taking moments about the centroid of the reinforcement Me Fag (A — g!2) + Foy (d~ 8) —hng2) = [911.2 (440 — 150/2) + $3 (440 — 163/2 ~ 1502)] x 10-* = 348 KNm Example 4.8 Design of a Flanged Section with Depth of Neutral Axis x=d/2 A safe but conservative design for a flanged section with s > iy can be achieved by setting the depth of neutral axis to x =d/2, the maximum depth allowed in the code, Design equations can be derived for this condition as follows.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN heal Section Stress Blocie Figure 4.16. Alnged secon with depth of neutrat axis x ~ 4/2 Depth of stress block, s= 0.9.x #045 ¢ Divide the flanged section within the depth of the stress block into areas 1 and 2 asshown in figure 4.16, so that bye XS= O45 bud Bg — bee) xe and the compression forces developed by these areas are Fay = O45 fog 04S ed = 0.2 fab Fea = OAS foyhs (br — bw) Taking moments about Fez at the centroid of the flange M = Fag Cd — higf2)~ Fey (912 — Ag!) = 087 fyAa (d — hel2) — 0.2 fasbyd (O45 d ~ hi? Area Ara Therefore MAO foybud (O45 d hg) 087 fy (d— 05h) ‘This i the equation given in clause 3.4.4.5 of BS 8100, It should not be used when ig 2 0.48 a. “Applying this equation to example 4.6 Ag~ 80X10 + 0.1 x 30x 200 x 350 0.45 4350 — 100) 10,87 x 460 (350 — 100/2) = 1600 mm? (compare with 1540 mm? of example 4.6) Before using equation 4.23 for calculating ds. itis necessary to confirm that compression reinforsement is not requited, This is achieved by using equation 4:24Ho check tha the moment of resunce Of the eonerste A, Wrest than the design moment, iene 423y ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7 4.6.3 Flanged Section with Compression Reinforcement With x = d/2in figure 4.16 and taking moments about dy, the maximum resistance rmoment of the concrete is Me = Fey X21 # Fea X22 0.156 feyby id? +085 fey (Oy bu) (d= hesf2) 4.24) (ote that the value of 0,156 was derived previously forthe rectangular section.) Dividing through by feuded” A zo.1s6 & +0. wh Fob? be a ‘which f similar fo the equation given in BS 8110. Tf the applied design moment, M > Af, compression reinforcement is required. Tnwhich ease the areas of steel can be calculated from by a9 *) (42sy 1 MM, js fe (4.26 0877, @-a) ae and considering the equilibrium of forces onthe section Fu=FatFat Pe so that y= OR ead +043 fase (r= Be) 5 gt an 08th Again, d’x > 0.43, othornise the design compressive steel stress sles than 087 f,. ‘When, because of moment redistribution, fy <0.9 the limiting depth of neutral axis is less than 2 and these equations wil require modification using the factors given in the table 4,1 of section 4.7 whicl. deals with moment redistribution. 4.7 Moment Redistribution and the Design Equstions ‘The plastic behaviour of reinforeed concte' at theultimate limit state affects the distebution of moments ina structure. To allow for this, the moments derived from an elastic analysis may be redistributed based on the assumption that plastic hinges have formed a the sections with the largest moments. The formation of plstic hinges requires olatively larg rotations with yielding ofthe teasion rein. forcement, To ensure large strains in the tension set, the code of practice restricts the depth ofthe neutral axis of a section azcording to the reduction of the elastic moment so that xP Gy —04)d (4.28)" ‘whore d is the effective depth76 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ane fg = momenta setion after redistribution a i. moment at section before redistribution $0, forthe design of «section with compression senforcement after moment disiibutio the depth of neutral aie Wl take the muximom sae Eee equation 428 “herafoe the depth ofthe stress bck s 9 By — O44 ‘and the level arm is ~ 0.985 0.4) a2 (429) ‘The moment of resistance of the concrete in compression is Me™ Fog x2 #045 fobs x2 $045 fyb x09 Oy — 04) Ax [d— 0.9 (8 —0.4) a2] Therefore bakfjg “O95 ¥09 By — 04) [1 ~ 0.45 ~0.4)] = 0.402 (By — 0.4) — 0.18 (By — 0.4)? So that earrangiag Me = K'bd? fay where = 0.402 (f — 0.4) - 0.18 (@ — 0.4)? (430)" ‘This is the equation for A’ given in BS 8110. (should be noted that in calculating the coeffiients 0.402 and 0.18, the more Brake value of conrete ses fx = 0.67 ol as bee wed and not the vale ‘When theultimate design moment is such that M> K'bd? fey or K>K then compression sea is required such that aye KK feud? 087K dd’) (aan and = Kfesta? ys 4 ostg: *4 (432) ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7” u - 439" K BM he (4.33) ‘These equations are enti! in form :o those derived previously for he desin of 4 section with compcesin reinforcement fr By 0.9 “Table 1 shows the various design factors associated with he moment sedis tribution, If the value of d’fd for the section exceeds that shown in the table, the erapresion tel wil ot ave yslded and the compressive stress wil be less than OTF Unsuch cases. the compressive stress fc Wl be Eye where the stain ces otal from the proportions ofthe sain diagram. This value of fj should feplace O87 f, inequation 4.31, and equation 432 becomes Mabel? Kifoubd? 5 4: Se OSsTsye * O87 fy where ‘Table 4.1 Moment redistribution design factors I Redistribution By xd aid aie (per cent) ewe <10 09 os O77s 0.160.215 15 oss o4s 0797 Oa 0.193 20 08 4 082 0132 0.172 25 7s 03508420199 0.150 30 07 03 0865 ois 0129 ee It should be noted that for e singly reinforced section (K K" therefore compression stee! is required. Compression steel: Ae KEK Vey bd? O87 fda’) (0.151 ~ 0,132) 30 x 260 x 440? 0.87 x 460 (440 — 50) = 184mm? (CThe vasiation with the previous result is due to rounding-off errors in the arith metic and the subtraction of two numbers of similar magnitude in the numerator.) Tension steel: 95 + v0.25 -«'09)) (05+ ¥(0.25 - 0.13309) = 0.824 K fosbil? yy o8ry: 0.32% 30 x 260 x 4402 0.87 460% 082 x 0 = 138) + 184= 1565 mm* +184 4.8 Bending Plus Axial Load at the Ultimate Limit State ‘The applied axial force may be tonsite or compressive. In the analysis that follows, ‘compressive force is considered. For a tesile load the same basic principles of cquilibriam, compatibility of strains. and stress-strain relationships, would apply. but it would be necessary to change the sign of the applied load (NW) when we consider the equilibrium of forees on the cross-section, (The area of conerete in compression has not been reduced to allow for the concrete displaced by the compression steel, This could be taken into account by reducing the stress fye the compression steel by an amount equal © 0.45 fay.) Figure 4.18 represents the cross-section, of a member with typical strain and stress distributions for varying positions of the neutral axis, The cross-section is subject 10 a moment M and an axial compressive force WV. and in the figure the direction of the moment is such as to cause compression on ihe upper purl of the section and tension on the lower part.REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 0-0035 O45 fy pt eile re bee fe | oe a onl |e il ie oe | Yi neuteat_* | . a tS 7 Section ake fo) tO 0.0035 Og me a | } 7 > Fe se | If LL. a Strains Stresses Moh Zen Figure 4.18 Bending plus exit fad with verstig postions ofthe neutna ast so ze ee oS Mon mm Figure $19. 7yplcel coum design chart ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 81 Lat Fee be the vompressve fore developed inthe conctete and acting through the centroid of the stress block Fee be the compressive force inthe rinforeement acea A and acting through its centroid F,_be the tensile or comprossive fore inthe reinforcement area Ay and acting through its centroid {i) Basie Equations nat Design Charts “The applied foree (WV) must be balanced by the forces developed within the cross section, therefore N= Poet Pet Fy In this equation, F, will be negative whenever the postion of the neutral axis is such thatthe reinforcement isin tension, asin figure 418a, Substituting into this equation the terms for the stresses and areas = 045 fiu8 + fers + Sey G35 where fc fs the compressive stress in reinexeement 4s and fi the tenile or compressive stress in reinforcement As ‘The design moment M must be balanced by the moment of resistance of the forces developed within the cross-section. Hence, taking moments sbout the ‘mid-depth of the section a 7 sevoasgme(" 2) oraat(* a) fils ( *) (436) When the depth of neutral axis is such that 0. x 3 fe asin part (b) of figure 4.18, then the whole constete section is subject :0 a uniform compressive stress of (0.45 feu. in this ease, the concrete provides no contribution to the moment of resistance and the first term on the right sie of equation 4.36 disappears | Fora symmetrical arangement of veinforcement (4; = 4, = Aye/? and =f: ~ d), equations 4.35 and 4.36 can be rewritten in the following form N 045 fous hk M 045 feas (9.5 : fads (a _ bh? nh ar) th Mh 1 (8 03) ap + As fei “kG asp82 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN In these equations the steel strains, and hence the stresses fig and f,, vary with the depth of the neutral axis (x). Thus N/bh and M/bi can be calculated for specified ratios of 4,/oh and x/h 30 that column design charts for a symmetrical arrange- ‘ment of zeinforcement such as the one shown in figure 4.19 can be plotted, ‘The direct solution of equations 4.37 and 4.38 for the design of column rein: forcement would be very tedious and, therefore, a set of design charts for the ‘usual case of symmetrical sections have been prepared by the British Standards Institution. Examples showing the design of columa steel aze given in chapter 9. (ii) Modes of Failure ‘The relative magnitude of the moment (M) end the axial lood (W) governs whether the section will fil in tension or in compression. With lage effective eecentrcity (e= MIN) a tensile failure is bkely, but With a small eccentricity 2 compressive failure is more likely. The magnitude ofthe eccenricty affects the position of the neutral axis end hence the strains and stresses in the reinforcement. Let ae be the compressive strain in reinforcement 4 be the tensile or compressive strain in reinforcement Ay be the tensile yield strain of steel as shown in the stress-strain curve of figure 4.2. From the lear sun dtution of gure 4.18 eq: = 0.0035 &) and (439) wows (69 ‘The stee! stresses and strains are then related aveording to the stressstrain curve of Figure 4.2. Consider the following modes of failure of the section as shown on the inter action diagram of Figure 4.20. (2) Tension Failure, ¢, > ‘This type of failure is associated with large eccentricities (e) and small depths of neutral axis (x), Failute begins with yielding of the tensile reinforcement, followed by crushing of the concrete as the tensile strains rapidly increase (b) Balanced Failure, e, = ey. point b on figure 4.20 When failure occurs with yielding of the tension steel and crushing of the concrete at the same instant i is described asa “balanced” failure, With ¢, = ¢, and from equation 4.39 a apg = 1+ fe 0035 ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 8 For example, substituting the values of e, = 0.002 for grade 460 steel put 70.6364 Equations 4.35 and 4,36 become Neat = Foc + Fee ~ Fs and =O45 fyb 0.9 Xpat + fue; — O87 frAy 4.40) an Fa(4— 222m) oe (8—2) vA, (0-2) where fie = $087 fy ‘At point b on the interaction diagram of figuee 4.20, 4/= Nygy M= Moar and J,= — 0.87 fy. Whon the design load N> Nix the sbetion val fal in compression, whist if Ny there will bean initial tone fllure, with yielding of reinoree- ment Ay. comprassion 2 fonture at Tension failure o ™ THEE Figure 4.20 Bending, plus anit load chert with: modes of joture (©) Compression Faure {mn this caso x > xq) and > Npay ‘The change in slope at point rin figure 4.20 occurs when ete ang fom equation 439 92.0035 20.0035 — e,) 2.33 d’ for grade 460 steel. Point r will occur ir the tension failure zone of the interaction diagram if Xe Spa84 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Whenxd F,S 087 fy and compressive When x = 2.33 d. then from equation 4.39 = 0.00: AL this stage, both layers of stee! will have yielded and there will be zero moment of resistance with a symmetrical section, so that Ns #045 {bh +0874, (4,44) Such MCN interaction diagrams can be constructed fr any shape of eros ¢etion ich has an ais of eymmoty bj appying tho bass equim and stain co patibility equations with the stress-strain elations, as Gemonstrated in the fellow: ing examples. These diagrams can be very useful for design purposes. y for grade 460 steel Example 4.10 MAN Interactive Diagram for an Unsymimetrical Section Construct the interaction diagram forthe section shown in figure 4.21 with fog = 30 N/mm? and f, = 460 N/mm’. The bending causes maximum compression ‘om the Face adjacent to the steel ates A 22350 at = re i -00 arse | f | e450] 380] se nautrol a,.g62. | -Teirel 798? | Tons q ae stean Section Diagram Figure 4.21 Son-symiotetical section Man interaction example For a symmetrical cross-section. taking moments about the centredine of the concrete section will give M = 0 with W= No and both areas of steel at the yield stress. This is no longer true for unsymmetrical steel areas as Fu, # FF at yield ‘therefore, theoretically, moments should be calculated about an axis referred to ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 85 as the ‘plastic centroid’. The ultimate axial load No acting throug the plastic ‘centroid causes a uniform strain across the section with compression yielding of all the reinfereement, and thus there is zero moment of resistance, With uniform Ssuain the noutral-axis depth, x, is at infinity ‘The location of the plastic centroid is determined by taking moments of all the suressresultants about an arbitrary axis such as AA in figure 4.21 so that <= 2 EFalil2+ Fad’ + Fd) 00 Eee Fat 05 fey Age +087 fy, +087 fA, (O45 x 30 x 350 x 450? 2+ 0.87 x 460 (1610 x 60 + 982 x 390) 0.45 x 30 350 x 450 + 0,87 x 460 (1610 + 982) = 212 mm from AA ‘The fundamental equation for calculating points on the interaction diagram ‘with varying depths of neutral axis are (© Compatibility of stains (used in table 4.2, columns 2 and 3): Gan Gi) Stress-strain relations for the steel (table 4.2, columns 4 and 5): ee, 0.002, F2O87 fy (442) ecg PsExe (4 Equilibrium (tbe 4.2, columns 6 and 7): N* Feet Fee +B OF O9XKH N= DAS feyb09E4 felt dy O9x> A N=04S fyb fel + Hedy Taking moments about the plastic centroid O9x0002 0 -087f, - 138 17 2334'=140 0.002 >0.002 0.87f, -087f, B47 257 sw206364 0002 c002 087% -087f, 1306 774 a= 390 >0002 0 a87f, 0 2303158 2334=909 >0002 >0002 0874 O87f 31640 Example 4.11 M-N Interaction Diagram for a Non-rectangular Section Construct te intersstion diagram forthe equilateral jangle columa seton in figure 4.23 with fa, = 30 Nimm? and fy = 460 N/mm®. The bending is about an ts parallel tothe side AA and causes craximum compression onthe corner Adjacent to the see aren A ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 87 Figuce4.23. sorrectongular section MeN bnrersetion exemple For this triangular section, the plastic centroid is at the same location as the ‘geometric centeoig, since the moment of Fy, equals the moment of F, about this axis when all the bars have yielded in compression. ‘The fundamental equations for strain compatibility and the steels stress-strain relations are as presented in example 4.9 and are used again in this example. The equilibrium equations for the triangular section become N= Feet Feet F, o9xch N= O45 foysil2 + fe Ai fey o9x>h N=OA5 foyh 400/24 fies + Ay O9x0002 «0 0874, — 330 368 weet 0.016 9.002328 -087f, — 9 730 233a'=233 0.002 0.00095 O87, 189 354689 d=29 = >0002 0 087 f, 0 780 S81 233d=690 >0.002 >0002 087f, 087, 1523 0 4.9 The Rectangular-Parabolie Stress Block ‘A rectangular-parabolic stress block may be used to provide a more rigorous analysis of the reinforced concrete section. The stress block is similar in shape to the stress-strain curve for concrete in figure 4.1, having a maximum stress of OS fog at the ultimate strain of 0.0035, ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 89 In figure 4.25 > = the coacrete strain at the end of the parabolic section w= the distance from the neutral axis to strain ¢5 x = depthof the neutral axis ky = the mean conerete stress K,x= depthto the centroid of the stress block, x 90035 045 Jeg Bentrors of tiene 7 fe section strome Stross Block Frigate 4.25 Section bn bending witha rcrongular-perabotte sress block (a) To Determine the Mean Concrete Stress, &y From the strain diagram 005 * therfore ee 003s Sbsttting for eo = 24x 10* Vifea fq) (88 gue 4.1) wn Mi With Y= 15 (4.43) For the sess lock fy = aa of set block Thus, using the ar [properties of a parabola as shown in figure 4.26, we have iy = DEB Fa — 045 fo.0.15 Vfe (015-5) was areas: a= Fut, aye BE Position ef centrows: 9:20, opr 2 Figure 4.26. Properties ofa parabola (b) To Determine the Depth of the Centroid kx sky is determined for a rectangular section by taking area moments ofthe stress block about the neucral avis ~ seo figures 4.25 und 4.26. Thus _atea pars * x/2 ~ area ist x w/4 183 of stress block hax (O45 fay) x12 = (05 fog wi3) wl hax 0.45 foyle?/2-— w?12) hax Substituting for w from equation 4.43 Ge k= OAS Sear? [os fa] ‘ 383 si 048 hy [55 few . Slo [os és] easy Values of &, and &; for varying characteristic concrete strengths have been tabulaied in table 4.4 ‘Once we know the properties of the stress block, the magnitude and position of the resultant compressive force in the conerete ean be determined, and hence the moment of resisiance of the section caleulated using procedures similar to those for the rectangular stress block. ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 1 Table 4.4 Values of ky and k for different concrete grades Fou Tr (vimm?) (N/mm?) ki Mew ky aa fkafow 20 209) ‘OaI2 0.460 DG 25 10.200 0.408 0.456 089s 30 12.120 0.404 0.452 0.804 40 15.875 0.397 0.4es 0.893 30 19.331 0391 0.439 0.890 2) 23.097 0385 0.434 0887 ‘Typical values oa 0.45 089 Using typical vues from table 4.4, a comparison of the rectangular-parabolic and the rectangular stress blocks provides, {(W)Stress resultant, Fe rectangular-parabolic: ky 6x 0.4 faybx rectangular: 0.45 fey x 0.9 Bx = 0.4 faybx (8) Lever arm,z rectangular putabolie: d— kyx =~ 0.45 rectangular: d ~ } x 0.9x =d ~ 0.4Sx So both stress blocks have almost the same moment of resistance, Fee x2, showing is adequate to use the simpler rectangular stress block for design calculations, 4.10 The Triangular Stress Block ‘The triangular stress block applies to elastic conditions during the serviceability limit state. In practice it is not generally used in design calculations except for liquid retaining structures, or for the calculations of crack widths and deflections as described in chapter 6, With the triangular stress block, the eross-section can be considered as (i) ctacked in the tension zene, or (i) unotacked with the concrete resisting a small smount of tension, 4.10.1 Cracked Section ‘A cracked section s shown in figure 4.27 witha stress resultant Fy acting through the centroid ofthe stel and Fe acting through the centroid of the wiangular sures block, For equilibrium of the section Fat Fa or OS bfee * Ash 4.46)"2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN 4 € fee * ce fe Neutrol 5 jo fu Section Strain Stress Figuie$.27- Tlngulr stress Mock ~ cracked seetion and the moment of resistance Me Fog 2 Fig x2 or M05 dxfeg (@—x/3)= Aska (d 3/3) aan (1) Analysis ofa Specified Section ‘The dopti of the neutral axis, x, can be determined by converting the section into an ‘equivalent’ area of conerete as shown in figure 4.28. where ae = E/E, the ‘modular ratio. Taking area moments about the upper edge: xe 2) EA /Trensformed Steel Area = Figure 6.28 Egulvolon transformed tection with the concrete cracked Therefore = BERND + ayAad bx tasAy ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 3 Lag “ 1 bx? +a Aye agi =0 Solving this quadratic equation gives sex Seda tea? 92 oat wasp Fqustion 4.48 may be solved using chart such asthe one showa i figure 4.29. Equations 446 to 4.48 con be used to analyse a specified reinforced concrete section gait 0302010 o3 Soe . on © 32 oa oe xia Figure 4.29. Neutrat-oxis depth for eroked rectangular secfons ~ clastic beiviour (1H) Design of Steet Area, A,, with Stresses fx and foe Specified ‘The depth of the neutral axis can also be expressed in terms of the strains snd stresses of the vonerete and steel From the linesr strain distribution of figure 4.27. xy _fe SeclEe 4 eet ee SeclBe + fulBe4 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN ‘Therefore (4asye Equations 4.47 and 4.49 may be used to design the area of tension steel required, at a specified stress, in order to resists given moment Example 4.12 Analysis of @ Cracked Section using a Trianguiar Stress Block For the section shown in figure 4.30, determine the concrete and steel stresses caused by a moment of 120 kN m, assuming a cracked section. Take y/Ee = b+ 300 n-$20 2128. t |e we 167 0mm? aa Figure 4.30. Analysis exmp with iingule stress biook a, As = 15x1470 * ed” 300% 460 Using the chart of figure 4.29 or equation 4.48 gives x = 197 mm. From equation 4.47 1 2 m=} oxhe (¢-2 pote (5 therefore 120. 108 = 1 20005 197 fs (100 1) therefore foo ® 10.3 Nimmn? From equation 4.45 SaAe™ 5 08 fee ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 95 therefore 1 2 =300«197 x 123 x 1 2207 Nfenm’ £23004 197 x 82 x Te t 4.10.2 Triangular Stress Block ~ Uncracked Section ‘The concrete may be considered to resist a small amount of tension. In this ease @ tousile stress resultant F, acts through the centroid of the triangular stress block jn the tension zone as shown in figure 4.31 Moutea! gar ptley a Section ‘strom Stress Figure 431 Trianguersiress Hock — uncracked section For equilibrium of the section Feo Fert Fre 4.50) where Fog 0S bY fos Fy 2 0Sbth- xf and Fa 2 Aha Taking moments about Fee. the moment of resistance of the sectfon is given, by = Faq xld x13) + Fax (2x4 2 Gx M> Fa x(d— x13) + Fey (3 #y )) sry ‘The depth of the neutral axis, x. can be determined by taking area moments about the upper edge AA of the equivalent concrete section shown in figure 4,32, such that pa ECA) BA fy a = 7 termed the module rato9% REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN Figure 4.32. Fqulvalont nonsformed seerion with the concrete neracked ‘Therefore DRxN2 + agAs xd Bit eA, = A oor (asa 29 dar where 7 = Aslbi From the linear propoitions of the strain diagram in figure 4.31: (453) Therefore as stress = E x strain: asaye Hence ifthe maximum tensile strain or stress is specified, i s possible to calculate the corresponding conerete compressive and steel tensile stresses from equations 434, ‘The equations derived can be used to analyse a given cross-section In order to determine the moment of resistance of the uncracked section, as for liquid- retaining structures. This is lustrsted further by examples in chapter 11 Example 4.12 Analysis of an Uncracked Section For the section shown in figure 4.30, calculate the serviceability, moment of resistance with no cracking ofthe concrete, given fey = 3 N/mi®, = 30 KN/mn? and = 200 KN)? ANALYSIS OF THE SECTION 7 1470 | i 300x520 fs 70 2 669 E30 At age rar = 5204.2 6.67 x 000094 x 4 D2 x 6.57 x 0.0094 2) sah [460 — 272) 6.67 x3 (520-273) 0.0094 15.2. Nfmm* fa (- 3) + Soha fax G 2x: 2 sas) 2170x152 (4s0 2) 10+ ! 3006620 a ee i x(2x2724 2620-272) 10 (3 220 x) = 83+38,7=47kNm