Module 2: Basic Ecological consciousness and

Concepts and Principles understanding. The results are

Introduction to the module:
 One of the very serious
problems not only in our
country, but all over the world is
DEGRADATION.
 DEGRADATION: the wearing
down of the land by the erosive
action of water, wind, or ice.
• We have this adverse
environmental issue and
problems, which will serve as a
driving force that result to
environmental conservation and
sustainable development. This
means that people must
collaborate and work hand in
hand with the goal to save
Mother Earth.
• Adoption of new value, change
of habits and lifestyle towards
the PRESERVATION and
CONSERVATION OF THE
ENVIRONMENT; these are the
requirements to obtain
Environmental awareness,
People provide SOLUTIONS to
environmental problems of their
community. This will prove that
WE need to inculcate in our
minds the need to love, care
and nurture the environment.
BUT WHY conserve and preserve the
environment? Because of
environmental crises. Among the
solutions are environmental
education, information and
advocacies.
Ecology is the study of the
relationships between the living
organisms and their environment. No
living organisms exist under isolation.
The term “ecology” was coined by
German Biologist Ernst Haeckel from
oikos (House or living place) and logos
(study or science of). Literally it means
study of the earth’s house. It has two
types: autecology and synecology.
Autecology deals with the relationship
s between an organism or population
and environment, whereas synecology
focuses on the relationships between
communities and their environment.

Relationship of science of ecology and branch of biology:

Genetic Cytology Histology Anatomy Ecological Concerns
Molecular Cell
Biology Biology

Biochemistry
and Physiology
Biotic Genes Cells Tissues Organs Organisms Populations Communities
compone
nts
Interactin
g with
Abiotic Matter~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
compone ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Energy
nts
Biological Genetic Cell Tissue Organ Organismic Population Ecosystem
Systems System System System System System
Terms that will be encountered in this
module:
 Population
◦ It is a group of organisms
belonging to the same
species living together in
a certain area or habitat.
 Community
◦ It is a group of organisms
belonging to different
species living together
and interacting in a
certain area or habitat.
 Ecosystem
◦ It is a group of organisms
and their interaction or
interrelationships with
the nonliving
environment.
 Biosphere
◦ It is composed of all living
organisms on or around
the earth.
 Ecological Niche
◦ It is the physical space
occupied by an organism
and its functional role in
the ecosystem.
 Habitat
◦ It is the place where an
organisms lives.
ECOSYSTEM
 It is an interaction of the
living organisms and nonliving
environment.
 It is an area within the
natural environment in which
physical factors such as rocks &
soil, function together along
with interdependent organisms,
such as plants & animals, under
System
the same habitat to form a
stable system.
Components of Ecosystem:
1. Biotic or Living components
 Bio means life. Therefore,
the biotic components
refer to the living world of
an ecosystem.
 Such as plants, animals
and microorganisms.
2. Abiotic Or nonliving components
 Which includes air, water,
soil, inorganic
substances, organic
substances that link
biotic and abiotic factors,
and climate regime in a
given area.
Biotic Components:
1. Autotrophs
 These are organisms that
fix light energy and use
simple inorganic
substances to build up
complex substances and
which includes plants.
2. Heterotrophs
 these are the organisms
that utilize, reaerrange
and decompose the
complex materials,
particularly the animals,
bacteria, and fungi.
Primary Producers
Green plants are called
producers or the first level of biotic
component of the ecosystem.
Through photosynthesis plants
synthesize their own food like
proteins and fats and hence are also
called autotrophs. Besides this,
producers also maintain CO2/O2
balance of nature.
 Herbivores
 Also called as plant
eaters. These are the
primary consumers that
eat plants only. Important Process which Involves
 Carnivores Water
 Meat eaters, the
secondary consumers
that ingest other animals
for their food
 Omnivores
 Which eat both plants
and animals
 Microorganisms
 Obtain nourishment by
absorbing dissolved
organic material.
 they are called
saprotrophs or
osmotrophs
 They are responsible for
the decomposition or
breaking down of dead
organic matter.
 Detritus feeders
 They extract nutrients Nonliving Components of the
from partly decomposed Ecosystem
matter
 Such as crabs, termites,
carpenter ants and
earthworms.
 Nonliving Components of the
Ecosystem
 Hydrosphere(water)
 One of the most unusual
natural compounds found
on earth, and it is also
one of the most
important.
 Covers 71% of the earths
surface and a meduim of
transport of several
ecosystems.
Properties of Water
 Solvent
 Carrier
 Temperature regulator
 Protectant
 Lubricant
 Has high heat capacity
 Has high heat conductivity
 Dissolving of minerals and
nutrients for use in natural
processes in the body.
 Hydrolysis
 Support of aquatic organisms
 Fertilization of gametes
 Dispersal and germination of
seeds, gametes and larval
stages of aquatic organisms
 Photosynthesis
 Osmosis and turgidity
 Transpiration
 Translocation of
microorganisms and organic
compounds
 As habitat for aquatic organisms
 Lithosphere(solid outer portion
of the earth)
 The role of soil in the
ecosystem is that they
are the source of all
nutrients and water for
living organisms in
terrestrial ecosystem.
 The rocks facilitate the
storage and movement of
groundwater; they are
the source of mineral
constituents of sediments
and soils; and they serve
medium of storage and
transportation of
groundwater.
  Sediments serve as the  For life to exist, the earth
habitat for aquatic must constantly receive
organisms and the source energy inputs from the
of nutrients for aquatic sun and make energy
organisms. outputs mostly as heat,
 Three Components of which passes on the
Lithosphere outer space.
 Soil- a complex mixture  Energy from the sun
of rock fragments, highly maintains all the life
altered minerals, organic processes in the earth
debris and living ecosystem.
organisms which  Solar energy
supports plants in the  Radiated in all directions,
terrestrial environment. part of it is toward the
 Rocks- consolidated units earth; but the
of the earth’s crust which atmosphere keeps some
consists of minerals that solar radiation from
have come together by reaching the earth.
hardening of lithification
of sediments, by
solidification from molten
mass or by alteration of a
preexisting rock.
 Sediments- rock
fragments that may or
may not be chemically
altered by weathering
which are carried by wind  First Law of Thermodynamics
or water.  It states that energy can be
 Atmosphere(air) transformed from one form to
 It is the site of weather another but can never be
and different gases which created or destroyed.
are needed by living  It also tells us that one cannot
organisms get something from nothing.
 Stratosphere Although the amount of energy
in various forms may change,
 it is where the ozone
the sum in all forms remains
layer is found, absorbs
constant.
ultraviolet radiation (UV)
from the sun, thus
preventing excessive  Second Law of Dynamics
amounts of UV rays to  It states that every time
reach the surface of the energy is transformed, it tends
earth. to go from a more organized
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem and concentrated form to a less
 Energy organized and more dispersed
form that it is no longer useful.
 It never appears or
disappears into nothing .  The ecological implication of the
It can always accounted second law is that the transfer
for. It is everywhere. of energy from one use to
another is never very efficient .
 The energy decreases in each • made of many food chains in a
successive step. community of plants and
Food Chain, Food Web and Trophic animals.
Levels •

Food chain:
• It is the transfer of energy and
material through a series of
organisms as each on is fed by
the next.
• The series of feeding
relationship between organisms
that shows who eats whom.
• A series of steps of eating and
being eaten.
• A food chain is the way energy
goes from one living thing to
another through food.

• Trophic Levels are Composed of

three basic levels, the producer,
various level of consumers and
decomposers.
• It refers to the number of steps
of the organisms are away from
primary production

• Food Web is A relatively

complex series of feeding
relationships which may
comprise a group of food
chains.

2.4 BIOCHEMICAL CYCLES
 A. Water Cycle
◦ One of the earth’s great
cycles is the water or
hydrological cycle. Water
constantly moves from
the atmosphere to the
earth to the oceans and
back to the atmosphere.
Water changes the
surface of the earth. It is
not simply found in the
bodies of water.,
underground and in the
atmosphere.
◦ It is constantly cycled
from one of these
locations to another. The
water cycle is driven by
energy from the sun and
by gravity. It provides the
connection among the
atmosphere, the
lithosphere, and the
hydrosphere. It makes
the presence of life on
earth possible.
Different Process of Water Cycle
 Precipitation. Condensed
water vapor that falls to the
Earth's surface . Most
precipitation occurs as rain, but
also includes snow, hail, fog
drip, graupel, and sleet.
Approximately 505,000 km3
(121,000 cu mi) of water fall as
precipitation each year,
398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it
over the oceans.
 Snowmelt. The runoff
produced by melting snow.
 Infiltration. The flow of water
from the ground surface into
the ground. Once infiltrated, the
water becomes soil moisture or
groundwater.
 Runoff. The variety of ways by
which water moves across the
land. This includes both surface
runoff and channel runoff. As it
flows, the water may seep into
the ground, evaporate into the
air, become stored in lakes or
reservoirs, or be extracted for
agricultural or other human
uses.
 Subsurface Flow. The flow of
water underground, in the
vadose zone and aquifers.
Subsurface water may return to
the surface (e.g. as a spring or
by being pumped) or eventually
seep into the oceans. Water
returns to the land surface at
lower elevation than where it
infiltrated, under the force of
gravity or gravity induced
pressures. Groundwater tends
to move slowly, and is
replenished slowly, so it can
remain in aquifers for thousands
of years.
 Evaporation. The
transformation of water from
liquid to gas phases as it moves
from the ground or bodies of
water into the overlying
atmosphere. The source of
energy for evaporation is
primarily solar radiation.
Evaporation often implicitly
includes transpiration from
plants, though together they
are specifically referred to as
evapotranspiration. Total annual
evapotranspiration amounts to
approximately 505,000 km3
 (121,000 cu mi) of water, (Simultaneous
434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of evaporation.)
which evaporates from the ◦ It may fall into the
oceans. ocean(major water
 Sublimation. The state change reservoir)
directly from solid water (snow ◦ It may fall into land
or ice) to water vapor. masses, which results :
 Advection. The movement of  It may infiltrate the
water — in solid, liquid, or vapor soil to be absorbed
states — through the by plants roots,
atmosphere. Without advection, used in
water that evaporated over the photosynthesis and
oceans could not precipitate transpired
over land.  It may run off to
 Condensation. The join streams and
transformation of water vapor rivers and
to liquid water droplets in the eventually reach
air, creating clouds and fog. ocean. Water is
 Transpiration. The release of primarily
water vapor from plants and soil responsible for
into the air. Water vapor is a eroding the earth’s
gas that cannot be seen. surface.
 It may sink
downward to join
groundwater
reservoirs and then
reappear later as
springs, seeps or
lakes.
 A. Water Cycle  It may be
evaporated once
again.
Biogeochemical Cycles
 In ecology and Earth science, a
biogeochemical cycle or
nutrient cycle is a pathway by
which a chemical element or
molecule moves through both
biotic (biosphere) and abiotic
(lithosphere, atmosphere, and
 A. Water Vapor hydrosphere) compartments of
 Precipitation over the ocean is Earth. In effect, the element is
more than three times greater recycled, although in some
than that over land. This cycles there may be places
precipitaion may take any (called reservoirs) where the
several courses: element is accumulated or held
◦ It may be immediately for a long period of time (such
reevaporated by the as an ocean or lake for water).
sun’s energy.
  Nutrient Cycle: Living organisms  These cycles are
need 30-40 elements for normal slower and tend to
development. exert a more
 Most important elements: limiting influence
◦ Carbon: on living
◦ Hydrogen organisms.
◦ Oxygen B. Gaseous – Carbon Dioxide Cycle
◦ Nitrogen
◦ Sulfur
◦ Phosphorus
 The most important feature of a
biogeochemical cycle is that the
biotic and abiotic components
are tightly intertwined with one
another. Without cycles, the
biogeochemical cycle would B. Gaseous – Oxygen Cycle
cease; and without
biogeochemical cycles, all life
would cease.

Characteristics of Biogeochemical
cycle
 Movement of the nutrient
element from the environment
to organisms and back to the
environment. B. Gaseous– Nitrogen Cycle
 Involvement of biological
organisms
 A geological reservoir
(atmosphere and lithosphere)
 Chemical change

Types of Biogeochemical cycles

 Gaseous nutrient cycle: it is in
which the reservoir of the
nutrients in the atmosphere.
◦ The typical gaseous B. Gaseous – Nitrogen Cycle
nutrient cycles are the
carbon dioxide, the
oxygen cycle and the
nitrogen cycle.
◦ Sedimentary nutrient
cycle: it is in which the
nutrient reservoir is
sedimentary rocks, soil
and minerals.
◦ It includes the
phosphorus cycle and the
sulfur cycle.
 The major reservoir of nitrogen
is the earth’s atmosphere.
Atmospheric nitrogen is
combined with other chemicals
into organic compounds used by
plants and animals. It is a vital
component of proteins which
are necessary to all living
things. When plants and
animals die, their bodies are
broken down by bacteria into
ammonia, a nitrogen
 compound. Other bacteria very slow pace. It begins with
change the ammonia to dissolved phosphates, which are
nitrates. Still other bacteria absorbed by plants through
break down the nitrates and their roots and incorporated into
release back the nitrogen as all cells in complex molecules.
gas back into the atmosphere. Animals get phosphorus from
B. Sedimentary – Sulfur Cycle plants. When plant and animal
die or excrete waste products,
their organic compound are
broken down by phosphotizing
bacteria into organic dissolved
phosphates.
 Notice that in all
biogeochemical cycles, the
nutrient usually enters the living
systems through vegetation.
 Animals are unable to free and
B. Sedimentary – Phosphorus Cycle absorb the nutrient elements
from the soil.
 Plants easily absorb nutrients
along with the soil water
through root system.
 An ecosystem depends on
plants not only to supply the
necessary nutrient to maintain
the flow of energy but also to fix
the solar energy.

B. Sedimentary – Phosphorus Cycle Interaction among organisms

 The major reservoir of How do Organisms interact with each
phosphorus is sedimentary rock, other?
which is available to the basic • Mutualism
cycle in small amounts as a • Competition
result of weathering. The cycle • Parasitism
does not have a major gaseous • Commensalism
phase and therefore moves at a • Predation
Population 1 Population 2 General Nature of Interaction

Mutualism + + The interaction is favorable to both and

obligatory.

Competition _ _ Both organisms are affected.

Parasitism + _ Population 1, the parasite, generally the

organism that benefits and the host is the
organism that is harmed.

Commensalism + 0 Population 1, the commensal, the benefits

while population 2 is not affected.

Predation + _ Population 1, the predator is the organism

that eats; population 2, the prey, is the
organism that is eaten.

Mutualism
• A biological interaction in which
the growth and survival of both
interacting species are
enhanced.
• In nature, neither species can
survive without the other.
• A relationship between two
organisms of different species
that benefits both and harms
neither.
Competition
• A type of interaction between
two populations in which they
vie for the same limited
resources.
• the struggle between organisms
of the same or different species
for limited resources such as
food or light.
Commensalism
• A type of interaction between
two species populations where
one population benefits and the
other is unaffected.
Parasitism
• A type of interaction between a
host and a parasite. Called a
destructive symbiosis where
parasite harms the host And
benefits at the expense of the
host.
Predation
• A relationship between the prey
and the predator. The predator
is the organism that eats and
generally larger than the prey,
the organism that is being
eaten.
KINDS OF ECOSYSTEMS AND
COMMUNITIES
 The concepts of limiting factors
and optimum factors can be
used to gain a better
understanding of the
occurrence of different regions
or localized areas as having
distinct biotic communities,
creating a variety of
ecosystems such as terrestrial
ecosystems (biomes) and
aquatic ecosystems (Nebel &
Wright, 1998, 2000).
The climate of the given region is a
description of the average
temperature and precipitation that
may be expected on each day
throughout the entire year. Climates in
different parts of the world vary
widely. Soil type and topography may
also contribute to the diversity found
in biome because these two factors
affect the availability of moisture.
Common terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems in the Philippines
A. Terrestrial
Communities/Ecosystems
Tropical Rain Forest
Location: Northern South America,
Central
America, Congo, western and central
equatorial Africa, Madagascar,
Southern Asia, various islands in the
India and Pacific Oceans
Climate and Soils:
Nonseasonal. Annual temperature
averages 28°C. Rainfall is frequent
and heavy, the annual average being
greater than 240 centimeters. Soils
are thin and often acidic and nutrient-
poor.
Vegetation:
There is great diversity of evergreen
and towering trees (the tallest being
60 meters or so), epiphytes (plants
attached to trees) and lianas (woody
vines that climb to the treetops). The
forests have a dense canopy and little
understory.
Animals:
Enormous biodiversity; exotic, colorful
insects; amphibians, reptiles, and
birds very abundant (e.g., lizards,
snakes, parrots, macaws); monkeys
and small mammals, a few large
predators.
Environmental Concerns:
Forest clearing to provide farms for
landless peasants or large cattle
ranches often leaves the land and soil
barren and causes biodiversity loss
and erosion. Tree removal for firewood
in erosion-prone areas causes loss of
vital topsoil and flooding downstream.
Forest trees are cut for their lumber,
often with no attention to replanting,
which leads to soil erosion.
Rain forest clearing, burning, and
reforestation affect the global carbon
cycle and causes global warming. Loss
of tropical rain forest brings wide-scale
extinction of organisms or biodiversity
loss.
B. Aquatic
Communities/Ecosystems
Description:
Lakes and ponds are physical
depressions that allow precipitation
and groundwater to accumulate; in
rivers and steams, water flows by
gravity toward oceans or large lakes.
Environmental parameters:
The low concentration of dissolved
solids is determined primarily by soils
around the water body. Seasonal
vertical stratification in lakes
separates water masses.
Vegetation:
generally included in this group are
microscopic algae suspended in water
(referred to as phytoplankton) or on
rocks and sediment (periphyton);
plants are rooted at the bottom, and
submerged vegetation or emergent
vegetation are also present
(macrophytes).
Animals:
Microscopic crustaceans and rotifers
suspended in water (commonly
referred to zooplankton); many
invertebrates, especially insect larvae,
reptiles and amphibians common;
many kinds of fish feeding on other
animal and plant life; wading birds and
ducks are common animal present.
Functions:
Important to humans because they
supply fresh drinking water, provide
transportation routes and serve as
home for important fisheries, and
source of irrigation water and
hydroelectricity.
Environmental concerns:
Toxic chemicals and other pollutants
affect water quality, kill wildlife and
create human health problems.
Eutrophication from excessive
nutrients creates unwanted growth of
vegetation. Introduced species like
water hyacinth and zebra mussels kill
native species and choke waterways.
Acid deposition leads to acidification
of bodies of water, killing fish life.
Erosion changes riverbeds and causes
flooding and loss of aquatic habitat.
Coral Reefs
Location:
They extend from the coastline
outward, often over a continental
shelf, to a depth of 200 meters. In the
tropics, coral reefs are major shallow
coastal forms.
Environmental parameters:
They are characterized by high
productivity due to coastal upwelling
and transport of nutrients from
estuaries; the water column mixes to
the bottom except where seasonal
vertical stratification development.
Tidal currents promote mixing.
Vegetation:
Commonly included in this group are
plankton algae which dominate
productivity; some large benthic
plants are present where water clarity
permits. In coral reefs, symbiotic algae
live in coral animals; other large algae
and turtle grass predominate.
 Animals:
Microscopic plankton abound in the
water column; rich bottom fauna of
worms, shellfish and crustaceans;
diverse and abundant fish fauna;
jellyfish, turtles, fish-feeding birds,
dolphins and whales regionally
abundant.
Functions: (1) They are important as
fishery and nursery areas and as
tourist spots; (2)they provide
protection from erosion of coastlines;
(3) and almost half of the potential
pharmaceuticals being explored are
from the coral reef and ecosystem.
Environmental concerns:
Pollutants from estuaries and coastal
ecosystems contaminate shellfish and
fish. Rising sea levels will inundate
many low-lying coastal areas.
Overfishing of coastal fisheries causes
loss of breeding stock and changes in
ecology. Past whaling in coastal areas
has depleted the stocks of most
species. Dynamite and cyanide fishing
kill many aquatic organisms leading to
biodiversity loss and habitat
destruction. Global warming can cause
coral bleaching.
Mangrove Ecosystem
Description:
Mangroves are woody, seed bearing,
highly specialized plants ranging in
size fro shrubs to tall trees. Most
mangrove species live on muddy soils,
but they grow also on sand, peat and
coral-rock. There are two kinds of
mangrove ecosystem, the mangrove
swamps which consist of large trees
and their associated species and the
nipa swamps characterized by the
growth of stemless palms.
Location:
Mangroves are found along the coastal
waters of tropical and subtropical
regions, tidal flats extending along
rivers, streams and its tributaries
where the water is brackish.
Environmental parameters:
Mangroves are characterized by poor
soil aeration, variable salinity, high
humidity, light to moderate winds, and
moderate to strong currents and
waves.
Plants:
Mangrove trees dominate the
ecosystem due to their ability to
survive in both marine water and
freshwater. The most important
mangrove families are the
Combretaceae, the Verbenaceae and
the Rhizophoraceae. Besides the
mangrove tree species may other
plant species thrive such as jelly bean
plant, salt brush, bead weed and
malalencus.
Animals:
Aside from fish, a wide variety of
invertibrates live in the mangrove
ecosystem such as worms, protozoa,
barnacles, oysters and crabs.
Environmental concerns:
Thousand of hectares of mangrove
areas have been destroyed due to the
following: firewood collection, charcoal
making, conversion to
fishpond/aquaculture, conversion to
commercial and real-state
development, salt-making industry,
dumping areas for solid wastes and oil
spills.
Open Ocean
Location:
It covers 70% of the earth's surface,
from the edge of the continental shelf
outwards.
Environmental parameters:
It reaches great depths (as much as
11 000 meters); except for the upper
200 meters, it is without light and
cold. It is nutrient-poor, except where
vertical currents bring deep water to
the surface (upwelling.)
Animals:
It has a diverse zooplankton fauna
together with fish fauna adapted to
different depths. The bottom fauna is
sparse except in regions of deep
hydrothermal vents. Seabirds, whales,
dolphins, tuna, sharks, flying,fish,
squid, etc. as well as unique deep-sea
fish with bioluminescence are present.
Vegetation:
Commonly included are plankton
species (coccolithophorids, diatoms,
dinoflagellates). The vegetation varies
according to nutrient availability.
Environmental concerns:
Ozone shield depletion will kill
phytoplankton in the Antarctic,
affecting the entire food chain. Drift-
netting in the high seas depletes
fisheries and kills ocean birds, turtles
and mammals. Whaling has led to
steep declines in most whale species,
which are still not of danger in spite of
danger in spite of a moratorium. Warm
temperature, pollution and other
factors cause the red tide
phenomenon, which poses a danger to
human health. Oil pollution from ships
could harm and kill aquatic organisms
and destroy habitats of organisms.
C. Man-made Ecosystems
I. Agroecosystem
is an ecosystem which is
modified or regulated by man in order
to produce food. It is self-sufficient
where the living organisms and the
nonliving components of the
environment interact to exchange
energy and matter in a continuing
cycle.
It is also referred to as
community of plants and animals
interacting with their physical and
chemical environments that have
been modified by people to produce
food, fiber, fuel, and other products for
human consumption and processing. It
comprises domesticated plants and/or
animals and the people who manage
them.
The agroecosystem is
characterized by the following
features:
- The farmer decides the plant
(species and variety) to grow.
- It is composed of one or few species
only, simple flora.
- The age and status of growing
plants is uniform.
- The farmers supplies water and
fertilizer uniformly. high.
- The farmers harvest the products
and remove them all away from the
yield (continuity is short.)
- Insect fauna is simple, comprising,
of their pests and natural enemies.
- There is an order of arriving of
organisms: crops, pests and natural
enemies.
- It is ecologically unstable due to
simple flora and fauna and low natural
control effect.
- The chances of pest outbreak is
high.
The following are properties of
the ecosystem:
1. Productivity is the desired
output of a system or output of valued
product per unit resource input. It is
measured in terms of crop yield or net
income.
2. Stability is the property of
short-term homeostasis or the
consistency of productivity in the face
of small, disturbing forces arising from
the normal fluctuations and cycles in
the surrounding environment.
3. Sustainability is the ability of
the system to persist in the face of
repeated stress or major perturbation
or it is the ability of the agrosystem to
maintain productivity when subjected
to major disturbing forces.
4. Equitability is the evenness of
distribution of the productivity of the
agroecosystem among the human
beneficiaries, i.e., the level of equity
that is generated.
5. Authonomy is the extent to
which a social system is able to
function at a normal level, using only
resources derived from the ecosystem
over which it has effective control.
6. Solidarity is the ability of the
social system to make and implement
decisions in managing ecosystem.
What problems beset the
agroecosystem?
1. Soil erosion, overgrazing
Huge area of productive, semi-arid,
lands are being turned into worthless
deserts each year by overgrazing.
Continued grazing makes grass
difficult to grow. As a result, topsoil
losses compactness and this will lead
to rapid soil erosion.
2. Land conversion
Agricultural lands, prime agricultural
lands included, are being converted
into residential areas and commercial
areas due to urbanization and
industrialization
3. Pollution
Pesticides are transported by air,
water and soil, resulting in pollution.
Pesticides are found in the food we eat
as well as in deep wells located near
agricultural areas. The health effect in
humans include increased incidence of
tumors, cancer, sterility, etc.
pesticides kill not only pests but
beneficial animals as well.
4. Loss of generic diversity
The release of high-yielding varieties
or hybrids which was strongly
advocated by the government in the
name of modernization and world
competitiveness has also caused
indirect extinction of indigenous or
traditional varieties. With constant use
of these hybrids, the pure lines are
displaced, causing genetic erosion in
many of our crop sciences.
5. Depletion of ground water and
salinization
In many farms, the withdrawal of
groundwater for irrigation is excessive
during the dry season. This has caused
the groundwater to recede, affecting
the availability of potable water for
domestic use. Also, when much
groundwater is withdrawby
agroecosystems near coastal areas,
saltwater intrusion usually occurs.
II. Urban Ecosystem
Urbanization is an increasing
concentration of the population in
cities and a transformation of land use
and society to a metropolitan pattern
of organization. A city or urban
ecosystem is a differentiated
community with a population and
resource base large enough for urban
residents to specialize in arts, crafts,
services or profession rather than
natural resource-based occupations
(Cunningham and Saigo, 1999).
III. Urbanization and Urban Problems
People are pulled to urban areas of
jobs, a better life, better livelihood
opportunities and better basic
services. They may also be pushed
into urban areas by modern
mechanical agriculture which uses less
farm labor and allow large landowners
to but out subsistent farmers who
cannot afford to modernize. Without
jobs or lands, those people are forced
to move to cities. There jobs may
expose to people to dust, hazardous
chemicals, excessive noise and
dangerous machinery. Problems such
as pollution, garbage, flooding,
proliferation of squatters shanties,
traffic congestion and increase in the
incident of communicable diseases are
also correspondingly increasing (Miller,
1994).

The major urban resource and

environmental problems are:
1. Scarcity o trees, shrubs and
other natural vegetation
This is problematic because
plants absorb air pollutants, give off
oxygen, help cool the air as water
evaporates from their leaves, muffle
noise, provide wildlife habitats, and
give aesthetic pleasure.
2. Alternative of local and
sometimes, regional climate
Generally cities are warmer,
rainier, foggier, and cloudier than
suburbs and nearby rural areas.
3. Lack of water
This requires expensive
reservoirs, canals and deep well.
4. Rapid runoff of water from
asphalt and concrete
This can overload sewers and
storm drains, contributing to water
pollution and flooding in cities and
downstream areas.
5. Production of large quantities
of air pollution, water pollution,
and garbage and other solid
waste
6. Excessive noise
Every day, one every nine
Filipinos lives, works, or plays around
noise of sufficient duration and
intensity to cause some permanent
hearing loss, and that number is rising
rapidly.