DAY SKIPPER PART1 - Sept 09

Day Skipper
Shorebased Course
Part One
NMCS Day Skipper
This course is designed to provide you with the tools necessary to increase your knowledge and understanding
of navigation and seamanship to a standard rather higher than that required to gain the RYA Day Skipper
shorebased theory certificate.
Why do we ask you to do a little more work than is strictly necessary?
Because
you will feel more at ease when undertaking the final test assessment papers
if you complement your Day Skipper shorebased qualification by taking a practical course you will feel
comfortable that your knowledge is more than adequate to cope - not just barely enough
the extra tuition will make the transition to RYA/MCA Coastal Skipper/Yachtmaster very much easier
should you wish to progress further
the more you know, the safer you should be
Please take some time to read the introductory notes to this course. In them we explain
how the course is structured
what you will need to complete the course
how to study
Contact us for support

For complete tutorial and administrative support contact
Tel: 01244 311084
E-mail: sail@nmcs.org.uk
Post: National Marine Correspondence School

3 Green Lane
Vicars Cross
Chester
CH3 5LA
1
Course structure
The course is divided into five sections and supplied in two parts (below)
Work through each module in order, completing the self-test exercises (assignments)
as they appear within them
Record your best assignment mark on the Assignment Completion card
Continue in this manner through the first two sections
On completion of section two complete RYA Assessment 1 and return to NMCS for
marking together with your Assignment Completion card
Part 1
Module 1 Basic Navigation: Position and Direction

Module 2 Basic Nautical Knowledge } Section 1
Module 3 Charts and Publications: Simple Plotting

} Section 2
Module 4 Deck Seamanship
Assessment 1(DS) (return to NMCS) page 147
Part 2
Module 5 Tides and Tidal Streams

Module 6 Buoys, Beacons, Lighthouses, Pilotage } Section 3
Module 7 Understanding the Weather

Module 8 Sea Safety and Cruising Practices } Section 4
Assessment 2 (DS) (return to NMCS)
Module 9 Passage Planning

Module 10 Electronic Charts } Section 5
Return completed assignment card to NMCS
2 RYA Exam Papers
Return both exams to NMCS for marking
2
Navigational instruments
You will require
Breton/Portland plotter or parallel rule
Dividers
2B pencils
Eraser and pencil sharpener
A pair of compasses is also an advantage but please note that none of these instruments are
essential until section two of the course. If you do not possess navigational instruments, they can
be ordered using the NMCS supplies shop catalogue and order forms.
How to study
Your objective in enrolling for this course must surely be to learn as much as possible about the
subject matter with a view to your competence and safety at sea.
Although none of the subjects which we deal with are particularly difficult, you will probably find
your course more comprehensive and detailed than you originally thought and that there is a lot
to learn.
Since its inception the NMCS has been extremely effective in assisting thousands of students
through their courses to a successful conclusion, although some people do fail to complete the
course for one reason or another.
This can be for a variety of reasons, either they lose interest in sailing as a hobby or find that they
are struggling with the course. When the latter occurs, almost without exception the reason for
this has been an erratic attitude to study.
Doing a bit at odd intervals when the mood takes you is not the way to study any subject. You will
have to try to allocate set times to apply yourself to the course.
Our service to you includes answering your study enquiries. It is important to note that any
problems which you may encounter when reading a module are resolved when working the self-
test exercises and assessments (they are designed to do this).
Resist the initial temptation to leap for the telephone to ring your tutor the instant you come across
a point which is not immediately apparent. Your tutor will always be glad to help you when you
need it, but please seek advice only when you are experiencing difficulty.
The enquiry has to be precise and vague statements such as 'I do not understand navigation' or
'I do not understand meteorology' will leave your tutor as puzzled as you! Be specific, referring to
the page and paragraph in the text which you do not understand or to the precise example with
which you are having difficulty, showing exactly where your difficulty lies. If you state your problem
clearly like this, your tutor will be only too pleased to show you equally clearly where you are going
astray and to put you on the right track.
In order to help you decide how much emphasis to place on navigational topics when studying or
revising, we have marked each subject heading in accordance with RYA guidelines. Where no
such symbol appears, the subject covered will be outside the required RYA syllabus.
full knowledge required
working knowledge required
outline knowledge required
'...remember that many of the modules

require more than a single reading in order
to fully absorb all the concepts and methods
described within them...'
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Section One
Module 1 Basic Navigation
Module 2 Basic Nautical Knowledge
Contents
5
6
Module 1
Basic Navigation: Position and Direction
Contents
1. Describing our position on the earth's surface 9

Introduction
Position on the earth's surface
Reading position on a chart
Self-test exercise N1(1)
2. Expressing direction 14
Direction and angular measurement
Indicating direction at sea
Personal checklist (on completion of chapters 1 and 2)
3. Marine compasses 17
The mariner's compass
Magnetic variation
Magnetic deviation
Siting a magnetic steering compass
The hand-bearing magnetic compass
Personal checklist (on completion of chapter 3)
4. Distance, time and speed at sea 25
Nautical units of distance and speed
Time, speed and distance relationships
Measuring distance and speed at sea
Log books
5. Measuring the depth of water 32
Poles, sounding leads and lines
The echo-sounder
Soundings, depths and heights
6. Charts and chartwork equipment 37
Introduction to navigational charts
Examination of Chart RYA 3
Personal checklist (on completion of first 2 sections of chapter 6)
Equipment for plotting on charts
7. Answers to exercises 47
Answers to exercise N1(1)
7
Abbreviations used in this module
C (following a course or bearing) compass: direction as shown by the

onboard magnetic compass
CD chart datum
cm centimetres
dev (magnetic) deviation
E east
GRP glass reinforced plastic
HB hand bearing (compass)
kn or kt knot
lat latitude
lbs pounds weight
LH lighthouse
M (following a course or bearing) magnetic: direction related to the
magnetic north pole
M (following a distance) sea miles
m metres
MHWS mean high water springs
mm millimetre
N north
nM miles (international nautical miles)
NMCS National Marine Correspondence School
NP (Admiralty) Nautical Publication
ODAS Ocean Data Acquisition System
RYA Royal Yachting Association
S south
T (following a course or bearing) true: direction related to the true north
pole
TA The RYA Training Almanac
TSS traffic separation scheme
var (magnetic) variation
8
1. Describing our position on the earth’s surface
Introduction
Welcome to your NMCS course in navigation. This is the first of a series of modules which will provide the
necessary theory upon which to build your practical skills at sea and which will give you the knowledge to
plan and carry out short coastal voyages.
Navigation is a composite word derived from the Latin navis (a ship) and ago (to drive). It is the art and
science of guiding a vessel from its departure point to its planned destination safely and efficiently. It involves
the techniques of finding where we are at sea, of making sure that we are going in the right direction, and
of moving along a safely planned route clear of natural hazards such as rocks, wrecks and reefs.
Coastal navigation requires no advanced mathematics because its problems are solved
graphically by drawing and measuring lines on a chart. A little elementary geometry (which we shall explain
later) and the ability to add, subtract, divide and multiply are all that is needed.
Pilotage is the navigation of a vessel in confined or semi-confined waters by observation and estimation by
eye rather than drawing lines on charts. It involves the recognition and understanding of seamarks and
landmarks such as buoys, beacons, lighthouses and so on.
To practise navigation we need to know first of all where we are and where we want to go, in other words
the position of our boat and the position of our destination. Secondly, we need to know the direction of that
destination from the position of our boat. So this module sets out to explain these two important principles -
position and direction.
Next we go on to show how direction is measured by means of a compass, how distance is measured with
what we call a log (a kind of nautical mileometer), and how the depth of water under our boat is measured
with an echo-sounder. All these, together with the very important relationship between distance, time and
speed, are the building blocks of navigation.
We conclude this module with a description of the charts (maps and guides) which are available to inform
you about the sea area in which you are navigating.
In order to plot lines of direction and positions on your charts you will need certain chart
instruments such as dividers and parallel rules, and we describe these. NMCS module 3 describes how to
use your plotting instruments to measure distance and direction on charts.
In NMCS module 5 we explain how the level of the sea rises and falls (tides), how the sea can also move
from side to side (tidal streams), and how these two very important factors are used in the practice of
navigation.
The use of buoys, beacons and lighthouses as navigational position markers is covered in module 8.
Module 11 draws upon all the work previously undertaken in showing you how to plan and make short
coastal passages.
9
Describing our position on the earth’s surface
Position on the Earth’s Surface
Most of us will be familiar with town street maps which use

a system of squares. By consulting the index we can enter
with the name of the road we are looking for and extract the
map number and square in which to find it. The two shown
in fig 1 might be described as 28 B2 and 28 D4. On a
crowded city map it may take some time to find the road
within the square. Clearly it would be much easier to locate
a position if the square was subdivided by a lattice as in
square B4. If the lattice was of sufficiently fine mesh every
place could be precisely fixed at the intersection of a
vertical and horizontal line. It is this type of grid system
which is used on sea charts, the global grid enabling any
point on the earth’s surface to be pinpointed with two co-
ordinates (reference lines) called latitude and longitude.
Figure 1
The equator (fig 2) is an imaginary line running east

to west dividing the earth exactly into two halves (or
hemispheres) and is the reference line from which
latitude is measured. The latitude of the equator is 0º
and positions north or south of it are measured by
angle as if from the centre of the earth. In fig 3(a)
any place on the dotted line will be at latitude 50º
north, while in (b) it will be at 70º south. Lines of
latitude are called parallels.
Figure 2
Figure 3
10
Longitude lines are called meridians (fig 4) and are

measured by their angle east or west of the
Greenwich meridian (or the prime meridian). A
meridian is an imaginary line on the earth's surface
joining the north pole to the south pole and is
perpendicular (at 90º) to the equator. Note from fig 4
that a meridian is a line joining the poles on one side
of the globe only. Since there are 360º in a circle,
and 180º is a half circle, the meridians of longitude
spread out from Greenwich and meet at 180º east
and west on the other side of the world. CC is a
meridian of longitude west of Greenwich and DD is
a meridian of longitude east of Greenwich. Thus the
longitude of a place can be defined as the arc of the
equator from the Greenwich meridian to the
Figure 4
meridian of the position, measured from 0º to 180º
east or west from Greenwich.
Any meridian might have been chosen as the prime meridian. The British astronomer
royal, Nevil Maskelyne, living and working in the Greenwich Observatory, first published
the Nautical Almanac there in 1767, containing the tables which enable sailors to calculate
their longitude by astronavigation. These tables, based on the meridian of Greenwich,
were soon used worldwide and in 1884 at Washington DC the International Meridian
Conference established the Greenwich meridian as the world's prime meridian.
Figure 4 shows that because meridians of longitude converge at the poles they are never the same
distance apart (unlike the parallel lines of latitude). For this reason they cannot be used for the
measurement of distance but, nevertheless, they provide valuable and accurate reference points (the upright
lines of our 'mesh').
Because of the immense size of the globe, simply using whole degrees to define position is not
sufficiently accurate as, on the earth's surface, a difference of one degree represents a distance of
approximately 60 miles. In order to define position more precisely (as in square B4 in fig 1), a degree is
therefore subdivided into 60 minutes (60'). A minute represents about 1 mile on the earth's surface and
because coastal navigation demands even greater precision than this, a minute is further divided into 60
seconds (60"). Remember that:
• there are 60 minutes (60') in one degree (º)

• there are 60 seconds (60") in one minute (').
A precise position on a chart can therefore be expressed in terms of degrees, minutes and seconds. For
normal navigation purposes this high degree of accuracy is not necessary unless expressing
positions from very large scale charts, and when using coastal charts positions are usually expressed in
degrees, minutes and tenths of minutes.
We know that there are 60" in one minute, therefore
• six seconds (6") = one tenth of a minute (0'.1).
For example, Point Victoria lighthouse (chart RYA 3, near the top and left hand corner) can be described as
being in position 46º27'.8N 06º15'.3W.
(How we convert seconds into tenths of minutes is shown on page 13)
11
The word latitude is frequently abbreviated to lat and the word longitude to long, and sometimes the words
are omitted altogether, so that there must be a convention as to which term is expressed first.
• Latitude is always expressed first, before longitude, and the suffix N or S (for latitude) and E or W
(for longitude) must be added to the appropriate term in order to avoid any ambiguity.
Note carefully that when writing the decimal fractions of a minute the minute symbol (') comes before the
decimal point and not after the last figure of the decimal fractions. Thus for the latitude of Point Victoria LH
we wrote 46º27'.8N and not 46º27.8'N. For the longitude we wrote 06º15'.3W and not 06º15.3'W. This
convention is important to avoid confusion. For instance 50º12.25' is much more likely to be misread as
50º12'25" than 50º12'.25.
It may appear confusing that the same words 'minutes' and 'seconds' are used for the smaller
gradations of circular measurement as those familiar to us in expressing time. In practice we shall
find that the apparent complication seldom arises and is avoided by using the symbols for
minutes (') and for seconds (") only when expressing units of circular arc and never for time. Units
of time are usually written in abbreviated form as 'mins' and 'secs'.
Reading Position on a Chart
On a navigational chart the scale of latitude runs vertically up and down the right and left hand sides of the
chart, while the scale of longitude runs horizontally along the top and bottom borders of the chart. Fig 5
shows the bottom right hand corner of a chart. Each main division on both the latitude and
longitude scales represents one minute (1') and these main divisions are themselves divided into ten equal
parts or tenths of a minute, so that position X, for example, is in lat 51º01'.4N long 01º53'.1E.
Figure 5: Chart Scales

12
To convert seconds to tenths of To convert tenths of minutes to

minutes divide the seconds by 60 seconds multiply the tenths of
minutes by 60
Examples: Examples:
48''= 48/60 = 0'.8 0'.3 = 0.3 x 60 = 18''
33'' = 33/60 = 0'.55 0'.7 = 0.7 x 60 = 42''
56'' = 56/60 = 0'.93 0'.45 = 0.45 x 60 = 27”
1. What would you say is the position of points Y and Z in fig 5?
Of the positions expressed below state which are correctly written, and which are incorrectly written or
impossible, giving your reasons:
2. 90º12'.3N 197º33'.2W
3. 49º25.2'N 04º56.9'W
4. 55º07'N 02º39'E
5. 83º28'.2S 178º07'.9E
Re-write the following positions using tenths of minutes instead of seconds:
6. 50º10'48"N 04º51'54"W
7. 23º49'15"S 19º22'03"E
Re-write using seconds:
8. 51º28'.4N 01º29'.9E
9. 50º01'.1N 04º59'.55W
10. 05º13'.2S 58º31'.75E
Answers on page 47
13
2. Expressing direction
Direction and angular measurement
If you stand facing the north pole and extend both arms horizontally, your right arm will point in the direction
we call east and your left arm in the direction west. Reference to fig 6 shows that east lies 90º to the right
of north, and west lies 90º to the left of north. Turn through 180º from north and you will be
facing south, or towards the south pole. These four directions, north, south, east and west are known as
the cardinal directions.
Figure 6 shows two

systems of compass
card marking, the inner
(using letters) being
points notation and the
outer (using numbers) is
three figure notation.
The points notation is

now seldom seen and is
usually used only to
indicate wind direction.
Inearliercenturies
compasses,anda
vessel's steering ability,
were less efficient than
they are today so the 32
widely spaced compass
points (with 11¼º
degrees between them)
were adequate for
normalsteering
purposes.
Figure 6: Direction and compass notation
The modern, three figure notation is the standard method of measuring direction in degrees
clockwise from 000º (north) to 359º. North - the first cardinal direction - is therefore 000º or 360º (it doesn't
matter which). East is 090º (note the three figures, not 90º), south is 180º and west is 270º. It is important
to get these angular measurements (ie in degrees) of the cardinal directions firmly etched in your mind, so
that if, say, 210º is quoted, you know instantly that this direction is somewhere between south and west.
In describing direction we have already mentioned angles (eg 90º and 180º) which play a very large part
in this and many other aspects of navigation. Figure 6 represents a convenient method of
measuring angles where the complete circle is divided into 360 equal divisions, each of which is called a
degree and denoted 1º. This is the principle of the circular protractor and of the compass card which we
shall be describing later in this module.
Small as it appears to be on a protractor, a degree is far too large a unit of measurement for some aspects
of navigation. This is because we sometimes have to deal with very large circles such as the circumference
of the earth itself - a circle which has a diameter of nearly 8,000 miles - so that a degree measured at the
centre of the earth would measure 60 miles across on the earth's surface. Clearly, greater precision is
necessary and for this purpose a degree is divided into 60 minutes, and a minute into 60 seconds as
described above.
14
Expressing direction
The basic facts of angular measurement to remember are
• there are 360º in a complete circle

• there are 180º in a semi-circle or a straight line
• there are 90º in a right angle (or quadrant)
• there are 60 minutes (60') in one degree (º)
• there are 60 seconds (60") in one minute (').
Therefore it follows that
• six minutes (6') = one tenth of a degree (0º.1)

• six seconds (6") = one tenth of a minute (0'.1).
Indicating Direction at Sea
When we are at sea our horizon appears as a circle drawn around our boat as centre and there may be
nothing, not even a land or seamark, to help us distinguish one point on that circle from another. Before a
vessel can be navigated from, say, Alderney to Plymouth, the direction in which Plymouth lies from
Alderney must be established.
When steered in that direction we

shall arrive at Plymouth. Direction is
therefore determined by the point on
the horizon at which the destination
lies, or towards which the vessel is
moving.
A distinction is made in navigation

between these two aspects of
direction. The direction in which a
place or point of reference lies is
called the bearing of the place or
point. The direction in which a
vessel moves in still water is the
direction of her fore-and-aft line,
which is called the course of the
vessel. Although the course of the
vessel may well be the same as the
bearing of her destination, this
distinction is necessary because it is
frequently required to indicate the
direction of places, points, even other
vessels or floating objects, other than
the vessel's destination. In figure 7, a
vessel heading for Plymouth may be
steering course 360º or 000º (north)
Figure 7
when Eddystone Rocks LH bears
270º (west) and a tanker on her starboard beam bears 090º (east). Three directions have been expressed
- one is the vessel's course and the other two are bearings from the vessel.
15
Expressing direction
It is easy to confuse these important navigational terms so it is essential to be quite clear from the
outset as to their meaning:
• The course of a vessel is the direction indicated by the projection of the vessel's
fore-and-aft line in the direction in which it is proceeding, or required to proceed.
• The bearing is the direction in which a place, point or object lies with reference to the
vessel.
Figure 8
Look at fig 8. Suppose that you are in the centre of the yacht and that you are heading in the direction of
the arrow. Your course would therefore be north, or in 3-figure notation 000ºT (spoken as 'zero-zero-zero
degrees true'). The yacht's skipper would express the fact that the lighthouse is north-east of the yacht by
saying that the bearing of the lighthouse from the yacht is 045ºT (or that the lighthouse bears 045ºT from
the yacht). When this bearing is given orally you would say that the lighthouse 'bears zero-four-five degrees
true'. True bearings, like courses, are given in three figure numbers. Note that we said that both the yacht's
course and the bearing were true, ie with reference to the true north pole. Directions can be given with
reference to other points, as we shall see later.
In navigation, when we refer to the boat's head or the heading, this describes the direction towards which
the boat is pointing.
Personal Checklist (on completion of chapters 1 and 2)

You should now be aware of
• the global grid of latitude and longitude and the correct method of writing positions
(a) in degrees, minutes and seconds

(b) in degrees, minutes and tenths of minutes
• how one minute is represented on a chart
• compass notation using the three figure system and how this relates to the four
cardinals of the point system
• the difference between a course and a bearing
• the definitions of true course and true bearing
16
3. Marine compasses
The Mariner’s Compass
In order to steer a course or to measure the bearing of another vessel, hazard or navigational 'signpost' at
sea we need an onboard reference point, a marker which will stay aligned in some fixed direction. As our
boat turns this marker must remain aligned to the external influence and must not turn with the boat.
Warships, most merchant vessels and the largest yachts are equipped with gyro compasses which use the
rotational speed of the earth to align with true (geographical) north. Unfortunately their bulk, cost and
requirement for stable power supplies precludes the use of gyro compasses in the great majority of yachts.
A yacht compass (fig 9) is usually a form of magnetic

compass, a simple mechanical device which makes use of the
directive properties of the earth's magnetism.
If a magnetised needle is poised horizontally on a pivot the

needle will swing to and fro and finally settle to rest in one
direction.
The direction in which the magnetised needle lies when

affected solely by the earth's magnetic force (and no other
disturbing influences) is called the magnetic meridian.
The direction will be found to be approximately north. It is not,

as a rule, the true north because the earth's magnetic poles (to
which the ends of our magnetised needle are attached) do not
coincide with the geographical or true north and south poles.
Figure 9: A yacht compass
If we attach to a magnetised needle (freely poised as described above) a circular card graduated in degrees
and/or points of the compass, so that the north and south points of the card lie exactly over the north and
south ends of the needle and rotate with it, then we have the basis of the marine magnetic compass.
The bowl of the compass is filled with a liquid which helps to damp down oscillations of the card caused by
the yacht's movement. The bowl is fitted with bellows so that the liquid in the bowl may expand and contract
with temperature without causing a bubble to form or the bowl to burst.
As well as supporting the magnetic needles, the compass card carries graduations to allow the
direction of the yacht's head to be read. Yacht compass cards, such as those illustrated in fig 10 show the
three-figure notation in abbreviated form. This is because the cards are small and the compass must be
clearly legible at some distance and sometimes in a poor light, so the degree marking and figures must be
well separated and bold. The number of markings and figures will depend on the size of the compass card.
The smallest cards would be marked as shown on the left-hand card in fig 10, at every 5º, each 10º mark
being bolder, and figures every 20º. Larger cards may be marked as shown in the right-hand card in fig 10,
at every 2º and 5º with bolder marks and figures every 10º. The last digit (and the first up to 100º) is omitted
to permit a larger figure being shown. For example, against the 020º mark 2 is shown; against the 280º
mark 28 is shown, and so on.
17
Marine compasses
Figure 10: Types of compass card
For steering purposes, a line or pointer is painted on the inside of the forward side of the compass bowl (in
some makes the line may be represented by a black pin or wire), called the lubber line. The
compass bowl must always be carefully mounted in its bracket, stand, pedestal or binnacle so that a
straight line from the centre of the compass card to the lubber line is exactly in, or parallel to, the
fore-and-aft line of the yacht. The boat's heading, or compass course, is then read from the compass card
against the lubber line.
It is important to realise that a compass card points in the same direction all the time. It appears to rotate
when the boat changes direction but it is the movement of the boat itself, around the static card, that gives
this impression.
The Chinese are often credited with the first use of a magnetic compass but modern
research suggests that this is not correct although they were probably aware of the north-
seeking properties of a magnetised iron bar. The earliest north-seeking devices at sea were
magnetised needles inserted into straw or cork, floating freely in a basin of water. Crude
magnetic compasses were in use in the Mediterranean Sea by the 12th century but no-one
knows their true 'inventor'.
Magnetic Variation
The earth resembles an enormous magnet

with a magnetic field, magnetic meridians and
a magnetic north and south pole, but the
magnetic poles do not coincide with the true
geographical poles. In fig 11, T is the true
(geographical) north pole, while M is the
magnetic north pole.
The angle between the true meridian and the

magnetic meridian at any particular place is
called the magnetic variation at that place.
Variation is measured east or west of the true
meridian.
Fig 11 shows that the variation depends upon

where you are on the earth's surface. For
instance, at point A the variation is west
because the magnetic pole lies to the left of
the true pole, while at point B the
Figure 11: Magnetic variation variation is east because the magnetic pole
lies to the right of the true pole. At point C the
variation is nil because the true and magnetic
poles are in line.
18
Marine compasses
It should be appreciated that fig 11 is a

simplification for the sake of clarity. Because of
the irregularity of the earth's magnetic field,
magnetic meridians do not lie in straight lines
between the magnetic poles. This
phenomenon (exaggerated, better to illustrate it)
is shown in fig 12. Because of this it will be seen
that variation is not the angle between true north
and magnetic north but the angle between the
true meridian and the magnetic meridian.
As shown above, variation depends upon

geographical position and can be as much as 30º
in certain parts of the world. In addition, because
the magnetic north pole rotates
slowly around the true north pole, there is a slight
change in the magnetic variation every year in
the same place. Since we measure direction at
sea using a magnetic compass, we must be able
to convert magnetic direction to true direction in
order to plot courses and bearings on our chart, Figure 12: Irregularity of magnetic meridians
so we have to know what the variation is at all
times in the area we are navigating.
Every chart has at least one compass

rose printed on it. RYA Chart 3 has four
such compass roses, one of which is
reproduced in fig 13. The outer ring
represents the true compass and the
inner ring represents the magnetic
compass. The variation, and the year to
which it applies, is always printed across
the compass rose together with the
amount by which this variation is
increasing or decreasing annually.
You will see from fig 13 that in the

position indicated by the centre of the
compass rose the magnetic variation was
7º30'W in 2005. The inscription in
brackets (8'E) shows the annual rate of
change and its direction. In this case
variation 7º30'W (moving east) is
decreasing. So, if we wish to find the
Figure 13: A compass rose
variation in the year 2007.
Variation in 2005 7º30'W

Decrease in 2 years (2 x 8') 16'
Variation in 2007 7º14'W
Earlier, we described courses and bearings as true when they were measured from the true or
geographical north pole and designated ºT. Now we know that when courses and bearings are read from
a magnetic compass they are called magnetic, measured from the magnetic north pole and
designated ºM.
19
Marine compasses
As we have just seen, variation can be

westerly or easterly. When the magnetic
north lies to the left of true north the variation
is said to be westerly, and when the
magnetic north lies to the right of true north
the variation is said to be easterly.
For example, the variation in fig 14 is 9ºW

because magnetic north lies 9º to the left or
WEST of true north. The yacht in the centre
of the diagram is steering 059ºM because the
lubber line on her magnetic compass lies
against the mark for 059º and we say her
course is 059ºM. However, because the true
north pole is 9º to the right of this, the yacht's
true course is 9º less than the magnetic
course and written 050ºT.
Taking this a step further, with a variation of

9º west
a course of 009ºM will be 000ºT
but with a variation of 9º east

Figure 14
The same rules apply equally to bearings, so that with (say) a variation of 12º west
a bearing of 045ºM will be 033ºT

while with a variation of 12º east

From the above examples we can infer the following rules for converting a magnetic course or bearing to a
true course or bearing
• with easterly variation, the amount of variation is added

• with westerly variation, the amount of variation is subtracted.
Thus to convert a magnetic course of 256ºM to a true course
Magnetic course 256ºM Magnetic course 256ºM

Variation + 3ºE Variation - 3ºW
True course 259ºT True course 253ºT
Conversely, to convert a true course or bearing to magnetic, the rules are reversed
• with easterly variation, the amount of variation is subtracted

• with westerly variation, the amount of variation is added.
20
Marine compasses
So, to convert a true bearing of 029ºT to a magnetic bearing
True bearing 029ºT True bearing 029ºT

Variation 7ºE Variation 7ºW
Magnetic bearing 022ºM Magnetic bearing 036ºM
Another way of expressing exactly the same rules would be to say
when working from true to magnetic

{ add westerly variation
subtract easterly variation
{
and
add easterly variation
when working from magnetic to true
subtract westerly variation
It is said that it was Christopher Columbus in 1492 who first discovered that as he sailed
farther west the magnetic north shown by his compass differed more and more from true
north. Since he did not understand magnetic variation this worried him greatly. It was not
until 1831 that Sir James Clark Ross located the then precise position of the magnetic
north pole in the Canadian Arctic, west of the Boothia Peninsula. Since then the pole has
continued to wander.....
Magnetic deviation
As we have seen, a magnetic compass depends upon the earth's magnetic field and if uninfluenced by other
disturbing forces will align itself with the magnetic north pole. A boat's compass, however, is
usually influenced by other forces. It can be affected by the close proximity of ferrous metal
(particularly large masses such as the engine), electrical circuits and electronic equipment containing
magnets. All of these produce influences which may cause the compass needle to deflect away from
magnetic north. The angle of deflection is called magnetic deviation and is measured east or west of
magnetic north.
The compass used by the helmsman on a boat is known as the steering compass. This is in a fixed position
on board.
The best way to reduce deviation in a steering compass is to have it adjusted by a professional
compass adjuster. Most modern compasses contain tiny bar magnets which can be rearranged around the
compass to compensate for deviation. This is a skilled job during which the adjuster will
manoeuvre the boat round in a circle in the procedure known as swinging the compass, in an attempt to
reduce the deviation to a minimum. Any remaining deviation will be tabulated for each compass
heading in a deviation table such as that shown.
21
Marine compasses
Siting a Magnetic Steering Compass
It should be apparent that on a yacht considerable deviation may be expected, unless the
compass is sited in the best possible position on board. Obviously, a steering compass must be in such a
position that it can be seen easily from the helm, but with the elimination or reduction of deviation in mind,
the following factors should also apply to the location of any compass:
• The compass should be sited on the centre line of the yacht, since the effect of symmetrically
disposed iron and steel will then tend to cancel out.
• The lubber line must be accurately aligned with the yacht's fore-and-aft line.
• All compasses should be sited as far away as possible from iron and steel, especially movable iron
and steel (eg running rigging, gas bottles, buckets, beer cans, tin mugs, knives etc).
• An iron bucket placed about 2 feet away from a compass can produce deviations up to 15º. On a
steel yacht the compass should be sited as high above the deck as practicable and never within the
hull, since a steel hull 'screens' the compass from the earth's magnetic field.
• Similarly, all compasses should be sited as far away as possible from electronic equipment because
this (especially loudspeakers) generates strong magnetic fields as can the AC wiring supplying it.
• Electric wiring carrying direct current also generates a magnetic field. The positive and negative
leads of DC wiring in the vicinity of a compass must therefore be laid side by side so that the field
of one lead cancels that of the other.
The minimum distance from magnetic materials is:
• 1.2 metres (4ft) from fixed magnetic material and other compasses
• 1.8 metres (6ft) from movable magnetic material
• 0.9 metre (3ft) from switches, headphones, loudspeakers, ammeters and other instruments
containing magnets.
In practice it is virtually impossible to satisfy all the above conditions, but the final position selected should
be the best possible compromise.
In a wooden or GRP yacht a well-sited compass may have very little deviation if the engine and iron keel
are far enough away, and precautions are taken to prevent metal objects or portable radios being left
carelessly near it. In this context, objects on the person have been known to upset the compass if the wearer
is close to the compass, eg jack knife, steel buckle on belt or safety harness, even steel-rimmed spectacles.
Having removed all possible influences from the vicinity of the compass it is still necessary to compensate
for any deviation remaining and have a deviation table drawn up - this is best done by a professional
compass adjuster as described earlier.
22
Marine compasses
Variation Rule
True Mag +W variation

-E variation
Mag True -W variation
+E variation
Use
True Virgins Make Dull Companions

a a e o
r g v m
Or
Cadburys Dairy Milk Very Tasty

o e a a r
m v g r u
p e
Deviation Rule
Mag Comp + W deviation
- E deviation
Comp Mag - W deviation
+ E deviation
The Hand-Bearing Magnetic Compass
Later in this course it will be shown that the

most accurate method of fixing the position
of a yacht when at sea is by taking the
compass bearing of one or more distant
landmarks such as a lighthouse, headland,
church tower or radio mast, and then
plotting these bearings on a navigational
chart.
Few yacht steering compasses are

positioned to enable that compass to be
used for this purpose with any ease so that,
for taking bearings of landmarks, buoys and
other vessels in the vicinity, a separate
hand-held magnetic compass is used
(illustrated in fig 15).
Figure 15
23
Marine compasses
Modern designs of hand-bearing compass have optics arranged to eliminate parallax errors and can be
carried on a lanyard round the neck.
Since it is not fitted in a permanent position, there is usually no deviation table for a hand-
bearing compass so it must be used in positions on board the yacht where there is negligible deviation, ie
well away from rigging and all the other adverse influences described previously. It will, however, be subject
to variation, so that any bearings taken with a hand-bearing compass are magnetic bearings (ºM).
To take a bearing of a landmark, say a beacon as in fig 15, the HB compass is held close to the eye and the
beacon aligned with the reflected compass card. When the card stops swinging the bearing under the
beacon is read; this is the magnetic bearing of the beacon from the boat, in this case 065ºM.
Taking accurate bearings with an HB compass requires practice. The commonest mistake is to rush the
process. The card may take as many as 10-15 seconds to settle, and if insufficient time is allowed for it to
do so, inaccurate bearings will result.
You should now be able to:
• recognise the need for a compass as an onboard direction reference
• recount the principles of the magnetic compass and its alignment with
the magnetic meridian
• interpret the printing on a compass card and explain the need for the
lubber line
• define magnetic variation and associate it with earth's magnetism
• describe a compass rose and account for the annual rate of change of
variation
• define magnetic deviation and account for its causes
• show that deviation changes with each change of course and relate
this to a deviation card
• state the need for a hand-bearing (HB) compass and explain its use

1. Correct the following true bearings to magnetic bearings
Bearing Variation
(a) 217ºT 6ºW
(b) 144ºT 5ºE
(c) 356ºT 10ºW
2. Correct the following magnetic bearings to true bearings
Bearing Variation
(a) 359ºM 4ºE
(b) 032ºM 3ºW
(c) 177ºM 7ºE Answers on page 47
24
4. Distance, time and speed at sea
Nautical units of distance and speed
We discussed the navigational dimension of direction in chapter 2 and we will now introduce two more
important elements, those of distance and time.
The navigational unit of length is the sea mile which is defined as the length of one minute of arc (1' )
measured in a north-south direction in the latitude of the position in which we are 'working'. If you will refer
back to figure 5 of this module you will see that each graduation of 1' on the (vertical) latitude scale now
represents one sea mile. Thus the direct link between measurement of arc (1' of latitude) and the
measurement of distance (one sea mile) is helpful because on British Admiralty charts such as RYA Chart
3 the latitude graduation forms a scale of sea miles. (We shall explain this more fully in module 3.)
So the sea mile is denoted ' which is also the symbol of a minute of arc. It can also be expressed as M (so
that 'ten sea miles' can be written as 10M or 10').
A cable is one-tenth of a sea mile and is written as a decimal. For instance '3 cables' is 0.3M or 0'.3. 'Four
miles and three cables' would be shown as 4'.3 or 4.3M.
In figure 5 the parallel of latitude of position Y is 3 miles and 5 cables or 3.5M above the parallel of 51º00'N
and is in latitude 51º03'.5N.
Since the earth is not a perfect sphere, the length of 1' of arc varies from 1842.9m at the equator to 1861.7m
at the poles with a mean value of 1852.3m at latitude 45º. The international nautical mile is a standard
fixed length of 1852 metres, for which the accepted abbreviation is nM. Although it is strictly erroneous to
refer to sea miles as nautical miles, in normal practice the errors arising from using international nautical
miles instead of sea miles are very small. Many seamen do in fact interchange the two terms, and you will
find them used synonymously in most publications.
The unit of land measurement in the United Kingdom is the statute mile of 1760 yards (or 5280
feet) equivalent to 1609 metres. This unit is NEVER used in navigation.
Heights and depths on British charts are shown in metres. The use of feet for height and fathoms for depths
(which used to be the measuring standards employed) is obsolete and nearly all British charts have been
converted. In the United States (which does not use metric measurement) fathoms and feet are still used.
The correct abbreviation for metres is 'm'. Please note the difference: metres m, miles M.
A fathom (1.825m) is a measurement of six feet and is the length of the outstretched arms
of a man of average height. It was used when measuring depth with a hand lead and line,
and for the lengths of ropes and cables. (Old English faedm, to embrace - hence the
outstretched arms.)
The unit of speed in navigation is called the knot (abbreviated kn or kt) and, since it is necessary to
provide a fixed or standard unit for measuring speed, the knot is equal to one international nautical mile
(1852m) per hour. A vessel which is sailing at 8 knots is moving at a speed of 8 international nautical miles
per hour. Note that it is incorrect to say '8 knots per hour'; a knot is not a nautical mile and such an
expression would be equivalent to saying '8 international nautical miles per hour per hour'.
25
Distance, time and speed at sea
Time, speed and distance relationships
Among the problems most frequently encountered at sea are those involving distance, time and speed.
• After having travelled a certain distance in a certain time, what was the speed?
• Given a certain speed, how long will it take to travel a certain distance?
• After having spent a certain amount of time travelling at a given speed, what distance
was covered?
The answers to these questions can be supplied rapidly and accurately using the following formulae:
Example: A boat has travelled 20 miles in 4 hours; what was her speed?
speed = distance
time
speed = 20 = 5kts
4
Example: How long will it take a boat travelling at 5kts to cover 20 miles?
time = distance
speed
time = 20 = 4 hours
5
Example: What distance was covered by a boat travelling at 5kts for 4 hours?
distance = speed x time
distance = 4x5 = 20 miles
In the three examples above, we have used round numbers for illustrative purposes. In practice we are more
than likely to encounter something like the following examples and although the figures become more
cumbersome, the same simple formulae still apply.
Example: A boat has travelled 13½ miles in 3½ hours; what was her speed?
speed = distance
time
speed = 13.5 = 3.85kts

3.5
26
Example: How long will it take a boat travelling at 5½kts to cover 7½ miles?
time = distance
speed
time = 7.5 = 1.36 hours

5.5
Example: What distance was covered by a boat travelling at 3.3kts for 4½ hours?
distance = speed x time
distance = 3.3 x 4.5 = 14.85 miles
In the second example the answer was 1.36 hours. Although this answer is arithmetically correct, we
normally work in hours and minutes as opposed to hours and fractions of hours, so we will convert the
answer into hours and minutes in order to give us a proper concept of time. This is done simply by
multiplying by 60.
Example: 1.36 hours = 1 hour (.36 x 60 = 21.6)
= 1 hour 22 mins
To convert minutes to decimal fractions To convert decimal fractions of an hour

of an hour, divide by 60 to minutes, multiply by 60
eg 6 hours 33 mins eg 47.62 hours
33 = 0.55 0.62 x 60 = 37.2 mins

60
so 47.62 hours = 47 hours 37.2 mins
so 6 hours 33 mins
or, practically, 47 hours 37 mins
= 6.55 hours
There are times when we need to apply the speed/time/distance formulae to units that are less than a whole
hour. For instance, how far will we travel in half an hour. Again we use the same formulae but now multiply
or divide by 60 so that we arrive at an answer which is in minutes as opposed to hours.
Let us look at some more examples:
Example: What is the speed of a boat which covers 4.3 miles in 48.3 minutes?
Using the formula for speed = distance

time
Speed = 4.3 X 60 = 5.34 knots

48.3
27
Example: How many minutes and seconds will it take to travel 6.9 miles at 7.6 knots?
Using the formula for time = distance

speed
Time = 6.9 X 60 = 54.474 mins

7.6
.474 x 60 = 28 secs
Time taken to cover 6.9 miles @ 7.6 knots = 54 mins 28 secs
Example: What distance would be covered by a boat travelling at 6 knots in 43 minutes?
Using the formula for distance = speed x time
Distance = 6 X 43 = 4.3 miles covered

60
This concept of time, distance and speed is fundamental to successful navigation. If you are not too certain
of their relationship, please re-read the above section before moving on.
Speed, Time, Distance Calculations
Remember this triangle

D
S T
Speed = Distance x 60
Time
Time = Distance x 60
Speed
Distance = Speed x Time
28
Measuring distance and speed at sea
The instrument used for measuring the distance and/or speed a vessel travels through the water is called a
marine log or, for short, simply the 'log'.
As with most navigational instruments the choice of logs and speedometers is bewilderingly large, ranging
from simple towed (or trailing) logs, through hull-mounted mechanical, pressure and electronic logs to some
modern examples of high technology.
The two types most likely to be encountered in yachting are

described here.
Hull-mounted logs may be mechanical, utilising a rotor mounted

under the hull with a flexible wire drive to the display, or an electronic
counter to measure speed and distance and transmit this to a
display at the chart table or in the cockpit.
The towed log, sometimes called the patent log, consists of a

streamlined gunmetal rotator having four pitched fins and towed
from a boat by means of a patent logline. The rotator revolves at a
speed proportional to the speed of the boat through the water and
induces a constant twist into the line. The inboard end of the logline
is attached to a counter mechanism or register, in which the twist of
the line is dissipated and the number of revolutions converted into
Figure 16: Log display
miles, which are indicated on the dial of the register.
The length of logline to use depends on the average speed of the boat and the height of the register above
water level, and the maker's recommendations in this respect should clearly be followed if accurate results
are to be expected. Towed logs have been in use for over 150 years and are reasonably accurate provided
the rotator is not damaged and the logline is of the correct length.
In the 16th century speed at sea was often measured by a 'logline' run out astern and timed
against an accurate sand glass. The logline was knotted at precisely calculated intervals and
the number of knots to pass over the stern counted against the sand glass timer. In this way
speed came to be recorded in the number of 'knots'.
Figure 17: Trailing log
29
Log books
We have seen that the purpose of a marine log is to measure the distance that a boat has travelled through
the water in a measured period of time so that we can calculate her speed. This is obviously of great
importance for the navigator. By referring back to previously known or estimated positions we can use the
log information to 'work up' our present position and to make projections as to future movement.
Throughout this course, and in practice at

sea, we will have to refer to what we call the
log reading at a specified time, and work up
the distance travelled between one log
reading and another. For example, if we pass
close to a certain buoy at 0900 when the log
reads 47.4 and at 0930 the log reads 50.2,
the boat has travelled 2.8 sea miles between
0900 and 0930 (50.2 - 47.4 = 2.8). We could
take this a step further and say that if she
covered 2.8M in half an hour, she will
probably cover twice this distance, ie 5.6M
from the buoy at 1000, and if she has
travelled 5.6M in one hour, then her speed
through the water must be 5.6 knots.
Since the log reading is such an important

piece of navigational information to which a
Figure 18: Types of log book
navigator will have to refer many times in the
course of a single sea passage, it must be accurately recorded. Notes and scribbled calculations in the
margin of the chart become a dangerous muddle and loose scraps of paper will soon get mislaid. The proper
place for navigational information to be recorded is a notebook specially set aside for the purpose.
Such a navigational record book has for centuries been called the log book because, although it contains
a record of all the essential navigation information needed to allow chartwork to be checked and the boat's
position monitored, the most important piece of this information is the log reading.
There are a number of forms of yacht log book available with ruled columns and boxes for recording
information. There is a tendency for these to make provision for too much information. Simplicity is the key.
The simpler the entries the more inclined you will be to make them when you are wet, cold and possibly
seasick as well. Basic page layouts for log books for both a sailing yacht and a motor yacht are illustrated
in fig 18. If you cannot find one similar to this, you could easily draw up your own in a hard-backed exercise
book.
Everything that is of navigational interest should be logged. There is no need to write an essay in the
'Remarks' column, but we should get enough down to ensure that we will understand it a few hours on, and
that the time and log reading of each event are recorded (without these we cannot estimate the speed and
future positions).
Log books are discussed in more detail in the passage-making section towards the end of this course, but
they are introduced here to emphasise the importance of log readings and keeping accurate navigational
records.
30
You should now be able to

• appreciate the relationship between distance, speed and time
• recall that the unit of length is the sea mile and show that this is
directly related to one minute of arc of latitude
• define the length of one cable
• recognise that heights and depths are shown in metres on British

Hydrographic Office charts
• explain the unit of speed (the knot)
• use the three basic formulae listed in the calculation of speed, time and
distance
• recount the basic features of the marine log
• understand the need for a properly compiled logbook.
31
5. Measuring the depth of water
Sounding leads and lines
More often than not the land closest to us is directly below the keel so it is vital that we always know the
depth of water in which our vessel is floating. A measurement of the depth of water is called a sounding,
measured in metres. Since the early 1970s the British Hydrographic Office, the world's greatest chart
producer, has been converting depths on its charts from the obsolescent fathoms-and-feet to metric
measure. This work is now nearly complete.
The simplest method of taking a sounding in shallow water is with a pole and for this reason
barge-poles, bearing-off spars and boat-hooks should be marked off in metres and decimetres. In deeper
water, soundings are taken with a lead and line or by echo-soundings.
For yachting purposes, a hand lead line suitable for measuring depths up to 20 metres
traditionally consists of a 25 metre length of line with a long eye-splice at one end to which the lead is
attached. The lead consists of a tapered bar of lead weighing about 3 kilos (7lbs). The base of the lead is
hollowed out into a 'score' which can be filled with tallow or soap if a sample of the sea bed is required. This
process is known as arming the lead so that the sand, shells, gravel or whatever the sea bed is composed
of can adhere to the tallow and be recognised when the lead is recovered. This is then compared with the
sea-bed characteristics shown on the chart and can be useful when trying to check your position in fog, or
in locating a suitable place in which to anchor. Most lead lines bought from chandlers today will be a nylon
line marked every metre with a red mark and every 5 or 10 metres with a black mark. The traditional marks
are as follows, although they are infrequently seen today (fig 19).
At 2 metres - two strips of leather

At 3 and 13 metres - a piece of blue bunting
At 5 and 15 metres - a piece of white bunting
At 7 and 17 metres - a piece of red bunting
At 10 metres - a piece of leather with a hole in it
At 20 metres - a piece of leather with a hole in it and two leather strips
Figure 19: Lead lines
Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835 - 1910) was first a printer and later became a
Mississippi riverboat pilot. Eventually he became a famous author and he took his
pseudonym from his riverboat days when he would hear the leadsman, sounding in
shallow places, call the leadline mark for two fathoms. The call was ‘by the Mark Twain’.
32
Measuring the depth of water
The echo-sounder
An electronic method of measuring soundings is by means of an

echo-sounder, of which there are a bewildering array of models
available on the yachting market. Regardless of whether an
echo-sounder is fitted or not, a hand lead and line should always
be carried, since a prudent navigator regards all electronic
devices merely as aids to navigation on account of their
dependence on electrical power (which can fail) and their
complicated circuitry (also liable to fault, usually at the most
inopportune moment).
The echo-sounder is based on the principle that since the

velocity of sound in sea water is known, the interval of time
between the transmission of a sound from a vessel's hull and the
reception of its echo is proportional to the depth of water under
the hull, and therefore the total depth of water can be determined.
Early echo-sounders were sonic but most sets today are
supersonic, the transmission taking the form of a series of
supersonic impulses (the term supersonic is used here to
describe impulses whose vibrations are above the range of
audible sound).
Most models of echo-sounder combine the transmitter and

receiver in a single unit mounted on the inside of the hull called
Figure 20: The echo-sounder
a transducer (see fig 20). Impulses are directed downwards
from the hull and a percentage of the returning echo pulses from the sea bed enter the transducer where
they are converted into electrical oscillations, amplified and passed to a display instrument which indicates
the depth of water. It should be remembered that an echo-sounder shows the depth below the position of
the transducer and that the distance this is fitted below water level must be added to the depth indicated on
the display to obtain the correct sounding.
On a sailing yacht, consideration should be given to fitting two transducers, one on each side of the keel,
because when the yacht is heeling steeply when sailing on a tack a single transducer fitted on the windward
side of the keel would not be sending impulses directly to the sea bed. With transducers fitted on either side
of the keel, the leeward one, which will be pointing more or less vertically downwards, can always be used
in these circumstances. Switches are available which, working under gravity, automatically switch from
windward to leeward transducer.
33
Soundings, depths and heights
It is important to have a clear

understanding of just what depth the
echo-sounder (or lead-line) is
measuring. Fig 21 gives an idea of the
levels that are involved and should be
referred to when reading the text
below.
The numbers displayed all over the

sea area of a navigational chart are
the depths (or soundings) below a
level we call chart datum (level B on
fig 21). Chart datum on all modern
charts is approximately the lowest
astronomical tide (LAT) - the lowest
level to which the tide will fall owing to
astronomical influences.
Thus charts show the least depth of

Figure 21: Tidal levels water to be expected in all normal
circumstances, ie the difference
between levels B and C on fig 21. This depth is supplemented by the actual height of tide. The important
point to appreciate here is that the depth of water in which our boat is floating will not be the depth indicated
by the chart for the boat's position, but that depth plus the height of tide for that particular time. For example,
if we were in a position marked on the chart as having a depth of 4m and the height of tide was 5m, then
the actual depth that we would experience would be 9m.
The reason why we relate depths to a fixed datum is because sea level does not remain static. The sea
level shown at H is constantly ranging up and down between high water and low water (twice per day within
the UK). Nor are successive high waters and low waters the same height, because they vary according to
the lunar cycle. We must therefore have a fixed level to which we apply the height of tide, to find our actual
depth for any given time. How to find this height of tide will be demonstrated later in this course.
On metric charts depths are shown in metres and tenths of metres (decimetres) in depths of 21 metres or
less. Where there is sufficient data, depths between 21m and 31m may be given in half metres. All other
depths are shown in whole metres. For example:
6 7 represents a depth of 6.7 metres
0 9 represents a depth of 0.9 metres
29 represents a depth of 29 metres.
Drying heights are banks and rocks which cover and uncover as the tide rises and falls (the area above
D on fig 21 is one such bank). On metric charts the height of drying banks and rocks in metres and
decimetres above chart datum is shown by underlined figures. For example:
0 indicates a bank or rock which dries 0.9m (9 decimetres) above chart datum
9
3 indicates a bank or rock which dries 3 metres above chart datum.
Note that if the bank at D dried at 3m then, as the height of tide in fig 21 is 5m, as the boat passed over D
there would only be a depth of water of 2m.
34
All charted information relating to depths and drying heights is measured from chart datum (CD), so that
• depths are measured below CD
• drying heights are measured above CD
both being shown in metres and decimetres.
All heights on charts (other than drying heights), ie heights of buildings, lighthouses, masts, towers, hills,
mountains, etc, are measured in metres, not from chart datum, but from a level known as height datum.
Height datum is taken to be the average height of high water at springs (a time of the month when high water
is at its highest) known as mean high water springs (MHWS). In the case of lighthouses this height is
measured to the focal plane (centre of the lens) of the light as shown in fig 21, and not to the top of the
structure itself.
In this section we have introduced a number of terms and concepts that we will explain in greater detail as
the course progresses. At this stage it is important to remember only that
• depths and drying heights are measured from a level known as chart datum
• the height of buildings and land is measured from a level known as mean high water springs
(MHWS) or height datum.
If ever you are uncertain about these levels, you can refresh your memory by referring to any chart. All charts
have confirmation of these two levels printed on them under the title plate. On chart RYA 3 the notes
concerning depths and heights are shown here, together with other relevant information.
You should be able to
• recognise the importance of being able to measure the depth of the water
beneath the vessel at all times
• appreciate that the echo-sounder, while a very useful navigational

instrument, is an aid and liable to failure
• realise the necessity to carry a hand lead line as back-up to the echo-sounder
• recall the working principles of the echo-sounder
• define the principal levels used in tidal work namely chart datum and mean
high water springs
• use CD and MHWS to explain drying heights, charted depths (soundings) and
heights of features on land
• explain that height of tide should be added to the charted depth to produce
the actual depth of water.
35
1. How long will it take to sail
(a) 4.9 miles at 5.5 knots?

(b) 53.2 miles at 18.3 knots?
2. What is the speed of a boat if it
(a) covers 7.8 miles in 1 hour 20 minutes?

(b) covers 3.9 miles in 54 minutes?
3. How far would a boat travel
(a) in 39 minutes at 15.5 knots?

(b) in 2.3 hours at 4.9 knots?
4. If a boat passes a beacon at 1600 when her log reads 137.7 and later passes a buoy at 1630
when her log reads 141.1, what was the boat's probable speed through the water?
5. How should a modern hand lead line be marked at
(a) 10 metres ? (b) 13 metres?
6. If an echo-sounder indicates a depth of 4.2 metres and its transducer is 0.8 metre below water
level, what is the actual depth of water?
7. From what level are
(a) soundings on a chart measured?

(b) heights of tide measured?
(c) drying heights measured?
(d) heights of buildings measured?
8. On a metric chart, what depth of water would there be at each of the following soundings if the
height of tide were 3 metres above the level of chart datum:
(a) 5 2 (b) 1 9 (c) 23 (d) 32
Answers on page 48
36
6. Charts and chartwork equipment
Introduction to navigational charts
A chart is a mariner's map. The difference between a map and a chart is that a map deals with land and
shows little or no detail of the sea, whereas a chart is exactly the reverse. The navigator is only interested
in the land to see the lie of the coastline and to see where prominent objects are that will help identify the
vessel's position. But we need to know about the depth of water, the location of rocks and sandbanks, about
buoys, beacons and lights that will help us find our way. So a chart is filled with detail over its sea area whilst
much of the land area is comparatively blank.
The Hydrographic Department of the Ministry of Defence is the largest and most important publisher of
charts in the United Kingdom - they produce over 6000 of them, covering the world, and these are available
from Admiralty chart agents situated in most ports and large cities in the UK, and at principal ports around
the world.
A catalogue of Admiralty charts of the British Isles and adjacent waters (NP 109) is available free from most
chart agents. Many of the charts covering European waters are available in Small Craft editions, which are
based upon standard Admiralty charts but contain information of specific interest to smaller boats.
A limited series of yachting charts (based mainly on Admiralty charts) is produced by Imray, Laurie, Norie
and Wilson Ltd and is available through yacht chandlers and bookshops.
RYA training charts are examples of Admiralty charts. They will be referred to as RYA chart 3 and RYA chart
4.
Warning - RYA charts 3 and 4 are compilations produced from several Admiralty charts. Many of the
geographical positions and features shown are fictitious. On no account should real-life
navigational passages be planned or conducted from these charts.
When a large area of the earth's surface is represented, the chart is said to be a small-scale chart. These
are used mainly for sea or ocean crossings to enable the navigator to plan a route and plot the position, and
only the most important lighthouses and radio aids are marked on the coastlines.
When approaching land and navigating offshore along a coastline, a medium-scale chart (or coastal chart)
is used. This shows more detail, sufficient for this type of coastal navigation.
A large-scale chart, such as RYA chart 3, depicts a much smaller area in considerable detail, indicating the
nature of the coastline, depths of water close to the coast and every land feature visible from the sea to help
the navigator to approach a harbour or anchorage as safely as possible.
Some medium scale charts also include large scale plans of harbours that may be covered by the area of
the chart. Fig 22 and 22a shows a portion of a medium scale chart as well as a portion of the larger scale
harbour plan. It can be seen how much more detail is included in the larger scale portion.
37
Charts and chartwork equipment
Figure 22
A chart is a representation of a portion of the earth's curved surface projected on to a flat piece of paper.
There are several ways of doing this but the main type of projection used for sea navigation is the Mercator
projection. RYA chart 3 uses this projection.
The great advantage of a Mercator chart to the navigator is that a straight line cuts each meridian at the
same angle so that true bearings and true courses along the line will remain unchanged along its length.
However, parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude appear as parallel lines at right angles. In reality
we know that this is not true because, on a globe, meridians of longitude meet at the north and south poles.
Figure 22a
To compensate for the east-west distortion so caused, the parallels of latitude are spaced increasingly
further apart as the distance from the equator increases. This can be seen clearly in the Mercator chart
illustrated in fig 23.
38
The vertical scale on the left and right hand sides of a chart is the latitude scale and this is used for
measuring distances because (as shown earlier in this module) one minute of latitude is equivalent to one
sea mile. The horizontal scale along the top and bottom of a chart is the longitude scale and this must
never be used for measuring distances.
Although the latitude scale is used for measuring distance, this must always be measured level with the
boat's position because the latitude scale increases towards the poles.
Figure 23: The Mercator projection
This point is illustrated in fig 24 which represents a Mercator projection and shows the parallels of
latitude spaced at increasing intervals towards the north pole. As you can see, the distances from B to C
and from D to E are noticeably different when using the dividers but represent the same distance (5º x 60'
= 300 miles) when measured on the scale of the chart.
Thus when measuring the distance between, say B and C, that part of the scale which is immediately
adjacent to that area should be used, in this case between 25º and 30º. When measuring the distance
between D and E, this is done between latitudes 35º and 40ºN.
If this rule is not adhered to, errors will occur because of the changing scale according to latitude.
Figure 24:The increasing latitude scale on Mercator charts

Variations on Mercator's projection are frequently used, RYA training chart 4, for instance, being charted
in 'Transverse Mercator'. Some very large-scale harbour plans, trans-ocean charts and charts of very
high latitudes (which obviously cannot be represented in Mercator's projection) are constructed on the
gnomonic projection.
39
The depths of water (soundings) are indicated all over the sea area of a navigational chart in the
manner described earlier in this module. Depth contours are lines joining certain soundings of equal depth,
thus giving a general picture of the seabed. In general, metric charts are tinted blue up to the 5-metre
contour line, with a ribbon of blue tint on the shallow side of the 10-metre contour line, but this may differ
according to the scale of the chart.
A description of the quality of the sea bottom is given on most charts by letters placed below certain of the
soundings, eg gyM (grey mud), soCy (soft clay). In general, capital letters are used for names and small
letters for descriptive words. The value of this information lies in the ability to compare your own specimen
of the sea bottom (taken by arming the hand lead) with that given on the chart. This can be a valuable clue
to position in thick or foggy weather, and in selecting a suitable place in which to anchor. The most important
of these abbreviations are:
S Sand Cy Clay f fine

M Mud P Pebbles c coarse
R Rock St Stones so soft
Sn Shingle Ck Chalk h hard
Sh Shells Wd Weed sm small
The standard symbols and abbreviations used on Admiralty charts are listed and illustrated in the
Admiralty booklet NP5011. This booklet is an important reference tool and you are encouraged to
study its content and layout. The contents are listed in sections which are prefixed alphabetically
from A to X, e.g. Section K relates to rocks, wrecks and obstructions whilst Section E deals with
landmarks as illustrated in the text at the bottom of page 47. You are not required to recognise all
the symbols and abbreviations contained within NP5011 (although many will soon become old
friends), but you must know where to look them up.
The RYA Training Almanac includes certain of these symbols and abbreviations on pages 6 to 9
which are referred to in both the NMCS and RYA tests and assessments. We strongly recommend
that you obtain a copy of NP 5011 which may be purchased from the NMCS Supplies Shop.
Certain of the more important abbreviations and symbols must be understood before navigation can be
practised on charts, and these will now be discussed.
DANGERS
Rocks Underwater rock over which the depth is unknown but
which is considered dangerous to surface navigation.
Rock awash at level of chart datum
Wrecks Submerged wreck, depth unknown, considered

dangerous to surface navigation
Submerged wreck, depth unknown, not considered

dangerous to surface navigation
Wreck showing any portion of hull or superstructure at the level

of chart datum
Submerged wreck over which the depth has been obtained by

sounding (eg 4.6 metres) but not by wire sweep
The remains of a wreck or other foul area not dangerous to

surface navigation, but to be avoided by vessels anchoring,
trawling etc
Other Overfalls and tide-rips, races (discussed in module 5 Tides

Dangers and Tidal Streams)
Eddies
40
Abbreviations which may be used in conjunction with any of the above danger symbols are:
(PA) Position approximate

(PD) Position doubtful
(ED) Existence doubtful
Repd Reported
LIGHTS AND LIGHTHOUSES

The position of a navigation light or lighthouse on a chart is denoted by a star symbol thus:
To make this symbol more readily distinguishable from a vast amount of data printed in black on the chart,
it is overprinted with a magenta-colour, pear-shaped flash. Alongside this symbol will be found an
abbreviated description of the light. A full description of the various types of navigational light and the
abbreviations used for them will be given later in this course.
LIGHT VESSELS, LIGHT FLOATS, BUOYS AND BEACONS

Light vessels and light floats are depicted as shown on the right. The actual position is
denoted by the small circle in the base of the symbol and the name of the station is printed
alongside.
Unlit buoys are depicted as follows according to shape
Underneath each buoy there is an abbreviation indicating the colour of the buoy, as follows:
B black Y yellow G green

R red BW black and white and so on.
If the buoy is fitted with a light, a magenta flash is depicted either on top of the buoy or
below it.
Buoys may be fitted with fog signals such as a bell (abbrev Bell), a whistle (Whis), a gong (Gong) or a horn
(Horn).
Unlit beacons are depicted as on general charts, or etc. on larger scale charts
Lighted beacons are normally shown by means of a light-star, magenta flash and abbreviated light
description.
A superbuoy is a buoy of very large diameter (12m or more) which may be a large automatic
navigational buoy (Lanby) or a mooring buoy for very large ships. Shown thus:
The ODAS (Ocean Data Acquisition System) buoy shown south of WEST POINT on RYA 3 is another,
specialised superbuoy.
LANDMARKS Symbols used for depicting landmarks which can be identified from seaward are particularly
useful to learn in order to identify landmarks of which bearings can be taken for position fixing. These
symbols are currently being updated, but may be found in either format depending on the age of the chart.
41
SEA TRAFFIC SEPARATION SCHEMES (TSS) have been established in many areas of the world where
shipping is dense. They are indicated on charts in magenta; the Lawrence Channel TSS is shown on RYA
Chart 3 with the central shaded separation area bounded on either side by the shipping routes, the
direction of traffic flow indicated by the magenta arrows. Although intended for large vessels, small craft
navigators must be aware of the existence of TSS and, so far as practicable, keep clear of them. If the TS
routes must be crossed, the rules for doing so are laid down in Rule 10 of the International Regulations
for Preventing Collision at Sea (IRPCS).
Examination of Chart RYA 3

We are going to conclude our introduction to charts with a more detailed look at Chart RYA 3. Don't try to
learn or to remember all of these points at our first acquaintance 'visit' but please do look at all the features
mentioned. This will make it easier, as the course continues, to return to the chart and find them again
when needed even if they have been forgotten in the intervening period. Please note:
1. The title plate towards bottom centre of the chart and the notes beneath it, particularly the warning
that the chart is not to be used for navigation, that the depths are shown in metres below chart
datum and that heights are above chart datum if drying heights but, otherwise, above mean high
water springs (MHWS). (Beware! Some special symbols denote height above ground level.)
2. The use of IALA Maritime Buoyage System - Region B (red to starboard) for navigational marks
in the Neptune Islands.
3. The inscription giving the date of publication in the centre of the bottom margin of the chart.
4. The Admiralty catalogue number 'RYA TRAINING CHART 3' in the top-left and bottom-right hand
corners.
5. The latitude scale along the left-hand and right-hand borders. You will see that this ranges from
latitude 45º37'.00N to latitude 46º30'.00N as we move from south to north. The scale increases
in value upwards because the area covered by the chart is north of the equator.
6. The longitude scale along the top and bottom borders - you will see that this ranges from
longitude 005º35'.00W at the right-hand side to 006º25'.00W at the left. The scale increases in
value westwards because we are west of the Greenwich (prime) meridian. We must always take
care to read latitude and longitude in the correct direction -
Latitude upwards in the northern hemisphere
Latitude downwards in the southern hemisphere
Longitude from left to right when east of Greenwich
Longitude from right to left when west of Greenwich.
7. The latitude graduations on this chart are for one minute (1') of latitude each subdivided into 5
equal parts of twelve seconds (12") and this, as on all charts, is also the scale of distance, each
minute (1') of latitude being equal to 1 sea mile, so that each of the smallest divisions on the
latitude scale of this chart represents 0.2 of a sea mile.
To read the latitude of Richard's Rock north of S. Helen's Island close to the right hand border of
your chart you will see that it is situated at the second of the smallest
divisions and three full divisions above the parallel of latitude drawn across the chart at 45º50'.0N.
We would therefore write its latitude as 45º53'.4N or 45º53'24"N (fig 25).
42
45º53’.4N
Figure 25: Latitude of Richard's Rock
8. The meridians have been drawn vertically at 5º40'W, 5º50'W, 6º00'W, 6º10'W and 6º20'W. Parallels
of latitude have been drawn at 45º40'N, 45º50'N, 46º00'N and at 10' intervals until the northernmost
at 46º20'N. These are to aid us in measuring our position without unduly cluttering the chart. Extra
longitude scales have been provided at latitude 45º50'N and 46º10'N, and a further latitude scale is
shown at longitude 6º00'W. These can be very helpful when a large chart is folded onto a small chart
table.
9. That the longitude scale is not the same as the latitude scale and must never be used for
measuring distances.
10. Position on the chart can be described by use of the latitude and longitude scales, but distance on
the chart can be measured on the latitude scale only. Angles (such as courses and bearings) can
be measured by means of the compass roses, of which there are four on this particular chart. The
centre of the true graduations on each rose is denoted by a circle with a dot in the middle, and by
aligning a parallel or roller ruler between the centre dot and the required graduation on the rose, a
true bearing or course can be plotted or read off the chart. How to do this is described in NMCS
module 3.
11. How navigational lights (star symbols) are made more conspicuous by magenta-coloured flashes.
Lightfloats and light-buoys have the magenta flash from the small circle in their base (which is their
actual position). Radar navigation aids are also made conspicuous by having magenta circles drawn
around them. An example is Louisa Rks lighthouse off Stevenstown where there is a Radar
transponder beacon, with morse identification, responding within the 3cm (X) band.
12. The depth soundings distributed over the sea area of the chart. On this chart they are in metres
(under 21 metres in metres and decimetres) below the level of chart datum, but some underlined
figures are drying heights above chart datum (on green background). Note also the depth contour
lines on the chart, and the nature of the seabed denoted by abbreviations under and between
certain soundings.
13. The 'Notices to Mariners' entry bottom left-hand corner, beneath the black margin line. Small
corrections are published in the Admiralty Notices to Mariners and show the year of publication
followed by the serial number of the correction.
43
14. The six rectangular outlines at various localities on the chart. These show the areas covered
by the larger-scale chart RYA 4. Care must be taken not to confuse the sides of these
rectangles with parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude - remember the chart limit lines
are printed in magenta while the parallels and meridians are printed in black.
15. The various notices and warnings on the land areas towards the upper and lower borders.
16. The tidal levels reference table extreme bottom-centre.
17. The sixteen small lettered diamonds etc, printed in magenta at various points
across the entire sea area of the chart. These are the positions at which observations of the
tidal streams have been made and details of these observations are given in the tables in the
top centre of the chart. Use of this data is fully described in NMCS module 5.
18. The traffic separation schemes in the Lawrence and Farlow channels.
Personal checklist
(on completion of the first two sections of chapter 6)
You should now have an awareness, an outline knowledge of the Admiralty

chart and its various components but do not worry if you cannot remember
much of it at this stage. All the important items will be dealt with in detail as your
course progresses but, if you have time to do so, please re-read chapter 6
sections one and two in the near future.
44
Equipment for plotting on charts
In the next navigation lesson of this course (NMCS module 3) you are going to take your first steps in
chartwork. Chartwork consists of plotting and drawing points (representing positions) and lines
(representing directions, ie courses and bearings), and measuring distances. To help the navigator do this
quickly and accurately a number of instruments have been evolved for measuring angles and distances, and
for drawing parallel lines.
As for other aspects of navigation, there are many different ways of doing this, and the same job can often
be done with a variety of different instruments. Which one to use depends more on the training and
preference of the user than in any inherent advantage of one instrument over another. You will develop your
own approach, but you should at least be familiar with other methods in case you find yourself navigating a
boat that does not carry your favourite tools.
Experience is the only true guide to making a final individual decision on which instruments to use;
various instruments are preferred by different people to a degree which makes a firm recommendation
difficult. To assist you we provide below a description of most of the major chart plotting instruments and
ancillary equipment. They should all be purchased on the basis of their quality and accuracy. It is a mistake
to buy cheap, flimsy and inaccurate instruments for navigational work.
1. Pencils for chartwork should be of good quality with soft leads (grade 2B is the best) and hexagonal
in shape (round ones roll off the chart too easily). All lines and marks should be drawn lightly for
easy erasure after use. Harder leads than 2B dig into a chart and are difficult to erase. Good charts
are not cheap and you will want to plot on them again and again. Soft leads do wear down quickly
and buying a box of 2B pencils is a good investment.
2. Pencil sharpener should always be ready to hand since the soft pencils recommended above soon
blunt or break and you need sharp accurate lines and figures on your chart.
3. Erasers are essential to remove errors and to clean off a chart after use. Two or three soft, good
quality erasers are recommended. The 2B pencil lines drawn on a chart can sometimes smear when
rubbed and it is for this reason we recommend they are always drawn lightly. Keep erasers as dry
as possible and avoid using them on wet charts as this tends to rub off the top layer of paper and
the print.
4 Chart dividers (fig 26) are required for measuring

distances and scales on a chart and, to avoid
frustration, should be at least 150 to 175mm (6 or 7
inches) long for navigation purposes. Good dividers for
marine use are made of brass with stainless steel
points. These points should be sharp enough to catch
the surface of the chart without digging in and making
holes. As fig 26 shows, there are two kinds of dividers.
Some people like the old bow or single-handed dividers
(left), but the straight or plain ones right) are just as
good and with a little practice can also be used with one
hand.
5. Chart (pencil) compasses at least 150mm (6 inches)

long are required for drawing arcs (such as ranges of Figure 26: Chart dividers
lights), circles and general chart plotting work. It will pay
to buy a good pair with soft pencil-leads incorporated
rather than the child's school type in which an ordinary pencil is inserted. Equally unsuitable are the
draughtsman's bow compasses which are adjusted by turning a screw since this takes too long to
alter. Keep the pencil lead in the compasses sharp - preferably wedge-shaped or chisel point. A
piece of sandpaper, or even a matchbox, is useful to fine the edge.
45
Portland course plotter (fig 27) is a variant of the Breton plotter. This instrument is made from
transparent acrylic and is 350mm (14") in length by 130mm (5¼") in width. By aligning the ruling
edge with a course or bearing on the chart and turning the circular protractor north-up so that the
central grid is coincident with the nearest meridian (vertical line) or parallel (horizontal line) printed
on the chart, the direction can be read off instantly without moving the straight edge away from the
required course or bearing (ie without 'walking' or 'rolling' the instrument).
A directional arrow helps to prevent accidental reading of reciprocal values, that is to say reading
180º in error. Provided that its extra features (which can be confusing) are disregarded it is a useful
tool.
Figure 27
1. What is the difference between
(a) a map and a chart?

(b) a small-scale and a large-scale chart?
(c) a sounding and a depth contour?
(d) plain and single-handed chart dividers?
2. What are the 4 principal properties of a Mercator projection chart?
3. Give three uses of a chart on the gnomonic projection.
4. (a) Of what value is chart information on the nature of the sea bottom?
(b) What would be the nature of the sea bottom at the following abbreviations?
(i) cS (ii) soM (iii) syCy (iv) bkSh
Answers on page 49
46
7. Answers to exercises
These self-test exercises form student assignments for your course . You should work through the exercises
carefully, marking them with the model answers and marks which follow. If necessary, refer again to the text
of this module and repeat the exercises. Record your final results on the assignment report card provided.

1. Y is in lat 51º03'.5N long 01º55'.6E
Z is in lat 50º59'.9N long 01º58'.1E 10 marks
2. Impossible because latitude cannot exceed 90º and longitude cannot exceed 180º
5 marks
3. Incorrectly written because the minute ' symbol should precede the decimal point
5 marks
4. Correct in all respects 2 marks
5. Correct in all respects 3 marks
6. 50º10'.8N 04º51'.9W 5 marks
7. 23º49'.25S 19º22'.05E 5 marks
8. 51º28'24"N 01º29'54"E 5 marks
9. 50º01'06"N 04º59'33"W 5 marks
10. 05º13'12"S 58º31'45"E 5 marks
Total marks = 50
1. (a) 223ºM (b) 139ºM (c) 006ºM (356 + 10 = 366 = 006)6 marks
2. (a) 003ºT (b) 029ºT (c) 184ºT 6 marks
Total marks = 12
47
Answers to exercises
1. (a) 4.9 x 60 = 53.45 minutes = 53 (.45 x 60) = 53 mins 27 secs

5.5 4 marks
(b) 53.2 = 2.91 hours (0.91 x 60 = 54.6 mins)

18.3
= 2 hours 54.6 minutes = 2 hours 54 mins 36 secs 4 marks
2. (a) Speed = 7.8 x 60

80 = 5.85 kn
(b) Speed = 3.9 x 60

54 = 4.33 kn 8 marks
3. (a) 15.5 x 39
60 = 10.08 miles
(b) 4.9 x 138

60 = 11.27 miles 8 marks
4. 141.1 - 137.7 = 3.4 miles in ½ hour

or
6.8 miles in 1 hour = 6.8 knots 5 marks
5. (a) black mark (b) red mark 2 marks
6. 4.2 + 0.8 = 5 metres 3 marks
7. (a) below chart datum

(b) above chart datum
(c) above chart datum
(d) above MHWS (mean high water springs) 8 marks
8. (a) 5.2m + 3m height of tide = 8.2m depth

(b) 3m tide less 1.9m drying height = 1.1m depth
(c) 23m + 3m tide = 26 metres depth
(d) 3m tide less 3.2 m drying height = no water 8 marks
Total marks = 50
48

1. (a) A map depicts the land and shows little detail of the sea, whereas a chart shows the
sea in great detail but only those landmarks which are visible from the sea.
4 marks
(b) Small scale shows a large area of the earth's surface with little detail whereas
large scale shows a small area of the earth's surface in great detail.
2 marks
(c) A sounding is the depth of water at a point whereas a depth contour is a line joining
soundings of equal depth.
2 marks
(d) There is very little difference between plain and single-handed dividers other than
in appearance (see fig 30). Both can in fact be used single-handed.
2 marks
2. (a) Parallels of latitude appear as horizontal lines running E-W across chart.
3 marks
(b) Meridians of longitude appear as vertical lines running N-S down chart.
3 marks
(c) Any straight line drawn on the chart cuts each meridian at the same angle so
that true courses and bearings remain unchanged throughout length of line.
3 marks
(d) Parallels of latitude are spaced further apart as distance from equator increases.
3 marks
3. (a) Trans-oceanic passages

(b) Polar charts
(c) Very large-scale charts (harbour plans) 6 marks
4. (a) To compare own specimen of sea bottom (from arming the lead) with the chart
description to assist position finding in fog or anchorage selection.
4 marks
(b) (i) coarse sand (iii) sticky clay

(ii) soft mud (iv) broken shells
8 marks
Total marks = 40
49
50
Module 2 Basic Nautical Knowledge
Contents
1. Seamanship and safety 52

Definition of seamanship
Seamanship and safety
2. Basic nautical terms and definitions 54

The language of the sea
Terms relating to parts of a boat
Terms relating to position and direction within and outside a vessel
Terms relating to the movement of a ship or boat
Terms used in sailing
3. Types of seagoing craft 63

Small sailing craft
Small power craft
4. Principal items of a boat's equipment 65

Masts and spars
Cordage
Ground tackle
Rope securing equipment
Dinghies, yacht tenders, liferafts and safety equipment
Navigation, radio and electronic equipment
5. Miscellaneous terms relating to boats, wind, sea and weather 71
6. Self-test exercise 75
Exercise S1
Answers to exercise S1
51
1. Seamanship and Safety
Definition of seamanship
The art of sailing and handling a boat must be

based on sound knowledge not only of your own
particular boat and her behaviour, but of ships
and boats in general and the equipment they
carry, of the environment in which they sail - the
sea, rivers and estuaries, harbour and coastal
features, and of the multitude of factors, people
and organisations which constitute the sailor's
world. Too much faith in so-called 'common
sense' can lead to trouble because although
commonsense is important it must be guided by
properly acquired knowledge. This knowledge, of
ships, boats, the sea and all things connected
with them, coupled with the ability to sail and
handle your own boat constitutes seamanship.
This course will provide you with this knowledge;
practical training and, above all, experience will
provide you with the ability.
Sometimes practical experience indicates that a

particular situation was badly handled, and this
may prove to illustrate how that situation could
be better resolved the next time it arises. The
school of experience is a hard school to attend
on your own, and it would be foolish to ignore the
experience of others who have gone before you.
This course gathers together a sum total of this
experience, and it is only by acquiring this
knowledge that the budding offshore sailor can
become fully aware of the many pitfalls to be
avoided and the wrinkles of which to take
advantage. Figure 1: A lighthouse
Remember that even the most experienced seaman is continually learning, or re-learning, the lessons of
the sea; there are always fresh problems, or better solutions to old ones. So if you are a beginner there is
no reason to be ashamed at asking for help or guidance on any aspect of seagoing. In fact, you will be
respected for it. The person whom professional seamen or experienced yachtsmen find hard to tolerate is
the foolhardy novice who thinks he knows it all, who will not heed advice, and who then becomes another
statistic of the coastguard or the RNLI.
52
Seamanship is synonymous with 'safety at sea'. Safety is not something to be bought as an 'extra' in the
form of man-overboard equipment, an armoury of pyrotechnic distress signals or auto-alarms which go
'bleep bleep bleep' - useful though these things may be. Safety cannot be bought at the chandlers, nor is
there any such thing as a 'safe' boat. Safety depends much more on the conduct and ability of the crew
and the individual in charge of a boat than on the boat and its equipment. Experienced yacht deliverers
sometimes nurse the most indifferent craft through dreadful weather conditions with their expertise and
seamanship. On the other hand, an inexperienced newcomer can go out in a well-designed, well-built and
well-equipped vessel in comparatively calm weather and get into trouble in no time at all. Safety is intrinsic,
something 'built-in' to the whole unit - the person and their boat.
Seamanship (and therefore safety) is, as we have shown, a combination of knowledge about the sea, boats
and their equipment - all of which we can provide in this course - and practical experience, which only you
yourself can acquire. This module aims to provide you with some essential 'background' nautical knowledge
on which a proper understanding of seamanship depends. The seaman has a multitude of terms and
expressions used daily which must seem almost like a foreign language to the newcomer, who must
therefore come to grips with this new vocabulary before he can delve deeper into the subject. A good
seaman must have a general knowledge of all types of seagoing craft, not just the type in which he intends
to sail, and he must know all the major items of a boat's equipment (the 'tools' of seamanship), and finally
he should know something about all the harbour and coastal features which constitute a sailor's
environment.
Yachting on the open sea can be hazardous, but isn't this the very reason to do it? Man has
always sought to overcome, to conquer, and the greater the danger involved the greater the
achievement in conquering. In nearly all sports there is some difficulty, some danger or
hazard to overcome; in offshore boating it is the sea - probably the greatest and most
potentially dangerous of all the elemental forces of nature, of which the great seaman and
author Joseph Conrad wrote, 'I have known the sea too long to believe in its respect for
decency'. The thrill of pitting one's skill against such a force is the great attraction of offshore
sailing, but the operative word here is 'skill'.
Those who trust purely to luck and who go to sea in small craft without the necessary
knowledge and ability are irresponsible and foolish - not just because they put their own lives
in serious danger, but because they risk the lives of those they take with them, and when they
get into difficulty, as they inevitably do, the lives of those who attempt to rescue them.
53
2. Basic Nautical Terms and Definitions
The language of the sea
This section contains some of the basic sea terms and definitions you will encounter both throughout this
course and in your practical training and experience. Some of these you may know already and many more
you will learn as the course proceeds and your experience increases.
At first sight this seemingly endless list of new terms and definitions may seem a little daunting but don't be
too alarmed if you are unable to remember them all after a single reading. Read through them a couple of
times and whenever you come across one you can't remember - look it up!
By no means all sea terms are included in this introduction - indeed it would take several large volumes to
explain all the terms which are in common use - but it is important to start with a basic vocabulary. Many
further terms will be used throughout your course, most of which we will explain whenever a new one is
introduced, but if you encounter a term which is unknown to you and which is not explained, do not hesitate
to ask your tutor its meaning.
In the terms relating to boats most are common to all types of craft, but some are peculiar to sailing boats
and others to power boats. Although those keen on sails will not require a detailed knowledge of power craft,
and power enthusiasts will not require a detailed knowledge of sailing boats, it is not wise to be too selective
at this early stage. A general knowledge of all types of craft, not merely your own, should be aimed at. Good
seamanship includes a knowledge of the working and limitations of all seagoing craft, together with an
understanding and appreciation of other seamen's problems and points of view.
Terms relating to parts of a boat
Figure 2: Parts of a yacht's hull
54
Basic nautical terms and definitions
The word yacht came from the Dutch 'jacht' and in modern usage describes a vessel used for
pleasure purposes. Quite small, decked sailing boats providing minimal accommodation for the
crew are referred to as yachts, but small power vessels under about 45ft (14 metres) in length
are more usually referred to as motor cruisers, the term motor yacht being reserved for larger
power boats.
The main body of a boat (fig 2) is

called its hull, which is divided
approximately into three - the fore
part, the midships part, and the
after part. The fore part ends in the
stem and the after part in the stern.
When standing anywhere in or on
the hull, a person is facing forward
(pronounced forrard) when he
faces the bow and facing aft when
he faces the stern.
Any line which runs lengthways in Figure 3: Positions on a boat
the boat is said to run fore-and-aft
and the line which joins the middle of the stem to the middle of the stern is called the fore-and-aft
centreline (fig 3).
The lowermost part of the hull under the bottom of a boat is called the keel. The keel of a seagoing
boat is usually fixed, but some keels can be retractable (ie, they can be drawn up into the hull) and are
called centreboards or dagger plates. The part of a hull which curves in towards the stem is called
the bow and, depending on which side is being referred to, may be called the port bow or the starboard
bow. The part of a hull which curves in towards the stern is called the quarter (port or starboard), while
the centre part of the hull is called amidships. The length of the hull extending at bow and stern
beyond the waterline is called the overhang. The lowermost part of the stem is called the forefoot.
The horizontal upper surface of the hull is called the deck or, because it is exposed, the weather deck.
The curve given to the surface of a deck so that water will drain away to the boat's side is called the
camber. The fore-and-aft curve of a deck is called the sheer or sheerline; traditionally this is lowest
amidships and rises more towards the bow than towards the stern, but a flat sheer is seen on some
boats or even a reverse sheer in some smaller craft.
When a boat is afloat, the waterline divides the hull into two parts, the topsides and the bottom. A
band of hard paint around a hull parallel to the waterline, covering the area between wind and water,
is called the boot topping. 'Between wind and water' is the term used to describe the area near the
waterline which is alternately submerged and exposed by the movement of the waves and rolling of
the vessel. The height of the deck above the waterline at any point along the hull is called the
freeboard. The depth of the keel below the waterline at any point along the hull is called the draught.
When a vessel has the same draught forward as she has aft, she is said to be on an even keel; when
she has more draught forward than aft she is said to be trimmed by the head, and when she has more
draught aft than forward she is said to be trimmed by the stern. Trim is, therefore, the relation of a
vessel's fore-and-aft axis to the horizontal.
A displacement hull is one, as the
name suggests, which pushes the
water away with its stem, and this
volume flows beneath and to the side
of the craft to emerge at the stern.
The displacement of a boat is the
volume of water which it displaces by
Figure 4: Types of hull form flotation and which is equal in weight
to the total weight of the craft.
55
A planing hull displaces the water when at rest or slow speed, but at speed the hull is lifted above the static
trim level by dynamic lift forces which almost take over from buoyancy as a means of support. This gives rise
to two types of hull form (fig 4), one where the cross-sections are round-bilge, and the other where they are
vee-bottomed or hard-chine. The chine is the angle between the topsides and bottom of vee-bottom boats
and these are usually single chine, but sometimes double chine where a fuller shape is required. Since the
round-bilge type of hull has better sea-keeping
qualities, most seagoing vessels, sail and power,
are of this type. Only a few small sailing yachts and
fast powered boats are of the hard-chine type.
The stern of the boat may either have a transom

stern or be double-ended (canoe stern). To
prevent the stern sinking at high speeds, many
motor yachts have wide flat transom sterns to
provide maximum buoyancy. Fast powerful naval
vessels have this square transom stern, as do all
speedboats.
The greatest width of the hull is called the beam.

The part of the bottom of the hull which is flat or
nearly flat is called the bilge, and the area where
this curves into the sides of the boat is called the
turn of the bilge (on a round-bilge hull); some boats
have bilge keels fitted at the turn of the bilge.
The cockpit is a well, usually in the after part of the

hull, from which a sailing yacht is controlled. Many
power boats also have a cockpit, but such craft are
Figure 5
usually controlled from a raised platform or
wheelhouse amidships.
Various types of keels found on sailing yachts are illustrated in fig 6. Each has its own merit and the choice
of keel largely depends upon the purpose for which the boat has been bought. The more
traditional long keel is found on many long-distance cruising boats where strength and directional
stability is paramount, but their design makes them difficult for close manoeuvring in busy marinas. A later
development of the long keel is the 'fin and skeg' in which the total area of the keel is reduced, but there is
still a fairly substantial fin keel and protection for the rudder by way of a skeg. Bilge keels or twin keels are
ideal for sailing areas where the range of tide is such that many harbours and anchorages dry out, leaving
the boat upright and comfortable to stay aboard. Generally, however, they will not sail as close to the wind
Figure 6
as single keel boats, and on some designs where the bilge keels are set wide apart they can be
uncomfortable when sailing to windward. A single fin keel means that when a boat dries out she will lie at an
acute angle, unless supported by a set of legs or a harbour wall. At sea she will sail closer to the wind. Lifting
keels and centreboards offer a compromise between a fin keel and a bilge keel boat, as when the keel is
retracted the boat has both a shallower draught and the ability to sit upright on its hull. This obvious
advantage can be offset by the lifting mechanism required to perform this operation, because at the very least
it will substantially intrude into the living accommodation of the boat, and it could possibly fail, resulting in a
keel which is stuck in one position.
56
Fig 7 illustrates the principal parts of a small sailing cruiser, rigged as a Bermudian sloop.
Backstays are part of the standing (fixed) rigging and in conjunction with the forestay support the mast
against fore-and-aft flexion forces set up by the sails. Running backstays (ie adjustable by
tackles or backstay levers) are sometimes used as extra support on high-masted
Bermudian rigged yachts in addition to standing backstays.
Boom is the spar holding the foot of a sail, and may be of a light alloy or wood.
Burgee is a triangular or swallow-tailed flag.
Cleats are horn-shaped fittings screwed or bolted to the deck or mast to which lines may be
secured.
Coachroof is the upper exposed surface of the doghouse or saloon.
Figure 7: Principal parts of a sailing yacht
57
Cockpit is the well in the after part of the hull from which the craft is controlled. If
self-draining, the floor should be above the waterline and deep enough to protect a crew in
bad weather.
Fairlead is a guide for rope, wire or chain. The bow fairlead (bow roller) should be large and securely
bolted so that anchor cable or warp cannot pull it out under stress. Sheet fairleads regulate
the direction of pull of the sheet and therefore the set of the sail.
Forehatch is a hatch (cover) over access to the forecabin or forepeak - a small compartment right
in the bows of a yacht for stowing stores, ropes, etc.
Forestay holds a mast upright against the forces set up by the sails.
Gooseneck is the universal joint between boom and mast.
Guardrails (or lifelines) should run from pulpit to cockpit. Usually of stainless steel wire led through
stanchions bolted to outer edge of deck.
Halyards are the lines for hoisting sails.
Jibsheets are ropes attached to the clew (the back) of the jib or headsail for controlling this sail.
Mainsheet is attached to the end of the boom for controlling the set of the mainsail and is usually of
plaited synthetic rope led through blocks for additional power.
Piston hanks are used for attaching the luff (the front) of the headsail to the forestay: a spring-loaded
plunger engages around the stay and is attached to the sail.
Pulpit a permanent tubular steel guardrail at the bow. A similar fitting at the stern is called a
pushpit.
Rudder controls the direction of the boat. Deep, narrow rudders are more effective than wide ones.
Balanced rudders have a small area of the rudder forward of the rudder post.
Samson post is a strong post on the deck for securing the anchor cable or mooring lines. It
should be fixed right through the deck and thoroughly reinforced.
Scuppers are drains in the deck for carrying away seawater washed on board.
Sheet winch is a means of providing extra power for controlling the sails.
Shrouds are part of the standing rigging used to support the mast and convert athwartship
bending forces into vertical compression ones.
Skeg (not illustrated) an extension of the hull offering protection and support for the rudder.
Spreaders (sometimes called 'crosstrees') are horizontal athwartship spars on a mast which carry the
upper shrouds to the masthead, spreading the angle for better leverage and support.
Tiller exerts a direct leverage on the rudder head and is used by the helmsman to steer the boat.
Topping lift is a supporting line between the masthead and the end of the boom to take the weight of
the boom when the sail is lowered.
Transom is the name for a flat stern extending from waterline to rail.
58
Fig 8 shows a seagoing motor cruiser of about 12 metres (40ft) length, the descriptions of the various
numbered parts being similar to those for the sailing cruiser above, except where given. The numbered parts
of the seagoing motor cruiser shown in fig 8 are:
1. Mast is much lighter than on a sailing craft (and in some power craft is non-existent). Functions can
include the support of a boom, the support of the navigation steaming light, the support of a radar
scanner, VHF and/or position fixing system aerials, or, with a horizontal yard-arm and suitable
halyards, a means of flag signalling.
Figure 8: Principal parts of a motor cruiser
2. Boom or gaff can be used to support a mizzen or staysail, or an ensign. If mast and boom are
sufficiently strong it can also be used as a derrick (crane) for lifting.
3. Wheelhouse containing all steering and engine controls - located above engine compartment.
4. Forward cabin - accommodation, galley, toilets, stores, etc.
5. After cabin - further accommodation etc.
6. Cockpit
7. Transom
8. Pulpit
9. Samson post
10. Stem
11. Forefoot
12. Rubbing strake - timber fender to protect topsides from damage when berthing.
13. Keel
14. Propeller
15. Rudder
59
Terms relating to position and direction within and outside a vessel
'Board' is the old name for a ship's side, hence the term inboard refers to anything within a boat, while the
term outboard refers to anything outside the boat's sides, whether or not it is actually attached to the boat;
for instance, on a large yacht a dinghy may be either stowed inboard or slung outboard.
To describe a position in the fore-and-aft direction in a boat you would say, for instance, 'the mast is
forward' (pronounced 'forrard') and 'the cockpit is aft'. Comparing the position of objects one with
another, the cockpit is abaft (aft of) the saloon, the pulpit is before or forward of the mast.
A position across the width or

beam of a boat is called
athwartships; a position along
the length of a boat is referred
to as fore-and-aft. Combining
the terms just described with
port and starboard, the position
Figure 9: Position of objects on board a vessel of an object on board can be
described accurately as shown
in fig 9. Examples might be 'lying fore-and-aft on the port side forward or lying athwartships on the starboard
side amidships' and so on.
The steps leading down from the cockpit to the accommodation are called the companionway and the
procedure of going down these is called going below. Ascending the companionway is going on deck.
Within a boat's hull, walls are called bulkheads, the ceiling is called the deckhead and the floor is the cabin
sole.
Figure 10: Position outside a vessel
Ahead, astern and abeam are terms used to describe the direction of an object or point of reference
outside a vessel (see fig 10). In addition, when an object is midway between ahead and abeam it is said to
bear on the bow, and when midway between abeam and astern it is said to bear on the quarter. The
expressions fine and broad may be used relative to ahead or astern; for example, an object may be fine
on the starboard bow, or broad on the port quarter (or abaft the port beam).
60
Terms relating to the movement of a ship or boat

A vessel is underway when she is not made fast (ie secured) to a buoy or quay or the shore, nor at anchor,
nor aground. When a vessel is moving through the water she is said to be making way or to have way on
her; if she is moving too fast she is said to have too much way on. Note, however, that a vessel may be
underway but stopped, and careful distinction must be made between the terms underway and making way.
A vessel is only making way when she is actually forging ahead or astern under sail or mechanical power,
so that a vessel which is stopped and drifting through the water merely under the influence of wind and
waves is underway but not making way.
A vessel is said to heave-to when she stops at sea, perhaps in heavy weather to await the passing of the
storm in order to minimise damage to the vessel by forging ahead. A vessel hove-to in this manner may use
a little sail or engine power to maintain her position with the seas on one bow, but although under way is not
regarded as making way.
When moving ahead, a vessel is said to be going ahead or making headway; when moving astern she is
going astern or making sternway. A vessel gathers way when she begins to move through the water, and
she has steerage way when her speed is sufficient for steering (ie the rudder becomes effective).
A vessel moving sideways is said to be moving broadside-on (to port or starboard); if she is making
headway and at the same time being blown sideways by the wind, she is said to be making leeway. When
the wind is blowing on to one side of the vessel, that side is called the weather side; the other, sheltered
side is called the lee side.
A vessel is said to be adrift or drifting when broken away from her moorings and without means of
propulsion. When two vessels are sailing parallel to each other and are level with each other they are said
to be abreast. When a vessel is lying next to another vessel or next to a quay it is said to be alongside the
other craft or quay wall.
Terms used in sailing
In steering a sailing craft, the

tiller is referred to as the helm,
and in directing its movement
reference is made to the
weather or lee side of the craft.
When the helm is put to weather,
the bows will pay off or bear
away from the wind, and when
put to lee the bows will luff up or
turn towards the wind. The
names of the various parts of a
sail are shown in fig 11, and the
points of sailing are illustrated in
fig 12.
Close-hauled is when the

sheets are hauled in tight and
the boat is sailing as close as
possible to the direction from
which the wind is blowing.
Figure 11: Parts of a sail
61
Full-and-by is sailing not quite so close to the wind as close-hauled, with the sails full and a consequent
gain in speed.
Sailing free is when a boat's sails are filled and she is not sailing close-hauled, ie sailing so that she is free
to manoeuvre on either side of her course without having to go about. See tacking.
Beam reaching is when a boat is sailing free with the wind abeam. She is on a close reach or fetching
when the wind is forward of the beam and on a broad reach when the wind is abeam or slightly abaft the
beam.
Running is when a boat is sailing with the wind abaft the beam. See goosewing.
Tacking - a boat is on the port tack when she has the wind on her port side, and on the starboard tack
when she has the wind on her starboard side. A boat tacks or goes about when she changes from one tack
to the other by luffing up into the wind and then bearing away from it on the opposite tack.
Beating is the series of alternative tacks a boat makes when her destination lies directly upwind.
Gybing is the procedure of changing tacks when running, putting the stern through the wind.
To luff is to alter course to bring the boat's head closer to the wind.
To bear away is to alter course to bring the boat's head away from the wind.
To miss stays is to fail to go about

when attempting to tack, so that the
boat pays off on her original tack.
In irons is to fail to go about when

attempting to tack, so that the boat lies
head to wind unable to pay off on either
side. (Rarely experienced in small, light
sailing boats.)
To weather an object means to pass to

windward of it.
To back a sail is to trim it so as to catch

the wind on what would normally be its
lee side.
To heave to is to stop a craft under

way for any reason (eg, for a breather,
to reef, or because the weather is too
bad to continue). A sailing boat is
usually hove to as close to the wind as
Figure 12: Points of sailing
possible carrying minimum canvas.
To shorten sail is to take in sail by reducing the number of sails set or by reefing.
To set sail or make sail is to hoist the sails and get underway.
To goosewing is to set alternate sails to starboard and to port when running before the wind.
To reef is to reduce the sail area.
The wind's eye is the actual direction from which the wind is blowing at any given time.
62
3. Types of Seagoing Craft
Small sailing craft
The rig of sailing vessels has changed through the ages, partly due to technical innovation, but mainly
because sail has now become the province of the leisure sailor and is no longer used commercially. The
square sails of the past were ideal for driving big sailing ships in the constant trade winds of the world, but
are useless for small sailing craft with a relatively small crew, particularly in the variable winds of the
temperate latitudes.
The modern fore-and-aft rig allows

a boat to sail closer to the wind
and to be more easily managed.
But even with this type of rig,
fashion has changed. In the past,
sailing boats in northern latitudes
favoured the gaff rig, with its short,
strong mast, ruggedness and
manageability in heavy weather.
Damage could be easily repaired
with materials on board because
this rig has fewer specialised parts. Figure 13: Types of sailing craft
With the advent of modern materials, however, the more efficient and easily handled Bermudian sloop rig
has come into its own. This is a rig in which all the sails set on the masts are triangular in shape, coming
to a point at (or near) the masthead. (This type of rig is called the Marconi rig in the USA.)
The Bermudian sloop is the simplest of rigs, being a single-masted yacht

setting a mainsail and only one other sail (at any one time) ahead of the mast.
A single-masted vessel carrying two headsails at any one time is called a
cutter. This might be either a Bermudian cutter or a gaff cutter, the latter
having a spar called the gaff at the head of the mainsail, and another spar
extending ahead of the bow called a bowsprit on which the forward headsail
is set.
Figure 14a
For ease of handling sails in larger boats, the sail plan is often split between
masts, as in the ketch, yawl or schooner. In the ketch and the yawl, the
mainmast (largest) is the forward one, with a smaller mizzenmast aft. If the
mizzenmast is aft of the rudderpost, the vessel is a yawl. In a ketch, usually a
larger vessel than a yawl, the mainsail is proportionately smaller and the mizzen
larger than in the yawl. A schooner usually has two masts, the mainmast being
aft, but occasionally has three or more
masts. Once the most popular rig for larger
yachts, the schooner has been largely
replaced by the ketch even in the USA, the
Figure 14 home of the schooner.
Multihull craft developed originally from Polynesian outrigger canoes.

The catamaran is a twin-hulled motor or sailing craft, and the trimaran
has a normal immersed type of hull with a subsidiary hull on either side.
They have the advantage of being shallower and much more spacious
than conventional deep-keeled craft. Their large beam gives them
great initial stability, but if they are capsized in heavy weather they are
unable to recover. Although several craft of both types have made
successful ocean passages, there is still controversy over their
seaworthiness and stability.
Figure 16
63
Types of seagoing craft
Small power craft
Boats driven by engines have a different character to sailing craft. A powerboat thrusts itself at the seas,
forcing its way through the waves. Sailing takes advantage of the elements using the wind to propel the
vessel. Powerboats generally fall into two categories; those with planing hulls which at speed rise bodily
above the water, and those with displacement hulls which remain evenly trimmed and, as the name
suggests, displace the water at their bow.
Figure 17
Most powerboats can be fitted with any one of the wide variety of engines. In considering the size of engine
required it is the continuous rating which is significant, not the maker's quotations of maximum power. The
revolutions per minute at which the power is developed, together with the length of stroke, dictate the piston
speed - which for a continuous running marine engine should not be over 1500 rev/min. Many powerful but
high-revving engines may be splendid for towing water skiers round the bay but not for punching a heavy
yacht against wind and sea over a period of several hours, or perhaps days. In general, it is wise to power
a vessel with engines of up to 25% greater power than will normally be required in service in order to allow
a reserve of power for adverse conditions, for any normal deterioration in performance during service and
to extend the life of an engine.
The prime decision is whether to install a petrol or diesel engine. The diesel's disadvantages in terms of
price and weight are considerably offset by lower running costs and by eliminating electrical ignition
systems and the potential fire hazard of petrol engines.
Motor cruisers, as their name suggests, are fully powered boats from about 7 metres (20ft) to 14 metres
(45ft) in length. Larger craft 15 metres or more in length would more appropriately be described as motor
yachts. Heavy fishing-type power craft have long been regarded as the safest kind of motorboat for
extended passages offshore. Consequently deep-water commercial fishing craft have exerted a strong
influence on the design of offshore motor boats, and pleasure craft of this kind are often called MFV (motor
fishing vessel) type yachts, being deep-bodied, full-ended, heavily built, and with a displacement type hull.
The typical planing hull with sharp V bow, a wide flat stern and chines is unsuitable for extended passages
offshore not only because of difficult steering tendencies in rough following seas, but also because steering
may be difficult under any conditions at low speeds when the submerged fine bow causes the boat to lose
directional stability. Furthermore, in some sea conditions there may be pounding under the chines, and
when this type of hull lacks adequate flare and freeboard forward it could lack sufficient buoyancy for safety
in head seas at any speed. In spite of the foregoing paragraph and the expense of fuel, high-speed planing
motor yachts have become increasingly popular in recent years, relying on their speed to reach their
destination in calm to slight seas.
64
4. Principal items of a boat’s equipment
This section contains only a brief description of the basic permanent and expendable items of a boat's
equipment for introductory purposes. Most of these items and their use will be described in greater detail in
later modules.
Masts and spars
Figure 18: Standing and running rigging
Virtually all masts and spars nowadays are made of aluminium alloy because this provides almost twice the
strength for barely half the weight of wood. As previously mentioned, power boats, unless they are motor
sailers, may have only a short mast for supporting navigation lights, signal halyards, etc, or perhaps no mast
at all, but in a sailing vessel the function of a mast is not only to support the sails but to transmit the
propulsive force generated by the wind in the sails to the vessel's hull. Older sailing craft with wooden spars
have either solid 'grown' masts (whole trees) of fir or Norwegian spruce, or hollow 'built' masts. Bermudian
rig masts must remain absolutely straight and staying is complicated, but masts for gaff rigged craft do not
need such powerful staying as they are not under such high compression.
65
Principal items of a boat’s equipment
A boom is a spar holding the foot of a sail, and may be either flat or round in section. It is connected to the
mast by a universal joint called a gooseneck. Spreaders or crosstrees are spars horizontally athwart a
mast which carry the upper shrouds to the masthead, spreading the angle for better leverage. A gaff is a
spar at the head of a gaff sail, projecting aft from the mast at an angle of about 45º. A bowsprit is a spar
carrying the jib sail forward of the bows, whereas a short spar called a bumpkin can extend over the stern
to take a backstay or the lower block of a mizzen sheet.
A mast is stayed (i.e. supported in position) by its standing rigging, consisting of forestays and
backstays which support it in a fore-and-aft direction, and shrouds which support it in an athwartships
direction. A sailing vessel's sails are controlled by running rigging, consisting of halyards for hoisting and
lowering sails, sheets for trimming the sails, and a topping lift which supports the boom when no sails are
set. Fig 18 shows the main items of standing rigging of a sloop. For clarity, the running rigging has been
omitted and is shown separately in the inset. Running rigging which is duplicated port and
starboard is only shown on the starboard side.
Cordage
Rope, or to give it its proper name, cordage, forms an important part of any sea-going vessel's
equipment, and until recent times was made from natural fibres of hemp, manila, cotton, sisal or coir.
Nowadays, however, the majority of rope is made from synthetic fibres such as Terylene, nylon,
polypropylene, etc, because of their greater strength and immunity to rot.
As Terylene does not stretch it is ideal for halyards on

sailing vessels and in the manufacture of the sails
themselves. Nylon, on the other hand, will stretch 20% in
length and will absorb shock loads four times greater than
wire rope of the same size; for this reason it is particularly
suitable for anchor warps, tow ropes, etc. Polypropylene
also stretches, floats and is cheaper than nylon so is ideal
for mooring ropes. Wire rope (which is not classed as
cordage) is generally used for standing rigging and is
usually made of stainless steel.
When a vessel is berthed alongside a quay wall, pier or

jetty, or between buoys, she is secured by mooring lines
or, in the case of larger vessels by hawsers. A line used
for mooring a vessel by heaving on it to ease her into a
lock or dock, or to move her along a quay, is called a warp.
Figure 19: Parts of rope
Small craft may have a warp attached to the end of their
anchor chain for veering or weighing anchor. A heaving line is a light rope used when berthing to establish
initial contact with the shore in order to pass the mooring lines or a warp.
Ground tackle
Ground tackle is the general term used for anchors and their associated equipment. An anchor is a hook,
attached to a length of chain or rope called a cable or warp, by which a vessel can be held temporarily to
the seabed in comparatively shallow water.
On sea-going craft anchoring equipment is an essential and important emergency item to prevent a
disaster when the vessel's motive power (sails or engine) has failed. Anchors check all sorts of
embarrassing situations quite apart from their main purpose of tethering the vessel when she is not in use.
No offshore craft should have less than two anchors, but unfortunately many standard small craft are sold
with only one, which often is too small and light for its intended purpose. For long-distance cruising three
anchors are needed and four are not unusual on well-equipped vessels.
66
Because seabeds vary, it is commonsense to have different types of anchor. For instance, a kelp-
covered seabed is a notoriously diificult holding-ground and only well-proportioned fisherman or Admiralty
anchors have the ability to penetrate the weed. Other types include the CQR or ploughshare-type, the
Danforth type, and the Bruce anchor.
Figure 20: Anchors
An anchor cable wherever possible should be of chain, but where the weight or stowage facilities make this
difficult a mixture of chain and nylon warp may be used. When the weight of chain and anchor is too great
to manhandle aboard a windlass is an essential piece of equipment; this consists of a rope-warping drum
and a chain gypsy either geared down for manual operation by handles or levers, or powered by electricity
on larger craft.
Rope securing equipment

A rope or chain, be it halyard, sheet, hawser, warp or anchor cable, would be useless on board a vessel or
ashore without a strong fitting on which to make it fast. On a quay, jetty or pier there are often metal rings
for securing mooring lines and warps, or alternatively there may be single bollards [fig 21}. On board
vessels, twin bollards [fig 21)] are common fittings for securing mooring lines and warps. Fairleads [fig 21)],
as their name suggests, lead lines and cables clear of obstructions or corners which may chafe the rope,
and are usually made of metal, open at the top and wide enough for the rope to drop in easily, with smooth
internal surfaces to reduce friction. Samson posts serve the same purpose as a single bollard, but usually
take the form of a stout vertical piece of timber, well secured through the deck and down to the vessel's keel.
Bitts [fig 21] are two strong vertical posts secured through the deck to the frames with a stout cross-piece
joining them a little below the top of the uprights. Both samson posts and bitts are ideal for securing an
anchor cable on board.
Figure 21
Cleats [fig 21] may be made of wood, metal or plastic secured in such a position that the pull of a rope
comes in the lengthwise direction of the cleat itself, and are usually fitted for the purpose of
securing halyards and sheets. A slightly more elaborate fitting is the staghorn [fig 21], which may also be
used for securing mooring lines and warps.
67
When a rope may have to be cast off while still under strain it should never be secured with a bend or hitch
(knots), except perhaps a 'slipping' one, and most of the fittings described above are designed for belaying
the rope, ie, taking sufficient turns round the fitting to hold the rope by friction when it takes the strain. A
belayed rope can always be cast off quickly, as there is no danger of the rope jamming.
When attaching fittings to one another we use a variety of shackles. The most usual one, illustrated in fig
22(a) is the straight shackle, in which the pin can be unscrewed and removed. There are also snap-
shackles, which may either be of the spring type [fig 22(b)] or the plunger type [fig 22(c)] and bottle-screws
(rigging screws) shown in fig 22(d) which, when screwed up, shorten and hence tighten the rigging or vice
versa.
Figure 22: Shackles and rigging connectors
Tackles are commonly used in all types of vessel to

augment the available manpower whenever a load
has to be moved or lifted. A tackle is a combination of
pulley blocks with rope or chain which form a
purchase - a device that will increase the force
available.
Fig 23 shows just three of the many combinations

which may be used. The block may be of wood, metal
or reinforced plastic, and comprises a shell with one
or more revolving sheaves.
Davits are small crane-like devices for securing and

launching dinghies or lifeboats. They are often found
on quay walls for the convenient launching of small
boats, and on larger sea-going yachts to secure
Figure 23: Blocks and tackles
dinghies or tenders. Each davit has a block and tackle
and a boat may be swung inboard for snug storage at
sea, or swung outboard for lowering down into the
water clear of the vessel's side or stern.
Dinghies, yacht tenders, liferafts and safety Equipment

For the sea-going yacht or powerboat, a dinghy is a means of access to and from the vessel and the shore
when at anchor or on offshore moorings - in other words we say that the dinghy is used as a yacht tender.
Under no circumstances should a dinghy be regarded as part of the vessel's lifesaving equipment; indeed
at sea a dinghy is mainly distinguished by its nuisance value and wherever practicable should be left behind
on the mooring and not towed astern.
68
Inflatable dinghies are the most

common type of yacht tender and may
be propelled by oars or outboard
engine. They can be difficult to row in a
strong wind or adverse current, but they
are easier to stow than the traditional
wooden dinghy and are more forgiving
to the topsides of a boat when moored
alongside.
An inflatable liferaft of sufficient

capacity to accommodate all on board Figure 24
the vessel is an essential item of sea-
going equipment for all types of
offshore vessel. It is contained in a compact valise or container which should be stowed in a locker opening
directly on to the deck with the operating cord attached to some strong point on the yacht, so that in an
emergency the raft can be thrown overboard in its valise, when a sharp tug on the operating cord will
immediately inflate the liferaft automatically.
Other essential items of safety equipment for boats working offshore are lifejackets for each person on
board, lifebuoys (either ring or horseshoe-shaped) stowed within reach of the helmsman and fitted with a
self-igniting light, and safety harnesses of webbing with a length of line ending in a snap-hook so that a
crew member may clip on to some secure part of the boat. Fire-fighting equipment must include an
adequate number of fire extinguishers, and at least two bilge pumps - one within reach of the helmsman.
Electrical or mechanical pumps may be installed but they must be backed up by at least one hand-operated
pump.
Figure 25
Navigation, radio and electronic equipment

The primary item of navigational equipment essential for all offshore
vessels is a marine magnetic compass which indicates the direction
in which the vessel is heading. Basically this consists of a compass
card (fig 26) on the underside of which two or more magnetised
compass needles align themselves with the earth's magnetic field
when freely pivoted within a compass bowl, which is usually filled with
liquid to dampen excessive movement, and which is illuminated for
use at night.
A hand-bearing compass, as its name implies, is a small compass

which can be held in the hand and is used for observing bearings of
shore objects. The hand-bearing compass may also serve as an
emergency steering compass.
Figure 26 Compass
69
Charts are maps of the sea areas of the world of which over 4,000 are published by the Hydrographic
Department of the British Admiralty, and the charts of the area to be sailed are a necessary part of the
equipment of all offshore vessels. These are available from Admiralty chart agents, but because charts
are being continuously updated by new information these require to be corrected from Notices to
Mariners, also available from chart agents.
A marine log is a device for measuring the distance and speed a vessel
travels through the water, the most common type being the paddlewheel or
impeller type. These have a small rotator mounted in the hull which is
connected via electronic impulses to either a digital or analogue display unit
giving the speed and distance travelled through the water. An alternative to
this is the towed log (fig 27) which is streamed astern. The great advantage
of this log is that it can be cleaned of weed and dirt far more easily than the
paddlewheel log (which has to be withdrawn through a hole in the hull). It is
impractical in shallow and confined waters where the line can get tangled
Figure 27: Towed log
and snag on the seabed.
A means of measuring the depth of water in which a vessel is floating is another essential aid to
navigation and the traditional method of doing this was with a hand lead and sounding line. Depth is now
measured on most boats by means of an echo-sounder (fig 28), which bounces a high-frequency
impulse from a transducer fitted to the bottom of the vessel's hull to the seabed, measures the time
interval to its return and displays the recorded depth on a digital or analogue gauge.
Of radio equipment, an essential item is a

radio-receiver with which to obtain the
shipping weather forecasts, but many craft
are equipped with VHF radio-telephones
(fig 29) for direct communication with the
shore or with other ships. Some small craft
are fitted with radio position-fixing systems
such as Loran-C or with satellite systems
such as Satnav or GPS. One essential item
for all offshore craft is a radar reflector so
that they can be detected (and thus avoided)
by other vessels equipped with radar. Small
vessels, especially of wooden or GRP
construction, do not reflect a very good echo
on radar, but a properly-designed octahedral
reflector hoisted correctly and as high as
possible is remarkably effective.
Figure 28: Principles of the echo-sounder
Figure 29: VHF radio-telephone

70
5. Miscellaneous terms relating to boats, wind, sea and
weather
This is a glossary of miscellaneous terms that you may come across from time to time in your course. You
are not required to learn them all by heart, but please refer to them whenever the need arises.
Many nautical terms are used unknowingly in everyday language. For instance,
how many times have we battened down the hatches at a time when we were
no longer awash with work, only to be taken aback by the boss as he said he had
to lose some spare ballast, which left us on our beam ends? (Not often we hope!)
Abate When the wind force lessens, it is said to abate.
Aground When the keel of a vessel rests on the bottom of the sea.
Aloft Above the deck.
Awash Level with the surface of the sea.
Ballast Weights, usually of iron or lead, carried in the bilges to increase stability or adjust trim.
Ballast keel Weight of iron or lead carried externally at the base of the keel.
Bar A shoal (shallow area) formed at the mouth of a river or harbour by the action of the tides.
Bare poles A sailing vessel under way with no sails set is said to be under bare poles.
Batten A flexible piece of wood or plastic placed in a pocket in the leech of a sail to prevent curl.
Batten down To close all openings in the weather decks and superstructure of a vessel at onset of heavy
weather.
Beam ends A vessel is said to be on her beam ends when she is lying over on her side, with her decks
perpendicular. Used colloquially to describe a precarious position.
Bearing The direction in which an object lies from you or your vessel.
Becalmed When there is no wind, a sailing vessel is becalmed, without means of propulsion.
Berth The allotted place or position for a vessel or a man. To give a wide berth is to keep well
clear of anything. To shift berth is to change position.
Bluff A headland with a broad, perpendicular face.
Breaker The crest of a wave which is breaking.
Broach-to When running before wind and sea, to slew round inadvertently broadside-on in the trough
of the waves.
Broken water Surf caused by breaking waves.
By the lee Sailing with the wind astern and blowing from the same side as that on which the mainsail
is carried, making an involuntary gybe imminent. Not recommended.
71
Miscellaneous terms relating to boats, wind, sea and weather
Capsize To overturn; turn bottom upwards.
Carry away When rigging or gear of any kind breaks, it is said to carry away.
Choppy sea Short, steep, irregular or confused waves usually caused by wind opposed to a tidal
stream.
Clear Good visibility, as in clear weather or clear sky (cloudless). Also free from shipping or
obstructions as in clear channel or clear horizon.
Current A horizontal movement of water caused by meteorological or oceanographical forces, but

not tides. (See also tidal streams).
Draw When the wind fills a sail it is said to draw. A vessel is said to draw so many metres or feet
of draught. A vessel is said to draw ahead of you if its position relative to yours advances,
and to draw astern if it drops back.
Fetch The distance over the sea which a wind has blown without obstruction. (Also to reach a
destination in a sailing craft without having to tack).
Fit out To rig and provide a vessel with her complete equipment of gear, stores and provisions for
a voyage or for a new season.
Flotsam Items floating from a sunken vessel.
Fore peak The compartment or space below the deck in the bows of a vessel.
Foreshore The beach below high water mark.
Foul Entangled, obstructed or dirty.
Founder To sink.
Green sea An unbroken wave. A vessel is shipping it green when unbroken water is driven aboard.
Ground swell A heavy swell caused by a distant storm or by one which has passed.
Head The bow of a vessel. The top of a sail. A sea toilet.
Headsail A sail set forward of the mast.
Head wind A wind blowing from ahead.
Heel To lie over or list at an angle from the vertical.
Jetsam Items thrown overboard - jettisoned in an attempt to save a vessel from sinking.
Jury A prefix meaning temporary. Any temporary rig erected following breaking of the craft's
conventional rig, eg jury mast, jury rudder.
Landfall First sight of land after a passage in the open sea.
Landlocked Surrounded by land.
Lay-up To take a vessel out of service or commission. To bring ashore for the winter.
72
Lee-bowing Sailing so that the tidal stream is on the lee bow, thereby pushing the boat up to windward
and tending to increase the speed.
Lee helm If the design of a craft is such that she tends to bear away from the wind, she is said to carry
lee helm.
Lee shore A shore towards which the wind is blowing.
Lee tide A tidal stream running in the same direction as the wind. (See also weather tide)
Let fly To let go instantly; usually with reference to the sheets of a sailing craft.
LOA Abbreviation for length overall. The extreme length of a vessel.
LWL Abbreviation for length on waterline, which is always less than the LOA.
Making Tides are said to be making during the period between neaps and springs when their height
and range progressively increases. (See also take off)
Moor To secure (moor) a vessel to a quay, posts, buoys or between two anchors.
Neap tides Tides between full and new moon with a lesser range than spring tides.
Neaped A vessel which cannot leave harbour except at spring tides is said to be neaped; a vessel
aground is said to be neaped when the next tide will not refloat her.
On the wind A sailing vessel which is close-hauled.
Off the wind Any point of sailing except close-hauled.
Offing Distance off the shore or an obstruction.
Pitch Fore and aft motion of a vessel about its centre when in a seaway.
Pound Heavy impacts of head seas against the bow, or against the vessel's keel or bottom.
Range The difference between the highest and lowest level of any one tide; the distance a power-
driven vessel can travel on its fuel capacity.
Scend The scend of a sea is the vertical movement of its waves. A vessel is said to scend when
she rises and falls bodily on the crests and in the troughs of heavy seas (not the same as
pitching).
Scud Low, fast-moving clouds. A sailing vessel is sometimes said to be scudding before a gale
when she is running before it.
Seaway A heavy sea.
Spindrift Spray blown from the crest of waves.
Spring tides Tides just after full and new moon which have the maximum range. (See also neap tides)
Surge The lateral movement of a moored vessel caused by swell or the wash of a passing vessel.
73
Swell Large undulating movement of the sea remaining after the wind causing it has gone. (See
ground swell).
Take off The tides are said to be taking off when their heights and ranges decrease progressively
between springs and neaps.
Tidal stream A horizontal movement of water caused by the tide-raising forces of sun and moon. (See
current)
Tide-rode A vessel at anchor in tidal waters is said to be tide-rode when she is lying head to the tidal
stream rather than to the wind. (See wind-rode).
Unship To remove anything from its appointed place.
Wake The path which a vessel leaves in the water behind her.
Wash The disturbance in the water made by the movement of a vessel through it.
Waterlogged A vessel which is full of water but still floating.
Weather-
bound Unable to put to sea owing to bad weather.
Weather helm Opposite of lee helm.
Weather tide Opposite of lee tide. This can be quite dangerous for small boats. A strong wind blowing
over a tidal stream coming from the opposite direction will result in a steep and unpredictable
sea.
Wind-rode A vessel at anchor in tidal waters is said to be wind-rode when she is lying head into the
wind rather than to the tidal stream. (See tide-rode).
Work up To train a new crew to an efficient state.
Yaw An erratic course with quick alternate swings to port and starboard. Not necessarily due to
bad steering as it can be caused by sea conditions.
74
6. Self-test exercise
This self-test exercise forms a student assignment for your course. You should work through this exercise
carefully, then mark it with the model answers and marks which follow. If necessary, refer again to the text
of this module and repeat the exercise. Record your final results on the assignment report card provided.
Exercise S1
1. What is the difference (if any) between a motor cruiser and a motor yacht?
2. Name each of the following parts of a boat:
(a) the lowermost part of the hull (at the bottom of the boat)
(b) the extreme end of the fore part of the hull
(c) the part of the hull which curves in towards the stern
(d) the near horizontal upper surface of the hull
(e) the greatest width of the hull
(f) the part of the hull above the waterline
(g) the height of the weather deck above the waterline
(h) the depth of the keel below the waterline
3. Explain the meaning of each of the following nautical terms:
(a) heave-to
(b) going below
(c) under way but stopped
(d) going about
(e) steerage way
4. Explain the difference between a displacement hull and a planing hull.
5. What is meant by the phrases:
(a) on an even keel

(b) the turn of the bilge
(c) fine on the port bow
6. What are backstays? Explain the difference between standing backstays and running
backstays.
7. List the possible functions of a mast if fitted to a motor cruiser or motor yacht.
8. Briefly describe two types of multihull craft and the advantages and disadvantages of such
craft.
75
Self-test exercise
9. Either explain the following sailing terms:
(a) luff up
(b) bearing away
(c) beating
or explain the following power craft terms:
(i) single-screw installation

(ii) MFV-type craft
(iii) motor sailers
10. State the principal uses for Terylene, nylon and polypropylene rope on boats.
11. Explain the difference between bollards, bitts and cleats.
12. What is a yacht tender? Name the most common type and state its possible means of propulsion.
13. What is meant by careening a boat?
76
8. Answers to exercise S1
1. Only size, powered vessels less than 15 metres in length are generally called motor
cruisers, while those 15m or more are generally termed motor yachts.
3 marks
2. (a) keel (e) beam

(b) stem (f) topsides
(c) quarter (g) freeboard
(d) deck or weather deck (h) draught
8 marks
3. (a) a vessel heaves-to when she stops at sea - still underway but not making way
(b) going down the companionway into the accommodation
(c) not made fast to a buoy, quay or shore, not at anchor or aground but not moving
through the water
(d) (on a sailing boat) changing from one tack to the other
(e) a vessel has steerage way when she makes sufficient speed for her rudder to
become effective
10 marks
4. A displacement hull floats wholly in the water displacing a volume of water equal to its own weight.
A planing hull is lifted above the water at speed, although it still displaces water when at rest or slow
speed.
6 marks
5. (a) vessel having the same draught forward as aft

(b) where the sides of a boat curve into the bottom
(c) looking ahead, between 1º and 45º on the left hand side
6 marks
6. Backstays are part of the standing rigging which support the after side of the mast. Standing
backstays are fixed (non-adjustable), while running backstays offer additional support for high
masts and have tackles or backstay levers with which their tension can be adjusted as necessary.
6 marks
7. Support of a boom or gaff, navigation steaming light, VHF and/or position fixing system aerial,
support of a radar scanner, or a means of flag signalling.
6 marks
8. A catamaran is a twin-hulled motor or sailing craft and a trimaran has a central immersed hull with
a subsidiary hull on each side. Much more spacious than conventional craft with great initial stability,
they are nevertheless unable to recover if capsized.
6 marks
77
Self test exercise
9. Either
(a) to turn towards the wind when the helm is put down
(b) to turn away from the wind when the helm is put up to weather
(c) a series of alternate tacks to reach an upwind destination
or
(i) a single engine connected to one propeller (screw) usually installed on the centre line of the
boat.
(ii) Motor fishing vessel type of heavily built motor yacht (diesel-engine powered) with moderate
beam and draught, ample sheer and round bilges.
(iii) a vessel in which about half the propulsive power is provided by an engine and half by sails
9 marks
10. Terylene is used in the manufacture of sails and halyards.
Nylon is used principally for anchor warps, but also for tow ropes and mooring lines.
Polypropylene is used for mooring lines, heaving lines, etc. 6marks
11. A bollard is a strong vertical post with an upper lip fitted either to a boat's deck or to a pier or quay on to which
a mooring rope can be secured, bitts are two strong vertical posts on deck with a stout crosspiece ideal for
securing anchor cable, while cleats are T-shaped fittings secured so that the pull of the halyard or sheet
secured to it runs in the lengthwise direction of the cleat itself.
9 marks
12. A small boat used to ferry personnel to and from a moored or anchored yacht. The most common type is the
inflatable dinghy propelled by oars or outboard engine.
6 marks
13. Grounding or beaching a boat on a falling tide so that she heels over and exposes her bottom for cleaning or
repairs.
5 marks
Total marks = 86
78
Section Two
• Module 3 Charts and Publications:
Simple Plotting
• Module 4 Deck Seamanship
Assessment 1 (DS)
Contents
79
80
Module 3 Charts and Publications: Simple Plotting
Contents
1. Chart measurements: latitude, longitude, direction and distance 83

Reading latitude and longitude
Measuring distance on a chart
Measuring direction on a chart
Plotting a position by bearing and range
Personal checklist
2. Nautical publications and chart correction 93

Publications in general
The Admiralty publications
Commercial nautical publications
Chart correction
Personal checklist
3. Fixing your boat's position 98

Position lines
Achieving good visual fixes
Other types of position lines and fixes
Personal checklist on completion of chapter 3
4. Working up positions 108

The dead reckoning (DR) position
The wind and leeway in navigation
The effect of tidal streams and currents
The estimated position (EP)
5. Answers to exercises 120

81
Abbreviations used in this module
BOD (!) bearing - object - distance (sequence to relate vessel's position to a charted navigational mark)
C (of a course or bearing) compass
cm centimetres
COG course over the ground
DR dead reckoning (position denoted +)
E east
EP estimated position denoted
GMDSS global maritime distress and safety

system
GPS global positioning system
GT ground track annotated
HB hand-bearing (compass)
(L) (annotated against a chart fix or P/L) Loran
LH lighthouse
M (of a course or bearing) magnetic
Macmillan the Macmillan-Reeds Nautical Almanac
N north
NE north-east
NW north-west
NP (Admiralty) Nautical Publication (as in NP5011)
ODAS Ocean Data-Acquisition System
P/L position line
RDF radio direction finding
(Rº) (annotated against a chart fix or P/L) radio (bearings)
(S) (annotated against a chart fix) satnav
S south
SE south-east
SMG speed made good
SOG speed over the ground
SP sea position
SW south-west
T (of a course or bearing) true
TA (RYA) Training Almanac
TS tidal stream vector denoted
W west
WT water track vector denoted

82
1. Chart Measurements: Latitude, Longitude, Direction
and Distance
Reading latitude and longitude
In module 1 we made our introduction to navigational charts and discussed the more common plotting
instruments. We will now combine these elements and help you to take your first steps in navigational
chartwork.
Plotting navigational information on a chart is a straightforward process but the techniques depend on the
actual equipment used. Some navigators prefer a parallel rule for laying off directions and parallel lines, whilst
others use a pair of triangular navigational protractors for the same purpose. Between these two there are
the various types of protractor and proprietary plotting instruments we described in module 1, each having its
devotees. Try to experiment with as many of these as you can so that you can find out which suits you best.
The navigational chart is a precise and valuable instrument in itself and should always be treated with great
care. Ideally charts should be stowed flat in a portfolio cover, each chart having no more than a single fold.
Space limitations in a small boat usually preclude this but it is vital to keep the number of folds to a minimum
and to stow the chart in its original folds after use. A freshly sharpened soft-leaded pencil should be used (2B
is ideal) with as little pressure as is necessary to leave a distinct line.
We will now refresh our memories concerning one or

two important points about charts that we examined in
module 1.
· the latitude scale runs vertically up the left and

right sides of the chart
· the latitude scale is used for measuring latitude

and distance
· the longitude scale runs horizontally along the

top and bottom of the chart
· the longitude scale can only be used for

measuring longitude and must never be used
for measuring distance.
Fig 1 shows the various types of latitude graduations

used on Admiralty charts. From this, it can be seen that
in scale A, which would be used on a small-scale chart,
5 sea miles measure only 1cm. Scale B would be used
on a medium-scale chart and in this example 5 sea
miles measure 3.5cm. Scale C in fig 1 would be used on
a fairly large-scale chart, 5 sea miles measuring 8.3cm.
(RYA 3 uses a scale in which 5 sea miles in the latitude
of the Lawrence Channel are represented by 9.2cm.)
Very large-scale charts would use scale D or wider. In
scale D a distance of 5 sea miles is depicted by Figure 1:
16.75cm. Plans A and C on RYA 4 use such a similar Methods of graduating latitude scales on
scale while the other plans on RYA 4 use even larger Admiralty charts
scales.
83
Chart measurements
Only on the small-scale chart (A) does one small division represent one sea mile or one
minute of latitude. In scale B (and on chart RYA 3) each small division represents one fifth
of a sea mile (or 0'.2) while on the two large-scale charts C and D (and on the plans on
chart RYA 4) each small division indicates one tenth of a mile, 0.1 of a minute or 6
seconds (0'.1 or 06").
You will recall that the scale of latitude widens as we move from the equator towards the
poles. (This is to compensate for the distortion caused by showing meridians of longitude
as parallel in Mercator's projection whereas we know that, on a globe, they meet at the
poles.) This widening effect is not very evident on a chart of the scale of RYA 3 but, if you
measure carefully, you will find that 5 sea miles is represented by 9.2cm at the foot while
the same distance measures 9.35cm at the head of the chart.
Figure 2, an extract from a small-scale ocean chart, illustrates the widening of the
parallels much more clearly, the expansion in scale being evident to the eye without the
need to measure.
It is because the latitude scale is variable that we always measure distance in the
latitude in which we are navigating.
The latitude scale widens in both directions from the

equator towards the north and south poles. Chart RYA 3
represents a section of the earth's surface in the northern
hemisphere so the scale becomes wider as we move from the
bottom of the chart to the top. Figure 2 shows the southern tip
of the African continent so we are in the southern hemisphere.
The latitude scale therefore widens as we move from the top of
the chart towards the bottom.
In NMCS module 1 we showed how latitude and longitude could be read off a chart.
Reference to fig 5 in that module will remind you that the latitude of a point is read by
taking that point horizontally to the nearest latitude scale (vertical sides of chart). This can
be done with a parallel rule as shown in fig 3 here. Suppose you want to read the latitude
of the small +. Place the edge of the parallel rule carefully and accurately along a parallel
of latitude (horizontal line on chart) near the +, then move alternate 'legs' of the rule
(keeping the other leg firmly on the chart) until one edge of the rule cuts both the + and
the vertical latitude scale, as shown in fig 3. Read the exact latitude from the scale to the
nearest 0'.1.
Figure 2:
The scale of latitude
widens toward the
poles
84
Chart measurements
Figure 3: Reading positions by parallel rule
The longitude of + would be found in a similar manner, but in this case the parallel rule would be placed
vertically on the chart and first aligned on a meridian (vertical line on chart). The rule would then be
'stepped' or 'walked' across the chart until one edge cuts the + and the nearest longitude (horizontal) scale.
The exact longitude to the nearest 0'.1 is then read off the scale.
Figure 4: Reading position with dividers
An easier and quicker method of reading latitude and longitude, but requiring great care, is by using
dividers. To find the latitude [fig 4] place one divider point on the + being measured and the other point
on the nearest parallel of latitude as near as possible vertically below (or above) +. Without disturbing the
dividers, now place one point on the same parallel of latitude on the latitude scale and read off the
required latitude where the other point indicates on the scale. To read the longitude [fig 4] repeat the
process using the nearest meridian (vertical line) to the +, holding the dividers as near horizontally as
possible, and reading the required longitude from the horizontal scale at the top or bottom of the chart.
Remember that, when writing down or recording a position, latitude is always written first followed by the
longitude, eg 50º42'.1N 0º14'.9E. This convention is not an arbitrary one, but a vital safety factor. Suppose
you had to report your position urgently in an emergency in an area where the latitude and longitude were
numerically close to each other, say 49ºN and 51ºW, and in your hurry you omit the N and the W. The
rescue authorities always read the latitude first, so if you have given them 51º 49º they would take this as
51ºN 49ºW and be looking for you more than 100 miles from your true position. So always quote the
latitude first and try to remember to quote N and S on the latitude and E or W on the longitude.
85
Chart measurements
It is now time to plot our first chartwork position on Chart RYA 3 so, using one of the methods described
below, please plot position
46º22'.8N 6º17'.8W
Figure 5
86
Chart measurements
If you are using an expanding parallel rule
Align the rule with its top edge along the parallel of latitude 46º20'N on the left hand side of the chart (fig 5).
Hold the lower arm firmly and move the upper arm of the rule to 46º22'.8N. Move the lower arm up to close
the rule so that you can continue to hold the rule firmly without it slipping when you are plotting.
Put your pencil against the upper edge of the rule so that the pencil point is exactly on the 46º22'.8N
graduation on the chart. (If it isn't, you will need to adjust the rule very carefully.) Draw a short line through
the graduation on the latitude scale (to give a final check on alignment).
Still holding the rule firmly, look along the longitude scale at the top of the chart for the required longitude
(06º17'.8W). Vertically beneath this (or as nearly vertically as you can judge) draw another short horizontal
line along the upper edge of the rule. You have now plotted the latitude.
There is a useful meridian of longitude printed on the chart at 06º20'W so our required longitude (06º17'.8W)
is to the east of this (to your right as you look at the chart). With your dividers measure between the
06º17'.8W graduation on the longitude scale and the 06º20'W meridian. Taking care not to alter the width
between the points of your dividers place one point on the 06º20'W meridian on the top edge of the parallel
rule and gently indent the chart with the other point on the short horizontal line already drawn. Do not prick
a hole in your chart. Mark the indentation with your pencil, remove the parallel rule and dividers and draw a
short vertical line through the mark.
You have now plotted position 46º22'.8N 06º17'.8W where the two arms of the cross intersect. It should
appear exactly as in figure 5. If it doesn't, please try again.
If you are using a Breton or Portland course plotter
First, prepare the plotter by turning the central 'compass rose' until the N triangular pointer aligns exactly
with the zero marker on the 'Total Error' scale. (This scale may be marked 'Variation' on some models.) All
grid lines on the plotter will now be parallel, vertically and horizontally. Align the upper edge of the plotter
with latitude 46º22'.8N graduation and adjust the plotter to the left or right so that any vertical grid line to the
right of the 'compass' aligns with a meridian on the chart, the 06º20'W meridian being an obvious choice.
Draw one short pencil line through 46º22'.8N on the latitude scale (to check alignment) and another on the
same parallel directly beneath longitude 06º17'.8W. Finally, mark this longitude on the latitude line, using
dividers.
87
Chart measurements
Measuring distance on a chart
As we explained in module 1, distance is measured in sea miles and, by definition, one sea mile is equivalent
to one minute of latitude. Measurement of distance on a chart is done as follows.
Suppose you wish to measure the distance

between A and B on the chart shown in fig
6. Using a pair of dividers, place one point
on A and the other point on B, then transfer
the dividers to the latitude scale at either
side of the chart but as near as possible to
the same latitude as the points being
measured, then read off the distance (eg
1'.2 minutes of latitude = 1.2 sea miles).
Figure 6: Measuring distance on a chart
Sometimes the distance to be measured exceeds the full

opening of the dividers. In this case the distance must be
measured in steps. First, join the two places (A and B on
fig 7) with a light pencil line drawn with the edge of a
parallel rule, protractor or equivalent plotting instrument.
Then, again using that part of the latitude scale roughly
parallel with the places, pick up a convenient opening of
the dividers (say 10' = 10 sea miles) and, starting from one
of the places, count the number of steps of the divider it
takes to (almost) reach the second place. Finally, close the
dividers so as to pick up this small remaining piece of the
line, and by using the latitude scale again measure this
remaining distance (fig 7). If the convenient opening of the
dividers used was 10' and it took two steps to (almost)
reach the second place (2 x 10' = 20'), and the remaining
Figure 7: piece of line measured 8'.5, then the total distance
Measuring longer distances on a chart measured between A and B would be 20' + 8'.5 = 28.5 sea
miles or, more simply, 28.5 miles or 28.5M because only
sea miles are used in navigation.
The accuracy of measurement required will vary with the scale of the chart. For instance, you can achieve
much greater accuracy with a large-scale chart than you can with a small-scale one. With a chart of the
scale of Chart RYA 3 supplied with this course, you should aim for an accuracy to the nearest 0.1 of a
mile, ie half the smallest graduation on the latitude scale.
Accuracy in chart measurement is important so, to check your accuracy, try measuring the distance
between the following places on Chart RYA 3 and compare your results with the correct distances given.
If you do not get the exact answers given, try again. Remember, accuracy is important.
Remember, too, that the precise position of a lightvessel or buoy is the small circle in its baseline, and of
a lighthouse the centre of its lightstar.
Cape Balshaw LH (lighthouse) to 'LCW Buoy' 6.8M

Steven's Rock LH to West Point LH 18.1M
Sweetwater church to Sandquay church 2.7M
Misery Point LH to Point Victoria LH 33.0M
88
Chart measurements
Measuring direction on a chart
The three-figure notation for expressing direction was

introduced in module1 and it will be recalled that this was
expressed as a compass circle starting from 000º (north)
and moving clockwise to 360º (again, north). We must all
have a very clear understanding of how these three-figure
directions relate to our orientation to north, south, east and
west.
Look now at the compass rose at the western end of the

Lawrence Channel on chart RYA 3 and compare this
carefully with fig 8 here. From this you will see that zero
degrees (000º or 360º) represents north, 090º is east, 180º
is south and 270º is west. Simple, you say. But without
looking at the compass rose could you say that SW (south-
west) is 225º? Or that NW is 315º, NE 045º and SE 135º?
A navigator must be able to do this. We must know
instinctively, for example, that the direction 110º is between
east and south-east, that the direction 250º is between SW Figure 8 :
and W, that the direction 330º is between NW and N, and Cardinal and intercardinal directions
so on. Spend a few moments comparing fig 8 with the true
compass rose until these directions become second nature to you. The reason for this will become clear
after reading the next paragraph.
Imagine that you are standing at the centre point of the compass rose looking out in the direction 060ºT. A
line drawn from the figure 060º to your position would, if extended, pass through the figure 240º. The same
line can therefore indicate two directions. If you move forwards towards the figure 060º you are travelling
in the direction 060ºT (between NE and E). The direction behind you (240ºT, between SW and W) is called
the reciprocal direction. Reciprocal direction is any direction expressed in three-figure notation plus or
minus 180º (060º + 180º = 240º). A boat pointing in the direction 060ºT is on a heading (or course) of 060ºT,
but if she is pointing in the direction 240ºT her course is 240ºT. Since both courses are represented by the
same line on a chart it is very easy to read the reciprocal direction unless you are absolutely clear in your
mind as to the direction in which your boat is travelling.
It is a sad fact (but, perhaps, a comforting

one!) that few professional navigators
have not, at some time, joined the
'Reciprocal Club' so great vigilance
is needed.
Suppose your boat is at position A on the chart in fig

9 and you wish to find the direction of the end of the
pier on headland B. First you would align the edge
of a parallel rule between the boat's position and the
end of the pier. Then walk the rule so that the edge
passes through the centre of the nearest compass
rose on the chart. This edge will also pass through
the directions 085º and 265º, but clearly the
direction of the pier from A is 085ºT as indicated by Figure 9
the arrow in fig 9 and you would say that the pier is
on a bearing of 085ºT. However, from the end of the pier the bearing of the boat would be 265ºT, this being
the reciprocal of 085ºT. Once again both bearings are represented by the same line on the chart, so you
must take great care as to which one you are referring.
89
Chart measurements
Plotting a position by bearing and range
The most accurate method of expressing our position at sea is by latitude and longitude but we may also
state our position relative to an easily recognisable landmark or seamark. 'Easily recognisable' means that
someone ashore trying to plot this position must be able to find the mark on the chart quickly. For instance,
if we were sailing through the Farlow Channel we may be closer to the water tower at Port Rampton than to
Johnson Point LH but the latter is much more easily recognised on the chart and would be the better mark
to choose.
.
This method of indicating our whereabouts uses the direction (the bearing) from the object and its distance
(the range).
The accepted sequence is
BEARING - (from) OBJECT - DISTANCE (BOD!)
The great advantage of BOD is its simplicity. Supposing that, in

an emergency, we had to transmit by radio our position in fig. 14 to the
coastguard to request assistance. We could use latitude and longitude: “My
position four six degrees one seven decimal eight north, zero six degrees
two zero decimal seven west ”. The chances of that being transmitted and
received correctly are slim. We are sure that you will agree that “My
position two three one degrees true from West Point lighthouse five decimal
four miles” stands a much better chance of ungarbled transmission and
reception.
90
Chart measurements
Let us suppose that we wish to

plot position
070ºT Greenwich Lanby LH 7.0M.
using a Portland (Breton) plotter.
Figure 10 : Using a Portland (or Breton) course plotter

(Please note that figure 10 is for reference only and the position is not on chart 3 or 4)
First, turn the circular protractor north-up and then rotate it 20º clockwise until the 70º graduation on the protractor aligns
with the 0º arrow on the 'Total Error' scale. (Some instruments may have the scale marked 'Variation'.) Then place the N-
S line on the circle exactly over the 6ºW meridian on the chart and adjust the plotter up or down until the upper edge
passes through the light-star of Lizard Point LH (see fig 10).
Draw in a pencil line from the lightstar along the upper edge of the plotter (i.e in a 070ºT direction), then remove the plotter.
To measure the distance set your dividers to 7.0M on the latitude scale at the left side of the chart, transfer them so that
one point is on the small circle at the centre of the lightstar, gently pricking the chart with the other point to mark the position
required.
Personal checklist
• recognise the need for neatness and accuracy in chartwork
• measure distance using the latitude scale and a pair of dividers
• measure angles using protractors or parallel rules or a proprietary plotting instrument

(the choice is yours)
• measure the latitude and longitude of a position
• plot a position, given its latitude and longitude
• plot a course and measure a bearing
• plot a position by bearing and range of a charted mark and recognise that the
accepted sequence for expressing this is bearing-object-distance
• locate a course or bearing in three-figure notation within the cardinal and inter
cardinal framework of the compass point notation
• appreciate the care needed to avoid the plotting and/or measuring of reciprocal
courses and bearings.
91
Chart measurements
For this exercise use Chart RYA 3 and TA. Carry out your plotting lightly with a freshly sharpened soft (2B)
pencil and erase any previous work on your chart before starting. Write your answers on a separate piece
of paper, not on your chart.
1. Without looking at a compass rose or a protractor, state between which of the eight
cardinal and inter-cardinal points (N, NE, E, SE, etc) the following three-figure directions
lie
(a) 327º (b) 149º (c) 293º (d) 067º (e) 195º (f) 259º
2. State the latitude and longitude of the following to the nearest 0'.1
(a) the monument on the southern edge of Farlow Bay.
(b) the wreck showing at the level of chart datum on the southern edge of
Glyn Reef to the west of Slade Island.
(c) Fraser pilot boarding position.
(d) the dangerous wreck about half a mile north of Point Victoria.
(e) Steven’s Rock raido direction finding station.
3. Describe fully the chart symbol in each of the following positions:
(a) 46º23'.5N 06º11'.5W
(b) 46º06'.9N 06º02'.4W
(c) 45º38'.8N 05º45'.6W
(d) 46º13'.5N 05º54'.4W
4. State the latitude and longitude of the position
245º from Christopher Point LH 6.0M
5. Plot the course from the Ocean Data-Acquisition System (ODAS) superbuoy (about 3.0M
south west of Hill Head to 1.0M east of Arundells Point red and white beacon.
(a) express this course in 3-figure notation
(b) what is the distance between the two positions?
6. What is the true bearing and distance of
(a) Danger point monument from Linards Point LH
(b) Misery Point LH from Colville Point LH
(c) Cape Donne LH from South Head LH
(d) Sweetwater Church from False Cape old LH
Answers on page 120
92
2. Nautical publications and chart correction
Publications in general
Excellent as navigational charts are, at best they can only give a 'flat' two dimensional picture of an area.
Much more information is needed to give a full illustration of all the services and safety provisions available
in our chosen sailing area, together with warnings of the hazards which may be encountered and advice on
how best to avoid them.
These data can be extracted from a variety of nautical reference books which can be grouped into two
categories, the 'official' books produced by the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office, and 'commercial' books
published by various companies, most of which reproduce information originally supplied by the Admiralty
to augment their own texts.
RYA TA contains extracts from many reference sources listed on its title page (page 1). RYA TA has been
produced to give representative information to cover the same area as RYA Charts 3 and 4 and it will be
used throughout this course, backed up where necessary with other source material.
Because European colonisation and trade had spread worldwide the 18th
century saw the establishment of Hydrographic Offices in many countries, the first
being France in 1720 and Denmark in 1784. Alexander Dalrymple in 1795 became
the first British Hydrographer, his work being largely devoted to sorting out the mass
of hydrographical information that had come in to the Admiralty from naval vessels
during voyages all over the world. Dalrymple's successor, Thomas Hurd
(Hydrographer 1808 to 1823) was the first of a long line of naval officers to hold the
title. He prevailed upon the Admiralty to sell naval charts to anyone interested in
buying them and to ensure that naval ships should carry out the surveys. The Sailing
Directions and the Lights Lists were introduced in the 1820s, Tide Tables in 1833 and
Notices to Mariners in 1834 by which time over 2000 Admiralty charts had been
published.
The Admiralty publications

There can be little doubt that the most complete and authoritative publications are those produced by the
United Kingdom Hydrographic Office. Of some 240 publications currently in print those which directly
concern the leisure user have been prepared in a format specially designed for small craft. The principal
ones are:
Home waters catalogue NP 109 - all Admiralty charts of the British Isles are shown together with
continental waters from Bordeaux to the Texel. It gives a comprehensive list of all relevant charts and
publications, and the chart agents from whom they may be obtained. From this a smaller version is produced
called Catalogue of Small Craft Products NP 109A which shows, pictorially, the limits of all small craft
editions of Admiralty charts and lists all small craft products together with the titles of small craft editions.
93
Nautical publications and chart correction
Admiralty Sailing Directions (or pilot books as they are frequently called) number 74 volumes covering
the world, nine of which are devoted to the coasts and adjacent waters of the British Isles. For descriptions
of coastal features, current and tidal streams, inshore passages and local weather they have no equal.
They are the 'handy hints' derived from the experiences of many navigators, surveyors, local harbour
authorities, etc.
Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals, or the Lights List as it is usually called, is published in eleven
volumes covering the world, Volume A of which covers the British Isles. A new edition of each volume is
published about every 18 months. Lights Lists contain detailed descriptions of all navigation lights (except
lightbuoys) and fog signals, and should always be consulted in addition to the chart whenever these lights
are used, as more information is given in the Lists than on the charts.
Admiralty Tide Tables are published annually in four volumes covering the world, Volume 1 covering
European waters including the Mediterranean Sea. The use of these tables is described later in this
course but in the meantime you can see extracts from them on pages 33 to 35 of RYA TA (and throughout
that volume).
Atlas of Tides and Tidal Streams, British Islands and Adjacent Waters contains charts illustrating the
directions and rates of the tidal streams around the British Isles based on the times of high water at Dover.
There is also a series of pocket Tidal Stream Atlases, covering particular areas around the British Isles.
Examples of tidal stream charts can be seen on pages 13 to 25 of RYA TA.
The Admiralty List of Radio Signals is published periodically in eight volumes which are corrected up
to date by Notices to Mariners. These volumes include information on coast radio stations, radio
navigational aids (such as radio beacons, radar stations, etc), radio weather services, port radio stations,
satellite navigation systems and the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS).
Symbols and Abbreviations used on Admiralty Charts (NP 5011) - originally produced in chart form
(and still called Chart 5011) this handy A4 booklet contains a wealth of information in colour to enable you
to 'decipher' the many symbols used.
Admiralty Notices to Mariners are described under Chart correction later in this chapter.
Commercial nautical publications

While there are far fewer commercial publications dedicated to a single aspect of navigation than are
produced by the Hydrographic Office, there is one in particular which seeks to combine as many
perspectives as can be reasonably contained within a single volume. The Macmillan-Reeds Nautical
Almanac combines the best features of the former Macmillan Nautical Almanac, the now defunct Reeds
Nautical Almanac, and the Sail and Power Nautical Almanac (previously published by Boatswain Press).
The Macmillan-Reeds Nautical Almanac (which will be referred to as Macmillan throughout your course)
is published by Nautical Data Ltd.
The Almanac, issued yearly, is a stand-alone handbook of the essential navigational information needed
by yachtsmen sailing the waters around the United Kingdom and Ireland, and the European waters from
Denmark to the Franco-Spanish Atlantic border. Some of the information contained in RYA TA is a reprint
from Macmillan which offers data on radio and visual aids to navigation, weather, safety, routeing and
detailed information on numerous ports and yacht harbours.
The Macmillan-Reeds Loose-Leaf Almanac (another Nautical Data publication) combines a log book
with an almanac of tidal data, pilotage, harbour, routeing and safety information. Produced in loose-leaf
format (to allow ease of updating), it takes the place of the former Seafile.
94
Nautical Data also publish abridged almanacs under the Macmillan name covering such favoured cruising
areas as the Channel and the west coast of Scotland.
A number of pilot books for yachtsmen are published commercially covering limited areas such as the most
popular cruising areas of the English Channel, Continental coasts and the Mediterranean. They usually
include photographs and chartlets of harbours to help visitors when approaching an unfamiliar port, together
with information on the local facilities available. These publications can be very useful but are not
necessarily uniform in their quality or their coverage of different sections of the coast, and are unlikely to be
up to date in respect of lights, buoys, leading marks, etc since little provision is generally made for correcting
them after publication. They are always to be regarded as supplementary to the information on the corrected
chart, but not overriding the chart. The same proviso applies to cruising guides and handbooks produced
by various clubs and associations, such as the Cruising Association Handbook.
Chart correction
It is necessary to understand the 'dating' on charts, as this will enable you to see whether or not you are
using an up-to-date copy.
Under the bottom border of every chart, in the middle, is the inscription, which states the date of the original
publication of the chart and the name of the responsible Hydrographer. On proper navigation charts (but not
instructional charts supplied with this course) to the right of the inscription there is the notation 'New
Editions', possibly followed by one or more dates, and on the extreme left below the bottom border will be
found a line of figures headed ' Notices to Mariners'.
The information from which hand-inserted Small Corrections can be made is issued by the Admiralty in small
booklets called Admiralty Notices to Mariners which contain details of changes and alterations to the
position or descriptions of buoys and lightvessels, alterations to the sectors over which a light is shown, the
addition of newly discovered dangers, and so on.
Figure 11: Examples of Admiralty Notices to Mariners
Admiralty Notices to Mariners are published weekly but there is also a special small craft edition for British
and adjacent continental waters which is published four times a year and contains amendments of particular
significance to smaller boats.
95
A typical extract from Admiralty Notices to Mariners is shown in fig 11. When the correction is too large to
be completed neatly by hand a printed 'block' is produced which must be cut out neatly and glued in
exactly the right place on the chart. Such a block with its accompanying Notice to Mariners is shown in
figs 12 (notice) and 13 (block). It will be seen that the block only pertains to chart 2050. The other charts
shown in the correction (3418, 2045, etc) will also have blocks prepared for them, each to the precise
scale of that particular chart.
Figure 12: Examples of Notices to Mariners requiring a printed block
There are two principal sorts of Small Corrections: those which are of immediate importance to safe
navigation and those which, while improving the chart, are not vital to its practical utility. The first sort is
always announced by a Notice to Mariners, from which the navigator's copy can be corrected by hand.
This should be done in violet waterproof ink, and the year and Notices to Mariners number of each
correction should be noted in the bottom left-hand corner of the chart after 'Notices to Mariners'. Each
Notice shows the number of the last correction to the charts affected, so it is possible to check that no
correction has been missed.
Because of frequent corrections by Notices to Mariners, and since no chart is ever sold (by appointed
chart agents) which is not up-to-date, only a limited number of copies are printed at a time. Stocks are
corrected by hand, which is of course a very tedious business, so charts are reprinted frequently with the
corrected information included and the Notices to Mariners numbers inserted after Notices to Mariners in
the bottom left-hand corner of the chart. If some minor improvements are made which have not been the
subject of a Notice to Mariners, the date of the reprint enclosed in square brackets is shown. Thus the
line of Notices to Mariners may contain intimations of important and less important amendments in the
following manner:
96
To accompany Admiralty Notice to Mariners No 3196 to 1998
Block for Chart No 2050
Figure 13: One of the blocks to accompany the Notice to Mariners in figure 12
Notices to Mariners: 1997-1219-2243-[22.12]-1998-159-[1.3]-1999-87- 2000-106
This notation shows that the chart was corrected from Notices to Mariners 1219 and 2243 of 1997.
Minor amendments were made on 22 December 1997 and on 1 March 1998 while further
corrections were incorporated from Notices to Mariners 159 of 1998, 87 of 1999 and (by hand) 106
of 2000.
Weekly and small craft editions of Admiralty Notices to Mariners can be obtained from Admiralty
chart agents and depots, from British Mercantile Marine Offices and Customs Houses, and certain
yacht clubs and marinas.
The UK Hydrographic Office publishes a useful booklet (NP 294) entitled How to
Correct your Charts the Admiralty Way. This is available from Admiralty chart agents.
Personal checklist
Chapter 2 has given you an insight into some of the extensive list of nautical books which are
available to assist safe navigation. You will become more familiar with some of these as the course
unfolds and it is not intended that they should be the subject of self-test or tutor-marked assessment
questions, with the exception of the sample of symbols and abbreviations from NP 5011 as listed in
the RYA Training Almanac.
97
3. Fixing your boat's position
Position lines
There are three principal methods by which we establish our position at sea:
• position fixing - defining our location relative to charted features as nearly as possible
to present time
• dead reckoning (DR) - predicting our future position by using only the course steered
and the distance run with no external influences intruding
• estimated position (EP) - predicting the future position by plotting the course steered
and the distance run and allowing for the influence of wind and tidal stream.
DR and EP will be discussed later in this module, but to start with we shall introduce the technique of
position fixing. You will see that our definition included the proviso 'as nearly as possible to present
time'. This is because it takes time to observe, record and plot the necessary bearings on a chart so we
are really plotting where we were (at the time of observation) rather than where we are (having completed
the necessary calculations and plotting).
The two main reasons for fixing a boat's position are
1. to find out where she really is, and that she is continuing to follow a safe course, because
some time may have elapsed since her position was established with any accuracy.
2. to establish or to confirm the course and speed being made good.
When the yacht is close enough to the land to observe charted landmarks we can take their bearings and
obtain position lines which can then be plotted. A position line is any straight or curved line drawn on the
chart on which the yacht's position is known to lie.
The easiest way to obtain a visual

position line is to use the hand-bearing
compass as described in module 1. Any
charted landmark can be used as long as
it is clearly recognisable - a lighthouse,
a beacon or a water tower for instance. In
fig 14 the navigator is observing a
chimney which bears 065ºM. We cannot
plot magnetic bearings on the chart so we
must first convert to a true bearing by
applying the variation for the area in
which we are sailing. (You'll remember
that variation is shown on the compass
roses on the chart, and that the
procedure for converting from magnetic
to true was outlined in module 1). A pencil
line is now drawn on the chart leading
towards the charted position of the
observed landmark in the same direction
Figure 14 as the true bearing.
98
Fixing your boat’s position
Suppose, for example, at 0900 you observe the church spire in fig 15 with your hand-bearing compass and
find the bearing to be 355ºM. If the magnetic variation for your locality is 5ºE, then the true bearing of the
church would be 355ºM + 5ºE = 360ºT (or due north). Turning to your chart, and having identified the same
church as the one you observed, you would draw a pencil line towards the church in the direction 360ºT as
shown in fig 15. This would be a position line, because if your bearing was an accurate one your boat must
lie somewhere along it. The correct symbol for a position line is a single arrow at its outer end as shown in
fig 15.
Figure 15 : Observing and plotting a bearing
However, this would not be a fix because, although you know you must lie somewhere on this position line,
you still do not know precisely where. To obtain a fix you must have at least two position lines. Where two
or more position lines intersect constitutes a fix. In the above example, suppose that in addition to observing
the church at 0900 you also took a bearing of the chimney and found this to be 070ºM. By applying the
variation of 5ºE this would give you a true bearing of 075ºT, which when plotted on your chart would intersect
with the bearing of the church as
shown in fig 16. Note that each of
the two position lines has an arrow
at its outer end and that the point of
intersection has been ringed with a
small circle. In navigation, the
symbol for a fix is a dot surrounded
by a small circle thus.
Provided that your observations

have been accurate and that your
hand-bearing compass has not been
influenced by any magnetic forces
other than variation, the fix in fig 16
will represent your true position at
0900. However, you cannot be Figure 16: Two-bearing fix
absolutely sure of these provisions,
so it is usual in navigation to observe three bearings to fix the boat's position, so that the third bearing will
confirm (or not) the other two.
So to fix the yacht's position in the previous example her navigator would in practice observe three
prominent and charted landmarks as nearly simultaneously as possible, then, returning to the chart table,
would jot them down on a notepad quickly (before the numbers were forgotten) together with the time and
the log reading (these last two being very important to enable future positions to be predicted, as will be
shown later).
99
Fixing a boat’s position
Figure 17
Let us suppose the navigator observes lighthouse A, church B and chimney C at 0900 when the log reads
27, as shown in fig 17. The notebook entry would look something like this:
TIME LOG LIGHTHOUSE A CHURCH B CHIMNEY C

0900 27.0 286ºM 355ºM 070ºM
Variation 5ºE 5ºE 5ºE
True bearings to plot on chart 291ºT 360ºT 075ºT
These three position lines would be plotted on the chart as shown in fig 17, in this case intersecting at a
common point marked with the fix symbol, the time and the log reading. The term 'position line' is usually
abbreviated to P/L.
Please note the neat, logical presentation of the bearing conversions (from
magnetic to true in this case) for the 'navigator's notebook' entry in this example. This
is the standard to aim for, and which will be expected in all your arithmetical workings
throughout the course. Why? Because, at sea, careful display of your data and
calculations is vital to safety. Careless scribbling can produce errors which, in turn,
may spell disaster.
In practice, three position lines only rarely intersect at a common point. It is much more likely that they will
form a triangle known as a cocked hat, particularly if the boat is moving fast or the observer is unsteady
in a rough sea. Other possible causes of error include misidentification of one of the marks, misreading
the compass, using the wrong variation, or using the hand-bearing compass where it is affected by ferrous
metal or electrical equipment which has induced deviation (see module 1).
How do we adjust the plotting to cope with a cocked hat? If a very large cocked hat occurs, showing that
there is a mistake in one of the position lines, the fix must be retaken and plotted (and it will be prudent to
slow, or even heave to, if the present position is really uncertain).
In practice, provided that there are no hazards in the immediate vicinity and the cocked hat is small, then
it is acceptable to make the centre of the triangle the boat's position. If there is a hazard on the course
ahead (or close to it) we should assume a position on the corner of the cocked hat nearest to that hazard.
An example of this can be seen in fig 18.
100
Figure 18: Plotting a course from a cocked hat
At, say, 2010, log reading 39 a motorboat on course 065ºT is passing north of Sark when HB compass
bearings are taken of Point Robert LH 213ºM, Noire Pute LH 247ºM and Platte Fougère LH 279ºM. They
will be entered in the navigator's notebook as
TIME LOG COURSE POINT ROBERT LH NOIR PUTE LH PLATTE FOUGÈRE LH

2010 39 065ºT 213ºM 247ºM 279ºM
(from chart) variation 7ºW 7ºW 7ºW

206ºT 240ºT 272ºT
When these true bearings are plotted a cocked hat results. If we plotted course 065ºT from the centre of the
triangle (pecked line in figure 18) we would pass more than a mile south of Banc de la Schôle. But if (as we
ought to do) we assumed our position to be the northeastern apex of the cocked hat, our predicted course
065ºT takes us too close for comfort. It might then be considered sensible to alter course 20º or so to
starboard until the Banc is well clear abaft our port beam before resuming course 065ºT (particularly if the
wind is of any strength, building rough seas over the Banc).
Cocked hat? If you are in a motorboat moving at, say, 30 knots and there is a time
delay of 20 seconds between the observations of each of three bearings, the boat
will have travelled 666 yards (610 metres) between the first and final bearings so a
cocked hat is automatically 'built in'.
101
Achieving good visual fixes
When sailing in coastal waters ('coasting') we should always be looking ahead for landmarks suitable for
fixing the vessel's position, particularly conspicuous objects such as lighthouses, church spires and
towers, chimneys, radio
masts, water towers, etc, all of
which are usually clearly
identifiable on the chart. If in
any doubt about the
identification of a mark on the
chart, the mark should not be
observed for a fix.
Marks not so good for fixing

are hills (which appear
different from varying
directions), islets (which
always appear much bigger in
reality than they do on a
chart), and the ends of land
such as headlands, unless
they have steep vertical drops
into the sea (sloping ends of
land may in fact continue to
slope below the horizon so
that the point observed is not
the end of the land at all).
We must always be very

careful if we choose a floating
object such as a buoy for a
Figure 19: Floating objects as fixing marks fixing mark. As shown in fig19,
at low water buoys may not be
in their charted positions, and of course their moorings may drag.
Where a yacht's position can only be fixed by two bearings the objects chosen should, if possible, be so
placed that their bearings differ by nearly 90º, because the effect of any small errors in observing or
plotting is thus decreased. For the same reason, three bearings should have a relative difference of 60º.
Never observe bearings where the angle of cut is less than 30º or more than 150º since position lines so
obtained will be unreliable.
Further considerations to observe in visual fixing are:
• choose nearer objects in preference to distant ones since any angular errors in the
bearing will be magnified with distant marks
• bearings on the bow or quarter should be observed first since bearings abeam will alter
more rapidly
• off-lying marks may merge with the background and be difficult to locate visually although
clearly identifiable on the chart
• at night, fishing or other small boats bobbing up and down on the waves or car headlights
ashore can easily be confused with the lights of a lighthouse
• ensure the HB compass is not held close to any ferrous metal such as standing rigging
or metal stanchions, or any electrical equipment such as instrument display panels, all of
which could induce deviation. Wearing steel-rimmed spectacles can also have a
devastating effect on an HB compass.
102
Other types of position lines and fixes
We introduced the concept of the transit in chapter 3 of module 1 but only in the context of checking for
deviation and compass error. The transit is the finest visual source of position line, because once the two
charted objects are sighted in line with each other it follows that our boat must lie along the extension of that
line. We don't even need a compass observation (although it is customary to take one in order to check for
deviation). Let us suppose that we are sailing in the western part of the Baie de Saint-Brieuc when we
observe at 1410 (log reading 62.4) Madeux beacon in transit with the middle one of the three coastal water
towers at Saint-Quay-Portrieux. Fig 21 shows what the transit might look like from seaward and fig 20
depicts the transit plotted on the chart (with the bearing subsequently measured as 223ºT). Since we must
be somewhere on that line any HB compass cross-bearing of another mark will establish our position.
Background - Figure 20 : Transit

plotted on chart
Foreground - Figure 21:

Transit seen from seaward
103
When using a transit remember that the greater the distance between the two charted objects, the greater
will be the accuracy achieved.
Marks in transit are often deliberately constructed, sometimes to mark the start
and finish of ‘measured mile’ areas but more often to provide an exact steering line,
called a leading line, through a difficult approach into a harbour. Perhaps even more
importantly, most are lit, allowing night access too. Several are shown on Chart RYA 3,
a typical example of leading lights being at the entrance to Victoria (between
Greinsham Point and Knights Bank).
A depth contour line can be used to

obtain a P/L by using an echo- sounder
(or a hand lead line in shallower water).
Fig 22 shows how the position line curves
along the depth contour. It is vital to
remember that the accuracy of such a P/L
depends upon the definition of the seabed
contours on the chart. A gently shelving
seabed can give very inaccurate contour
readings particularly where there is a high
rise and fall of tide.
Fig 23 shows a line drawn east/west in the

area from Banc de la Schôle to just north
of Diélette. Beneath it is shown the
seabed contour profile exactly following
this line.
Figure 22 : P/L from a depth contour
It will be seen that, even allowing for the
vertical exaggeration of the profile, the
only positions in which depth contours will provide reasonably sure P/Ls are over the Banc itself and close
inshore, neither of which is a desirable place to be! Between these points the bottom shelves far too
gradually for accurate navigation (about 25 metres in 12 miles) and this in an area where the tidal level
may rise and fall 8 metres twice each day.
Figure 23:Seabed profile : Banc de la Schole to Dielette
104
A mixed fix is one where P/Ls from different sources have been combined. For instance, if the depth
contour P/L in fig 22 were crossed with P/Ls from one or more visual bearings of objects ashore, a good fix
would result.
A summary of position lines and a comparison of their potential accuracy will be given in module 5.
• name the three principal methods by which we establish our position at sea
• recognise the requirement to know a vessel's position at all times
• define a position line
• explain how a visual bearing of a charted object taken by HB compass is plotted on

a chart
• demonstrate that a second bearing taken immediately after the first will constitute a
fix but that, if possible, a third bearing should be added to confirm the first two
• show how to annotate the fix position on the chart with the correct symbol, time and
log reading
• appreciate the requirement for neat, logical entries in the navigator's notebook
• realise that three bearing fixes usually result in a small cocked hat
• choose the safest position within the cocked hat in which to plot the fix
• differentiate between good and poor seamarks and landmarks, from which to
observe bearings
• list methods of obtaining position lines (other than visually) and appreciate their
shortcomings
• explain the navigational values of a charted transit.
105

1. (a) Does visual fixing indicate a vessel's present position? Explain your answer.
(b) Why do we need to fix a vessel's position?
(c) What is a position line?
(d) How many position lines constitute a position fix?
(e) In what part of a cocked hat should we assume our position to be?
(f) What criteria must be borne in mind when accepting a depth contour line as a
reliable position line?
(g) Define a mixed fix. Give an example.
For questions 2 to 6 of this exercise use Chart RYA 3 and assume variation 7ºW. Erase all
previous work from your chart and plot lightly with a soft (2B) pencil. All conventional symbols
and notation described in this module so far must be shown on your chartwork. Data and
calculations should be written on a separate piece of paper (not on your chart).
2. The navigator of a yacht east of Dymond Reef observes the following HB compass
bearings at 0555 (log 48.8):
Token Rocks LH 297ºM

Cape S. Vincent LH 052ºM
Plot the bearings.
(a) what type of fix is this?

(b) state the latitude and longitude of the fix position.
3. From a motor yacht south of Fiddler’s Race the following HB compass bearings were
observed at 1542 (log 16.3):
Pentire Island LH 051ºM

Race Rock LH 345ºM
Tintagel Island LH 309ºM
Plot the bearings.

(b) state the latitude and longitude of the fix position.
106
4. A yacht is on course 060ºM in the Falls Deep channel. Using an HB compass the navigator takes
the following bearings at 1028 (log 71.4)
Guillemot I. LH 084ºM
South Falls Martello Tower 041ºM
Cape Woodward Coastguard Station 350ºM
Plot the bearings.
(b) state the latitude and longitude of the fix position you have chosen
(c) give your reason(s) for selecting the position in (b).
5. Approaching Stubbington Bay (approx 46º18’N 06º11’W) from the south west on course 050ºM
the skipper of a sloop observes the following bearings on her HB compass at 1905(log 104.6):
S. Anthony’s Head light 097ºM
West Point light 020ºM
At the same time the corrected depth on the echo-sounder shows 100m, shallowing.
Plot the fix position.
(b) state the latitude and longitude of the fix position
(c) what position fixing value would you place upon the sounding taken?
6. At 1104 (log 27.7), from a yacht approaching South Douglas Sound from seaward the navigator
observes (using an HB compass) Mount Douglas in transit with South Head LH bearing 042ºC;
while Guillemot I. LH bears 307ºC.
(a) find the compass error and deviation for the yacht's present heading
(b) state the latitude and longitude of her position.
Answers on page 121
107
4. Working up positions
The dead reckoning (DR) position
Having examined position fixing, the most accurate of the three positioning methods listed at the start of
the last section, we now turn our attention to the least precise which is called dead reckoning and almost
always abbreviated to DR.
Position fixing relies on the ability to establish position lines from one or more external sources such as
landmarks, depth soundings and radio navigational aids. When these are not available we must fall back
on our own resources and find some other means to keep track of our boat's position.
Dead reckoning is the name given to the process of working up the position of a vessel from the last
reliable fix by taking account of the direction and distance that the vessel travels from that position. It is
the only means by which a position can be worked up without reference to the world outside the vessel.
Whatever the conditions, a DR can always be maintained using the simple onboard instruments of
compass and log, and keeping a record of their readings in the log book. DR takes into account only two
factors, the course steered and the distance run through the water. It can indicate future approximate
positions but its accuracy is limited.
The term 'dead reckoning' is thought by some to have evolved from 'ded.
reckoning' an abbreviation of 'deduced reckoning' but this origin is highly debatable.
Since the expression has been in use at sea for about five hundred years it is more likely
to have implied working towards the unknown because 'dead' seas to a sailor were
those of which very little was known, or which existed only in rumour.
Suppose a fix obtained at 0700

is plotted on the chart as shown
in fig 24. From this fix the
navigator would draw in a line
representing the course that is
being steered, in this case
100ºT. If the boat's speed
through the water as indicated
by the log is, say, 5 knots, then
she will cover one mile every 12
Figure 24
minutes. So, at one mile
intervals along the course
steered line, the navigator could
mark the boat's forecast
positions with a small cross, as shown in fig 24. These forecast positions are dead reckoning (DR)
positions and the conventional symbol for a DR is +.
As you can see, DR positions are important since they give an indication of the vessel's present and
future positions - because by the time a fix has been plotted the vessel has moved on. A DR has only
limited accuracy, and unless external positioning sources can be incorporated at suitable intervals the
errors of the DR will rapidly accumulate to a point where it becomes difficult to make sensible decisions.
108
Working up positions
When we are next able to obtain a positional fix the forecast DR must be updated. For example, if the
navigator of the boat in fig 25(a) obtains a fix at 1300, the course steered (080ºT) is plotted from the fix and
the DR predictions for 1330 and 1400 are marked along that track. But if another fix is obtained at 1330
[figure 25 (b)] which shows that the boat is some distance to the right of the indicated track, the DR must
then be predicted and plotted from the new fix.
Figure 25
We shall shortly explore the factors that account for the discrepancy between the predicted DR and the fix
but despite its limitations we must always maintain a DR plot
• because a DR is derived from sources within the vessel (direction and speed) and is
always available
• because it is a valuable check on outside observations as it is totally independent of them

- consistency between independent sources of information is always a great comfort in
navigation
• but most importantly because a DR position is needed as a starting point for more
advanced plots and calculations, as will be shown later in this module.
At its simplest, DR navigation requires no more than the meticulous recording of courses, times and log
readings (see Log books in module 1), followed by a very simple plotting exercise. However, in order to
have a more accurate forecast of present and future positions the navigator needs to take into account
additional factors such as the wind and the tidal stream to give the best possible estimate of the vessel's
position.
On passage in your motor yacht, cup of tea in hand, you are taking a
well-earned break below when at 1047 the helmsman shouts "Skipper! I'm
going to have to alter course for a sailing yacht in a few minutes. Are we OK
to turn to starboard?". A quick glance at the cabin clock and at the chart
shows that we should be about midway between the predicted DR positions
for 1030 and 1100. No rocks, wrecks, shallows or other hazards are indicated
within five miles to starboard and you give the helmsman immediate
reassurance. But if no DR had been plotted since, say, a fix at 0920, mild
panic would ensue while a feverish attempt to update the plot was underway.
And all the time that sailing yacht is getting closer..........
109
The wind and leeway in navigation
The first thing to note about wind at sea

is that wind directions are always given
as the directions from which the wind is
blowing, using the compass point
notation rather than the three-figure
notation (see fig 26). As shown, a north
wind is one which is blowing from north
towards south. Similarly a south- west
wind is one which is blowing from SW
towards NE, and so on.
If you have ever ridden a bicycle along

a very windy street you will have been
aware how difficult it is to maintain your
intended line of advance. Constant
correction of your balance and steering
is needed to prevent being blown into
the path of oncoming vehicles or
swerving in front of those approaching
from astern. The more clothing that you
are wearing, and the more packages
you are carrying, the worse the effect.
You have been subjected to leeway.
Figure 26 : Wind direction
A sailing yacht cannot sail directly into the wind. Except when she is sailing with the wind astern, besides
moving forwards she will be pushed sideways by the pressure of the wind on her sails, hull and gear. (She
will be crabbing through the water.) A power driven yacht can move directly into wind but she will similarly
be subjected to sideways movement unless the wind is from ahead or astern. This downwind, sideways
movement is called leeway.
Leeway is defined as the angle in degrees between the course being steered and the track that the vessel
is making through the water (which is called the water track).
Figure 27 : Leeway angle added

In fig 27 the yacht is being steered on course 090ºT, but because of the north-easterly wind she is moving
through the water to the right of this track. The leeway angle is xº and the water track is 090ºT plus xº. If
the leeway angle is 5º then the water track is (090º plus 5º) = 095ºT.
Note (from figure 28) that if the wind had been on the other bow (say from a south-easterly direction) the
yacht would be blown to left of track and the leeway angle would be subtracted from the course steered.
If the leeway angle in figure 28 is 5º then the water track will be 085ºT (course steered 090ºT minus 5º).
110
Figure 28 : Leeway angle susbtracted

Fig 29 illustrates a sailing yacht tacking against the wind where the course steered is shown in continuous
line and the water track in pecked line. It will be seen that the leeway angle (assuming 5º) is minus on the
1st leg but it is plus on the 2nd leg.
Figure 29 : Leeway angle alternating
To avoid any confusion as to how to apply leeway, the golden rule is always draw a sketch for leeway
problems.
At this stage of your course we are introducing the concept of leeway. It is much more
usual (as you would expect) to steer to compensate for leeway in order to stay on our intended
track. We shall examine, in detail, how to do this in a later module.
How do we estimate leeway? The amount of leeway made depends upon a vessel's draught, freeboard,
speed, design characteristics, strength of wind, state of the sea and her point of sailing. (Leeway is at its
maximum when close-hauled and nil when running free, or motoring head or stern to wind.) In strong winds
with steep seas, leeway angles
up to 20º can be experienced. A
rough estimate of leeway is
sometimes made by taking a
bearing of the wake and
comparing this with the reciprocal
of the compass heading as in fig
30. At best this can only be an
approximation. The designer's
figures may help but, in the end,
Figure 30 : Leeway estimate by wake angle leeway can only be reliably
decided by building up a continuing record of your own yacht's performance in a wide variety of wind, sea
and point of sailing conditions.
Note carefully that leeway should be applied only to a true course, never to a compass course or
a magnetic course, otherwise the deviation obtained from the deviation card may be in error
111
The effect of tidal streams and currents
The body of water which supports a boat may move horizontally under the influence of a current (caused by
the long-term circulation of water round the globe) or tidal streams (caused by the gravitational effect of the
sun and the moon). If the water in which a boat moves is itself moving, then the navigator will not know the
boat's position unless a suitable allowance is made.
In order to make allowances for the effect of currents or tidal streams, we must be able to find out the likely
directions in which they will flow and their likely velocities. How to obtain this information will be described in
some detail in module 5 Tides and Tidal Streams, but for the moment an important fact to remember in
connection with all horizontal movements of water (currents and tidal streams) is that they are always named
according to the direction in which they are flowing. Another name for the direction in which a body of water
is moving is set, and if a stream is said to be 'setting 270º' this means it is flowing from east towards west.
A current setting 180º is flowing from north towards south, and so on. Directions quoted for currents and
streams in this way are always expressed true in three-figure notation. This is the exact opposite to the way
a wind is named according to the direction from which it blows, so remember:
WIND is named according to the direction from which it blows
WATER is named according to the direction towards which it flows
Terms used in connection with currents and tidal streams are:
SET The direction in which a current or tidal stream is moving (in 3-figure notation true). As it is
always true, the T is sometimes omitted.
DRIFT The distance a given current or tidal stream will move in a given interval of
time, and shown in miles and tenths of miles.
RATE The velocity of a current or tidal stream expressed in knots.
A vessel which experiences a tidal stream setting 050º, rate 2 knots, will be set in an 050ºT direction and
will drift 2 miles in one hour, or 1 mile in half an hour.
The effect of a current or tidal stream which is running with, or directly against, the course of a vessel will
only affect the vessel's speed. In fig 31(a), suppose a boat is steering a course 090ºT at a speed of 5 knots
through the water in a tidal stream also setting 090º at 2 knots. The boat's speed through the water and the
movement of that water itself in the same direction will complement each other, so that the boat's speed over
the ground (seabed or earth's surface) is 5 + 2 = 7 knots.
Fig 31 : Fair and foul tidal streams

In fig 31(b), the boat is still steering 090ºT at a speed of 5 knots through the water but this time the tidal
stream is setting in the exact opposite direction 270º at 2 knots. Here, since the movement of the water is in
the opposite direction to that in which the boat is moving through it, the boat's speed over the ground is 5 -
2 = 3 knots.
112
Note that in both cases the log used by the yacht only registers the speed through the water. The speed
over the ground, or speed made good (abbreviated to SOG), must be calculated either by adding or
subtracting the velocity of the tidal stream.
If the tidal stream was always directly with us or directly against us our calculation of SMG would be
relatively simple. Unfortunately, this is seldom the case.
The effect of a current or tidal stream which is running in any direction other than directly with or directly
against the course of the boat will affect both the track and the speed of the boat. This shown in fig 32, in
which a powerboat leaves a harbour steering a course of 165ºT obliquely across a tidal stream which is
setting 270º. The course steered is the direction of the boat's heading, but the track made good is the
direction of the track relative to the seabed, called the ground track (GT). In other words it is our actual
track across the surface of the earth and is measured from the true meridian only (so all ground tracks are
expressed as true).
If we assume that there is no leeway the angular difference between the course steered and the ground
track is caused by the tidal stream movement setting the craft bodily downstream as shown in fig 32(a), but
note that the boat's head always points in the direction of the course steered, not in the direction of the
ground track, because she is crabbing sideways.
Figure 32: Effect of the tidal stream across vessel’s course

In fig 32(b) it can be seen that after steering for some time a course of 165ºT, the bearing of the harbour
the powerboat has just left is not 345ºT (the reciprocal of the course steered), but, say, 005ºT so that the
ground track must be 005ºT + 180º = 185ºT. This would be drawn on a chart as shown in fig 32(c) in which
the line with the single arrow represents the course steered and the line with the double arrow represents
the ground track. (The figure of the boat would not of course be drawn on the chart, but is shown here to
emphasise the fact that the boat's head always points in the direction of the course steered.)
As we shall see in module 5 considerable information is available to help us in predicting the direction and
rate of tidal streams but, with what we have already discussed, it is at least possible to determine, in
retrospect, the tidal stream that we have encountered.
Before we look at how this is done there is one more word to add to our navigational vocabulary and that
is vector.
113
A vector is a line that represents both direction and magnitude (distance). Each of the lines in the triangle
shown in fig 38 is a vector because it indicates both direction (by measurable angle on the chart) and
magnitude (by its measurable length on the chart).
If we assume that
the force moving a
vessel from its DR
position is tidal
stream only we can
find the direction and
rate of the tidal
stream, given the
course steered and
the vessel's ground
track. In fig 33, a
Figure 33: A vector triangle vessel steers 100ºT
at 7 knots for one
hour, obtaining a fix
at 1700 and another fix at 1800. By joining the 1800 DR to the 1800 fix we obtain the tidal stream vector,
and by measuring its direction accurately with a protractor or parallel rule we get the TS direction, while
its length represents the drift of the TS. If this is, say, 2 miles this means the TS has a rate of 2 knots if
our triangle is for a period of one hour, as in this case. In fig 33 the tidal stream experienced between
1700 and 1800 was 340º at 2 knots.
Please note the correct chartwork symbols and apply them in all your future plotting:
• the water track vector is marked with a single arrow
• the ground track vector (between the 1700 and 1800 fix positions) is marked with two
arrows
• the tidal stream vector is marked with three arrows
Finally, and this is a point which will be emphasised frequently,
ALL THREE SIDES OF A VECTOR TRIANGLE MUST REPRESENT THE

SAME ELAPSED TIME
In fig 33 each of the three vectors represents one hour but if, say, the ground track vector had been
measured between 1700 and 1900 then the water track length would have been (2 hours x 7 knots) 14
miles long and the tidal stream vector would be 4 miles long
 4 miles 
 = 2 knots 
 2 hours 
The estimated position (EP)

We have already seen that a position obtained using only the true course steered and the distance run
by log is called a (dead reckoning) DR position, marked on the chart with the symbol +.
The best possible approximation of our present or future position takes into account the factors involved
in DR but also allows for the external factors - wind and tidal stream - which conspire to move our boat
away from the DR position. It is called estimated position, abbreviated to EP and shown on the chart as
a triangular symbol
114
Fig 34 and its accompanying explanation will demonstrate all these factors and show how we arrive at an
EP.
Factors involved in plotting an EP
Figure 34
The setting
• a motor cruiser logging 11 knots through the water obtains a fix at position A
• she then steers 100ºT for the next hour
• the wind is northerly

• her estimated leeway is 4º
• the tidal stream is setting 150º at 2 knots.
The problem
What is her EP after one hour?
The solution
• from fix position A draw in the course steered 100ºT for 11 miles and mark the DR position.
(This step is not strictly necessary but is included to show how the various elements inter-
relate).
• apply the leeway 4º downwind from the course steered to give the water track 104ºT. Plot
104ºT for 11 miles from fix position A, terminating in the sea position (B in fig 34). Mark
the water track with a single arrow.
• from the sea position plot the tidal stream vector 150º for 2 miles (the drift in one hour) to
give the required EP after 1 hour (position C in fig 34). Mark the TS vector with three
arrows and the EP with the triangle symbol.
The lines drawn so far are just geometrical construction lines to help us to plot the EP. The motor cruiser
has not followed any of them because she has been sailing along the line AC, the ground track. If required
it can be drawn in and marked with two arrows, as in fig 34.
If we measure the length of the ground track we will find it to be 12.7 miles (in direction 111ºT). Since the
time interval between fix position A and the EP at C is one hour the speed made good (SMG) by the motor
cruiser has been 12.7 knots. Her speed through the water is only 11 knots so the combined effect of leeway
and tidal stream has been to set her south- eastward of the course steered and to increase her ground
speed.
In fig 34 we used one hour vectors for convenience but EPs may be plotted for any period of time provided
that all the vectors represent the same elapsed time.
115
We will illustrate this in fig 35 and its accompanying

explanation.
The setting
• the skipper of a sailing yacht obtains

the fix shown at 0930
• the yacht is being steered on course

024ºM
• the variation, say, is 4ºW
• wind is NW
• leeway is estimated at 5º
• the tidal stream is setting 053º at 0.6

knot
• her speed through the water is 2.6

knots
Figure 35
The problem
What will be her EP at 1000?
The solution
• calculate the water track
course steered 024ºM

variation 4ºW
course steered 020ºT
leeway away from NW wind + 5º
so the water track is 025ºT
• plot ½ hour run along the water track

2.6 knots
= 1.3M on water track 025ºT to the sea position SP
2
Mark the water track with a single arrow.
• from the sea position plot the tidal stream vector in direction 053º for 0.3M (the drift in ½ hour
at 0.6 knot). Mark the TS vector with three arrows.
• at the end of the tidal stream vector mark the 1000 EP
• the ground track will be a line joining the 0930 fix to the 1000 EP. This represents a distance
of 1.58M made good in ½ hour so the SMG (speed made good) will be (1.58M x 2) = 3.16
knots.
Note that all three sides of the vector triangle represent the same (half hour) period of time.
116
For a passage of several hours, the EP can be

derived by plotting the water track and sea
position for the passage, then adding all the
tidal streams for the same number of hours
consecutively, as shown in fig 36 for a period of
4 hours. However, note that the ground track
represents only the mean (the average) of the
courses and tidal streams over the duration of
the passage.
If the course steered is altered during the

period of the plot, two or more water tracks can
be plotted consecutively to obtain a sea
position, from which the tidal streams for the
same (total) period of time are plotted to derive
the EP.
Figure 36
We have examined a number of important concepts in this section so it will be sensible to

check the following list very carefully. If any aspect needs revision this should be carried out before
attempting self-test exercise N2(3).
• differentiate between a fix position, a DR position and an EP
• appreciate that the two natural forces that offset a vessel from her intended track are
wind (leeway) and tidal streams (or currents)
• recognise that the amount of leeway carried by a vessel can only be determined
from experience of her behaviour in a variety of weather conditions
• recall that wind is named by the direction from which it blows but that water (tidal
stream or current) is named for the direction towards which it flows
• explain tidal stream set, drift and rate
• define speed through the water and speed made good
• construct a vector triangle and identify the ground track, water track and tidal
stream vectors by using the correct number of arrow symbols
• recognise that all three sides of a vector triangle must represent the same period of
time
• plot a DR position, sea position and EP.
117
1. If a yacht was steered on each of the following courses, calculate the water tracks to be plotted on
her chart:
Course Steered Variation Deviation Estimated Leeway Wind
(a) 067ºM 4ºW 5º N
(b) 309ºM 3ºE 10º N
(c) 191ºC 2ºW 4ºE 7º W
(d) 264ºM 5ºE 5º S
(e) 142ºC 2ºE 4ºW 8º E
2. The diagram below shows a typical chartwork plot. Re-draw the plot, then
(a) insert the correct symbols for the water track, the ground track and the tidal stream
(b) state the type of positions shown at 1940 and 2000
(c) state the type of positions shown at 1920 and 2020
For questions 3 to 5 plot lightly on Chart RYA 3 and assume a variation of 7ºW throughout. Calculations
and answers should be written separately, NOT on your chart.
3. From a yacht close south of Dymond Reef the following bearings were observed at 1030 (log
reading 2.5):
Robens Island Summit 175ºM
Warsash Rk Beacon 115ºM
Green Point 078ºM
(a) Plot and state the latitude and longitude of the 1030 fix.
(b) State the latitude and longitude of the yacht's EP at 1230 (log reading 7.0) if she was
steered on course 320ºM from the 1030 fix. Leeway was negligible and the tidal streams
were
190ºT 1.2 knots
183ºT 1.0 knots
118
4. The navigator of a motor yacht fixed the vessel's position in 45º44'.0N 06º19'.4W by GPS
satellite observation at 0645 (log reading 49.8).
The motor yacht is being steered on course 339ºM in a SW wind and it is estimated that
she is making 5º leeway. The tidal stream is setting 055º at 1.4 knots.
What is the latitude and longitude of her EP at 0715 (log reading 58.7)?
5. At 1150 (log reading 19.8) the navigator of a sailing yacht observed Cape. S. Vincent LH
097ºM distance 1 mile.
The yacht's heading was 286ºM and she continued on this course until 1240 (log 23.2)
when course was altered to 316ºM.
Leeway was estimated at 6º on the first course and 8º on the second course, the wind
being SW'ly throughout.
(a) quote the latitude and longitude of the 1150 fix
(b) quote the latitude and longitude of the yacht's EP at 1350 (log reading
27.2) if the tidal streams experienced were
1150 - 1250 210º 0.6 knot

1250 - 1350 218º 0.8 knot
When you consult the answers please note carefully the neat,
logical layout of the calculations with every line 'labelled' correctly. Try to
follow this as a pattern throughout your course. At sea you will find that
this commonsense approach acts as a mental spur, 'automatically'
introducing the next step in the sequence. And if you are called away in
the middle of a calculation to attend to some extraneous problem, you will
find it very much easier to continue the workings when you return, rather
than having to start them all over again.
119
5. Answers to exercises
These self-test exercises form student assignments for your course. You should work through the exercises
carefully, marking them with the model answers and marks which follow. If necessary, refer again to the text
of this module and repeat the exercises. Record your final results on the assignment report card provided.

1. (a) 327º is between NW and N
(b) 149º is between SE and S
(c) 293º is between W and NW
(d) 067º is between NE and E
(e) 195º is between S and SW
(f) 259º is between SW and W
6 marks
2. (a) 46º09'.6N 05º38'.0W

(b) 45º51'.1N 05º48'.9W
(c) 46º19'.7N 05º58'.7W
(d) 46º28'.1N 06º15'.2W
(e) 46º03’.6N 06º18’.8W
12 marks
3. (a) Recommended anchorage, (no defined limits) 3 marks
(b) Rock which covers and uncovers, height 1m above Chart Datum. 3 marks
(c) Fishing prohibited 5 marks
(d) Chimney 3 marks
4. 45º51'.4N 05º54'.8W 6 marks
5. (a) 157ºT
(b) 23.4M 4 marks
6. (a) 281½ºT 10.95M

(b) 066ºT 22.3M
(c) 252½ºT 20.4M
(d) 141ºT 11.3M
8 marks
Total marks = 50
120
Answers to exercises N2(2)
1. (a) No – it shows where we were at the time the bearings were taken, but in the period needed
to record and plot the bearings the boat will have moved away from that position.
2 marks
(b) • to find out where she is

• to check that she is continuing to follow a safe course
• to check the course and speed being made good 3 marks
(c) any straight or curved line drawn on the chart on which the vessel's position is known to
lie 2 marks
(d) at least two but preferably three 1 mark
(e) • if no hazard exists, the centre of the triangle

• if a charted hazard lies in the vicinity, the course should be projected from the apex of
the triangle which is closest to the hazard 2 marks
(f) • the charted seabed must be well defined with closely spaced contours
• it must not be a gently shelving beach
• high rise and fall of tide may negate the depth contour 3 marks
(g) • a fix where two different sources (or more than two) have been used to obtain position
lines
• e.g. a mix of radio bearings, electronic radio aids, visual, visual transit and/or depth
contours 2 marks
Total for question 1 = 15 marks
2. (a) two bearing visual fix 2 marks
(b) 297ºM var 7ºW = 290ºT

052ºM var 7ºW = 045ºT
True bearings plotted give position 45º49'.5N 06º13'.6W

See Plot on page 123 8 marks
3. (a) three bearing visual fix 2 marks

True bearings plotted give position 45º44.2N 05º41'.8W 10 marks
See Plot on page 124. Chartwork symbols/notation correct? 3 marks
121
4. (a) three bearing visual fix giving a cocked hat 2 marks

True bearings plotted give position 46º06'.0N 06º02'.2W 8 marks
(c) position chosen is N apex of the cocked hat because this is closest to shallow water and
toRobinson Rocks (breaks heavily) on the port bow at about one mile distant.
Course 060ºM var 7ºW = course 053ºT 5 marks
5. (a) mixed fix using two visual bearings and a sounding 2 marks
True bearings plotted give position 46º13'.9N 06º17'.1W 8 marks
(c) the sounding generally agrees with the position indicated by the crossed bearings and
confirms the accuracy of the fix. 5 marks
6. (a) from Chart RYA 3 the transit bears 038ºT

Bearing 038ºT var 7ºW = 045ºM
but the compass bearing is 042ºC
so the deviation must be 3ºE
The compass error is therefore (var 7ºW - dev 3ºE) = 4ºW (see pictorial representation
below)
The true bearing of Guillemot Island LH will then be
307ºC - compass error 4ºW = 303ºT 12 marks
(b) plotting bearing 303ºT to cross the transit gives position 46º05'.7N 05º50'.8W 12 marks
See Plot on page 126. Chartwork symbols/notation correct?
122
Calculation in (a) shown pictorially
Total marks = 100
Plot for Exercise N2(2) - Question 2

123
124
Plot for exercise N2(2) - Question 4
125
126

127
1. (a) 067ºM = 063ºT + 5º leeway = 068º T water track 1 mark
(b) 309ºM = 312ºT - 10º leeway = 302ºT water track 1 mark
(c) 191ºC = 195ºM = 193ºT - 7º leeway = 186ºT water track 2 marks
(d) 264ºM = 269ºT + 5º leeway = 274ºT water track 1 mark
(e) 142ºC = 138ºM = 140ºT + 8º leeway = 148ºT water track 2 marks
2. (a) 3 marks
(b) The positions at 1940 and 2020 on the water track are DRs (dead reckoning positions)
1 mark
(c) The positions at 1920 and 2020 on the ground track are fixes (observed positions)
1 mark
3. (a) 1030 fix 45º45'.0N 06º14'.1W see plot on

(b) 1230 EP 45º46'.0N 06º19'.2W page 130
Method
(a) Convert the magnetic bearings to true by subtracting variation 7ºW
Robens Island Summit 168ºT

Warsash Rk Beacon 108ºT
Green Point 071ºT 6 marks
128
When plotted these should intersect at a single point which should be marked with a circle for a fix and
annotated 1030/2.5
(b) Distance travelled through the water is the difference between the 1030 and 1230
log readings: 7.0 - 2.5 = 4.5M
Lay off given course (320ºM - var 7ºW) = 313ºT from 1030 fix for 4.5 miles. Mark this
water track with a single arrow and the terminal point with the + symbol (1230 DR
position).
From the 1230 DR plot the tidal stream vector for the first hour (190º 1.2M) and mark it
with three arrows. Then plot the TS vector for the second hour (183º 1.0M) and mark it
with three arrows.
The outward end of the second TS vector is the EP for 1230 and must be marked with
a triangle, time and log reading 1230/ 7.0
10 marks
4. EP at 0715 is 45º52'.6N 06º23'.5W
Method : NOTE THAT THIS IS AN HALF HOUR VECTOR PROBLEM
Calculate the water track:
course steered 339ºM

variation 7ºW
course steered 332ºT
leeway away from SW wind + 5º
water track 337ºT
Plot the GPS fix position 3 marks
From the 0645 fix lay off the water track 337ºT and annotate it with a single arrow.
Difference in log readings (58.7 - 49.8) is 8.9M so measure this distance along the
water track and mark it with a small cross. This is the sea position (SP) at 0715.
From the 0715 SP lay off the tidal stream vector 055º for 0.7M (1.4 knots for ½ hour =
0.7M).
The end of this TS vector is the EP at 0715. Annotate it with a triangle and the time and
log reading as shown on the plot on page 131. 7 marks
129
5. (a) 1150 fix 45º51'.0N 06º12'.8W

(b) 1350 EP 45º53'.7N 06º22'.7W
Method
Calculate the true bearings and courses:
Cape S. Vincent LH 097ºM

variation 7ºW
bearing 090ºT
1st course 286ºM 2nd course 316ºM

variation 7ºW variation 7ºW
heading 279ºT heading 309ºT
leeway - 6º away leeway + 8º away
water track 285ºT 2nd WT 317ºT 4 marks
Plot the true bearing and distance of Cape S. Vincent LH to give the 1150 fix. Annotate this fix with a
circle time and log reading.
Difference in log readings 1150 - 1240 was 3.4M (23.2 - 19.8) so lay off the water track (marked
with a single arrow) from the 1150 fix in a 285ºT direction for 3.4M to the 1240 SP marked with a
small +.
Difference in log readings 1240 - 1350 was 4.0M (27.2 - 23.2) so lay off the second water water
track (again marked with a single arrow) from the 1240 SP in a 317ºT direction for 4M to the 1350
SP (also marked with a small cross).
From the 1350 SP lay off the first TS vector 210º for 0.6 mile and mark it with three arrows.
From the end of this vector lay off the second TS vector 218º for 0.8 mile (mark it with three arrows).
The end of this TS vector is the EP at 1350. Annotate it with a triangle, time and log reading.
8 marks
NOTES
The distance travelled through the water (ie along the WT) in a given time is the difference between the log
readings at the beginning and the end of the given time.
If you want to see the mean ground track (GT) you will cover, draw a line between the initial fix and the EP
and mark it with TWO arrows.
If you want an estimate of the SMG (speed you will make good over the ground) divide the length of the GT
by the time interval between the initial fix and the EP. For example, if the GT measures 10M in 2 hours, then
the SMG = 10 ÷ 2 = 5 knots.
Total marks = 50
130
131
132
133
Module 4 Deck Seamanship
Contents
1. Cordage materials and construction 136

Definition of deck seamanship
Materials used in ropemaking
Construction of rope
The choice of rope for various applications
The measurement, sizes and strength of rope
2. The use of cordage 140

Care of rope
Terms used in ropework
Basic rules in handling rope
Elements of bends and hitches
Basic bends and hitches
Whipping a rope's end
Cordage splicing
Lashings, seizings, strops and mousing
Protecting rope from chafe
3. Self-test exercise 147

Exercise S3
135
1. Cordage materials and construction
Definition of deck seamanship

Deck seamanship is that branch of the sailor's art which is concerned with cordage (i.e natural and synthetic
fibre ropes) and wire ropes, and in all their uses aboard a vessel - halyards, sheets, mooring lines and
warps, lashings and rigging. It is also concerned with the use of all the many rigging fittings which are
associated with rope and wire, such as shackles, thimbles, rigging screws, blocks and tackles, ladders and
bosun's chairs.
It involves a knowledge of cordage materials and construction, the use and care of fibre and wire rope, the
ability to make at least the basic bends and hitches and simple splices, the ability to secure lashings,
seizings and strops, and a knowledge of the mechanical advantage to be gained from the use of purchases
and tackles. All this knowledge is not only necessary for the day-to-day environment of a sailor's world, but
is absolutely essential in the various emergencies which inevitably arise from time to time on board any
vessel both in port and at sea.
Although motor yachtsmen are perhaps less concerned with cordage than their sailing counterparts in that
motor cruisers and motor yachts have minimal standing and running rigging, rope nevertheless plays an
important part in the life of every vessel (eg mooring lines and warps). Thus deck seamanship is one of the
skills which every sailor must acquire, whatever the type of vessel in which they may sail.
Materials used in ropemaking

Synthetic fibre ropes were introduced in marine applications many years ago, and since then have become
firmly established as superior to natural fibre ropes. Nowadays virtually one hundred per cent of the ropes
used are synthetic.
The three types that more or less cover the range of synthetic ropes are nylon, polyester (Terylene or
Dacron) and polypropylene. Essentially all of these are entirely man-made in that they have no counterpart
in nature, and as they are all thermoplastic materials they can be tailored by heat manipulation and
orientation to a wide variety of sizes, finishes and strengths.
Synthetic fibre ropes, unlike natural fibre ropes, are not affected by general weathering but are attacked by
sunlight. The smaller the rope the greater the loss of strength owing to exposure to sunlight, as almost all
the rope yarns are on the surface of the strands. Polypropylene ropes are the worst-affected by such
exposure to the sunlight, followed by nylon and Terylene.
All synthetic fibre ropes are immune from attack by water or marine organisms, and are equally flexible wet
or dry. Nylon loses about 7% of rope strength when saturated but recovers to full strength on drying out.
Experiments have shown that after six months' immersion in fresh and sea water, synthetic fibre ropes
showed no significant loss of strength.
Synthetic fibre ropes, unlike natural fibre ropes, when approaching their breaking point give no audible or
visual warning. Stretch imparted to man-made fibre ropes is recovered almost instantaneously with release
of tension, and with considerable recoil should the rope fracture.
136
Cordage materials and construction
The construction of rope
Rope is manufactured by
combining selected fibre into
long ribbons known as sliver,
which are later twisted up into
yarns. These yarns are then
twisted into strands, three or
sometimes four of the latter being
finally laid up into the finished
rope. The primary object of
twisting fibres together in a rope
is that they are held together by
friction when stress is applied to
the whole.
Traditionally, rope is of a three

strand composition which may
Figure 1: Construction of a 3-stranded rope be made up in one of two ways.
Right-hand lay means the final laying up of the strands is the same way as in a screw-thread, and this
is described as a Z-twist. Left-hand lay is the reverse of this, described as S-twist. These are illustrated
in fig 1.
Plaited and braided synthetic ropes (fig 2) are used increasingly on board yachts. The advantages are
softness in handling, freedom from torque, good winching properties, low stretch, excellent wear as the
outer sheath protects the strong inner core, and no tendency to unlay.
Figure 2
The choice of rope for various applications

The three types of synthetic rope materials vary in their suitability for different applications: nylon has a
high tensile strength and quite considerable elasticity; polyester filaments are almost as strong but less
susceptible to stretch and are also very hard-wearing, while polypropylenes are not as strong as either but
are light and less expensive. Note that with the excellent modern finishes the different materials are not
readily distinguishable at first glance, and also that synthetic ropes develop a surface hairiness very soon
in their life but this is not necessarily an indication of chafe and the rope may (with proper care) remain
serviceable for a number of years.
137
We recommend various types of synthetic rope for the following applications.
Mooring ropes: nylon is strong and shock-absorbent but the cheaper polypropylene is usually adequate if
renewed periodically.
Anchor warps: always use nylon because it is strong and elastic with excellent shock-absorbent property.
Plaited nylon is most suitable as it will lay better when uncoiled and about 4-5 metres of chain must be used
between the nylon and the anchor so that the anchor correctly lies on the seabed.
Halyards: for rope halyards use pre-stretched polyester (Terylene or Dacron). For wire halyards where a
rope tail is used, braided Terylene is kinder on the hands and will lie better when coiled.
Sheets: braided Terylene should be used as it is kind to the hands and has a good frictional surface for
gripping the drum of a sheet winch.
Most manufacturers nowadays produce their rope in colours apart from white - blue, red, green and yellow,
either as a solid colour or speckled. Rational use of these colours for sheets and halyards can lead to a
considerable improvement in deck work by aiding identification. There is no logical reason why a specific
colour should be used for particular applications, but as most of the rope manufacturers suggest more or
less the same coding, it seems reasonable to comply with this in the interests of standardisation. This
recommended code is as follows:
Blue for headsail sheets and halyards (except where two genoa halyards are carried, in which case one
should be of a different colour).
Red for spinnaker sheets and halyard.
Yellow for foreguys and other control gear, but port and starboard can be different.
White for mainsheet and halyard, and also for various miscellaneous applications.
You may wish to choose your own colours but the important thing is to differentiate between control lines,
where confusion might have undesirable consequences if the wrong line is thrown off in the heat of the
moment.
138
The measurement, sizes and the strength of rope
All rope and wire, whether made from natural or synthetic fibre, is measured by its diameter in millimetres.
As far as strength is concerned, most modern ropes are far in excess of the minimum safe working load
required because if a synthetic rope were chosen to be of just adequate strength for a given purpose, it would
be too thin to handle with any comfort. For this reason it is handling characteristics as well as strength which
determines the selection of size. The table below shows suitable minimum sizes of synthetic ropes for
offshore yachts and although the size of a boat is an indication of its displacement it must be appreciated
that there can be a considerable difference in weight between a 10 metre round-the-cans flyer and an 11
metre fully kitted-out long keeled world-girdler.
The strength of rope in general should be gauged from the manufacturer's data, and as stated above most
modern ropes selected from the above table will be in excess of the minimum safe working load for their
purpose.
It should be noted that strength data supplied by manufacturers applies only to new rope. It is not possible
to lay down rules which can be applied to determine the degree of deterioration in tensile strength which has
occurred in used rope. Appearance, stretch and reduction in size are all important factors in this case which
can only be left to judgement and experience.
139
2. The use of cordage
Care of rope
The life of rope will be considerably prolonged if the following points are noted:
(a) The life of a rope depends on the amount it is used under strain, because the fibres tend to slip a
small amount under each load in spite of the twist given during manufacture. No attempt should
therefore be made to put a heavy strain on a rope which has been well used, or once loaded to near
breaking point.
(b) Dry any wet ropes naturally, not by artificial heat.
(c) Examine ropes regularly and frequently for chafe.
(d) Fatigue shows as a reduction in the diameter of the rope below its specified size. This indicates that
the rope has stretched under heavy load and has failed to return to its normal condition. Such a rope
should only be used with great caution.
(e) If a rope shows no sign of damage or fatigue it is unlikely to be much below its full strength, but
consideration must be given to age.
(f) Kinking permanently damages a rope and sharp angles must be avoided. Never attempt to pull a
kink out of a rope - chase the kink along the coil until it runs out at the end.
(g) Because of (f) above, knots reduce the strength of a synthetic fibre rope by between 50% and 70%.
(h) Splicing is the best way of joining ropes. A rope is not progressively weakened by an increased
number of splices - the approximate 10% reduction in rope strength at a splice is equally effective
if one, or more, splices are in a rope.
(i) Cut out any particularly worn or damaged parts of a rope and splice up.
(j) A right-handed rope should always be uncoiled by taking away that end of the coil which enables
the turns to be taken off anticlockwise, ie the coil is unwound left-handed. The reverse applies to
left-handed ropes. Therefore a right-handed rope is coiled down so that the turns form clockwise
and a left-handed rope coiled down so that the turns form anticlockwise.
(k) A rope can be cleaned by dousing well in fresh water. Salt crystals should be washed out of ropes
as frequently as possible since they harden the fibre and cause internal abrasion.
140
The use of cordage
Terms used in ropework

Belay To make fast to a cleat, belaying pin, bitts or bollard.
Bend The twisting or turning of a rope so as to fasten it to some object.
Bight middle part of a rope between its two ends.
Bitter end The last part of a rope.
Chafe To wear the surface of a rope by rubbing against a solid object.
Coil To lay down rope in circular turns.
Fake down To lay out a rope in long loose turns ready for paying-out quickly (often termed 'flake'
down).
Fall The rope of a tackle.
Fid Tapered wooden pin used to separate the strands of a rope when splicing.
Hauling part That part of a rope or tackle which is hauled upon.
Heave To haul or pull on a line.
Jam To wedge tight.
Kink A twist in the rope.
Lanyard A line attached to an article to make it fast, eg a knife lanyard.
Lashing A passing and re-passing of a rope so as to confine or fasten together two or more objects
Marlinspike A tapered steel pin used as a fid to splice wire rope.
Marry Temporary holding of two lines together side by side or end to end.
Nip To pinch or close in upon.
Part To break.
Pay out To slack off on a line, or allow it to run out.
Reeve To pass the end of a rope through a block, thimble or other opening.
Running part That part of a rope or tackle which runs through the blocks.
Secure To make fast.
Seize To bind two ropes together.
Serve To protect a rope from chafe by binding it.
Slack That part of a rope hanging loose; the opposite of taut.
Splice The joining of rope by intertwining the strands so as to increase the diameter of the rope as
little as possible.
Standing part That part of a rope which is secured to some fitting, in contrast to the hauling or running
parts.
Strop A rope ring or sling made by splicing the two ends of a short piece of rope and used to
handle or lift heavy objects.
Take a turn To pass a line around a cleat or bollard to hold on.
Taut Tight.
Unbend To untie or cast adrift.
Veer To allow rope to run out; to slack off.
Whipping To bind the end of a rope to prevent the strands unlaying.
141
The use of cordage
Basic rules in handling rope

(a) Seamen regard their knife as their best
friend and carry it with them wherever
they go. It is a tool and not a weapon
and the end of the blade should
therefore be rounded, not pointed, and
the blade should be sufficiently deep
and thick to cut without bending.
(b) Working aloft, or over the side, all tools

should be secured with a lanyard
either to a part of the rigging or round
the body to prevent possible injury to
persons, or loss of tools over the side.
(c) When a rope is cut its ends should

immediately be whipped to prevent it Figure 3 : Coiling a rope
unlaying.
(d) A heaving line, or any line or rope which is being hauled in, should be coiled either in the hand or
the deck as it is hauled aboard so that it is immediately ready for further use.
(e) When coiling a right-hand-lay rope in the right hand the rope should be held with the right thumb
pointing towards the end [fig 3(a)]; and when coiling in the left-hand the left thumb should point
towards the bight. The coil will then form correctly.
(f) When belaying rope to a cleat, take the initial turns as shown in fig 4
then continue with figure-of-eight turns round the horns of the cleat
as many times as are required. It will be seen that when the figure-
of-eight turns are removed, the rope is ready to be checked under
control. A rope belayed to a cleat must be ready for casting off at a
moment's notice, so the turns should not be completed with a half-
hitch because this may jam them. After belaying, the surplus rope
should be coiled in the hand as described in (e) above and the coil Figure 4
hung over the top horn of the cleat so as to keep the deck clear and
the rope dry. Cleats are not suitable for belaying wire.
(g) All synthetic fibre rope stretches to nearly half its own length before parting, when the stretched
rope immediately whips back directly along the line of pull, therefore never stand in the direct line
of pull when heavy loads are applied.
(h) Exercise extreme care when easing out from a cleat or bollard under heavy load. It may slip
suddenly and cause injury.
(i) A sailor always keeps a lookout aloft and never stands below an object which is being hoisted or
lowered, nor stands inside the coil or bight of a rope.
(j) Always look out for chafe anywhere and take steps to prevent it.
(k) A rope which has been set up taut when dry will shrink when subjected to dew, rain or spray. Such
extra strain must be relieved at once otherwise the rope may part or become permanently
damaged.
142
The use of cordage
Elements of bends and hitches
Figure 5 : Elements of bends and hitches
Our forefathers devised various bends, hitches and knots as a means of making fast a rope so that it would
hold under strain and yet be cast off easily when required. A vast number of these have been devised to
suit almost every conceivable circumstance, but a 'good' knot is not always the one which serves the
situation best, but the one which can be securely tied under the circumstances, which will not jam under
strain or if it becomes wet or frozen, and which will not nip or chafe the line unduly. The half dozen or so
basic bends and hitches described here are quite sufficient to serve our purposes, but these should be
thoroughly understood and then used in the right place at the right time. They should be practised until
they can be performed in the dark, under water, behind the back and with one hand and the teeth!
Most bends and hitches consist of a combination of two or more of the elements illustrated in fig 5.
Basic bends and hitches

Hitches are the simplest knots. The round turn and two
half hitches (fig 6) would be made round a post or mooring
ring. The slippery hitch (fig 7) would be used on a cleat to
make a temporary fastening.
A clove hitch (fig 8)

consists of a pair of
hitches to secure a rope
to a spar, rail or post.
When applied to a rail or
spar as in fig 8(a), it will
slip along the rail or spar Figure 7 : Slippery hitch
Figure 6: Round turn and 2 half hitches if subjected to sideways pull. When used to secure a line on
to a post or bollard [fig 8(b)], the free end is taken with the left hand and, with the right hand holding the
line, the first loop over the post is made with the free end on top. The second loop is then made as shown
and the hitch tightened by pulling
on both the line and the free end.
To make a clove hitch in an
endless line, as for example when
securing the burgee stick to the
burgee halyard [fig 8(c)], the first
loop is made and the end of the
stick passed through, followed by
the second loop in the same way.
A second clove hitch is made near
the end of the stick at the bottom
and the burgee is ready to hoist
away.
Figure 8 : Uses for the clove-hitch

143
The use of cordage
The rolling hitch (fig 9) is used for securing a rope to a spar when
the pull is expected from one side or the other, or to another rope
under strain. It is made by passing the end twice round the spar
or rope, each turn crossing the standing part. A half hitch on the
opposite side completes the rolling hitch. Always pass the two
turns on the side from which the pull is expected.
Figure 9 : Rolling hitch
A figure-of-eight knot (fig 10) is used to prevent a rope

running through an eye or a block. An overhand knot (fig 5)
can also be used.
Figure 10 : Figure of eight knot
The reef knot (fig 11) consists of two overhand knots made
consecutively, and is used as a common tie for bending
together two ropes of approximately equal size. It is not reliable
if the ropes are of unequal size or very slippery unless the ends
are seized back to their standing parts. To form a reef knot care
must be taken to cross the ends opposite ways (ie right over
left, then left over right or vice versa), otherwise the result will
Figure 11 : Reef knot be a 'granny', which will either slip or jam and is never used at
sea.
The sheet bend (fig 12) is used to secure a rope's end to a

small eye (eg a sheet to the clew of a sail). It is also used to
bend a small rope to a larger one as shown in the figure. It will
not slip and is easily cast off.
Figure 12 : Sheet bend
The fisherman's bend (fig 13) is an alternative to the round turn and two half
hitches, and normally used for bending a rope or warp to the ring of a kedge or
anchor. It is more suitable for a jerking pull, but will tend to jam and is not so easily
cast off. The end should be stopped to the standing part as shown.
Figure 13:
Fisherman’s bend
The buntline hitch (fig 14) is a clove hitch on the standing part,
and is used to secure a rope's end or sheet to the cringle of a sail,
or to any other small eye. It is more difficult to cast off than a sheet Figure 14: Buntline hitch
bend.
144
The use of cordage
The bowline [fig 15] is the most useful knot for making temporary eyes in ropes of all sizes. It is used for
bending a heaving line to a mooring rope, as a lifeline round somebody's waist and for a great variety of
similar purposes. Every sailor should be able to tie a bowline round their own waist with their eyes shut. It
is formed as shown in fig 15 by making a loop in the standing part and holding the cross of this loop with
the thumb of the left hand. With the right hand now pass the end of the rope up through the loop, round
behind the standing part and then down through the loop. The eye or bight of the bowline, if correctly made,
will not slip.
Figure 15
The running bowline [fig 15] is used to make a running eye in the end of a rope, but must never be placed
round a man's body. As its name implies, the bowline on the bight is made with a bight of rope as shown
in fig 15, the first two operations in its formation being the same as for a simple bowline. It is used for
lowering a person from aloft or over the boat's side.
Whipping a rope's end

In many cases it is not desirable to have a knot on the end of a rope to prevent the strands unlaying and
instead it is bound with seaming or whipping twine. This is called whipping a rope.
The common whipping (fig 16) is made by placing the end of the twine along the rope as in (a), then
passing turns of the twine over the rope against its lay, working towards the end of the rope and hauling
each turn taut. Then lay the other end of the twine along the rope as in (b) and pass the remaining turns
over it, taking the bight of the twine over the end of the rope with each turn. When the bight becomes too
small to pass over the end of the rope, haul this second end of the twine through the turns which you have
passed over it until taut, thus completing the last turn round the rope and cut off the end (c).
Figure 16 : Common whipping

145
The use of cordage
The sailmaker's whipping (fig 17) is the most secure: it will not work adrift under any circumstances. Unlay
the rope for about two inches and hold it in the left hand pointing upwards as in fig 17(a), with the middle strand
furthest away. Now make a bight in the twine about 20cm long and pass this bight over the middle strand only,
with the two ends towards you. Then, with the bight of the twine hanging several centimetres down the back
of the rope and the ends pointing down, lay up the rope with the right hand. Leave the short end of the twine
where it is, and with the long end pass the turns of the whipping, working towards the end of the rope against
its lay. When sufficient turns are on, take the bight of twine, pass it up outside the whipping, following the lay
of the strand around which it was originally put, and pass it over that strand where the latter comes out at the
end of the rope [fig 17(b)]. Now haul on the short end so as to tighten the bight and bring this end up outside
the whipping, again following the lay of the rope, and then reef knot the two ends in the middle of the rope and
out of sight [fig 17(c)].
Figure 17 : Sailmaker’s whipping
The ends of synthetic fibre ropes may be prevented from unlaying

by applying a hot iron or flame to the end of the rope thus melting or
fusing the fibres into a solid mass [fig 18(a)], but a common
whipping should be made additionally as a precaution. If the end of
synthetic rope is not first fused, a sailmaker's whipping should be
used backed up by a common whipping about 7 - 15 cms from the
end of the rope. Plastic sleeves [fig 18(b)] are available which
shrink on to the rope when gently heated and plastic insulating tape
will temporarily hold in an emergency.
Figure 18
An alternative to whipping provided the rope is

not required to run through a block, is the back
splice (fig 19). First temporarily whip the rope at
a distance from its end equal to fifteen times its
diameter, then unlay the strands to the whipping.
Make a crown knot [fig 19(a)], cut the temporary
whipping and tuck each strand over one strand
and under the next, to the left and against the lay
of the rope as shown in (b). After each strand is
tucked, pull the strands taut and tidy up this first
tuck until each strand is uniform. Then insert two
more tucks with each strand, always to the left,
using the next strand to the left till the back splice
Figure 19 : Back splice
is complete as in (c). Cut off the loose ends.
146
3. Self-test exercise
This self-test exercise forms a student assignment for your course. You should work through this exercise
carefully, then mark it with the model answers and marks which follow. If necessary, refer again to the text
of this module and repeat the exercise. Record your final results on the assignment report card provided.
Exercise S3
1. Give three methods of construction for synthetic rope.
2. State the good and bad properties of synthetic fibre ropes.
3. Why are plaited and braided ropes being increasingly used on yachts?
4. Rope manufacturers usually colour ropes made for running rigging. For which purpose is each of
the following colours usually used as control lines?
(a) white
(b) blue
(c) yellow
(d) red
5. How is fatigue in a rope made evident?
6. By how much would the strength of a synthetic fibre rope be reduced by

(a) three knots along its length?
(b) two splices along its length?
7. Identify each of the knots, bends or hitches below and state the most common use for each.
147
Self test exercises
1. (a) three strand

(b) braided
(c) plaited 9 marks
2. Good: immune from rot and dampness, durable and easy to handle.
Bad: loss of tensile strength in prolonged sunlight, no audible or visible warning of fracture.
6 marks
3. Because they are soft to handle, free from torque, have good winching properties, low stretch,
excellent wear and no tendency to unlay. 6 marks
4. (a) white - used for main sheets and halyards.

(b) blue - used for headsail sheets and halyards.
(c) yellow - used for foreguys and other control lines.
(d) red - used for spinnaker sheets and halyards. 8 marks
5. By a reduction in diameter below the specified size of the rope. 2 marks
6. (a) 50% to 70% (b) 10% 4 marks
7. A Sheet bend - to bend a small rope to a larger one or a rope's end to a small eye.
B Round turn and two half hitches - to secure a rope to a bollard, pile or mooring ring.
C Figure-of-eight knot - used as a stopper knot to prevent a rope unreeving through an eye
or a block.
D Clove hitch - to attach a rope to a spar or sail (not very securely).
E Reef knot - useful binding knot for reefing sails or joining ropes of roughly equal size.
F Rolling hitch - to secure a rope to a spar or sail when there is a pull from one side or the
other. 18 marks
Total marks = 53
148
Assessment 1 (DS)
Instructions
This assessment should not be attempted until modules 1 - 4 have been completed.
All questions on this assessment should be answered. No time limit is set and where necessary
reference may be made to the NMCS modules.
For this assessment you will need to use charts RYA 3 & 4. RYA Training Almanac may be
consulted for further data if required, as may (Chart) NP 5011 - Admiralty Symbols.
Please work all the calculations and state the answer to each question on your answer sheets, not on
your chart. Quote positions accurately in lat and long, distances to one decimal place of a mile and
courses and bearings to + or - 1º.
On completion return your answers and charts 3 & 4* to NMCS for marking in the envelope provided,
with your completed Assignment Completion Form. Please pay attention to annotation and depth of
answer given.
Please write your answers on lined A4 paper, leaving space between them for tutor comments and
support.
*Overseas students should not send their charts. Please photocopy chart plots and return to NMCS along with your
answers.
CHART FAMILIARISATION
USE RYA CHART 3.
1. Depths on this chart are given in metres, with contour lines and colours used to give clarity. What is
the significance of:
a) The green areas?

b) The dark blue areas?
c) The pale blue areas?
2. Which letters refer to the following?
i 000º v 090º
ii 270º vi 225º
iii 045º vii 135º
iv 180º viii 315º
3. If one degree (1º) of latitude equals 60 sea miles then

one ………… ( …. ) of latitude equals 1 sea mile.
4. What is the meaning of the following chart symbols?
a) b) c) d) e) f)
5. What features are in the following positions?
a) 45º 43’.00N 006º 12’.10W

b) 46º 11’.70N 006º 08’.90W
149
6. What is the direction and distance measured from the chart in degrees TRUE from the Christopher
Point Lighthouse (45º 53’.90N 005º 47’.00W) to:
a) The LCE buoy in position 45º 59’.50N 005º 36’.40W?

b) The beginning of the leading line in position 45º 46’.80N 005º 57’.20W?
7. What features are in the following positions?
a) 041º (T) from South Head Lighthouse 6.3 miles?

b) 246º (T) from South Head Lighthouse 9.1 miles?
8. What is the latitude and longitude of these buoys:
a) The yellow FCN buoy, approximately 5 miles north east of the South Head
Lighthouse?
b) The red and white safe water mark in Fitzroy Bay, approximately 13 miles south of
Christopher Point Lighthouse?
9. Which publication lists all the symbols used on Admiralty charts for reference?
CHARTWORK: POSITION FIXING
10. a) What is the magnetic variation on RYA chart 3 south of Namley Harbour, in 2006 to the
nearest degree?
b) Is this the same on the rest of the chart and on RYA chart 4, to the nearest degree?
11. a) 090º(T) variation 7ºW = …….º(M)

b) 090º(T) variation 15ºE = …….º(M)
12. a) 270º(M) variation 7ºW = …….º(T)

b) 270º(M) variation 15ºE = …….º(T)
13. What is compass deviation? What are some of the possible causes?
USE RYA CHART 4, Plan F Use Variation 7º W.
14. While passing south of Rozelle Cove the navigator sees that the radio tower on Plover Hill and the
observation tower at West Point will come into transit and plots the transit line on the chart. The
transit occurs at 1050 and at the same time the bearing on the Range Head south cardinal buoy is
094º(M) and the log reading is 14.7.
Plot the fix at 1050.and give the latitude and longitude in your answers
150
USE RYA CHART 3 Use Variation 7ºW.
15. The following is an extract from the logbook of a boat leaving the anchorage to the east of S.
Shaun Island in position 45º43’.0N 06º12’.1W after a family BBQ to return to Sweetwater.
Time Coº(M) Log Depth Wind Baro Remarks
1555 350º 0.0 8.2 SE3 1004 Weigh anchor
DR position.
Isolated danger
1615 350º 1.7 9.5 SE2 1004 mark abeam to
starboard. Alter
course to 010º (M)
DR position.
1727 010º 8.1 13.1 SE2 1004 Cape St Vincent
lighthouse abeam
to starboard
Plot the DR positions and give the latitude and longitude in your answers.
16. A fishing vessel with engine problems is returning to Hamilton for repairs.
a) At 1135 the time, position and log reading are recorded in the logbook. Plot the
1135 fix in position 45º 38’.40N 006º 24’.50W.
b) The boat is steering 100º(M), making only 4.5 knots. Plot the DR position for
1235.
c) A friend calls the skipper on the VHF and offers a tow, but cannot meet for an
hour.
Calculate the EP for 1235, if the tidal stream is 349º(T) 2.0 knots.
d) What is the latitude and longitude of the EP to pass to the other boat?
151
SEAMANSHIP
17. Explain the difference between
a) under way and making way b) neap tides and spring tides
c) pitching and pounding d) a fixed keel and a retractable keel
e) a mooring line and a warp f) a tidal stream and a current
g) a halyard and a sheet h) flotsam and jetsam
Give the nautical term for
i) a flat stern extending from the waterline to the stern pushpit
j) drains in the deck for carrying away sea water washed on board
k) a deck fitting which acts as a guide for rope, wire or chain
l) where the bottom of a boat curves into the sides of the boat
m) a timber fender to protect the topsides from damage when berthing
n) the unobstructed distance which the wind has blown over the sea to reach a certain
position
o) a shore towards which the wind is blowing
p) the side of a pier or jetty towards which the wind is blowing
q) a twin-hulled motor or sailing craft
r) a spar carrying the jib sail forward of the boat
152
SEAMANSHIP
18a.
18b.
153
Congratulations!
You have successfully completed Part 1 of
your Day Skipper course.
Please return your answers for RYA Assessment 1(DS)

including your chart(s), Assignment Completion
card in the envelope provided to NMCS.
Please check that the correct postage is paid to

ensure minimum delay or loss of your assessment in
the postal system.
154

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Day Skipper

Why do we ask you to do a little more work than is strictly necessary?

the more you know, the safer you should be

how the course is structured

what you will need to complete the course

Contact us for support

Tel: 01244 311084

Post: National Marine Correspondence School

Continue in this manner through the first two sections

Module 1 Basic Navigation: Position and Direction

Module 3 Charts and Publications: Simple Plotting

Assessment 1(DS) (return to NMCS) page 147

Module 5 Tides and Tidal Streams

Module 7 Understanding the Weather

Assessment 2 (DS) (return to NMCS)

Module 9 Passage Planning

Return completed assignment card to NMCS

2 RYA Exam Papers

Return both exams to NMCS for marking

Breton/Portland plotter or parallel rule

Eraser and pencil sharpener

full knowledge required

working knowledge required

outline knowledge required

'...remember that many of the modules

Module 2 Basic Nautical Knowledge

1. Describing our position on the earth's surface 9

C (following a course or bearing) compass: direction as shown by the

Position on the Earth’s Surface

Most of us will be familiar with town street maps which use

The equator (fig 2) is an imaginary line running east

Longitude lines are called meridians (fig 4) and are

• there are 60 minutes (60') in one degree (º)

We know that there are 60" in one minute, therefore

• six seconds (6") = one tenth of a minute (0'.1).

(How we convert seconds into tenths of minutes is shown on page 13)

Reading Position on a Chart

Figure 5: Chart Scales

To convert seconds to tenths of To convert tenths of minutes to

48''= 48/60 = 0'.8 0'.3 = 0.3 x 60 = 18''

33'' = 33/60 = 0'.55 0'.7 = 0.7 x 60 = 42''

56'' = 56/60 = 0'.93 0'.45 = 0.45 x 60 = 27”

Self-test exercise N1(1)

1. What would you say is the position of points Y and Z in fig 5?

Re-write the following positions using tenths of minutes instead of seconds:

Re-write using seconds:

10. 05º13'.2S 58º31'.75E

Direction and angular measurement

Figure 6 shows two

The points notation is

Figure 6: Direction and compass notation

The basic facts of angular measurement to remember are

• there are 360º in a complete circle

Therefore it follows that

• six minutes (6') = one tenth of a degree (0º.1)

Indicating Direction at Sea

When steered in that direction we

A distinction is made in navigation

Personal Checklist (on completion of chapters 1 and 2)

(a) in degrees, minutes and seconds

• how one minute is represented on a chart

• the definitions of true course and true bearing