Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Project Report
by
APRIL, 2010
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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CONTENTS
Page No
1. Introduction 4
2. Principle 5
3. Components Used 7
4. Circuit Diagram 30
5. Schematics Diagram 31
6. Working 31
7. Applications 38
8. Future Aspects 39
9. Websites 40
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1) INTRODUCTION
PWM controls uses pulse width modulation to regulate the current sent to the
motor. Unlike SCR controls which switch at line frequency, PWM controls produce smoother
current at higher switching frequencies, typically between 1 and 20 kHz. At 20 kHz, the
switching frequency is inaudible to humans, thereby eliminating the hum which switching at
lower frequency produces. However, some motor controllers for radio controlled models make
use of the motor to produce audible sound, most commonly simple beeps.
A pulse width modulator (PWM) is a device that may be used as an efficient light
dimmer or DC motor speed controller. The circuit described here is for a general purpose
device that can control DC devices which draw up to a few amps of current. The circuit may be
used in either 12 or 24 Volt systems with only a few minor wiring changes. This device has been
used to control the brightness of an automotive tail lamp and as a motor speed control for
small DC fans of the type used in computer power supplies. The purpose of a motor speed
controller is to take a signal representing the demanded speed, and to drive a motor at that
speed. The controller may or may not actually measure the speed of the motor.
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2) PRINCIPLE
The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the supply voltage, so if
we reduce the supply voltage from 12 Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed he
speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. A better way is to
switch the motor's supply on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the motor
doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect. As the amount of time that the voltage is on
increases compared with the amount of time that it is off, the average speed of the motor
increases.
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Consider the waveform above. If the motor is connected with one end to
the battery positive and the other end to battery negative via a switch (MOSFET, power
transistor or similar) then if the MOSFET is on for a short period and off for a long one, as in A
above, the motor will only rotate slowly. At B the switch is on 50% and off 50%. At C the motor
is on for most of the time and only off a short while, so the speed is near maximum. In a
practical low voltage controller the switch opens and closes at 20 kHz (20 thousand times per
second). This is far too fast for the poor old motor to even realize it is being switched on and
off: it thinks it is being fed from a pure d.c. voltage. It is also a frequency above the audible
range so any noise emitted by the motor will be inaudible. It is also slow enough that MOSFETs
can easily switch at this frequency.
However the motor has inductance. Inductance does not like changes in current. If
the motor is drawing any current then this current flows through the switch MOSFET when it is
on. In order to remove the inductance effect, we use the main capacitor or boost capacitors.
Thus following points can be incurred from the above discussion:
The Speed of the dc motor is dependent on the frequency of the resulting PWM signal.
Frequencies between 20Hz and 18 kHz may produce audible screaming from the speed
controller and motors.
RF interference emitted by the circuit will be worse the higher the switching frequency we
use.
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3) COMPONENTS USED:
a) Resistors
b) Capacitors
c) Power MOSFETs
d) ICs
e) Schottky Diode
f) Signal Diode
g) Voltage Regulator
h) Power Supplies
i) Function Generator
a) Resistors:
In all we are using around 4 resistors with all of them having Power ratings
of ¼ watts and are axial head- Through hole - Carbon film fixed resistors.
b) Power MOSFETs:
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Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4 IRF3205
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9
10
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c) Capacitors:
The capacitors that we are using in this circuit are Polyester and
Electrolytic. The dielectric used in this capacitor is polyester and various other characteristics
of Polyester capacitor are given as:
Specifically,
The Electrolytic Capacitor is used to eliminate ripples. The line carrying DC voltage has
ripples or spikes in it; the capacitor evens out the voltage by absorbing the peaks and filling
in the valleys.
d) Function Generator:
The very function for the purpose of which we used function generator was
to obtain pulses. As we have to give High and Low pulses to the pin No. 10 and 12 of the Low
and High Side Driver IC. This enables us to produce a constant duty cycle which certainly isn’t
helping in producing PWM as in contrast we require varying Duty cycle.
e) ICs:
In our circuit, the IC we are using is half bridge MOSFET and IGBT driver IC which
allow us to use four N-type transistors instead of two P-type and two N-type transistors, so
as to result in the formation of the H-bridge.
Thus, we are using two ICs and as such each IC is used to drive the half bridge.
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f) Schottky Diodes:
The voltage drop is an important loss factor in the entire circuit, and
that Schottky diodes can be used to increase efficiency. There are many types of Schottky
diodes and any type will do, though only matters are the maximum current and voltage
ratings. Types such as 1N5818 and 1N5822 are often mentioned; the 1N5822 being the high-
current variant with the lowest resistance (and the thickest leads). However, both have a
maximum reverse voltage of "only" 40V. Thus,
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g) Signal Diode:
The signal diode is used in this project for the purpose of build up of the
auxiliary circuit for the conversion of 12V supply to 5V. This 5V is required for the functioning
of the IR2110. The diode is reverse biased and is basically used for the rectification purposes
as sometimes the 12V supply may contain some ac components. Thus
D1 1N4001
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h) Voltage Regulator:
U1 LM7805
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i) Power Supplies:
The various power supplies we used for this project are as under given:
12V dc Supply: This supply is used for driving the voltage regulator as well as the Low
and High Side Driver IC.
15V dc Supply: It is used to provide the voltage to the drain of two of the Power
Mosfets.
5V dc Supply: This supply is basically obtained from the auxiliary circuit we have built
along with the main circuit. The voltage regulator output gives us 5V supply which is
required by the Low and High Side Driver IC.
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4) CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
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5) SCHEMATICS DIAGRAM:
D1N5818 D1N5818
D6 V3 D7
0Vdc
2 2
V1 = 0 V5
C1 0 C2 V2 = 4
1n 1n TD = 0 2
1 1 TR = 0
V1 = 0V V4 TF = 0 R12
V2 = 4V PW = 4 1k
TD = 0 PER = 0 R6
TR = 0 1 1 2
TF = 0 2 D1
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PW = 4 1N5814
PER = 0 R11 0
1k U1 2
2
R9 U2
1 10 7 1 2 M1 D4
1
1
V1 LIN LO 330 HO HIN
1 2 IRF3205 1 12
5v dc 11 LO LIN
SHDN 330
R8 11
2 1 2 SHDN
6 COM 2
VB 1k COM
3 6
2
9 VCC VB 3
2
5 VDD VCC 9
13 VS M2 D5 VDD 5
1
VSS IRF3205 M4 VS 13
1N5814
1
IRF3205 VSS
12V
R7 12v
D2 1 2
1N5814
330
0
V2
6) WORKING:
Motor speed control of DC motor is nothing new. A simplest method to
control the rotation speed of a DC motor is to control its driving voltage. The higher the voltage
is, the higher speed the motor tries to reach. The working of this project can be studied by first
understanding the workability of the PWM controller and then, the H-bridge.
In the Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) method, the operating power to the motors is
turned on and off to modulate the current to the motor. The ratio of "on" time to "off" time is
what determines the speed of the motor. When doing PWM controlling, keep in mind that a
motor is a low pass device. The reason is that a motor is mainly a large inductor. It is not
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capable of passing high frequency energy, and hence will not perform well using high
frequencies. Reasonably low frequencies are required, and then PWM techniques will work.
Lower frequencies are generally better than higher frequencies, but PWM stops being effective
at too low a frequency. The idea that a lower frequency PWM works better simply reflects that
the "on" cycle needs to be pretty wide before the motor will draw any current (because of
motor inductance). A higher PWM frequency will work fine if you hang a large capacitor across
the motor or short the motor out on the "off" cycle. The reason for this is that short pulses will
not allow much current to flow before being cut off. Then the current that did flow is dissipated
as an inductive kick - probably as heat through the fly-back diodes. The capacitor integrates the
pulse and provides a longer, but lower, current flow through the motor after the driver is cut
off.
In the simplest way the working of a PWM controller can be understood in the
following manner. Consider the circuit below: this shows the drive MOSFET and the motor.
When the drive MOSFET conducts, current flows from battery positive,
through the motor and MOSFET (arrow A) and back to battery negative. When the MOSFET
switches off the motor current keeps flowing because of the motor's inductance. There is a
second MOSFET connected across the motor; MOSFETs act like diodes for reverse current, and
this is reverse current through the MOSFET, so it conducts. We can use a MOSFET like this
(short its gate to its source) or we can use a power diode. However a not so commonly
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understood fact about MOSFETs is that, when they are turned on, they conduct current in
either direction. A conducting MOSFET is resistive to current in either direction or a conducting
power MOSFET actually drops less voltage than a forward biased diode so the MOSFET needs
less heat sinking and wastes less battery power.
So, if the drive MOSFET is on for a 50% duty cycle, motor voltage is 50% of
battery voltage and, because battery current only flows when the MOSFET is on, battery
current is only flowing for 50% of the time so the average battery current is only 50% of the
motor current.
Main Capacitor: When the MOSFET switches off, it not only interrupts the motor current but it
also interrupts the current flowing from the battery. The wires from the battery have
inductance (so does the battery) so when this current is interrupted this inductance causes a
voltage spike: in the circuit the main capacitor absorbs (most of) this spike. When the drive
MOSFET turns on again, battery current is asked to flow quickly - which it cannot. The main
capacitor supplies current during the period battery current is re-establishing. It will be
apparent from the above that the work this capacitor does is extremely dependant on the loop
inductance of the battery wires. Long wires will have a high inductance.
The term "H-bridge" is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a
circuit. An H-bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1
and S4 (according to the first figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage will
be applied across the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this
voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.
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The switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as this would cause a
short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the switches S3 and S4. This
condition is known as shoot-through.
The H-Bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the motor,
but can also be used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the
motor's terminals are shorted, or to let the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is effectively
disconnected from the circuit. The following table summarises operation.
S1 S2 S3 S4 RESULT
1 0 0 1 Motor moves right
0 1 1 0 Motor moves left
0 0 0 0 Motor free runs
0 1 0 1 Motor brakes
1 0 1 0 Motor brakes
Now, summing up both the PWM controller and H-bridge part, we can very easily
explain the working of our project and how the motor behaves at the output. We can explain
the working of the project with the help of some figures. Consider a full bridge circuit given
below;
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To make the motor go forwards, Q4 is turned on, and Q1 has the PWM signal applied to it. The
current path is shown in the diagram below in red. Note that there is also a diode connected in
reverse across the field winding. This is to take the current in the field winding when all four
MOSFETs in the bridge are turned off.
In under given figure, Q4 is kept on so when the PWM signal is off, current can continue to flow
around the bottom loop through Q3's intrinsic diode:
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To make the motor go backwards, Q3 is turned on, and Q2 has the PWM signal applied to it:
Now,Q3 is kept on so when the PWM signal is off, current can continue to flow around the
bottom loop through Q4's intrinsic diode:
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For regeneration, when the motor is going backwards for example, the motor (which is now
acting as a generator) is forcing current right through its armature, through Q2's diode, through
the battery (thereby charging it up) and back through Q3's diode:
Freewheeling Diode: They are also called as fly back diode, snubber diode, suppressor diode,
or catch diode. Catch diodes (FD1, FD2, FD3, FD4) are often overlooked or just briefly
mentioned in most H-bridge descriptions, but they are very important components. It is a
diode used to eliminate fly back, the sudden voltage spike seen across an inductive load
when its supply voltage is suddenly reduced or removed.
The basic principle of it is very simple: while the bridge is on, two of the four
switching elements will carry the current, the diodes have no role. However once the bridge
is turned off the switches will not conduct current any more. By far the most common load
for an H-bridge is an electric DC motor, which is an inductive load. During the on-time the
motor will build an electromagnetic field inside it. When the switch is turned off, that field
has to collapse, and until that happens, current must still flow through the windings. That
current cannot flow through the switches since they are off, but it will find a way. The catch
diodes are in the design to provide a low-resistance path for that collapse current and thus
keep the voltage on the motor terminals within a reasonable range.
Thus, in this way the motor speed and direction can be controlled by the proper
application of Pulse having a varying duty cycle and proper switching of the power Mosfets.
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7) APPLICATIONS
Electronics Cooling
The Smart Fan is a temperature based fan speed control and temperature alarm
circuit which is based on PWM, which can be mounted in the exhaust or inlet of any heat
producing equipment
Telecommunications Equipment
PWM controlled motor with H-bridge is mostly used in robotics, as it can handle both
direction as well as speed simultaneously.
The main Disadvantages of PWM circuits are the added complexity and the possibility of
generating radio frequency interference (RFI).
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8) FUTURE ASPECTS
With certain modifications or rather, with certain attachments our project can be used for
the construction of the Solar Seeker.
SOLAR SEEKER:
It is a simple device that tracks a light source. Such a device can be used in
satellites to keep the solar panels aligned with the sun, or in search and rescue robots
that try to guide trapped people towards light. In order to implement the solar seeker
we used two Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) photocells and a servo motor that rotated the
photocells. The circuit diagram for its implementation is given as;
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9) WEBSITES
http://www.circuit-projects.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H_bridge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_controller
http://www.4qdtec.com/pwm-01.html
http://www.4qdtec.com/bridge.html
http://www.modularcircuits.com/h-bridge_secrets1.htm
http://www.tycoelectronics.com/aboutus/news/prodnews.asp?id=935
http://www.dprg.org/index.html
http://www.mcmanis.com/chuck/robotics/projects/servo.html
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