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Department of Aerospace Engineering

AERONAUTICAL DESIGN HANDBOOK

For Use With Undergraduate Design Projects

Issue: 7

Date: January 2001

Edited and complied by C.M.HempseU, LR.Farrow & K.D.Potter

Department of Aerospace Engineering

University of Bristol Queens Building University Walk Bristol BS8 1 TR

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AERONAUTICAL DESIGN HANDBOOK

For Use on Undergraduate Design Projects

Issue 7

Date: January 2001

Introduction

This handbook contains material properties and design data for use with design projects on the aeronautical undergraduate degree course.

Most engineering companies will have a Design Handbook that contains the values it expects its engineers to use. These are often commercially confidential as they contain data obtained at company expense and represent the engineering expertise the company is selling. In addition to hard data values and equations they will also contain guidelines on desirable design practice.

This booklet is somewhat restricted to those features that will be met during the design exercises. Real Design Handbooks are much large than this, often running to several volumes. However the style and the type of content is realistic.

In addition to handbooks the other main source of engineering design data are the ESDU data sheets.

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CONTENTS

Some Notes on Design Load Definitions Some Notes on Design Documentation SWG and Metric Gauges

Aluminium Extruded Tubes

Strength of Solid Rivets

Hexagonal Metric Bolt

Pin Lug Failure Modes

Pin/Lug Design Guidelines

Properties of Metallic Materials

Tangent Modulus for L 72 and L65 Properties of Composite materials Standard Beam Bending Expressions Small Deflection (Euler) Buckling Properties of Cross Sections

Buckling Design of Structural Members Columns Subject to Local Crippling Failure Buckling of Flat Plates

Effective Plate Width Contribution to Stiffener Loading on Circular Ring

Page 1 Page 2 page 4 Page 4 Page 4 Page 5 Page 6 Page 7 Page 8 Page 12 Page 13 Page 14 Page 15 Page 15 Page 16 Page 18 Page 19 Page 22 Page 23

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IDGHFLIGHT

John Gillespie Magee, Jr.

Oh, I have slipped the surly bonds of earth

And danced the skies on laughter-silvered wings; Sunward I've climbed, and joined the tumbling mirth Of sun-split clouds - and done a hundred things

You have not dreamed of - wheeled and soared and swung High in the sunlit silence. Hov'ring there,

I've chased the shouting wind along, and flung My eager craft through footless halls of air. Up, up the long, delirious, burning blue ..

I've topped the windswept heights with easy grace Where never lark, or even eagle flew

And, while with silent, lifting mind I've trod . The high untrespassed sanctity of space,

Put out my hand, and touched the face of God.

John Gillespie Magee, Jr. was an American Spitfire pilot in the Royal Canadian Air Force. He was killed at the age of nineteen during the Battle of Britain.

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SOME NOTES ON DESIGN LOAD DEFINITIONS

LTMlT LOAD - is the maximum load anticipated in operation. It can be considered as the specification for the component. Normally any uncertainties in the loading will be included when establishing the limit load.

FACTORS OF SAFETY - (or Safety Factor) to establish a "design to" load, the limit load is then multiplied by a Factor of Safety. This makes allowance for:

- uncertainties in design, and in manufacture

- variation in strength due to deterioration in service

- continued structural integrity after design loads

have been exceeded

There are general two factors of safety considered the Proof factor and the Ultimate factor, giving Proof Load and Ultimate Load respectively.

PROOF LOAD - is Limit Load x Proof factor. It is a load that is acceptable as a test load after which the component can still be used in service - hence the name proof load. This means the loading keeps distortion due to plastic deformation to an acceptable level.

What constitutes an acceptable level must be defined in terms of allowable permanent deformation. The aim is to ensure that the part is strong enough for service, without weakening it in the test.

Typical proof factors are 1.0 for Civil aircraft and 1.125 for Military. The higher proof factor for military aircraft is due to increased likelihood of frequent loadings close to the proof load in operations.

ULTIMATE LOAD - is Limit Load x Ultimate factor. It is the maximum loading the component must withstand without failure - although plastic deformation is permitted and the component may not be fit for further service after withstanding the ultimate load.

A typical Ultimate factor for aerospace applications is 1.5 although other factors may be used where greater uncertainty exists in material properties or the basis of the strength determination.

PROOF STRESS - is the stress induced in the component by the Proof Load.

ULTIMA TE STRESS - is the stress induced in the component by the Ultimate Load.

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RESERVE FACTOR (R.F.) - Is a comparison of the Allowable Stress (that is the stress that the material will carry with a specified probability of survival, under specified environmental or loading conditions, such as elevated temperature or fatigue), with the Proof and Ultimate Stress. It is defined by the ratios:

Allowable stress

Ultimate R.F. = -------------------------------

Ultimate Stress

and similarly for proof loads:

Allowable Stress

ProofR.F.

Proof Stress

Alternatively the R. F. can be calculated by finding and comparing the load at which the component will fail with the Proof and Ultimate Loads. For many components, such as those that fail by fatigue, this is not a feasible practice.

When giving the R.F. in stress reports it is traditional to highlight the value by putting it in a small box; like this:

I RF 1.2

The R.F. should never be less than I. If it is significantly greater than I it implies the component is over designed and so the goal should generally be to get close to I without dipping below it.

In cases where the method of calculating the design loads and strengths is uncertain, R.F.s greater than I are sometimes specified and this practice is adopted for design exercises here. (Another practice is to only alter the factor of safety, which keeps all the RFs at a single

level). The critical issue is to ensure that all design decisions are properly recorded and that an unambiguous appraisal of the safety of the design can be made by a third party ..

MARGIN OF SAFETY - The USA practice is to quote the Margin of Safety rather than the Reserve Factor. It is defined as:

Ultimate Allowable Stress - Ultimate Stress

Ultimate Stress

(with a similar definition for Proof loads)

It will be readily seen that the Margin of Safety corresponds to the RF minus one.

To be acceptable a Margin of Safety must not be negative (i.e, below zero).

Do not can fuse Ma rgin of Sa fety with Fa ctor of Sa fety.

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SOME NOTES ON DESIGN DOCUMENTATION

SPECIFICATIONS

Specifications are the documents that formally define what the design job is (these are not shown on the figure).

Requirement Specification: This document defines what the object is supposed to do and is normally written by the customer.

Design Specification: When dealing with big complex systems the contractor answers the customer's Requirement Specification with a Design Specification. This defines the engineering approach that will be used to meet the requirements.

REPORTS AND RECORDS

During the process of design a number of different types of document are produced. The key ones are outlined in the diagram and discussed below.

Log Book: This is kept by an engineer as a record of his work and calculations. It is not normally read by anyone other than himself. However Log Books are an official

part of the design process, many companies issue Log Book numbers and control them like other documents.

Working Notes and Design Reports: Where material normally recorded in the Log Book needs wider distribution then Working Notes are used to formally report such design information. Different companies will have different terms and handling procedures for such documents. These would normally only be distributed between design engineers.

Stress Report: In the aerospace industry every drawing produced for manufacture must have been signed off by the Stress and Weights department. In the design exercises you will be expected to produce a stress and mass report to accompany your design drawings.

In industry the stress report would be produced by a separate specialist engineer who takes the manufacturing drawings produced by the design team and calculates the reserve factors. If judged strong enough a stress approval signature is added and the drawing can be given to manufacturing. The stress report is the company's official document proving the design is safe.

FLOW OF REPORTS AND DRAWINGS

Design ___ Engineer

Design I

t:inee~

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Pa.ri. end ki.embly Dra.wings

Stress and Weights

Machine Shop

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Fitter

Company Records

~ Parts

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The stress report should only give stressing sums for the parts on the drawing. DO NOT include calculations for all the options you rejected. In industry the engineer writing the report will not even know what these are. Generally no one is interested in how you decided on your design (although that information should be recorded in your log book) but everybody is very interested in whether it is strong enough. For each part you should look at the likely failure cases and report which cases you have examined, the formulae used, the arithmetic, and most important the reserve factor (in a box).

Weight Report: In the aerospace business weight or mass (the distinction is not closely observed in practical engineering) is a key part of the system's success. So in addition 10 calculating the strength of each drawing a calculation is made of the weight of each component. Again a record is kept for each drawing so that a calculation of the total mass properties of the aircraft or whatever can be made.

DRAWINGS

The Department specifies that engineering drawings should follow BSI drawing practice PP 7308,

A drawing should always define a job. It should contain all the information required to do that job unambiguously, and nothing else.

Geometry, Interface and Layout Drawings: These are used to exchange information between design engineers. What they contain is flexible, but should only contain information relevant to the purpose for which they are produced.

Part Drawings:

These are used to manufacture the parts. They should contain all the geometry and other information (like specifying the materials) needed to make the part.

It is not normal for a parts drawing to explain how to make the part. That is the job of a production engineer who will write a procedure for that purpose. However you should keep in your own mind possible ways of making it to keep your design practical.

lt is not necessary to draw standard parts like bolts, nuts, rivets etc

WARNING: I: I is always the preferred scale for a parts drawing. However, if it is not practical then move well away from 1: 1. Never use half scale or double scale - long industrial experience shows you will inevitably get half si ze or doub Ie size parts.

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Assembly Drawings:

Assembly drawings define how all the parts are to be put together. They are used in the assembly of the overall system as instructions for assembly.

An assembly drawing should contain a list of all the parts that are needed for the task it defines, Tradition has it that the list rises from the bottom of the drawing (where the title block normally is) and is numbered upwards (so you can always add more parts in later issues of the drawing).

Assembly drawing need only show how to put the thing together .. They do not have to show what the parts look like - the person using the drawing should have the parts in his or her hand. Any dimensioning included should only be that needed to locate the parts on the overall system and other final assembly operations ..

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PIN/LUG FAILURE MODES

SINGLE SHEAR FAILURE

Design for r s 'ta

Where 1: = P/rc(d/2)2 = shear stress at ultimate loading

and Ta = allowable shear strength

DOUBLE SHEAR FAILURE

Design for rs r a

Where T = P/27C( d/2)2 = shear stress at ultimate loading

and 'ta = allowable shear strength

BEARING FAILURE

Design for crbr :s; crbra

Where crbr = P/td = bearing stress at ultimate loading

and crbra = allowable bearing strength

Bearing failure can occur in either the pin or the lug depending upon which has the lower bearing strength.

TENSILE FAILURE

Design for cr .$ o a

Where cr = P/(w-d)t = direct stress at ultimate loading and cra = allowable tensile strength

TEAR-OUT FAILURE

Design for r ;$ 'ta

Where T = P/2xt = shear stress at ultimate loading and and Ta = allowable shear strength

This will be slightly lower than bulk material shear stress

ALSO POSSIBLE

BU_RST1NG FAILURE

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PIN BENDING FAILURE

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GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINE 1 • HOLE DIAMETER

Ideally s structure would be close to slllts failure cases at the same time. So for the pin this would mean shear strength being roughly equal to the pin bearing strength. With typical metallic material properties this

occurs (very roughly) when: d ~ 3.St . Therefore design for:

d/t ::; 3.5 where t = thickness of thinner sheet or plate

GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINE 2 • LUG SIZING

As with the pin we would like all the different strengths to be roughly equal for a good structure. Consider the three main types of lug failure, bearing, tensile and tear-out and Using typical metallic material properties

this roughly occurs when: a ~ 2d and b ~ 1.5d

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-.-.-.~~~.-.

Therefore design for:

aid ~ 2 and bid ~ 1.5

GENERAL DESIGN GUIDELINES 3 - CLUSTERS Minimum spacings

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Single Row Zig-Zag Stagger In Line Chain Similar conSiderations to lug guidelines but generally we need to give more allowance to tensile failure.

These are suitable for protruding head rivets/bolts. Countersunk heads will need greater spacing to account for missing material typically:

Row spacing ~ 5.5 d and Edge dlstance es 2.5 d

Please note these are not rules! They are aids to quick design and are not always appropiate.

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STANDARD BEAM BENDING EXPRESSIONS
Symmetric beams In bending about principal axes
Max End slope Max
B.M Deflection
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8 192£1 L = Beam length

I = Second moment of area about

centroidal axes of beam cross section W ::: Load (force)

w - Uniform load per unit length M = Bending moment

a - stress due to bending

y ::: distance from neutral axis

R ::: Radius of Curvature

Bending:

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SMALL DEFLECTION (EULER) BUCKLING Buckling Strength F = a E I

L2

Where: a = constant due to constraints; E = Young's Modulus; I = Second Moment of Area: L = length between contraints.

Values of a

Pinned-pinned a =.,,-2

Pinned-fixed a = 2.041T2

Fixed-fixed a = 41T2

PROPERTIES OF CROSS SECTIONS
Area Izz
Second Moment of Area
z-f-------l-}
a.b b.d3
I .. b ~I 12

,-e~ 1T r2 1T r4
4
,-@., 1'1 ( r12 - ~) 1T (4 4)
-- r - r
4 1 2
,e~ 2 1T r. t 3
1T r. t
t 15

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BUCKLING DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

LONG COLUMNS

1

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\
P ~--j P
x~

L critical, or buckling, load Per Euler load

Euler equation

SHORT COLUMNS

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buckling stress a cr = PerlA can be written as :

n2E acr = (Ljp)2

where:

= 1t2E/P)2

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p = JIjA

radius of gyration of the cross-sectional area,

and Lip = "slenderness ratio"

the tangent modulus of elasticity Er.

Most fligh t vehicle rna terials have stress-strain curves similar to tha t shown

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COLUMN END FIXITY

At points of contraftexure there is no curvature and hence no bending moment. The portion of the column between points of contraflexure thus may be treated as a pin-ended column. The length L' between the points of contraflexure is used in place of L in the columneq ua tions previously derived, and the slenderness ratio is defined as £.1 o.

p p
rl H."

L' I f.<L'<L
=L I 2 ,1
11 Ll_ Ll_
L
L l \ . L' = 2L
\
, c~\>.l
c= I P C=4 p I<C<4 C == :2,94
4
end-fixity term c 1(2E cn2£ O'er = (Llp)2 = (Llp)2

for long columns

where c = (~) 2 = "end fixity term"

Note, the e:fect of end fixity on buckling strength is much less for short columns.

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COLUMN'S SUBJECT TO LOCAL CRIPPLING FAILURE

Columns of extrusions or bent sheets with thin walls.

Effective widths of column walls

rh-j b'
r-h-j ~I
--.--- =-r --r
I 1-
rtL b' - '"
1 ~!
~
(u) (h) (c' ) (eI) Approximate total column crippling stress is given by the sum of plastic buckling strengths of the effective widths of the flat sheet elements of the cross section.

ie, total column crippling stress:

- for rectangular areas wi th dimensions bItl, b2 t2, and b) t) and buckling stresses 0'1,0'2, and a),

Note, the denominator of the above expression may not be equal to the actual total area because the corners may not be included.

The total column crippling load may be obtained by mul tiplying the stress a.; by the actual total cross section area.

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BUCKLING OF FLAT PLATES IN COMPRESSION

12r-----,,--.----------,----------,----------r-----,

Side

2 1-------\--+-- One side cia mped, one side free, -------i'-------i / ends simply supported

One side free, one side and ends simply supported I

,-----+----~ 0.385

o~----~-----~----~-------~--~

a

2

3

4

alb

Where

for v = 0.3

K = Plate buckling constant, depending on plate aspect ratio and edge conditions (Here the value includes a poisson ratio of 0.3 for the plate material)

E = Youngs modulus of plate material for elastic buck1ing

E = Et = Tangent modulus of plate material for plastic buckling (Check tangent modulus curves for plate material)

t= plate thickness

b = plate width

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BUCKLING OF FLAT PLATES IN SHEAR

8

t---.

Clamped edges
\
\ rer = crser '" KE(tlb)2
----
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<.
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r---- ~-~-
t--

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BUCKLING OF FLAT PLATES IN BENDING

27

I I I I I ab I
cr
£' !~


abcr = KE(l/b)2

1 I I I I
\ f\ I I I I
Simply supported edges
\ / I~
r-...._../
26

25

K

24

23

22

21 o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

alb

for v = 0.3

BUCKLING OF FLAT PLATES UNDER COMBINED COMPRESSION~ SHEAR, BENDING

01 02 Ol C!.

.~I~ 1; ~·_"l.S-;-:C e'_'c:c~~~.G c:: .=L.,lr .p·~~:=5 1":~jC=,~ CO~31~=:a l~.\;:JI:,,<.G

Combined stress buckling criteria:

at buckling failure

Where:

creer

I.e. the ratios of the stresses in the plate to the critical buckling stresses

L

r

1

EFFECTIVE PLATE WIDTH CONTRIBUTION TO STIFFENER IN COMPRESSION

Isqg9

0< {

f-'-~"_'_~"'--+-'~I

I '" I I w

1-) (a) H

~~~-~

(0)

effective sheet widths wand W1

w = o.ss. [i

-J~

W1 = 0.60£ {i

V;;

For G, use 'representative compressive stress In stiffener

22

L

J

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