A DICTIONARY OF

JAPANESE PARTICLES

Sue A. Kawashima

KODANSHA INTERNATIONAL

Tokyo· New York • London

To my students

PREFACE

Although there are many difficult grammatical points that a student must master in learning the Japanese language, particles belong in a class by themselves. Appearing in nearly every sentence, they are absolutely crucial to a proper understanding of the intended meaning. A student may possess a large vocabulary and a good grasp of verb conjugation, but without a firm command of particles, he or she cannot hope to construct consistently correct sentences. In choice and placement, particles can completely transform the meaning of two sentences that are otherwise exactly the same.

Throughout my teaching career I have felt that particles were the key to learning Japanese. Though not a linguist, I have many years of teaching experience, and in this book I hope to have made good use of that experience by helping students come to a better understanding of particle usage. If the student benefits in any substantial way, I will feel my efforts have been rewarded.

I wish to thank my students at Hunter College, who, by posing many thought-provoking questions, have contributed to the making of this book.

I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to Tetsuo Kuramochi of Kodansha International, who helped to bring about this incarnation of the original edition, Particles Plus.

Lastly, I am indebted for much of the translation herein to my daughter, a professor of Japanese literature, who has edited all of my work.

Sue A. Kawashima Spring, 1999

Previously published by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Japan as Particles Plus. Distributed in the United States by Kodansha America, Inc., 575 Lexington Avenue, New York N.Y. 10022, and in the United Kingdom and continental Europe by Kodansha Europe Ltd., 95 Aldwych, London WC2B 4JF. Published by Kodansha International Ltd., 17-14 Otowa I-chome, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8652, and Kodansha America, Inc.

Copyright e 1999 by Sue A. Kawashima

All rights reserved. Printed in Japan

First edition, 1999

9900010210987654321

ISBN 4-7700-2352-9

CONTENTS

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION····· .

(C.P. = Combination Particles)

BA Ie! .

BAKARI le!tJ'!:)····································································· 5

DAKE t=. (1 10

DAKE-NI t.:: (1 (;: (C.P.) 13

DANO t'::(J) 14

DAnE t'::-:J"L 15

DE ~ 17

DEMO ~t, 26

DOKORO ~ i:: 0 29

DOKOROKA ~i::0tJ' 29

DOMO ~t, 30

E ".................................................................................... 30

GA tJ'\ 34

GA-NA(GA-NAA) tJ'-t,;.(tJ'-1d.as) (C.P.) 42

GATERA tJ'"Lb 42

HODO I;:J:~·····,·············································........................ 43

HOKA l;:J:tJ' 45

I l.. \ 45

KA tJ, 46

KA-I tJ'l..\(C.P.) 51

KA-NA (KA-NAA) tr-z: (tJ,-1d.as) (C.P.) 52

KARA tJ'b 53

KARA-SHITE tJ'b-u"L (C.P.) 65

KASHIRA tJ'ub 66

KE (1 69

KEREDOMO (KEREDO,KEDO,KEDOMO)

Ifttc:'O ((fttc:, Ifc:, IfC:'O) 70

KIRI ~IJ 73

KOSO i:-t 75

KOTO i:~ 77

KURAI(GURAI) < 61.'( ("61.') 79

KUSE-NI < tt-I;:(C.P.) 81

MADE *~ 83

MADE-MO *~-'O(C.P.) 88

MADE-NI *~-I;:(C.P.) 89

MO '0 91

MONO '00) 98

MONO-DE(MON-DE) '00)- ~('OIu-~) (C.P.) 99

MONOKA(MONKA) 'OO)tJ'('OlutJ') 100

MONONARA(MON-NARA) 'OO)td:6 ('OIv-td:6) 101

MONONO '00)0) 102

MONO-O 'OO)--a: 103

NA(NAA) fcI:(fcI:£!1) ................••••........................................ 105

NADO(NANKA) td:c:(td:lvtJ') 108

NAGARA fcl:tJ\ 6 110

NAGARA-MO fcl:tJ\6-'O (c.P.) III

NANTE td:lv"L 112

NARI td:1J 113

N-DE Iv-~(C.P.) 115

NE(NEE) tl(tlx.) 116

NI I;: 118

NI-MO 1;:-'0 (C.P.) 136

NI-MO-KAKAWARA-ZU 1;:-'O-tJ'tJ,;tJ 6-9" (c.P.) 137

NI-OI-TE 1;:-d3I.'-"L(C.P.) 138

NI-SHITE 1;:-u"L(C.P.) , " , 140

NI-SHITE-MO 1;:-u"L-'O(C.P.) 140

NI-SHITE-WA 1;:-u"L-Ic:l:(C.P.) 141

NITE I;:"L , , , ,., 142

NO(N) 0)(1u) , 143

NO-DA(N-DA) (J)-t~ (Iv-t~) (C.P.) 158

NO-DAROO(N-DAROO) (I)-t~?:>5 (lv-t~?:>5) (C.P.) 159

NODE(N-DE) (J)'"C(Iv-'"C) 160

NO-DE (J)-'"C(C.P.) 162

NO-DE ARU (J)- '"C®-l> (C.P.) 163

NO-DESHOO(N-DESHOO) (J)-'"Cu~5(1v-'"Cu~5)(C.P.) 164

NO-DESU(N-DESU) (J)-'"Cg(/v-'"Cg) (C.P.) 164

NOM I (1)#........................................................................... 166

NONI (1)1:: 167

NO-NI (I)-I:: (C.P.) 169

O(wO) ;a: 170

SA <! 177

SAE <!x. 179

SHI u 180

SHIKA u1J,··················································· 182

SHIMO u=t. 183

SURA 9b 185

TARA t:::'b 186

TARI t:::.~ 188

TAITE t:::.-:>"L 189

TE "L 190

TEBA "LIe! 195

TEMO(DEMO) "L=t.('"C=t.) 196

TE-NE "L-tl(C.P.) 198

TE-WA "L-Ict:(C.P.) 198

TO e 200

TO-IE-BA e-("x.-Ie!(C.P.) 210

TO-II e-(,'(,' (C.P.) 210

TO-IITA e-('bt;::.(C.P.) 211

TO-lITE e-('b"L(C.P.) 211

TO-IWA-ZU e-("p-9'(C.P.) 212

TOKA e1J' 213

TOKORO e<:?:> 215

TOKORODE e <:?:> '"C 215

TOKORO-E C<:,a-I\.(C.P.) 216

TOKOROGA c<:,afl ··· · .. · · 216

TOKORO-O c z ,a-;a: 217

TOMO C:o······ .. ········· .. ····· ·············· .. ···· .. ········ 218

TO-MO C-:o (C.P.) 220

TO-MO-ARE c-:o-£!5n (C.P.) 220

TO-SHI-TE c-u-'L(C.P.) 222

TO-SHITE-MO c-u'L-:O(C.P.) 223

TO-SHITE-WA c-u'L-Ie:!:(C.P.) 224

TO-WA c-Ie:!:(C.P.) 225

TO-WA-IE c-Ie:!:-~ \x. (C.P.) 226

TO-YUU C-~\5 (C.P.) 227

TO-YUU-KOTO-WA c-~ \5-<: c-Ie:!: (c.P.) 229

TO-YUU-NO-WA(MO) C-~\5-0)-1e:!:(:o) (C.P.) 230

TO-YUU-TO c-~\5-c(C.P.) 231

TIE ?'L 232

WA Ie:!: 235

WA P 239

VA ~ ···························241

YAI ~~\ 246

YA-INA-YA ~-~\tcJ:-~(C.P.) 247

YARA ~6 248

YO J: 251

YORI J: ~ 253

ZE tf 257

ZO -t: 258

ZUTSU 9-'::> 259

MASTERING PARTICLES: EXERCISES 261

ANSWER KEYS 319

PA TTERNS 324

GLOSSARY (English-] apanese) 329

GLOSSARY (J apanesc-English) 339

INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF PARTICLES

I) A particle (1I/,J~OJ joshi) in the Japanese language follows a word to:

A) show its relationship to other words in a sentence, and/or

B) give that word a particular meaning or nuance.

2) Unlike verbs, adjectives and adverbs, particles are not inflected, and therefore stay in the same form regardless of where they appear in a sentence.

3) Generally, particles are considered to be equivalent to prepositions, conjunctions and interjections of the English language; of these three, the majority of particles belong to the first category.

4) A particle should always be placed after the word it modifies, which means that in translating them into English, the word order should be changed.

Example:

English phrase: "top of the desk"

Japanese phrase: tsukue no ue = "(the) desk of top"

WHEN TO USE PARTICLES

Consider the following sentence: "My mother and my father had dinner at a restaurant in Tokyo with a friend."

This example contains three prepositions (at, in, with) and one conjunction (and). However, the same sentence translated into Japanese is:

"Watashi no haha to chichi wa tomodachi to issho ni tookyoo no resutoran de yuushoku 0 tabe-rnashita."

There are eight particles in the above example. Note, then, two points:

I) You cannot simply replace English prepositions, conjunctions and interjections with particles; there are particles that cannot be translated into English but still have vital functions in a Japanese sentence.

2) Nouns are usually followed by particles.

When you are just starting to learn Japanese, get into the habit of looking for the appropriate particle every time you see a noun. Of course, there are exceptions to this rule:

A) Particles are normally not placed directly before a copula (desu, da, deshita, datta, etc.).

Example: "This is an apple." = kore wa lingo desu.

Note the absence of any particles before "desu," even though ringo ("apple") is a noun.

B) Words that express quantity, extent, or numbers are not usually followed by particles, even though they are considered nouns.

Example: "Please give me three of those." = sore 0 mit-tsu kudasai.

Note that mit-tsu ("three") is not followed by a particle, though it is considered a noun.

Particles also follow verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, though less frequently than nouns. Learning when to use particles after verbs, adjectives,

ii

and adverbs is really a matter of memorization.

FUNCTIONS OF PARTICLES

As stated above, particles are vital in japanese. Consider the case of

pronouns in English: "I," "my," and "me" are separate words that indepen-

dently signify their functions in a sentence. However, in japanese, there is one word watashi that serves as the basic "stem" for the singular first-

person pronoun, and the subjective, possessive, and objective cases are

constructed in the following ways, through the use of particles:

"I" = watashi ~/watashi ~ "my" = watashi ~

"me" = watashi [iill/watashi 10 (wo) I

.ht~ L @]/.ht~ L [2J .ht~ L~

.ht~ L ~/.ht~ L [IJ

It's clear, then, that only through the use of particles can the precise function of the stem "watashi" be identified.

Let's look at another set of examples. The meaning of the English

sentence "I eat fish" is straightforward: the subject is "I," the verb "eat" is a transitive verb that requires an object, which is "fish" in this case. However, if we translate it into japanese without particles, it would look

like this:

watashi

sakana

taberu.

As it stands, this group of words has no apparent meaning. If we were to

insert some possible particles after the two nouns, we can create sentences

with vastly different meanings (particles are enclosed in squares):

iii

watashi ~ sakana ~ taberu. "I eat fish" (the meaning of the original English sentence)

watashi ~ sakana ~ taberu. "The fish eats me."

watashi ~ sakana ~ taberu. "I, too, eat fish."

watashi ~ sakana ~ taberu. "The fish and I eat (something)."

iv

watashi ~ sakana ~ taberu. "I eat fish also (as well as other things)."

watashi ~ sakana ~ taberu. "Even I eat (it if it's) fish."

There are other possibilities as well, but you can see from these rather humorous examples that you could be communicating completely different messages depending on the particles you choose, even though your nouns, verbs, and other parts of speech in a sentence remain the same! It is therefore essential for you to grasp the usage of particles in order to master the Japanese language.

FEATURES OF THIS BOOK

This book is designed for use by students of Japanese at almost all

levels. For the beginners, the most fundamental particles are shown in bold face, explained in detail, and accompanied by illustrations where appropri-

v

ate. Since this book contains most particles in the japanese language with their usages and examples, even intermediate- and advanced-level students can use it as a reference tool.

(1) Only particles used in Modern japanese are included. Some archaic or very rarely-used particles have been omitted. Certain combination particles (C.P.) called rengo (i!~~) which frequently occur are also explained in this book. The combination particle (c.P.) combines particles and other words such as adverbs, copulas, etc.

(2) Particles have squares around them every time they appear in an example sentence (such as ~), and parts of speech of the words, or

phrases/clauses that they modify are underlined: n.

for nouns, v.

__ for verbs, adj. for adjectives, adv. for adverbs, c. for

copulas, cI. for clauses, ph. for phrases, etc. However, certain

patterns and phrases are not underlined, since they are considered one unit, including the particle enclosed in the square. Their usages are listed in outline form, together with the closest approximate English equivalents where applicable. Sample sentences using the particles follow their definitions.

(3) Particles are listed in alphabetical order in dictionary form, and there is a glossary at the back that lists the approximate English meanings and the corresponding particles. Also, for quick reference, see the chart on the endpapers.

(4) Although the japanese sentences contain mostly Joo-yoo-Kanji (most commonly used standard Kanji), there are a few exceptions where other Kanji appear.

vi

(5) Some sample sentences contain some compounds that are slightly advanced, but most of the sample sentences rely on basic vocabulary so that they are easy to understand, even for beginning-level students.

(6) All Kanji (Chinese characters) are accompanied by furigana (phonetic readings in hiragana) over them so that the student can immediately recognize their pronunciation.

(7) Grammar is explained in a way that English-speaking students can understand clearly; consequently, the method differs from the way grammar is taught to native Japanese speakers.

(8) Question marks appear much less frequently in a Japanese question than in English. However, in order to clearly indicate interrogative sen-

tences, they are followed by question marks.
(9) There are exercises at the back of the book that are designed to
familiarize the beginning-level student with the most fundamental particles.
An answer key is also provided.
(10) The Romanization system of this book basically follows the Hepburn
system as shown in the chart below.
a<b ""{ i\' i u'i '/ eX. .r; of; ;of
ka»- n ki~ ~ ku < 7 kelt 7- ko .; ::J
sa e "'t shiL ~ sui" A se-l:t -t: sO-t: '/
ta/; 7 chit, T tsu "> 'J te t T to z I-
nat: T nit: .::. nuf.l ~ nezi t, noe:» /
hal'± " hi(} I: fu.s. 7 he-v "- holl ;j;
mal "7 mih ~ mu{; L. me 6>':> _,l mot 'l:::
ya-> -\' yuf1J .:I. yo.J: 3
vii ra .:, 7 ri ~ I) ru~ Iv ren, i- rol, 0
wa.b '7 o(wo) ~ =}
ntC ;,-
gah< 7]' gi'=; "" gu <' 7' gelf T go .: :t
za e -If zi L: ;/ zuf A ze-\f -t' zo F -r
dat.: 7' jit;· f zu-:J '/ del' T do~' F
baLf " biLl' I:' bu.i: 7' he-x '" boll' ;t;
patf ,~ pi V' 1::0 pu.i: 7" pe~ '" polJ: ;f,
kya S '(> ~-\' kyu v 'l> ~.:1. kyo:' .!: ~3
sha L '(> ;;-\' shu Lje ;;.:1. sho Lu ;;3
cha e '(> 7-\' chu rs 'l> 7.:1. cho e .!: 73
nyat ; '(> .::.-\' nyut ; 'l> '::'.:1. nyot ; .!: '::'3
hya U: '(> 1::-\' hyu1l' 'l> 1::.:1. hyo o , 1::3
mya.7-;.'(> :0 -\' myu.7-;.'l> ~ ;:J_ myo.7-;..!: :0 3
rya ~ '(> I) -\' ryu ~ 'l> I) .:1. ryo ~ .!: I) 3
ia L '(> ;/-\' juL:'l> ;/.:1. io l: .!: ;/3
byaTf'(> 1::"-\, byuV''l> 1:'.:1. byoV' .!: 1:'3
pyaV''(> 1::0-\' PyuV''l> 1::0 .:1. pyoV' .!: 1::°3
(a) Long vowels are indicated by two vowels placed one after the other.
Example: Tokyo ......... Tookyoo
The second vowel will remind the beginning-level student that there
should be a hi ragan a character there that stands in for the long vowel
sound.
Example: To Q kY2. Q (Tokyo) ; e ~ f@ (movie)
z -7 :. .!: -7 -j_ ~ \ 1.1<
viii (b) Two identical vowels that are placed right next to each other are separated by hyphens, in order to avoid confusion with the long vowel sound.

Example: kinoo (yesterday)

mone-e (particle "mono" + another particle "0")

(c) Some words are divided by hyphens to indicate the separate syllables, or the separate units, that compose the word, so that it is easier to identify these elements visually.

Examples: ¥, ~ ;t -tt A.,·········ari·masen (there is/are not) $t2~i" ~ ············benkyoo·suru (to study)

:i. ~ !f'iJl············iki·jibiki (a walking dictionary) }~ \ \:±l + ..... ·······omoi·dasu (to remenber) ~·····················on·na (a woman)

L -c \ \ ~ ..... ·······shite·iru (be doing) ~"t: \ \············tabe·tai (to want to eat)

Me;t ~. \ \ yoma-nai (do not read)

(d) The honorific prefixes "0" and "go" are considered as being part of the word, and therefore are not set off by a hyphen.

Example: oree (appreciation) omatsuri (festival)

gohan (meal) gochisoo (delicacies)

ix

List of Abbreviations

adj. = adjective adv. = adverb

c. = copula (da/desu, datta/deshita, daroo/deshoo, etc.) cl. = clause

conj. = conjunction

c.p. = combination particle g. = gerund (te/de form) inter]. = interjection

m. = mimesis

n. = noun (including pronouns), and nominal

o. = onomatopoeia

p. = particle ph. = phrase

x

SA let

1. Presents a condition that would result in the clause that follows.

English approximation: "if ... "

~'i 1!1' I,";l * IJ

A) ~tl:lh'Itn8M':*\\l-t1o

Ima v. dekakere ~ maniai-masu yo. If you leave now, you'll make it in time.

B) .; A.,,~"'/ "ct l Itn@J ~'1 ;("0

Kon-na pen demo adi.Yokere ~ doozo.

If this sort of pen is okay with you, go ahead (and use it). (implica-

tion: the pen is not so great.)

IJI/) J. ~~11l!< i f3>i)t

C) f,f,J:.< ;(_Ftn8~itlilb'i!\ \ ~'\ \~t::h:o

Ame sae v. fure ~ hoosaku wa machigai-nai noda gao If only it would rain, there's sure to-be a bountiful harvest.

2. Shows a cause-and-effect relationship between the topic it presents and

the clause or phrase that follows.

English approximation: "when (something happens) ... " (instead of "if ... " above)

t.t t! r;:::,IJI i t;fJ>

A) -=;t.;7,~·h:~I;~tl:l-l:t8tktlb'ift\\0

Koorogi ga V. naki-dase ~ aki mo ma-jikai.

When crickets start to chirp, autumn is just around the corner.

~1'" 1,";lJ:(1!? "CA.'

B) 7:ltlt':~n8'J£ 81i~~':~ ~o

Yuuyake ni V. nare ~ yokujitsu wa tenki ni naru. When there's a vivid sunset, the next day will be clear.

3. In set patterns such as ..... to ie ba ~ ~ \ \ ;(_ lJ:. " and ..... nara ba ~ ~

G U:, " indicates the topic which is to be discussed in the phrase or clause

that follows.

English approximation: the nuance is similar to "speaking of (topic) ," "in

terms of (topic) ... ," or "according to (topic) "

A) ;t.; T L ~ G @] j;) C') 7i!;{;t.; \ \ L II""('T .L

Osushi c. nara [§J ano mise ga oishii desu yo. In terms of sushi, that restaurant is a good one.

~ )')'11)1.:.1 ::~'UCt btl'

B) -7;b ~ /: l h~, jrt*li~A. z o?'Jht: G L \ \0

Uwasa ni v. yore [§J. kanojo wa koibito to wakareta rashii. According to rumors, she broke up with her boyfriend .

s.v- fJt ~, ~ ~1~1!A,

C) ~ A T I) -1l;It@ t:""§:Z~, -'{>"? Ii ~ 1:: ';t T::J ';t 7 C')!;{-f}-t:fJo

Misuterii eega to v, ~ [§J. yappari Hicchikokku no ga ichiban da

ne.

Speaking of mystery movies, Hitchcock's are the best after all, don't you think?

4. Similar to the meanings of the patterns "". suru to ~T ~ t:" and "".

shita tokoro ga ~ L t: 1::: :. J, !;{."

English approximation: "considering (something, it is evident that .,,)"

it.t. 1., ~I:. tH I,";l ~,.t l.. ~t t;.(

A) i¥TC')1±*~}/U~, ~C')1±*li~~ t C')TTo

Mae no shigoto 0 v. omoe [§J. ima no shigoto wa rakuna mono desu,

Considering my former job, my current job is pretty easy,

B) 4-~~i!;·G.z,.h@], iCC');tt;~iC')A~IH'~' ~ ~t,t:l-7 t:o

Yoron-choosa kara v. mire [§J. sono seejika no ninki wa kanari ochita yoo da,

2

In looking at the public opinion polls, it seems that the politician's

popularity has fallen quite a bit.

5. In a" ... mo ... ba ~ t ~I;[" pattern, serves to list events, categories and

things.

English approximation: "(something) and (something) also," or "neither ...

nor ... "

A) =kt \ \tL[illjjt, \ \ ~ 0

On-na mo v. ire ~ otoko rno iru.

There are women, and there are also men.

t: (.,0) ~ T t.:J;.,

B) it'" ~ ~H ~ It tL~, 1i.t;i'1T t ~ \ \0

Taberu mono mo v. nakere ~, sumu tokoro mo nai.

There isn't anything to eat, or anywhere to live. (i.e. There's neither

food nor shelter.)

C) j~~I'± c'? / t~lt[illM.-tlJ' < ~%~'A -c-r,

Kanojo wa piano mo v. hike ~ e mo kaku tasai na hito desu. She's a multi-talented person who can play the piano and paint as

well.

6. In the patterns "ne ba nara-nai h 1;[ ~ ., ~. \ \" and "nakere ba nara-nai/ nari-masen ~ It tLl'±'~ ., ~ \ \/~ IJ ;t -It;0," to indicate that something has to be done or that a standard must be observed.

English approximation: "must do (something)."

t1@;,t1 *~)"?8L",.,'t:..t? \1 I,"';l

A) >1t*I:I'±~~:±l 5k'('-1tIJ'~lttL~~ IJ ;t -It;00

Tookyoo ni wa maitsuki shucchoo de ph.ikanakere ~ narimasen.

(I) have to go to Tokyo every month on business trips.

.t i!oA,t.~, l:t~'b'< t: I,"';l

B) 1" Jf.l*l1:'tt@ ~.1i.1: h8 t: .:, t: \ '0

Yosan-nai de keekaku 0 phtatene [§] naranai. (I) must devise plans within the budget.

tH: -f'(.f( it ~

C) Jd::~;f]*I.±,*.:,t:ltn8t:.:,t;.·\,o

Hito to no yakusoku wa Ph.mamoranakere [§] naranai. One has to keep promises one makes to others.

7. In set patterns such as "iwa ba \ '.0 I.±"" and "tatoe ba i: t: it I.±"."

English approximation: "let us say ... " or "so to speak."

~1;:lf'" ItA,

A) J\o'/1-;;I.±, t~t:it~8*~t?;%:~l-7t:t~1:'i"0

Harowiin wa, phtatoe [§] nihon no obon no yoo na mono desu. Halloween is, let us say, similar to the Obon festival in Japan.

1J>tr. ~~' 1!r.l8

B) 1£1.±, \'.08.1o.~!fiJl~l -7 t: t ~tcOo

Kare wa, ph.iwa [§] iki-jibiki no yoo na mono da. He is, so to speak, like a living dictionary.

8. In the set pattern "naze nara ba t:1:ft:.:, I.±"."

English approximation: "the reason being ... " or "because ... "

C f)'1v ! t.... \, ~ If1 It 1.,! C",1J1'A,

A) atr.'h:J;,nl.±", T\.JI!.1:'ff< "'-':!-tcOo t;.·{ft;.·':'8i~:Qh:-J;@.~-t--S-

~L~~h'':'o

Jikan ga are ba, kisha de iku beki da. ph.Naze nara [§] sono hoo ga keshiki 0 juubun tanoshimeru kara.

If (you) have the time, (you) should go by train, because (you) will be able to fully enjoy the scenery that way.

~ h'':' tcOo

Hito ni ijiwaru 0 shi-nai hoo ga ii. Ph.Naze nara [§] itsuka jibun

4

ni modotte-kuru kara da.

One shouldn't do mean things to others, because some day, (your

deeds) might be returned to you.

BAKARI IctiJ' IJ

1. Indicates a limit.

1) Shows that something is always limited to a particular action, place, or

thing. Similar to "dake t.:'lt" or "nomi (1)h."

English approximation: "always just doing (something)," or "doing only one

thing alI the time"

A) -t (1)·fktj:\ \"'? t H~-::> 1: 1 tH' ~ 1\, 1To

Sono koinu wa itsumo g. nemutte 1 bakari 1 i-masu. That puppy is always just sleeping.

I)" ~ li"l> l....t< h-

B) \ '-::>11:°t~;01:°~\'t;.'\'1:°.!f- < fa'i.1:°t Jl-::>IH::s. \ "to

Itsu made mo g. asonde 1 bakari 1 i-nai de hayaku shoku demo mitsuke nasai yo,

Why don't you stop playing around alI the time and look for a job

or something?

~ bt\'L",?

C) 7"1?1:~\'t;.'\'1:'_ t~11:tj::7~t±lL.J::70

Uchi p.Dllbakaril i-nai de, tama ni wa gaishutsu-shiyoo, Instead of just being at home alI the time, let's go out once in a

while.

2)

English approximation: "could only do (something)"

A) "C~'::'.:1.-.A~M\,,,C i;t.±tJ.:t;7;,t;7;,T~lt.fh'~ I"CLt=o

Sono nyuusu 0 kiite, kare wa tada v. oro-oro-suru I bakari I deshita.

Hearing that news, he could only panic.

l;,?-t!A- "'CWl"·,t. rJ.ttt:t. 1 111 ~ 111 ~

B) ~~~1f~~:A.-'< t.l:5tt3::ti.T ~ ~t.: -? t=o

Totsuzen no teeden ni hito-bito wa v. uoo-saoo-suru I bakari I datta.

In the sudden blackout, all people could do was wander in confu-

sion.

3) In the pattern "bakari ni Lflr ~ ~:."

English approximation: the nuance is "solely due to (one cause), matters took a turn for the worse."

A) .t:>~¥:'Ji~:;-?t=lt.fh'~ I~:, $~~:l-?t=o

Ano densha ni vnotta I bakaril ni, jiko ni atta.

It was only because I got on that train that I was involved in an accident.

1;1: J... $\1 If \11) ~ CltA., il .::

B) ~I'.~~:I>!~: t=;t t=;t ~*.b-\t i: ~ ~:, ~1!f~:~ ~ i6;t tL -c L ;t

Hanzai no ba ni tama-tama v. i-awaseta I bakari I ni, jiken ni maki-komarete shimatta.

It was only because (I) just happened to be at the scene of the crime that (I) got dragged into the case.

2. Indicates a degree of things.

I) Similar to "hodo L11::-" and "kurai/gurai < G \ '/ <" G \ -." Usually

preceded by a number or quantity.

6

English approximation: "approximately"

A) i£I±~_,i- r)vll.fl)'~ It.t,~*~i:·To

Kare wa n. ni-meetoru I bakari I mo aru oo-otoko desu. He is a big man, at about two meters tall.

'JJ:'::''' V.t1 il/,.,J! ~c""'tA,i."'~

B) ~tdtG1)1( m I±~~~,(·li. -t-:Qp:J~,;',;' -o t: ;

Ryokoo no hiyoo wa zenbu de n. gojuu-man en I bakari I kakatta. The total cost of the trip came to about five hundred thousand yen.

C) .bt~Lt±+81I.f1.i'~ IWqt:L1To

Watashi wa n. tooka I bakari I rusu ni shi-masu. I will be away for about ten days.

2) Following a verb, shows that the action is/was about to be carried out.

English approximation: "just about to do (something)"

t..J:<C '?( 110 t: ~ -e- ""b

A) ~~f-i'l' IJ 1i'!--::> -r , t 'j ~"'~ ~G1) z ~ J, t:, ";ttM",;',;'-::> -r

:. 1 L t~o

Shokuji 0 tsukuri-owatte, moo v, taberu I bakari I no tokoro ni, denwa ga kakatte ki-mashita.

I had finished cooking the meal and was about to eat it when there

was a phone call.

'lJdlJl.t!. ~.f,;t>.t.,

B) PflH* IJ :±l:_<. .(,~G1)~tH~.t:'o

Arne ga v, furi-dasan I bakari I no sora moyoo da. The sky looks like it's about to rain.

3) In the pattern "i..ta bakari ~ t: l.f';' ~ • " to indicate that an action has/ had just been completed.

English approximation: "have/has just done (something)"

A) .bt~ Lt±~Lt~IIH'~ IG1)E*t~f-1i-::>'(.7d Lt~o

Watashi wa v. naratta 1 bakari 1 no nihon-go 0 tsukatte mimashita.

I tried using Japanese that I had just learned.

B) ~""? ~i"t~IIH' ~ 1~G1)t:, .1 t~T <0 t-; ~1i'Ii{T\ '-c L.1 o r: ; Sakki v. tabeta 1 bakari 1 na noni, mata sugu onaka ga suite shimatta.

Although I had just eaten a little while ago, I was hungry again

right away.

3. In the pattern "bakari ka l.rli' ~ Ii'." (also see p. 12 4.)

English approximation: "not only (something), but also (something) ... "

A) "iiIIH' ~ H G1) 1::°1 t ~\ '0

n. Atama 1 bakari 1 ka node mo itai.

Not only my head but my throat hurts, too.

it~lt @;.l1t:", ~ -Clv

B) ¥, G1)~ttIHHtt::::.1 f" T ~ ~Ii', iJ /' ~ /' 7°.1 -CO L -c \' \ ,.R,

f" I:: 7., -? I:: T ~ i -? too

Ano seeto wa kyooju ni v. goma-o-suru 1 bakari 1 ka, kanningu made shite ii ten 0 toroo to suru soo da.

I hear that student not only butters up professors, but even cheats

to get good grades.

4. In the patterns ..... bakari de (wa) naku ... mo ~I;r/)' ~ -C°(li) ~ < ~ t," "bakari ja naku ... mo ~I.r Ii' ~ L '(> ~ < ~ t." (also see p. 12)

English approximation: "not only ... (a noun, an adjective, a verb) but also

... (a noun, an adjective, a verb)"

A) "~°G1).f.IIH' ~ 1 t.: '(> ~ < , ";'G1).f. t *¥\' t~ ,L

n. Otoko no ko 1 bakari 1 ja naku, on-na no ko mo oozee ita yo.

8

There were not only boys but also many girls.

B) .bt~ i.u, E*~!lti'I}'~ I"("~d, ¥OOiit~;~tt~\\o

Watashi wa, n. Nihon-go 1 bakarij de naku, Chuugoku-go mo benkyoo-shitai.

I would like to study not only Japanese but also Chinese.

-C~ ~ tI'!!!.--C

C) .; (7)-t-:m:lfti, j"'..y 1 /'1.1<\ \ \ \ ~~_2_(("t: < , 1Mt t -t- .: 7, t~o

Kono tesage wa, dezain ga adj!llbakaril de naku, nedan mo tegoro da.

As for this bag, not only is its design nice, but the price is reason-

able as well.

D) (7)~'h<5i\\t~ltH'~ I'"('t:<- };t:h'ti"\\t~o

Nodo ga v. kawaita 1 bakari 1 de naku, onaka mo suita. Not only am I thirsty, but I'm also hungry.

5. In the pattern "bakashi ti" 1.1' L ," a variant of "bakari t;f 1.1' ~ ," used casually.

I) Indicates an approximate amount, often with the implication that it is

not very much.

English approximation: "(only) about.;."

~~'J. ~v- .. <.i""~

A) .bt~ L (7)M'l\lC7)t:h'l:ti1i.8P3~ Lh'>:"\\o

Watashi no saifu no naka ni wa n. go-hyaku en 1 bakashi 1 shika nai.

There is only about five hundred yen in my wallet.

~i;.l@;1v 'J.t':" ~,

B) _:tL~(7)Rr1:-"("ti, i/fdtl:tfTltt:\\o

n. Kore 1 bakashi 1 no chokin de wa, ryokoo ni mo ike-nai. With only about this much savings, (I) can't even go on a trip.

9

2) Indicates a limit.

English approximation: "only"

(.lot \.1:.1.:1:.1::",1 ;;It~ ~

A) <!',~A.t'±, -84'};illi~tk.(,-C·\\~o

Ano hito wa, ichi-nichi-juu n. osake [bakashi [ nonde-iru. That person is drinking only liquor all day.

lJi ~'k trt.l!

B) iC'('~t:1:t\\t~~~"",-C\\~I:::, 3!tjt:~~lo

Son-na ni n. ph. amai mono [bakashi [ tabete-iru to, mushiba ni naru yo.

If (you) keep eating only sweets like that, (you)'Il get cavities.

3) Shows that it has only been a short while after an action has been

completed.

English approximation: "just"

I.:ll"'~ ~?~ ~

A) 8*~~j-.A h'.i:<!', .. :,f~~~~t:, ;Xt'±77/.A~~~j-.A

t::o

Nihon-go no tesuto ga v. atta [bakashi [ na noni, tsugi wa furansu-go no tesuto da.

We've just had a Japanese test, but we have a French test next.

\,t ~ lit.

B) ~\\'tt~~~nlo ':'fl\\-C·L J: -? 0

Ima v. iketa [bakashi [ no hana yo. Kiree deshoo.

These are the flowers that I just finished arranging. Aren't they beautiful?

DAKE ~Ij

1. Indicates a limit imposed upon something.

10

English approximation: "only" or "just"

~~ ~h?

A) >iF \ \ ~ ,z,.:' L!::.!..!J -=- "? < t~ ~ \ \ 0

Akai n. ringo [dake [ mittsu kudasai, Please give me three of the red apples only.

v-tlJ~t fTJ::'

B) .f? t: Lti- A. L!::.!..!J Jf;t H~ ~ n t: 0

Watashi wa n. hitori [dake[ tori-nokosareta. I was left all alone. (Only I was left.)

0.1.: f}\llt"'~

C) A. li?~ JLL!::.!..!J -C. li.f? Ii' .:, >:.' \ \ 0

Hito wa n. gaiken [dake [ de wa wakara-nai. You can't tell a person just by his/her looks. 1.6 1.,"',£"'~

D) .:.: 1:<1',;:' (/)Iir!;\\~JfI'JlL!::.!..!J-C'To

Koko ni aru no wa furui n. shin bun [dake [ desu. What's available here is only some old newspapers.

~ lit. 1... t.tA.,!J;<f.:A.,I:tJ...lt~,1»-<

E) .:.: ~(/)~-C'TIi:, .f?t~ L liW'lt;J!f,il#{f'tt@JL -c \ \;:, ,z,-C'To

n. Koko [dake[ no hanashi desu ga, watashi wa nankyokutanken 0 keekaku-shite-iru-n desu.

This is just between you and me, but I'm planning an antarctic expedition.

2. Placed after the potential form of verbs " ... ru ~;:" " ..... reru ~n;:'''

and ..... rareru ~ .:, n ;:" " refers to a degree of something, with the implication that that degree cannot be surpassed.

English approximation: "as much as .. "

1J6 ~1J6

A) .f? t: Lti !V 'n L!::.!..!J!V _:,. ;t L i: 0

Watashi wa v. arukeru [dake [ aruki-rnashita. I walked as much as I could.

II

~! ~f.:T

B) t±l*~L!::.!..!JJlblHJiJlH L.l:·L

v, Dekiru [dake [ tasukete age-mashoo. I'll try to help you as much as I can.

C) "\" n ~ [ t;:' l t ["\" -::> -U" J: -? J: 0

v.Yareru [dake[ yatte miyoo yo.

Let's try to do as much as (we) can.

3. In the pattern ..... ba ... dake ~If'~t;:'lt." English approximation: "the more (something), the ... "

~T '(>1" ~

A) '*' l t n Ii' '*' \ 'L!::.!..!J \ \\ , "C'i' 0

Yasukere ba adj.yasui [dake [ ii desu. The cheaper the better.

1;1:'(> ~"'''I')

B) .!f. ( Tn If'i' ~ L!::.!..!J 1f~IJ t;:' 0

Hayaku sure ba v, suru [dake [ yuuri da.

The faster you do it, the more advantageous it is.

4. In the pattern ..... dake de (ja) naku ... mo ~t;:'lt "C'( L: '(» t: ( ~ t. "

English approximation: "not only ... but (also) ... "

A) 7" - ~ [ t;:' l t [ "C. t: c , 7" -( 7-. '7 I) - 1.. t i",;t L .l: -? J: 0

n. Keeki [dake[ de naku, aisukuriimu mo tabe-mashoo yo. Let's eat not only a cake, but also ice cream.

""'(>'O-!>~ IJIJ>

B) ':(/)~~~liJt\'L!::.!..!J"C·t: c , ~"C t8Jl~\'ho

Kono heya wa adjhiroi [dake[ de naku, totemo akarui ne. This room is not only spacious, but also very sunny.

P_Q 1!.t1-r t;J:. ~ l:r~l

C) .; (/):k Ii, ..t -t-l: 5,t, (. L!::.!..!J "C. t: ( jl; t -? ;t \ '0

Kono inu wa, joozu ni v . .Q'LQ.9!!. [dake [ de naku gee mo umai. This dog not only swims well, but also does tricks well.

12

DAKE-N I t~ If-I~ Combination particle

A combination of the particles "dake t:~t" and "ni ~:." Often takes the form "dake atte t: ~ t i> -:> -C."

1. Expresses an opinion that a situation is appropriate and fulfills its

expectations.

English approximation: "since/because ...• (as expected)

~A..!.1" ~ 'It\l~! ~?tJ><

A) 1 <5fa~Lt:~, \\\\j,l<Jl-c-.g-t?tLt:o

Yoku v. benkyoo-shita 1 dake ni I, ii seeseki de gookaku-shita. Since I studied hard. (as expected) I passed with good grades.

~?",->\l W,t...:-} 't ~ i\ll:'t Vot t:;t-r

B) .; ':1.1'H~>J:tII.:i't;!1k~, ~Et: < ~A"i?)A./.I<PJh;o

Koko wa yuumee na n. kankoo-chi Idake nil, mainichi takusan no hito ga otozureru.

Since it's a famous tourist spot. (as expected) many people visit it

every day.

~!~., 'ttJ> ~ ~?

C) ':':I.1*,i!t:.ta\\~, T,:'<,f\\.t!o

Koko wa sekidoo ni adj.chikai 1 dake ni I, sugoku atsui ne. Since this place is close to the equator. it's terribly hot. isn't it?

2. Indicates that something did not proceed as expected. with the implica-

tion that it was an unexpected surprise.

English approximation: "since ( ... was not expected)

fJ'tL IJ ~ ~A..h

A) 1Jtt:l.1t -7%;(>J:\\t:7,-7 t:i>~ ':'n-c\\t:~, ~~/.I</.I'/.I'-:>

t.

-c ~ t: mt t: 1.1, z -c t -7 h L /.I. -:> i: 0

Kare ni wa moo ae-nai daroo to v. akiramete-ita 1 dake nil, denwa ga kakatte-kita toki ni wa, totemo ureshikatta.

13

Since I had thought that I'd never be able to see him again, I was very happy when he called (unexpectedly).

" Ii

JU~'::' t (/)h'j, -? t:o

Harikeen no higai ga adjookikatta I dake ni I, sono machi no fukkoo-buri ni wa me 0 miharu mono ga atta.

Since the damages caused by the hurricane were extensive, that town's rate of rebuilding was quite something to behold.

DANO teo:

Used to list things successively, usually in a ..... dano ... dano ~t:(/)~ t:

(/)" pattern.

English approximation: similar in feeling to "things like (something) and (something). "

~H<i"~"'~~'A..~ H~ ~

A) ~rn~:!l:~~, ilt:ifkGh'-?""C\\'::'o

n. Kamikuzu I dana I n. akikan I dana I, michi ni chirakatte-iru. Things like scraps of paper and empty cans are scattered on the

street.

!: ttt!'t sl!

T~j~;l: -o t: G:t<:i!h'GiI'h':'-ht:o

Hitori aruki wa n. kiken I dana I, chikatetsu wa adj.kowai I dana I, Nyuuyooku ni hikkosu to kimattara tomodachi kara odokasar-

eta.

When it was decided that I was to move to New York, my friends

14

scared me, saying things like "it's dangerous to walk alone" and

"subways are frightening."

DATTE t~"':)L

1. Takes a special case and shows that it is really the same as other cases. English approximation: in the sense of "even (something) is/does .,"

A) .J-f~lt.:-::>-cI;cn< ':'\\h/.l'~~-to

n. Kodomo 1 datte 1 sore kurai wakari-masu.

Even children can understand something like that. t.,A..~.,e?l..,~

B) ~~JOl±L!::.2_:~_yt A_,/.I'-t or, .: z t j; or, 0

n . Shinyuu-dooshi 1 datte 1 kenka-suru koto mo aru. Even best friends quarrel sometimes.

~?~~j:t.:$'tr rJ.

C) l:~IlJL*-\\Etj;or,o

n. Natsu 1 datte 1 hada-zamui hi mo aru. Even in the summer, there are chilly days.

2. Lists things in order to show that each thing is the same as the other,

in a" ... datte ... datte ~t:· -::> -c ~t.: -::> -C .. (or, variation: " ... tatte ... tatte ~t: -::> -c ~ t: -::> -c .. ) pattern. Note that for this usage, "datte t.: -::> '{" can also take the form "tatte t: -::> -C. "

English approximation: "whether it's (something) or (something) .,"

A) j; L i: 1 t.: -::> -c I. j; ~ -::> -c 1 t.: -::> -c I. ~i \ \ ~ -\t Iv .r ,

nAshita 1 datte I, n. asatte 1 datte I, kamai-masen yo. It's fine with me, whether it's tomorrow or the day after.

15

Oosaka de v. kat Itattel, Tookyoo de v. kat Itattel, nedan wa onaji da yo.

It's the same price, whether you buy it in Osaka or Tokyo. 3. Follows an interrogative pronoun.

1) To qualify anything in its category as valid in the clause that follows.

English approximation: "anyone" "anytime" "anywhere" etc.

A) \ \ "'? 1 t:' -:> -c 1 i .:, h ~ T 1 0

n. Itsu 1 datte 1 mirare-masu yo. You can see it anytime.

B) .:cA..,~~;(j:~·.::.t:lt:,-:>-cI.h;~o

Son-na mono wa ph.doko ni 1 datte 1 aru sa. That sort of thing can be found anywhere.

C) t:' h 1 t:' -:> -c l.:c h < .:, \ \ .j-.,,';' ; I.l: f -C'T 0

n. Dare 1 datte 1 sore kurai wakaru hazu desu.

Anyone should be able to understand something like that.

2) In a negative sentence, to show that nothing in the group specified by

the interrogative pronoun wants to be something or does something,

English approximation: "no one" "nothing" etc, ~r.J"'It.,

A) t:'h~lt5tti\\-\'>t:'o

n. Dare 1 datte 1 binboo wa iya da.

No one likes being poor. (literally: Everyone doesn't like being poor.)

t.:~~

B) ~'A..,~P!T~_~_rlt~t: < ~\\o

Don-na n. tokoro 1 datte 1 iki-taku-nai.

No matter where it may be, (I) don't want to go.

16

C) :CA.,,~-= z u, \\-:Jlt:-?-c ILt: < ~\\o Son-na koto wa, n.itsu 1 datte 1 shitaku-nai. I never want to do something like that.

4. Placed at the end of a sentence, expresses surprise (and sometimes disapproval) after quoting something someone else has said.

English approximation: "he/she said that .."

It( tJ>b b> ~ h"t

A) -ftttH';~~A.,,1)'11}~ -C\\.i-\tA."l~o ;~ht:'7)I)'L.,o

cl. Boku wa okane nanka karite i-masen yo 1 datte I. Wasureta no kashira.

He said to me, "I haven't borrowed any money." I wonder if he

forgot?

::"'~ fJ'tL ~ IJ ... t::.'.l

B) ~~tlitt:f- ~ ~r?)~o l < ~~~\\hh, ~r?)::"J,.0

cl. Konya mo kare to deeto na no 1 datte I. Yoku aki-nai wa ne, ano futari.

She said, "I've got a date 'with him again tonight." They're not

bored with each other, those two (i.e. it's a wonder that they're not).

DE c:

FUNDAMENTALS OF "DE "C-"

1. Placed after a noun of location, indicates it is where an action takes/

took place. It is static. Note that the particles "ni t:" or "e ,," indicate the direction of the action. Compare the following:

17

A) *~[!]~~i-:6 0

Gakkoo ~ benkyoo-suru. (I) study at school.

",O'1,"::"l ,>

B) *'iX.~it< 0

Gakkoo~iku. (I) go to school.

r-:;:l ~'" b

C) ;;t71 AL':J~t*bHno

Ofiisu~denwa 0 kakeru. (I) make a call at the office.

1,-=l~A, b

D) ;;t71A~~tH'I)'tt:6o

Ofiisu~denwa 0 kakeru. (I) telephone the office.

English approximation: "at" "in" "br::;::.:lt-;J:

A) bt: L Ij:;:fii-L~:/,j(~';f L tz ,

Watashi wa n umi ~ oyogi-mashita. ~

I swam in the ocean.

B) j;~*G1:N[!]t.;*~ f'i--':;f L.t -7 0 J~'~~' ~ ~ ~

Ano ki no n shita ~ obentoo 0 tabe-mashoo. ~

Let's have lunch under that tree. _ ~

18

C) t>t: Lli*~ITl E *~t d~~t"( \,;t To

Watashi wa n. daigaku ~ nihon-go 0 benkyoo-shite-i-masu. I'm studying Japanese at college.

r:;::ll-J;(C 'l,{..~r:;::::lt!L,l fJ'

D) f"-~L:J~$f"L"(h'':', *~L.!J~t.f"J\\';tLt:o

n. Depaato ~ shokuji 0 shite kara, n. hon-ya ~ jisho 0 kai-mashita.

After eating at the department store, I bought a dictionary at the bookstore.

2. Indicates the superlative.

English approximation: "in" "among"

;"IIf> f:. C."l r:;::::l\''tIIA..I!IIf> 1;1:1.,

A) '3"83:s. x.u. :7"7 A <f>L.!J-{lJ-i! < ;t ~ ;t To

Miyata-san wa n. kurasu-juu ~ ichiban hayaku hashiri-masu.

Ms. Miyata is the fastest runner in our class.

t.tfJ'r-:::;::-] b;: oj "t-r '? p

B) .; i?)<f>L.!Jt:hh:JIili?)1t~:}tHtIH:it < A..,t:\,?

Kono n. naka ~ dare ga neko no kubi ni suzu 0 tsuke ni iku-n dai?

Among us, who's going to go hang a bell

on the eat's neck?

3. In the pattern " ... de mo ... de mo, ~"(·t ~"(·t," lists locations.

English approximation: "in/at (location) and in/at (location) ... "

r:;::::l r:;::::l;:_ ett.:'t olJ-f

A) .:.: L:J t., ;t, -c .: L.!J t, -f1#;i!h<l}f A.., "('\ , ;:, 0 •• ' •••

. ~.'''' ... :~ .. t.:.

:~: .. ~ .: '

. . ...

. .

0 •• 0

n. Koko ~ rno, n. asoko ~ rno,

kodomo-tachi ga asonde-iru.

Here and over there children are playing.

19

.: z t, a-» ?hr:;::l ~ir-:;:l t:.: ~<'i?

B) 1'.lf-G1)l:li;:atL2j t o.LL2j t *t.llI)'tMH t:o

Kotoshi no natsu wa n. umi ~ mo n. yama ~ mo jiko ga zokuhatsu-shita.

This summer, accidents occurred one after another both at the

ocean and in the mountains.

4. Indicates the time when an action or process happened or happens.

I) Shows the time period when something occurred/occurs, often found in

"de wa -tli" and "de mo -t t" patterns.

English approximation: "in" "at"

~A,8,,?V'" (J:A,t:"?GJ..,t!~~r::;::::l +tz

A) - 71.. \!SO .If-i\L2jli, .; h,~'ilVzl;;li'<"-:d:;c -7 t:'o

n. Sen-kyuuhyaku-yonjuu-nen-dai ~ wa, kon-na uta ga hayatta soo da.

In the 1940's, this sort of song was supposedly popular.

\'i r-:;:l L,,?~,{.. ,t,;:.:t.t

B) 1'L2jt, ;cG1)~·t1l:li~·f;.jt.t:dL"(\\~o

n.1ma ~ rno, sono shuukan wa nao okonawarete-iru. Even now (at present), that custom is still carried out.

2) Indicates the age of a person. English approximation: "at"

A) l~li~ c-i-"fii IT] ii~ L t:o

Kare wa n. rokujus-sai ~ taishoku-shita. He retired at age sixty.

!;tli I=t:."l z ~\'r-=;:::llt-:J':A..

B) ~Ii..=.+ .n.fit.L2j~~ L tz;

Haha wa n. nijuu-go-sai ~ kekkon-shita. My mother got married at age twenty-five.

3) Imposes a time limit on an action or occurrence.

20

English approximation: "in (amount of time)"

A) .; ~A$I.t~~--i-?~~ Jn~;t i"/.I'?

Kono shigoto wa n. nijup-pun ~ deki-masu ka? Can you do this job in twenty minutes?

1:L,."l~,{..r-:,::::-]~?~T

B) t -1 '::'il!r., L.!Jl:. i*";' t: ~ ~ ;t i" 0

Moo n. ni-shuukan ~ natsu-yasumi ni nari-masu. Summer vacation is coming in two weeks.

vtJ>'J ~'~tFl?i1'A..I::;:lI;8."l ~~tb IH ...

C) 7't1.t-tJ.' ML.!Jj1!?l*~-t@]~-'f.i";o

Hikari wa n. ichi-byookan ~ chikyuu 0 nana-mawari-han suru. Light travels around the earth seven and a half times in one second.

5. Indicates what method or tool is/was employed for an action.

English approximation: "do (something) by using (something)"

'II?;:"} c "t"A.,L.4'r-::::;::liJ'J:.

A) b i: L l.t"f'tt"- § ~.!f.L.!Ji! -? -c \ \;t i" 0

Watashi wa gakkoo e n. jitensha ~ kayotte-i-masu. I commute to school by bicycle.

21

L t:o

Watashi wa n. hikooki ~ rondon ni itte kara, n. tune ~ supein ni iki-mashita.

I went to London by plane. then went to Spain by boat.

Watashi wa chichi to

hanashi-mashita.

I talked with my father on (Iiterally: by using) the phone.

i.A-r.!?r.::;:::l fJ>

D) }B'¥L..!J'!'\ \ -c < t: ~ \ \0

n. Enpitsu ~ kaite kudasai.

Please write with a pencil.

-tt"7 r::;:l -r 116

E) :fj I t A." L..!J l < -t- f ;;1:. \ \ ~ ~ \ \ l 0

n. Sekken ~ yoku te 0 arai-nasai yo. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap.

f.l>tL. r::;::l h;

F) lttl \ \-:J t;:z_-.Of: T L..!J7,.A." ~ f ~;b-tt ;l: "to

Kare wa itsumo n. yuumoa ~ min-na 0 warawase-masu. He always makes everyone laugh with his sense of humor.

J;: Ill... ~ r::;::::llif.;

G) 8 *t~L..!J~ L -c < t: ~ \ \0

n. Nihon-go ~ hanashite kudasai. Please speak in Japanese.

r:;:-]"JltF ... ;: ~

H) 7J·7;t.,L:Jt~fYLi}]-:>-CL;l:\\;l: Lt:o

n. Garasu ~ yubi 0 sukoshi kitts shimai-mashita. I cut my finger a little on glass.

22

6. Gives the price of something.

English approximation: "at" "for"

ItA., ~ -ttA..;tI...r:;::l tJ,

A) "i?) *- f" .::. {- fIl ~ ~ \ \ i l t: 0

Sono hon 0 n. ni-sen en ~ kai-mashita. I bought the book for two thousand yen.

B) "'71 "'-ii\\ ( GITJ1tIH-t/J'?

Hawai e wa n. ikura ~ ike-masu ka?

How much would it cost for a trip to Hawaii? 7. Indicates time or quantity that makes a unit.

English approximation: "by" "for"

A) ~ii~ra'ITJ7Jld\1 rf"l-C\\{,o

Boku wa n. jikan ~ arubaito 0 shite-iru. I'm working part time by the hour.

s.tz r-:;:::l~tJo.(;U,

B) " i?) I) ;,- ::t1i'::'"? ~ li. 8 fIl-C°-t 0

Sono ringo wa n. futatsu ~ go-hyaku en desu. Those apples are two for five hundred yen.

f:."t;, \1?"'CA.. ~ r:::;;:l t1>

C) b t: l i!i?)T- .L.ii-.?.i.'t ~Jl#.·:,f:o

Watashi-tachi no chiimu wa n. it-ten-sa ~ katta. Our team won the game by only one point.

8. Indicates the composition of an object.

English approximation: "from" "of"

A) .; nii 7'77. T 'Y :7 ITJ -Co ~ t:~ -c'-t 0

Kore wa n. purasuchikku ~ dekita hako desu. This is a box made out of plastic.

tal... e r-::;:-r:>< ?"?b

B) "niH,I;'±'~1'f·:,f:~-C°-to

23

Sore wa n. nendo ~ tsukutta utsuwa desu. It's a vessel made of clay.

C) '{7-t± ~ Jv7[!]ii ~.t To

Bataa wa n. miruku ~ tsukuri-masu. Butter is made from milk.

9. Indicates the manner of an action, or the condition/intention at the time

of occurrence/action.

English approximation: "(in this manner) ... " "(with intention to)

~\.f r-:;:::l"tl>

A) ht~lt±'~\'L.!Jtl:JIi'IH lt~o

Watashi wa v. isoi ~ dekake-mashita. I left in a rush.

iI'.tt. tr"""''' r:;::l!1 L.

B) 1Jt t±;J- <P L.!J:it -? t~ 0

Kare wa n. muchuu ~ hashitta. He ran frantically.

It< r:;::l ~l

C) ~t± lli' ~"'? t ~ L.!J~ -? i: C1) -C'tHt \ '0

Boku wa shikaru n. tsumori ~ itta no de wa nai. I didn't say it with the intention to scold (you).

10. Indicates a reason or motive for an action or occurrence.

English approximation: "due to ... " "owing to ... "

fl'tI. ,!,""""~l r:;::ltp~lt!.'" .1l ~

A) 1Jtt±1-j.i;t:L.!Jf%iU,.:,itt?t~0 ~

Kare wa n. fuchuui ~ kaidan kara ochita. (' He fell down the stairs due to carelessness.

24

Boku wa kyoo n. kaze ~ gakkoo 0 yasunda. Today, I was absent from school due to a cold.

C) ;; ~ [3.t-h<;i;t i: oj t:~o

n. Samusa ~ te ga kogoe soo da.

My hands are almost frozen from the cold.

~:~::""':

• ; II M' •

· . ..{'u

· ~

-=

--""-

I')."':-}r-:;:l~-+t t~\llil...el.-}

D) '::C')'T-lf1 /C');fii.li\.:SJ~li:k~~f:o

Kono dezain no n. ryuukoo ~ mise wa dai-hanjoo da.

Due to the popularity of this design, the store is doing very well.

11. Indicates the source of information, basis of a condition.

English approximation: "by" "from" "on" "according to"

LA-SA. "(I...!: l. 11-} r:::;;:l h !:.t" < t!1')

A) ;l!T~ C') ~J\. "f¥ItL2:J JL ~ 1:::, ~ 8 Ii ~ f: i: oj f:o

Shinbun no n. tenki-yohoo ~ miru to, kyoo wa kumori da soo da.

According to the weather forecast in the paper, it will be cloudy today.

t 11~1 r::;:::l \'i t.tl... t:-

B) <b ~ t: C') at"tt L2:J Ii ~Mat ""(.-t h' ?

Anata no n. tokee ~ wa ima nan-ji desu ka? What time is it now according to your watch?

fl>lt t.t~ t>1:J\1~ r:;::l

C) llth'U-I:::' < 'tlil,z,""('\\ ~ C')li, mi@.L2:Jhh'~o

Kare ga hidoku nayande-iru no wa, n. kao-iro ~ wakaru. I can tell from his face that he is very troubled.

12. Indicates the basis of evaluation.

English approximation: "depending on" "according to"

25

h t!.I.. 1111 r-:::;::l~-/)t

A) .l;.1.J''{'c?)1~itli*-:' ~ LSJi! \ \.t -r 0

Mikan no nedan wa n. ookisa ~ chigai-masu. The price of oranges varies depending on their size.

I:: t;, h. t!I-v v; ~I... t.J r:;::lfJ'b

B) ±':I1!?c?)1~itli~ ~ 1::: if.f'J ~ LSJ ~ ~ .t -r 0

Tochi no nedan wa n. hi rosa to benrisa ~ kawari-masu. The price of land changes according to the size and location. 13. Shows which party is/was responsible for an action.

English approximation: in the sense of "(something) is/was done by (some-

thing)."

tJ' .£< r:;:::l !

A) i: n Ii ~~LSJj*cV.J t: .; 1::: -C-r 0

Sore wa n. kazoku ~ kimeta koto desu. It was a decision made by (my) family.

L.A.-SA. '/)t.,.:.., r-:;::::lli?'::.,

B) i:c?)~n-","li<'lblx.LSJ1e1t~nt~0

Sono shinbun wa n. gakkoo ~ hakkoo-sareta. That newspaper was published by the school.

DEMO C'=b

1. Presents an extreme example to make the point that since something applies to such a case, it therefore certainly applies to more normal cases. English approximation: "even"

-ttlv-tt~'~

A) 7t1'-~.bI.J''''~\\·,(,L J: 10

n. Sensee I demo I wakara-nai deshoo.

Even the teacher probably won't be able to understand it.

~h t> ~~l"""'"

B) t;, J: -:> 1::: ~ Ji it 1::: L I.J{ j;, -:> -c Ii *- ~ to' 0

26

n. Chotto I demo I mi-otoshi 9a atte wa taihen da.

If (we) miss even one thing, there'll be grave consequences.

2. In the pattern "don-na ... demo r: A., >:J: ~ -c t ."

English approximation: "no matter what/how (something) .," or "regardless of the fact that... ..

~I...~~, trf"tJ' tl...t:!~l~ t

A) j;, i?) 7t1'. Ii ~. A., >:J: fi l \ \ rc9M L..!.!.J MIt ~ 0

Ano sensee wa don-na muzukashii n. mondai I demo I tokeru. That teacher can solve any problem, no matter how difficult it may

be.

f:. to)~Pt;. e f:. tH>

B) bt: l Ii ~·A.,>:J:~~~i5L..!.!.J-!l:li~~-C ht:\\ ?:::)~\ \.t To

Watashi wa don-na n. tabemono I demo I ichido wa tabete mi-tai to omoi-masu.

Regardless of the type of food, I'd like to try eating it once.

3. After an interrogative pronoun, indicates an all-inclusiveness.

English approximation: "whatever" "whenever" etc.

A) ~. .; [II] \ \ \ \ I)' t, Pi -::> -c < to ~ \ \ 0

n. Doko I demo I ii kara suwatte kudasai.

Please sit wherever you like. (more literally: "Please sit; anywhere

is fine.")

~.,. t;.",-}tA..

B) >:J:A.,~*T:.~·ti?)~ji.Xl-C\\\\lo

n. Nan I demo I suki na mono 0 chuumon-shite ii yo. You can order whatever you like.

4. Used in casually mentioning something as a suggestion. English approximation: in the sense of "something like .;"

fJ'i. ~O)~'

B) ~w~ 1:::1-t-L..!.!.J~hl:-1tIi·>:J:\\?

27

Kaeri ni n. koohii I demo I nomi ni ika-nai?

Why don't we go have coffee or something on the way home?

r::;::-:;l Ii q L.

B) '::''::'~llt.ttln;~liTh{o

n. Koko I demo I yokere ba ohanashl-shi-rnasu ga. If it's all right to talk somewhere like here, I will.

5. To express wishful thinking; sometimes in a "sernete ... demo ... -{t<i1:l1:

~ 1:' t ~ .. pattern.

English approximation: "if only there were (something), even just a little bit

of it .,."

T c r::;::-:;l to. ~ 8 A..

A) -{t <i1:l1: Y l t:'lt ~ffr1:-h{ i> -o t: t, >:J: i> 0

Semete sukoshi ndake I demo I chokin ga attara naa. If only I had even just a little bit of savings ...

B) nt U.; 7, -tftl1:- t Ii> -o t: i, \ \\ \ C1) I: >:J: i> 0

Koshi 0 orosu n. tokoro I demo I attara ii no ni naa. If only there were some place I could sit down ...

6. Often in a "manzara ... demo i A., ~ i, ~ 1:- t .. pattern and/or a double

negative, to indicate that there are other attributes to something, besides the obvious.

English approximation: examples are "not all bad" and "not unthinkable."

o e .. r::;::-:;l

A) i> C1) A C1) 1; "i .::. z U:, i A., ~ i, "i iC ~ >:J: \ \ 0

Ano hito no yuu koto wa, manzara n. uso I demo I nai. What that person says isn't all untrue.

It~liP( l!-:>II",J. tpfl)? r::;::-:;l

B) '::'C1)"ttIlIDI.±, ~}JI.:f.PJIi~>:J:t>lt~>:J:\\o

Kono keekaku wa, jitsugen fukanoo na n. wake I demo I nai. This plan isn't impossible to carry out.

28

DOKORO t::'~-3

Takes an extreme case of a certain situation and emphatically negates its possibility.

English approximation: "not possible to do, (for example)"

o e tU:J i. tpl..L.,l" ~

A) .:: 1A.h<~ < ""(Ii, 11>-:> < H~HJl.1tT~~""(·Ij:tj:\\o

Koo hito ga ooku te wa, yukkuri e 0 v, kanshoo-suru 1 dokoro 1 de wa nai.

With this many people, it's out of the question to, say, enjoy looking

at the paintings.

~l* ~l.ff)t 81Idi1'~~;b

A) +t:""(tdtL< ""(, i*BF1.~(1).~~""(·litj_·\\o

Irna toterno isogashiku te. n. kyuuka 1 dokoro 1 no sawagi de wa nai.

I'm so busy now that it's not even plausible to, for example, take

a vacation.

DOKOROKA c=.~-31J\

Serves to negate the clause it modifies, in order to emphasize the point

made by the clause that follows.

English approximation: the nuance is "never mind (something) ... "

A) <b(1)..fli~·;;T ~ 1 t:'.:: 7,h·I:'::8¥~h,,""(·I.fh' ~ \\ ~o

Ano ko wa v. benkyoo-suru 1 dokoroka I, ichi-nichi-juu asonde bakari iru.

Never mind studying, all that child does is play all day.

29

10;1"-1' "t'>

B) t?~I?:::·':7,I.i+]<'~;{_::Il>':J.·\\o

n. Oyu I dokoroka I mizu sae de-nai.

Never mind hot water, there's not even cold water.

DOMO ~=b

Placed after a verb.

English approximation: "(even) though"

I... A..10;1 1 ~ L.A..10;11 fJ'(1H~.l flA..t1 !: t

A) ~Zi:.?:::\\;{_~.~_l~Zi:.?:::\\-:>l t), ilt*c?)7.lq13c?)~#t:,tj:.bI.i·.,tj:\\o

Shinyuu to v. ~ I domo I (shinyuu to itte mo] , kanojo no hontoo no kimochi wa wakara-nai.

Though we are best friends, I don't know how she really feels.

~l ~~) ~ ~1 ~1 "tt.t t!~l ;!. 11<

B) .JtltL~_~_J'ltlt~(1t-:>l t.Jt-:>l t.), ~;·tH·~ c?)*N'j1J:-:>t~o

v. Ike I domo Iv. ike I domo I (itte mo itte rno), suna bakari no dai-sabaku datta.

Though we went on and on, we saw nothing but the sand in the vast desert.

E "

FUNDAMENTALS OF "E ........ "

First, note that the character ........ , " used as a particle, is read "e," even

though it is normally read "he." Placed after a noun, it indicates that the

noun is the destination, direction or the goal of the action. Some frequently used verbs that follow "e ...... " are:

30

"

ageru J:.I f ~ (to lift)

".

aruku lfr < (to walk)

dekakeru :±:h'lt ~(to go out)

-.'" n

denwa 0 kakeru ~t&- f' h'lt ~ (to telephone)

-.'" n

denwa 0 suru ~t&- f' -t ~ (to telephone)

..

deru tl:J ~ (to exit)

1:1\>

hairu A ~ (to enter)

ireru >-.tt ~ (to put in ) iku qt < (to go)

"'~

kaeru 'iw ~ (to return)

.'

kaku • < (to write)

. ,

kuru *- ~ (to come)

.e

modoru ~ ~ (to come back)

"

mukau f,;]h'"'j (to head for)

I<

oku Ii. < (to place)

'"

okuru Jl!t ~ (to present)

1<,

okuru ~ ~ (to send)

I'Jl..:-j

ryokoo-suru ~lZn--t ~ (to travel)

L..?I{?

shuppatsu-suru tl:J§e-t ~ (to depart)

~~

taoreru jjlJ.tt ~ (to fall down)

"t't)th f1'

tegami 0 kaku 4-R<\ f'. < (to write a letter)

-rl...!,{,

tenkin-suru ~fh-t ~ (to be transferred)

?

tsuku :t < (to arrive)

It is interchangeable with the particle "ni ~:" in most cases. Note, however, that this rule does not apply when the particle "e -,- is followed

31

by the particle "no c?) "; "e ,," then cannot be replaced by "ni ~ .. " Examples:

l;il;ir::l J:>(

A) .b t: L (j:~ C::_(:1' t- -Ii / ~ t i! ~ .t L t~o

Watashi wa haha 0 purezento 0 okuri-mashita. I sent my mother a present.

111i~ 8<

.bt~L(j:-lt67'V-li/ ~ ti!~.t Lt~o

Watashi wa haha GJ purezento 0 okuri-mashita. I sent my mother a present.

l;tl!r:l

B) .; n Ii ~L::J c?) 7' t- -Ii / l- -Z:0...,. 0

Kore wa haha 0 no purezento desu. This is a present for my mother.

Wrong:

l.tl;l~

.::. nli~ ~c?) 7' t- -Ii / l- -Z: • ...,. 0

Kore wa haha ~ no purezento desu.

1. Shows the direction where an action is headed.

English approximation: "to" "toward"

A) .bt~Lli*fiEJ,ft~.t...,.o

Watashi wa n. oosaka 0 iki-masu. I'm going to Osaka.

f1otl. ;t! 111 r:::l.t.~ \1

B) lJ.tli~c?)-;? L::J &\ \ -z: -iT ~ .t L t~o

Kare wa eki no n. hoo 0 aruite iki-mashita. He walked toward the station.

!:~ U) ClL • .,t:.J:"lt:..-l

C) :!t'f ~ ,{, Ii 3 - 0 'y I \' L::J tB 5k <P -Z:0...,. 0

Kitano-san wa n. yooroppa 0 shucchoo-chuu desu.

32

Mr. Kitano is currently on a business trip to Europe.

D) ;I~7i-r:-.E.F~~-r: ~Jtt;l.i<lrElr~~ \ t~o

Jishin de go-kai-date no tatemono ga n. ushiro ~ katamuita. Because of the earthquake, the five-storied building leaned toward the back.

2. Shows the ending point or destination of an action.

English approximation: "at"

~1'<";:"Cl "':}

A) ;bt~ L 1'±~~?!C:J:I!f ~.1 L tz ;

Watashi wa ima n. kuukoo ~ tsuki-mashita. I arrived at the airport just now.

f:'!,{,Cl ~.:t

B) \\"?B*C:J};~w~I:~~.1Lt~I.i·?

Itsu n. nihon ~ okaeri ni nari-mashita ka? When did you come back to Japan?

Boku wa michi ni mayotta ageku, sanjup-pun mo okurete n. kaigi-joo ~ tadori-tsuita.

After getting lost, I arrived at the meeting place thirty minutes late.

3. Indicates the person or thing to which an action is directed.

English approximation: "to" "for"

A) .: h 1.1 of:, ~: t~ El ~ 7" Irc;; ~ -c+ 0

Kore wa n. anata ~ no purezento desu. This is a present for you.

1tA,1t~ICl "C t)t;,. nf:.

B) ':hl.17tjo_C:J~};·HV:I.i·~};;JtL L-r:ho

Kore wa n. sensee ~ no otegami dakara owatashi-shite ne.

33

This is a letter to the teacher, so please hand it to (him/her).

4. In the pattern " ... tokoro e ~ ~ .: 1, "-..," describes a situation that

exists when an action takes place.

English approximation: "(this was the situation) when (something else happened)."

L.<t!~\ 8 r:ltLt.!1;. IJ.f 8

A) ra-~h"~h-:d~ z ; l,~i<:i!h{l1fV:~:*t~o

Shukudai ga owatta n. tokoro ~ tornodachi ga asobi ni kita. I had just finished my homework when my friend came over.

"h'~ L"t" r:l ,,~ J,

B) :$:~#t~f~:tI:lh"tt~~.:l,~, r.fJh{ft-:>-c::.t~o

Kasa 0 rnotazu ni dekaketa n. tokoro ~. arne ga futte-kita.

I had just left without bringing an umbrella when it started to rain.

GA ti'

FUNDAMENTALS OF "GA 1J~"

A major function of the particle "ga »<" is to emphasize the subject by following directly after it. However, other particles such as "wa Ii" in particular (see p. 235) also serve the same purpose. Deciding when to use which may be one of the most difficult factors in constructing Japanese sentences; in fact, even native speakers sometimes have to stop and think

about the choices. The following are some basic guidelines to help you with this task.

I. When to use "ga h{" after the subject or topic:

1. "Ga 1.1'" appears in sentences that indicate the existence of something,

34

in the sense of "there is/are/was/were ... " Note that in Japanese, you must

differentiate between living things and non- living things by using separate verbs that both mean "to be in a place." "Iru \ \ ~ " is for the former group,

and "aru iJ ~" is for the latter.

A) A[~}\ ~ (\\.1 "')0

n. Hita ~ iru (i-masu). There is a person.

I!J..~

B) /.1;;l~jiJ~(iJ~.1"')o

n. Han ~ aru (ari-masu). There is a book.

Even in talking about the same thing, you must use different verbs depending on whether or not it is animate:

~b.t.tr:;l ~b>t.tG:;l

C) .f!!.. ~\\~ (\\.1"')0 D) .f!!.. ~iJ~ (iJ~.1"')o

n. Sakana ~ iru (i-masu). "There is a fish." (animate)

n. Sakana ~ aru (ari-masu). "There is a fish." (inanimate)

2. To express desire, need, ability or opinion, "ga" follows the topic.

A) i:Jt~U±71 A7I)_L.EJ-i--.:t~\\o Watashi wa n. aisukuriimu ~ tabe-tai.

35

I want to eat ice cream.

~~, ~ ~a~

B) ht: LI.i*~~~-\:t.1-to

Watashi wa n. eego ~ hanase-masu. I can speak English.

~q)1.!J: tHAI< r:;l1"

C) iJt3d.i~~~*f~ -("-to

Kanojo wa n. ongaku ~ suki desu. She likes music.

3. "Ga 1;<" follows an interrogative pronoun or noun phrase.

A) t:,nEJ*.1 L f:/J'?

n. Dare ~ ki-mashita ka? Who came?

k. L<nr:;l .,.

B) of:, 1;;.' i: l.i r: A" ~ 1:"~io~*f ~ -(--t 1.1' ?

Anata wa n. ph. don-na tabemono ~ suki desu ka? What kind of food do you like?

~J.,t:~

C) 1Pf~~\ \\ \ -(":fh'?

n. Nan-ji ~ ii desu ka? What time is good (for you)?

4. "Ga 1.1<" often follows a noun that is modified by an adjective.

~"'r-=z~r.:b'

A) i!t~~\ \0

n. Nami ~ takai, The waves are high.

!J:A,~

B) ht: L 1.i~1J,-~\\\\-(·-to

Watashi wa n. kibun ~ ii desu. I feel good.

36

n. Heya ~ atsui. The room is hot.

5. In describing one of the five senses, "ga 1;<" often accompanies the

noun.

A) \ \\ ,,: }; \ \ ~ -t .;, 0 Ii n. nioi ~ suru. (It) smells good.

Alit ;fjl!~

B) 1t\\'*~-t.;,o

Amai n.~ ~ suru. (It) tastes sweet.

6. Sentences with intransitive verbs usually have subjects that are

followed by "ga I;{."

A) p~r~;t.;,o

n. To ~ shimaru. The door closes.

~A,! ~!

B) ~~~;i!f;tt:o

n. Denki ~ kieta. The lights went off. "?!~"t"

C) fl ~ tId: 0

n. Tsuki ~ deta.

The moon has come out.

II. Other uses of "ga I;{" include the following:

1. Functions like a conjunction after "sore ga (ne) ;C hl;{(h)" and "tokoro ga (ne) I::: ~ 7,1;{(h)," with a feeling of unexpected surprise.

37

A) ;cn[EJ, Mt: t~-t.:_'< )~~-c'\\t:~t~o

Sore ~, nanto monosugoku konde ita-n da, But actually, it was really crowded,

It< ;t,!~ ~ b-

B) ~t±t-j~'h')-c\\t:o t:':_7,~h, Jt-::>h, .. :,f:~t:·J:, 1-Tt:o

Boku wa moo akiramete ita. Tokoro ~ ne, mitsukatta-n da yo, nan to.

I had already given up. But, it was actually found!

2. After a verb, in the patterns "ga gotoku h<':_' t: < " and "ga mama ni 1.1<

English approximation: with "gotoku z: t: < " = "as if", with "mama ni ;t ;t I:" = "exactly as (something)"

-t!-A,-t" ! G,{, V. !.:,{,Ifk II;.f fJ'~ ~ k

A) ~~~G;t.6llt±, AM~~-j :_'h<~,'1lLt:~.:_·t: < iL'?-c\\t:o

Sensoo-kinenhi wa, ningen no arasou saga 0 v. kanashimu ~ gotoku tatte ita.

The war memorial stood, as if grieving over the nature of human-

kind to fight against each other. ~t1. ali ~ ~ I...

B) lltt±, ~~-t-t «'l':' ~;t ;t 1:;jHifl I:~' '? t:o

Kare wa, haha no v. susumeru ~ mama ni, gishi ni natta. Following his mother's advice exactly, he became an engineer. 3. Makes an introductory clause before the main point.

English approximation: "as" in the patterns "as for ... ," "as you've already

heard ... ," etc.

"'(Iv ~ (b ~,?~~l

A) ;c ~.R. -c'-t~, t '? z tt L < ID/.B}j L -c < t:» \ \0

Sono ten c. desu ~, motto kuwashiku setsumee-shite kudasai.

38

As for that point, please explain it in more detail.

td '-' ~ It~)~< -1t~,.:., II i;;.t1 IH

B) -t .. tt:1'j3LJ:H.1 Lt~~, ':<1)HUfu<1)~1,o1.±r8'i!\\~\\t<1)t:,~\\

.1 -t 0

Sude ni v. mooshi-age-mashita ~, kono keekaku no seekoo wa machigai-nai mono to omoi-masu.

As I've said before, I think that this plan will undoubtedly succeed.

4. Functions like a conjunction.

English approximation: "but" in the sense of "despite doing (something)" or

"although."

1£< ~

A) ~li""":'.A ~ ~"?< Lt~~, t::/iI)t:"?t~o

Boku wa besuto 0 v. tsukushita ~, dame datta. I did the best I could, but I failed.

~/"'b ~ <6 T

B) 3-<1)1 };1t~L.1 Lt~~, mil,*"C'Lt~o

Kinoo v. odenwa-shi-mashita ~, orusu deshita.

I called yesterday, but (you/he/she) was/were not home.

11< tH:IIA,C"'''tJ'AdJt ~ ~~I;f)A, .,

C) ~li-BJttf'~;i(_ t~~, ~~lijH'li·t~:I.>'"? tz ;

Boku wa hitoban-juu v. kangaeta ~, mee-an wa ukabanakatta.

I pondered all night, but couldn't come up with any great ideas.

5. In the patterns " ... u ga ~ 11.><" and " ... mai ga ~.1 \ \1.>'."

English approximation: "no matter (something)" or "whether (you) do (something) or not, it doesn't matter ... "

11'< ~l ~ l::ttt1;;.

A) ~1.><~:.: ........ 1t':1~, f"?t:~i!-C·\\.J:1o

Boku ga doko e v. ikoo ~, zutto tomodachi de iyoo. No matter where I go, let's stay friends.

39

1:l:L. ~ 1:i1.. ~. ~

B) ;t7,-j~, ;t~;t\\~, Mt:i;-.b~\\t:7,-jo

v. Hashiroo ~, v. hashiru-mai ~, mani-awa-nai daroo. (Y ou) won't be on time whether (you) run or not.

6. Indicates wishful thinking in presenting an imaginary. desirable situation that is the opposite of the current. actual situation. Similar to "noni IJ)

t:." (See p.167)

English approximation: "(if ... ). can/would do.... (but ... )"

~~ J. ~

A) 'F1.><f.tn'i'\\\\~~:;I;o

Yuki ga fure ba ad!!.! ~ naa.

It would be good if it were to snow (i.e. I wish it would snow).

kfJ'; 1Jt:. ~

B) 1:< l:1.><~~t:~-jnL\\~~;I;o

Takarakuji ga atattara adj.ureshii ~ naa.

I'd be happy if I were to win the lottery (i.e. I wish I could win the

lottery).

7. At the end of the sentence. serves to soften a request or opinion. Takes a straightforward statement that would sound too direct and transforms it into a more indirect approach.

English approximation: somewhat akin to the English phrase "I'm wondering if I could ... " or "(this is what I think). but..."

L..1;,J;1 iIJ ~

A) :f±k:'<A."t:t?§t:I.>'I.>'~t:\\A.,,""(-i"~o

Shachoo-san ni v. omeni-kakari-tai-n desu ~. I'd like to meet the president ...

(compare: "shachoo-san ni omeni-kakari-tai-n desu" by itself tends

to sound too forward and impolite.)

40

Moo ichi-nichi kyuuka 0 v. tori-tai-n desu ~. I'd like to take one more day of vacation ...

C) bt:LU:, ':CI);t;tl·\q\1::~oj,z,l·T~o

Watashi wa, kono-mama de ii to v. omou-n desu ~. 1 think it would be fine to leave it the way it is ...

8. Placed at the end of a sentence; exclamatory. Modifies nouns, and is

said scornfully and disapprovingly. Men's language. Not translatable.

A) .; CI) oj iC -:J ~ &>') ~ !

Kono n. usotsuki-me ~! You liar!

B) ,: CI):lf-'\- &>')~ !

Kono n. gaki-me ~!

You little brat! ("Gaki" is slang for "little boy," but it often has

negative implications.)

9. Expresses uncertainty or puzzlement.

English approximation: the nuance is "I'd thought (I)'d done (something)

but..."

t.:L. 1:1 r:;l

A) ~/)"1:':':!:if.\\lt?\\t:,z,l"T~o

Tashika ni koko ni oite-oita-n c. desu ~.

1 had definitely put it here, but ... (i.e. "I thought 1 had put it here

... ")

"t"A." ~

B) ~~h<h'h'-:> l < .:, !j:f~ ,z,t:"~o 1::" oj L t:,z,t:" J, oj 0

Denwa ga kakatte kuru hazu na-n c. da ~. Dooshita-n daroo. I'm supposed to get a phone call (i.e. he/she is supposed to call me) .... 1 wonder what happened.

41

GA-NA(GA-NAA) ti- td: Cii'- td:®) Combination particle

A combination of the particles "ga 1;<" and "na(a) Ij: (;1;)." Expresses wishful thinking, which is rather unlikely to happen in reality.

English approximation: "I hope ... , though .... "

~~ J. t!. <:11.. @;

A) f,fu l;<iIt ~ :±l L t~o ;I; L t: IJ) 1::°7:::.. .:; 7 Ii \ \ \ \ t? ~ ~ t: I::: \ \ \ \

II;'~'(I;<~';I;) 10

Ame ga furi-dashita. Ashita no pikunikku wa ii otenki da to adj!ll ga na(ga naa) I.

It has started to rain. I hope it's going to be a nice day for the

picnic tomorrow, though.

if'o>t!l; ~A. h !.l ., J3L

B) ~IJ) 1 t1!t*li'i[~~I;'lt"(.: ~'I;''?t~o -s a IH'lt"( < ~ t:!~ 1

11;'1j: (I;<~';I;) 10

Kinoo mo kanojo wa denwa 0 kakete konakatta. Kyoo wa kakete kuru to v. omou I ga na(ga naa) I.

She didn't call again yesterday. I think she will call today, though.

GATERA tJ'I. L b

Indicates that while one action is being carried out, another related action is also carried out; much like "killing two birds with one stone."

English approximation: "while doing ... , on the way, do ... "

.:C"t fP?':-} 8< ~ 1J' to) ~\

A) -f1#;~*t(1:i!~~, j{\\~b;I:it'?"(.: J: 10

Kodomo 0 gakkoo ni v. okuri I gatera I, kaimono ni itte-koyoo. While I'm out taking the kids to school, I'll go shopping (on the

42

way).

-c&;. :l~l ~ f:l:1! J:

B) I;*I:I;~IJ L~, ;j',5tX::S-h-,G1)'j t:,1:~-?-C ~t~o

Otera ni v.omairi-shi Igateral, ojisan no uchi ni yotte-kita. While I was out worshiping at the temple, I went to visit my uncle

(on the way).

HODO Ia:t:'

1. After a quantity, indicates that the amount is an approximation.

Interchangeable with the particle "kurai(gurai) < ~ \ \ ( <. ~ \ v)." (See p.79) English approximation: "about" "approximately"

t, ~I: ~l'?L. ... ?tI.A..~ "l" ! IJ

A) .; G1)1±$1.±.Ji> /::: - iI! M~ .Ji>.nl.ftl:l *_tI.J< IJ l To

Kono shigato wa ate n. is-shuukan I hodo I are ba dekiagari-

masu.

This job will be done in about a week.

\1-" fJ' If?~ t,'''?~T

B) .Ji> /:::-7] J1 ~-C·l:f;1<.hl:~:::'o

Ato n. ik-ka-getsu I hade I de natsu-yasumi ni naru. It'll be summer vacation in about a month.

2. Takes a specific situation and evaluates its extent.

English approximation: "to the extent that ... "

Kare wa, kanojo ni furarete, mite-iru no ga adj.kinodoku na I hodo I shogete-iru.

She broke up with him, and he's depressed to the extent that just seeing him makes you feel bad (for him).

43

Watashi wa konkuuru ni yuushoo-shite, narnida ga v deru Ihodol ureshikatta.

Winning the competition, I was so happy I cried.

3. Followed by a negation, establishes a standard for comparison. English approximation: "(not) as much/little as ... "

.:tt.. ?~ ~I).II} ,l;,l;

A) 1-Jt.c1l>Wf.fJI;1, \''?t~f.fJ1.i<7 < ~\'o

Kotoshi no tsuyu wa, n. itsurno I hodo I arne ga ooku-nai. During this year's rainy season, there hasn't been as much rain as usual.

t.t?~'t ~i e,i;

B) l:.1*..z.~*t:,i! L \, t a: 1;1 >:.'\ '0

n. Natsu-yasumi I hodo I machi-dooshii mono wa nai.

There's nothing that (I) look forward to more than summer vaca-

tion.

4. Often in the patterns " ... suru hodo ~-t ~ II ~." and " ... ba ... hodo

~1;t'~II ~', "shows that as one thing increases, the other increases as well.

English approximation: "the more ... , the more .... "

tt.'{'L.",,) ~l!j.-}1"

A) ~A,"'c-t, #iIt~-tnl;t'-t~~..t.+I:~~o

Na-n demo, renshuu sure ba v. suru I hodo I joozu ni naru. With everything, the more (you) practice, the better (you) will get.

':? V,(" J,o J,o ~ tJ> "t:.

B) 1t~ oj £1;1, t5"'tnl;t't5"\'~lalii@:I.i:j;, ~o

Kottoohin wa, furukere ba adj.furui Ihodol kachi ga aru. As for antiques, the older it is, the more value it has.

44

HOKA 1a:1J'

Followed by a negative, it serves to exclude all possibilities other than the

one mentioned.

English approximation: The implication is "nothing except for ... "; the meaning is similar to "only." Interchangeable with

"shika L I)'." (See p.182)

A) .t G1)Aiil.;t, t -7 " .: j; -C0\ \"? -c L j; "? -c \ \ -r 1;1, ~~T':' @Il1±

fJ·t:_

~1.1<~\\o

Ano hito-tachi wa, moo soko made itte-shimatte ite wa, v. rikon-su ru I hoka I sh ikata ga nai.

For those people, since they've already gone that far, there's

nothing left to do but to get a divorce.

Kon-na-ni hidoi ame de wa, kyoo no shiai wa v. chuushi-suru I hoka I nai ne.

Since it's raining so heavily, we can do nothing but cancel today's

match.

Used mostly in men's language. Not translatable.

1. At the end of a sentence, serves to emphasize it.

1£< r.-:l

A) "G1)Btt:,~, -tlG1)t~~o

Sono omocha, boku no c. dam.

45

That toy is mine!

B) .hLt~~~"?t~.hBo

Washi mo toshi 0 totta p. waIT]. (Oh.) I've grown old (sigh)!

C) \ \1.J'li~"t~I.J'B?

Ika wa tabeta p. kaIT]? Did you eat the squid?

2. Reinforces the interrogative .

.:A..I!A. ~

A) 1-1Jt<-~","/",<,Gt:I:\\I.J'~?

Konban maajan yara-nai p. kaIT]? Why don't we play mahjong tonight?

B) ~T d,. GkLt:I:\ \I.J'B ?

Ima sugu korare-nai p. kaIT]? Can't you come right now?

KA tJ,

1. Expresses uncertainty of the topic it marks.

English approximation: "if" "whether"

I: 11 A.. \> ~;t~t:.

A) S*t:{t< G1)li, \\"?t:t:I:;:,~~< .h1.J'G~'\\o

Nihon ni iku no wa, itsu ni v. naru [§J mattaku wakara-nai.

I have no idea when I'll be going to Japan. (literally: As for going to Japan, when it will be, I have no idea.)

46

Kono kawa wa, mita dake de wa, umi nan c. da ~ kawa nan c. da ~ wakara-nai kurai ookii ne.

This river is so big, you can't tell if it's an ocean or a river just by

looking (at it). (literally: As for this river, just by looking (at it),

whether it's an ocean or a river, one can't tell-that's the extent of

its size, isn't it?)

2. Expresses a conjecture with an implied sense of doubt.

English approximation: "perhaps because of ... "

t!.".", .fl:: I.,fJ> ~8"?

A) t -7 '::h.,>j:~MI.I'o :?H'·8Jl;:,\\-1t\\~~,\Y111.1'~'I.I'-?t~o

Moo kon-na jikan ka. Soto ga akarui n. see ~ ki ga tsukanakatta.

It's so late already. Maybe it's because it's light outside, I hadn't noticed.

q) ~ It ~ ,,1:.;1: ~'I'!

B) 11>-7"('±ik.hT~tJ)~, "N!l(Hi'lI.l<~\\o

Yuube wa nomi-sugita p. no ~, kesa wa atama ga itai. Perhaps I had too much to drink last night; this morning I have a headache.

3. In the pattern " ... ka ka ~I.I'~I.I,," lists a number of choices.

English approximation: " or ... "

h~ G]vt!tJ ~ l.t~ 8

A) ::6'C')~ tr:C')~, .!f- O~n-C.L

Migi n. no ~ hidari n. no ~, hayaku kimete yo.

The one on the right or the one on the left? Make up your mind quickly!

B) {f < C') [_B{fl.l' >j: \ \ C') [_B, r: -? ts >j: C') ?

Iku p. no ~ ika-nai p. no ~, docchi na no?

47

Are you going or not going, which is it?

4. In the pattern " ... ka ... ~I;'~," gives an approximate number.

English approximation: "(number) or (number)"

I.: I! r::T~A,. I! 8h ~A. hoT

A) .::.lt~;.lt~C')1 ~t:~U;Lt:lt~·. W1O:;Yt~-;d:o

n. Nido [§J sando kimi no uchi ni denwa-shita kedo, rusu datta. I called you at home two or three times, but no one answered.

t.:.1";. 1J.~ fJ> G'lJ:-? fJ' 1),1:;:''' "l"

B) bt:Li!li;'8~1198~1tt:l:tiI;·IHTo

Watashi-tachi wa n. mikka [§J yokka ryokoo ni dekake-masu. We're going on a trip for three or four days.

VI:: r-:-:l~t.:

C) -CC')~~/T-. --:;>~'::'-:;>bt:U:t~J: 1t:\\0

So no kyandee, n. hitotsu [§J futatsu watashi ni mo choodai. Give me one or two of those candies, too.

5. Placed at the end of a sentence.

I) Makes the sentence into an interrogative or a rhetorical question. Not

translatable.

A) ~ C') 1 Ii ~'1 L "C:JI~:.;j: 1;. -? t: C') -CoT B ?

Kinoo wa dooshite konakatta no c. desu [§J? Why didn't you come yesterday?

<itA,..f') ~ -"fJ't1.l') ~

B) ~~ ~ ~ It.:, C') Ii 1- "T1l~;j: C') t: 7, 1 ~ ?

Sensoo 0 sakeru no wa fukanoo na no c. dareD [§J? Is it impossible to avoid war?

.. ~

C) ~o~.:, ti -cO \ \ .:, -? L ~ \ \ j; T ~ ?

Dochira-sama de v. irasshai-masu [§J? May I ask who this is?

2) Indicates a confirmation. Not translatable.

48

~ I:e

A) .h,;'-?t:~o t1-=-ltI:::T~;(_,t:'\"~\\J:o

v. Wakatta [§J. Moo nido to suru-n ja nai yo. Do you understand? Don't ever do this again.

IIA.t') r:-l

B) *,!;1lt:J':>Lt:*-c UdT~?

Hontoo ni ash ita v. kite-kure-masu [§J?

Are you really going to come (on my behalf) tomorrow?

3) Rhetorical question. Not translatable.

A) 1:::°1 L-C:C;(_'~':I:::,;<iit:~kL~t:'J,18o

Dooshite son-na koto ga shinji-rareru c. dareD [§J. How can (I) believe something like that?

~')~') ~

B) .:;(_, ~ .; I::: t: ~ ~ I:::Ll, t:'kL,;'mf~ L t:t:' J, 1 ~o

Kon-na koto ni naru to wa, dare ga soozoo-shita c. dareD [§J. Who would have imagined that this would happen? (literally: As for this happening, who would have imagined?)

./.t.&tJ> at t:.... ~

C) .:;(_,~.«to/t:A,;<tQ.fJ-C < ~.: I:::,;<~J, 1 ~o

Kon-na yonaka ni hito ga tazunete kuru koto ga v. aroo [§J. Is it possible that someone has come to visit at such a late hour? 4) Expresses a rebuttal or objection to a previous sentence. Not translata-

ble.

A) :c;(_, ~ .; I::: -? -r ~ ~;(_, -CO L J: 1 80 Son-na koto-tte aru-n c. deshoo [§J. Can something like that really happen?

IIA,.t-} t.:\,t:j.?J: r:-l

B) *,!;1l t::k j;:f;_ -Co L J: 1 ~o

Hontoo ni daijoobu c. deshoo [§J. Is it really going to be all right?

49

5) Adds a critical, scolding tone. Not translatable.

1!tJ>J.., 1J.f T.H:. ~

A) .::;(_,~~r.H-c·~;(_,"e<;}"IJ{~~lT~o

Kon-na jikan made asonde-kuru hito ga v. ari-masu ~. You're out playing so late! (literally: "Is there anyone who'd stay out playing until this hour? ")

f!~ -r fN~ t! hT ~

B) ~;(_,~I:*li;(_,t~c1)I:, .:: c1)-t-#L\iliTc1) ~,"5.nt~c1)~o

An-na ni tanonda no ni, kono tegami dasu no 0 wasureta p. no ~. I asked you so many times, and still you forgot to mail this letter! 6) Often in the pattern " ... de wa/ia nai ka ~-C'li~\\IJ'/L'I"~\\IJ',"

asks a rhetorical question for emphasis.

English approximation: "wasn't it so that ... "

1Jf1' fJ>1.. r:"l

A) sJl; \ \ 'j t:, I: IJ~ '? -c t? \ \ -CO ~ \ \ '? t~ -C'li ~ \ \ ~ 0

Akarui uchi ni kaette oide to itta de wa v. nai ~.

Didn't I tell you to come home while it was still light outside?

B) ~1J,t~t:" :'c1)'jI;!:-c':.t~L'I"~\\Bo Sakadachi, kinoo wa dekita ja v. nai ~. Weren't you able to do a handstand yesterday?

7) Makes a casual suggestion.

English approximation: "why don't we ... " .. do you want to ... " .. let's ... "

wi. ~\'?It~\ ~

A) IJ~ ~ 1:-:tf'f'J, 'j ~o

Kaeri ni ippai v. yaroo ~.

Do you want to have a drink on our way home?

~11;.e*:1.., ~

B) t 'j -J.t:.otIJ'6» -c )',.j: 'j L 'I" ~ \ \ ~o

Moo ichido tashikamete miyoo ja v. nai ~. Why don't we make sure one more time?

50

8) Often in a " ... tara doo ka ~t~ ~ r: 'j I)''' pattern, makes a roundabout,

softened command.

English approximation: "why don't you do ... "

A) ~ A, t:I: t: if :. t: \ \ G1) t:I: ~, -it -::> -c s; t~ ~ r: 'j [B 0 Son-na ni iki-tai no nara, itte-mitara adv.doo ~. If you want to go that badly, why don't you go?

Hitori de shinpai-shite-iru vorl, iron-na hito ni kiite-mitara adv. doo ~.

Instead of worrying all by yourself, why don't you ask lots of people (for advice)?

9) As a sort of self-utterance, often with a reminiscent or some emotional overtone. Not translatable.

~ ~?~< ~

A) ~'j~o ~'j~'j-g.~a.Lt~~o J:<"\"-::>t~t:l:o

adv.SOO ~. Tootoo v. gookaku-shita ~. Yoku yatta na. Really, (you) finally passed (the test). (You) did well.

fJ>'f~ lilI-5tl1' ~t

B) t:I:~A,t::., J.;~o 1iUJ1[I.I'~}~ht~o

Naan da, n. kage ~. Yuuree ka to omotta. Oh, it's only a shadow. I thought it was a ghost.

KA-I fj'-l' Combination particle

A combination of the particles "ka ,;," and "i \ I." Placed at the end of a

sentence to indicate that it is an interrogative, or to express that it opposes the statement that was just previously made by another party.

51

Emphatic. Not translatable.

A) -'C'J'\", 'j-'Ct.:'\"':I:\\~?

Sorya, uso ja v. nai I ka i I? Isn't that a lie?

"t''''8 ~.v, J, ~

B) '::.4.,':1:\\\\7Z~I:, ifl':l:.4.,l.dt::, t.4.,~o

Kon-na ii tenki ni, arne nan ka furu n. mon I ka i I. When it's this nice out, there's no way it's going to rain.

fJ>~It!.'" LA.. ~

C) U~~? -'C .4., ':I: t .4.,1t r ::, ~o

Kaidan? Son-na mon v. shinjiru I ka i I.

Ghost stories? I'd never believe in something like that!

KA-NA(KA-NAA) ts- tcJ: (fj'- tcJ:®) Combination particle

A combination of the particles "ka I)''' and "na ':1:" or "natnaa) ':I: (':I:

~)."

1. Casually expresses doubt, with a very light exclamatory tone. English approximation: "(I) wonder ... ?"

t!~lfJt< 1:"'., I.., e: t L.

A) *'¥' A.~, ~Jf..:: Hl:'i j: < \ \ < 11.1'':1: (I.I-':I:~) 10

Daigaku nyuushi, kotoshi koso wa v. umaku-iku I ka na(ka naa) I.

I wonder if maybe college entrance examinations will finally go

well this year?

VI:: I') ~

B) /:::''j V(-A-c·tl:JI.I-'tt:~II.I-':I:(I.I-':I:~)lo

Dooshite hitori de dekaketa p. no I ka na(ka naa) I. I wonder why (he/she) went out alone?

52

2. Used in making a suggestion to oneself.

English approximation: "(I) think/(I) will do ... "

A) ::1-l::--C-b\\.fLl: 'j Ih'/~:(h'~J':»lo Koohii demo v. ireyoo I ka na(ka naa) I. I think I'm going to make some coffee ...

B) .p, .p, ;~7, 'j Ih'~'lo

Soro-soro v. kaeroo I ka na I.

I think I'm going to go home soon.

3. In the pattern " ... nai kana ~~\\h'~'," indicates wishful thinking.

English approximation: "I wish (it) would ... "

Ii:~ li~

A) .!f-< ~1:~t,~\\lh'~(h'~'J':»ro

Hayaku haru ni v. nara-nai I ka na(ka naa) I. I wish spring would come soon.

t l' 1:l:Jf> t.."'..,;;.l1' tI'i.

B) toX:<A.-.!f-< ill 5tth,t,~~-::>-c.:~\\lh'~(h'~J':»lo

Otoosan hayaku shucchoo kara kaette I ka na(ka naa) I·

ko-nai

I wish Dad would come home soon from his business trip.

KARA tJ'b

FUNDAMENTALS OF "KARA iJ>~"

In general, you can understand the function of "kara 1.1' t, " by identifying the part of speech of the word immediately preceding it. When "kara 1.1' t," is placed after a noun or a nominal it usually means "from," whereas after an adjective or a verb and a copula, "kara 1.1' t," usually indicates reason or

53

cause.

1. Placed after a noun or a nominal.

1) After a pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a person's name or social

position, indicates that an action or a deed is directed from that person.

English approximation: "from"

li~l., ~"'~~\~!:

A) :ht~LI'±.iC~~H·;t;:£~I'>1'l.:.;t Lt~o

Watashi wa sono hanashi 0 n. sensee Ikaral kiki-mashita.

I heard that story from my teacher.

Boku wa n. kanojo I kara I raburetaa 0 moratta.

-"'. ~

-.C! .:J:l.

1((m" "l a

.II ~ )

10"

I received a love letter from her.

11'{' ~fJ'

C) .iC ~* t t=n~Ht ~ ;t L t:/r?

Sono hon 0 n. dare I kara I kari-mashita ka? From whom did you borrow the book?

~"'~~'~ 11

D) :ht~ L I,±;t;:£~~o) Gn""C 1 n L?'-:,f~o

Watashi wa n. sensee I kara I homerarete ureshikatta. I was happy that my teacher gave me a compliment.

~ lif.t

E) S ~:t~~ t'1 n;~L < C!: \ '0

n. Anata I kara I doozo ohanashi kudasai.

54

Please, if you could start talking first. (literally; (Starting) with you, please tell us your story.)

li~ t:J~~e<'.l?

F) :ht: L t.!f. < JfJl.b1!kir. L t:\ '1v'C'i"o

Watashi mo hayaku n ~ I kara I dokuritsu shi-tai-n desu.

I, too, would like to become independent from my parents soon.

2) Placed after a noun, showing a place/space, indicates that something starts/ started at that place.

English approximation: "from" "through" "out of" "in"

flolt ~<~il f)'~ c e

A) lltl.±;fT·;; ~ ~ J!!.~~~~ ~ ttl L t:o

Kare wa n. poketto I kara I kuruma no kagi o tori-dashita.

He took his car keys out of his pocket.

e'-!>It? ile~li\l

B) )Jt#-I'±~~A·:d: G L \'0

Doroboo wa n. mado I kara I haitta rashii. It looks like the robber got into the house through the window .

. ~ "

C) *~ ~ Iv':' I;:;lt:> 'C ::. tz;

n. Ki I kara I ringo ga ochite kita. An apple fell from the tree.

t:\>J:.? VtltL.~o)lt

D) :f.\.ml'±*~~~;J:i"o

Taiyoo wa n. higashi I kara I nobori-masu. The sun rises in the east.

55

E) *Tlv~7iTlh''''li±~h:i;{_.t Lt~o

Hoteru no n. okujoo I kara I Fujisan ga mie-mashita.

I saw Mt. Fuji from the roof top ..-;fo/ ~---:::

"0

of the hotel. ~ g"~ [)

F)

101"3 t} .:

AT/, F7"7Alh'",178h::_" L~h.,""("\\~o

n. Sutendogurasu I kara I yuuhi ga sashi-konde-iru .•

The rays of the setting sun are shining through /

/

the stained glass. /

/ I " I

;;L.!:ll'{'~l.

G) b t~ Lli " ~ 1;"~ ~ 21'l~.:.i.J 1~.t L t~ 0

Watashi wa sono chishiki 0 n. hon I kara I e-mashita.

I obtained that knowledge from a book.

3) After a time word, indicates that something begins/began at that

moment.

English approximation: "from" "at" "since"

A) ;3 *i~~¥i"*?li, ~ ft.~1 1.1' '" I~g.t ~ .t To

Nihon-go no jugyoo wa, asa n. ku-ji I kara I hajimari-masu.

The Japanese language class begins at nine

~E!)

-?~>

o'clock in the morning.

56

Mlt.. ... 1~ t. fJ>"C? b '"

B) *il!~~-nH<i~j:_tn:~'.;o

n. Raishuu I kara I chikatetsu ga ne-age ni naru, From next week, the subway fare will go up.

\1~t1 J:~~ tI.

C) .b t: LI.±, ott L < -r , ,:. ~ "i ~.Jt ~ -r -::> z 1i --C \ \ .t -tt ,C

Watashi wa, isogashikute, phkinoo no yoru I kara I zutto nete i-masen.

I've been so busy that I haven't slept at all since last night.

t:.~lft:. trfJ>t..~ ~ 11A. -o tz ~J:1t:

D) -t7Ii, 1f~8>.I.q:i~.b-::>--C\\.;1t*--C--to

Tanabata wa n. mukashi I kara I nihon ni tsutawatte-iru gyooji desu.

The Tanabata festival is a traditional event observed since olden

times in Japan.

1::ll!"!:~ l::t:I..t.

E) .bt~Lli, 8>.fq:*--C~t"i.::.Jt.t:t;t~.t-to

Watashi wa, nihon ni g. kite I kara I moo ni-nen ni nari-masu. Two years have already passed since I came to Japan.

~ J,. >:I: ~~b'{'

F) *.ll.Xh<t: < t;t -::> --C ~li.Jt.t~ t:,.t L t~o

Sofu ga g. nakunatte I kara I go-nen tach i-mash ita . It's been five years since my grandfather passed away.

4) In the pattern" ... kara ... made ~ h' .:, ~.t --C'," shows a range/span of

space or time.

English approximation: "from/to" "between"

.l:1;;,t.{. ~ ~P~1..t.~\' c l!tt:.t.

A) ':::~i\7HftlIJt:li, .::..iit~\!9.iit.t--C·~-tl~;!h'\\.t-to

Kono yoochien ni wa, n. ni-sai I kara I yon-sai made no kodomotachi ga i-masu.

57

There are children between the ages of two and four at this

kindergarten.

~"'t:~1 C 1J~\t!.!:

B) ;'~~1!S~;J: "{"~Mt:*-c < t~~\\o

n. San-ji I kara I yo-ji made no aida ni kite kudasai. Please come over between three and four o'clock.

@: 1: Th~Th .I:

C) :ht: Lt.±, "~~E:;J: ~~~I\'H -c·tV;.;): L t:o

Watashi wa, sono kiji 0 n. sumi I kara I sumi made yomi-mashita. I've read the article from the beginning to the end. (literally: from

one corner to the other)

D) I> A r 7' /' z \ \ .." -c t., 1::' /' II)' G I.=. ~ ;J: -C. b ~ ;J: 1" 0 Resutoran to itte mo. n.2!!! I kara I kiri made ari-masu.

When it comes to restaurants, there's a wide range of them.

(literally: from the first to the last)

1tI"3t...l< k. ~t:I J:C""'"

E) 7~~~,",-c~1t~;J:"{"t:1!S~raH)~o

Yuushoku 0 g. tabete I kara I neru made ni yo-jikan aru. After dinner, I'll have four hours before I go to bed.

5) In the pattern " ... kara ... e ~/)'G~"," the particle "kara IrG" is

placed between repeated words, to indicate that the same action occurs

one after another in succession.

English approximation: "one after another"

li(l: rJ ?~E;J?~ ., ~

A) :fr,;k.IJ', ;x IJ'G ;x"t::tF.>..tlgtLt:o : •••.. ~.;: •• ~~ .. : .. : .•. ):~:

Hanabi ga, ntsugi I kara I tsugi e to uchi- ::~~\~~: I il·II' II/I ;~Q(f~

agerareta. i I'll

Fireworks were shot up into the sky one after

another. (literally: from next to the next)

58

lHHth ?~r:-=-::-r;)!" ~ J:.

B) :kfrt I; " ;x~;x"t:~'I'L~-It'C~t~o

Oo-nami ga n. tsugi I kara I tsugi e to oshi-yosete kita. One after another, great waves came rolling in.

t:1; V-':"3!: t..'~t..il 1::

C) bt~ Li!I.±fflt1tf,\t'C'&l;~&l;"t:ffltA"t.:'o

Watashi-tachi wa hikooki de n. shima I kara I shima e to tonda. We flew by plane from one island to another.

6) Indicates the composition of something. Interchangeable with the

particle "de 'C'."

English approximation: "from" "of" "out of"

A) Jj~;I.±~;~II;'~ITt~n:!To

Hamono wa n. kootetsu I kara I tsukurare-masu. Cutlery is made of steel.

B) '~/I'±'J,i'f,JII;'~ ITt ~:! To

Pan wa n. komugi-ko I kara I tsukuri-masu. (We) make bread out of flour.

59

Il'{' tJ>h~

C) ;$.Ij:#<\~ 'C'':' 'C \'.t To

Hon wa n. kami I kara I dekite i-masu. Books are made of paper.

D)

~ 11..t.,1:., at:J L.i~

8 ;$.1j:\!9'?<1);k':' \ '~~ ~ -::> 'C \'.t To A

Nihon. wa yottsu no ookii n shima Ikar~al f'v.J0 natte I-masu.

Japan consists of four big islands. .Q c::J

E)

(I: It~'~~l It?t!: L."'?I-:.?~ >:I: k

'::'<1)OO<1)kh~Ij:, 'jO~I:J:';l!X. A~n'<.~ir.-::>'C\'';o

Kono kuni no keezai wa, booeki ni yoru n. shuunyuu I kara I nari-tatte-iru.

The economy of this country is based on its trade income. 7) Placed after a noun, indicates an approximate amount/number.

English approximation: "as many as" "as much as" "no less than"

V .. <t':\l~ t:JtUPk l',tf;,

A) i3 ~ ~ <1);k~ ~ 7 .:; 7 h'·3F,h" 'C'\' .; 0

n. Hyaku-dai I kara I no oogata torakku ga narande-iru. More than one hundred big trucks are lined up.

~..t.I.:..t.~ tJ>",::."3 I! .. < il~ll.:;; al:~

B) +A~<1)ft7t t;h:, 41i:8'::''::' f'tHl,';o

n. Sen-nin I kara I no kankoo-kyaku ga, mainichi koko 0 otozure-

ru.

As many as one thousand tourists visit this place every day. 2. Placed after an abstract noun, an adjective or a verb.

I) Indicates a cause or a reason for an action/attitude that is described in the predicate clause. This inverted structure makes the sentence

60

emphatic.

English approximation: "as" "so" "since" "due to" "for" "because" "con-

sidering" "seeing"

<!-fp~ ~T ~ 'b>

A) t?,\{!,I.1<*"}'·:d~~t~ < :_.. ,C~:\ \;t L t~o

Osakana ga adj.yasukatta 1 kara 1 takusan kai-mashita.

Because I found the fish inexpensive, I

bought lots of them.

i!J:? "CA.! ~ ~<; :l..t.fN'

B) 1'81'±\ \\ \t?~~t.:'~, ~1.±;IM#lI:t;t ~ t.:' J, 10

Kyoo wa ii otenki c. da 1 kara I. sakura wa mankai ni naru daroo.

Since the weather is very nice today, cherry

»

,

-

blossoms will probably be in full bloom.

I!t, ~ il'?t:.~\ t::.

C) :ht~ L 1'±7'O'y::J I) I.±~\\t.:'~, ~Jttl:~-..:t;t\\o

Watashi wa burokkori wa kirai c. da 1 kara I. zettai ni tabe-nai. Because I don't like broccoli, I never eat it.

£:; li.{. ~ J:J:?"f' ~ ~\'?t..J,:"ltA,t.l~v-tA,I!J:"

D) 8*~I.1<..t.-tI:t;t~t~\\~, -j:_~!1it$fa~L;t-to

Nihon-go ga joozu ni v, nari-tai Ikaral. isshoo-kenmee benkyoo-shi-masu.

Since I want to be good at Japanese, I'll work hard.

8110 tt;t.!t; "t"!: ~

E) ~1:;i;:i!I.1<l:I:ul'.t;t\\<1)I'±, 1t:,1:1.r1.1'~\\~~t.:'.L

Kimi ni tomodachi ga deki-nai no wa, uchi ni bakari v, iru 1 kara 1 da yo.

The reason why you can't make friends is that you stay home most

of the time.

61

Boku ga nori-sugoshita no wa, kimi ga v. oshiete-kure-nakatta I kara I da zoo

The reason why missed my stop was that you didn't tell me (where to get off).

fJ,tL ?il '!'b~ ...(.,8.1:

G) lit t.± , .f:. z ~ ;;r;;fo~, :5'J~ L tz;

Kare wa tsuma to no n.fuwa I kara I, bekkyo-shita.

Due to the fact that he didn't get along with his wife, they separat-

ed.

f).1t. .:.1.:.., ~~l'it~~ t..J.:?fJt<8A.

H) IltU:, jWjtX~Ji,;(Jl~, !!it <¥:it f" t G oJ .:: t: t: t:J: -:d:o

Kare wa, kookoo no nseeseki I kara I, shoogakukin 0 morau koto ni natta.

Because of his (excellent) grades in high school, he is to be granted a scholarship.

2) Placed after an abstract noun, indicates one's judgment/viewpoint.

English approximation: "from a viewpoint of" "judging from" "by"

"according to"

~~h t..~t '/pl.,t:.t."

A) ;l?t:J:t~mtk.~JthL;C .:: ~1±*tH."'ijj!.-tL.t oJ 0

Anata no n. me I kara I mire ba, kono shigoto wa kantan deshoo. From your viewpoint, this task may seem to be easy.

"C f)th ~~lJ:"~jj:..t.t.!A. flotL ""';;.1:1 l..,l.,t..A.

B) .; ~·H~m''l'';;:~!f'Jil'JT-r.; z , Iltt'±~*t:!i- i1!-r'; G L \ '0

Kono tegami no n. naiyoo I kara I handan-suru to, kare wa kachoo ni shooshin suru rashii.

Judging from the contents of this letter, it seems that he will be promoted to manager. (literally: section chief)

62

~l fJf(-C!ltJ... "" ~ il·tt. ItJ...~ ... -} L..t.? '-'t.:~,

C) I§.*fl'g JUtl!.~.~i_ft .nl.!, llt<1llift 11: I.± / --'"'Iv"- t: t 1&1" ~ 0

Igaku-teki n. kenchi I kara I sure ba, kare no kenkyuu wa nooberu-shoo ni mo atai suru.

From a medical point of view, his research is worth the Nobel Prize.

3) Placed after an abstract noun of emotion, indicates that such an emotion results in the action/state described in the predicate clause.

English approximation: "from" "out of" "due to"

A) ht~ i u 1 .n l :< ~~W ll.i'·":,f~o Watashi wa nureshisa I kara I tobi-agatta. I jumped for joy.

11< (e''3(J... ~, " ~

B) ~I'±, I.ij!~1::t,J:-?1::lt~"t\\-@--\\~ttA.,I.i'l-Cll-?t~o

Boku wa, kudoo-kun to chotto shita n. ii-ai I kara I kenka-shite shimatta.

I ended up having a fight with Kudo over something that arose out

of a minor argument.

iPtL ~~t:J.dJ'.{,~t;t...t.<

C) lltl'±.1£~~~'f~ lt~o

Kare wa n. sekinin-kan I kara I jishoku-shita.

He resigned from his office out of a sense of responsibility.

3. In the pattern " ... kara to itte ~I.i' i, 1:: \ \ -? -c ," introduces a restriction

or a warning.

English approximation: "even though"

A) ,I?,j,ii\\f" t i,-?t~II.i'i,I1::\\-?-C, 1i\\~~~ 1::, 1" <.~ < t:J:~

01:0

Okozukai 0 v. moratta I kara I to itte, tsukai-sugiru to, sugu 63

nakunaru yo.

Even though you've received an allowance, if you spend it too fast, it will soon be gone.

B) ¥\+~d:>I1::\\-:>-C, t~< :<,vi-:>-CI.±\\ttl1t,z,o adjYasui I kara I to itte, takusan katte wa ike-masen.

Even though they may be a bargain, don't buy too many at a time.

~ ~ tH: I)'_'~ ! It!...

C) ,ti1ttLt~1::~J,t~~1::\\-:>-C, -A.-C·;,H<1)I.±~~-c·-to

Nareta tokoro c. da I kara I to itte, hitori de aruku no wa kiken desu. Even though you are familiar with the area, it is dangerous to walk

around alone.

4. In the pattern " ... kara ni wa ~/)'':' t: U:," expresses a determination

or a resolution.

English approximation: "since" "now that"

-<J...!.l":J ~ ~'''H 1J.

A) .; tLt~lt~ ~ l t~~t:I'±, ~ -:> 1:: -g.t~ l -c Jt1t.; 'C'o

Kore dake v, benkyoo shita I kara I ni wa, kitto gookaku-shite miseru zoo

Now that I've studied this hard, I will pass the entrance exam without fail!

B) ~n1!I"{t< Ih,.:,lt:I.±, 'C ~<1)j(ttf'l < ~o.:,t:J:tttLl.r'J:':'~\\o Gaikoku e v, iku I kara I ni wa, soko no bunka 0 yoku shiranakere-ba-nara-nai.

Now that you are going to a foreign country, you must got to know its culture very well.

t!.\'t.. .. 1=1JI")t.... ~ \,.,I..,J:1 ItJ...!"H'tlth_, II

C) ~<1)4H±t:A.Ult~~t:I'±, -~~-6ltiiJl*J,'L

Kono kaisha ni v, nyuusha-shita I kara I ni wa, isshoo-kenmee

64

ganbaroo.

Now that I've been accepted by this company, I will do my best. 5. In the pattern " ... kara ni ~h' i-;, t:."

English approximation: "just by doing ... "

i).I1)\!.t. II. ~ ~~ Vt

A) 11t-9:-I'±JL~ ~t:l~ L -'C oj t;t.J.... -C'i"ho

Kanojo wa v. miru I kara I ni yasashi-soo na hito desu ne.

Just by looking at her, you can tell that she's probably a very kind

person.

i! ~ ,::,olit..:l-

B) H"LI.±B1'l < ~t:f~\\t*t~o

Sore wa v. kiku I kara I ni kowai hanashi da.

Just by listening to it, the story sends a chill up my spine.

KARA-SHITE 1J\ 5- U L Combination particle

A combination of the particles "kara h' i-;," and "shite L -C."

1. Cites one characteristic of something/someone in order to make an emphatic statement about the whole thing/person.

English approximation: "starting with ... "

A) ~ C1)"¥C1)AI.±5;-::> ~ I h' i-;, L -c I ~ J: '? ~ 'it~o

Ano otoko no hito wa n. kaotsuki I kara shite I chotto hen da. Starting with his face, he is a little strange .

• I1)C.t. • tl1)

B) 11t-9:-1.±#~tkJlh'i-;,L-cI1f\\t:<t~o

Kanojo wa n. mochimono I kara shite I zeetaku da. Starting with her possessions, she is extravagant.

2. A more emphatic form of "kara h' i-;," used in the sense of "because/

65

since"; similar to "node IT) -e."

English approximation: "consequently"

.:tt.. t..",.,t.. "il'l.: ~~lb.~ <~t:

A) -'7'-Jf-IT)l!X.~I'±-n4-C·¥,,-3II.i'~l-cl, *Jf-I'±~A,1::I.i'.~!ft:lJ:1o

Kotoshi no shuushi wa akaji c. de-aru I kara shite I, rainen wa nantoka kuroji ni shiyoo.

Our balance sheet is in the red this year; consequently, let's try to

somehow come out on top next year.

~t:. I) t,il·1;;"fJ·,t.".:.{,

B) -'C1\\11.b:_..t~II.i'~l-cl, ¥.,1T)-=-A.I'±ill:-'<ta~-t-3t~7,1o

Soo-yuu uwasa c. da I kara shite I, ana futari wa chikajika kekkon-suru daroo.

Since that sort of rumor is going around, consequently, it's likely that those two will get married soon.

KASHIRA tJ\ G b

Found in women's language.

1. Following an interrogative pronoun, poses a question.

English approximation: "(I) wonder ... "

~ ~lJ:~~t

A) t~n~, -'7'-tJLp Ii: tz t: < IT)I.±o

n. Dare I kashira I, imagoro to 0 tataku no wa.

I wonder who is knocking on my door at this hour.

t:.l. I:J ~

B) <>[1.i,t:.:.:t:ii.\\t~I.±-rt~'t1::·, t:J.'\\.bo 1::'':~o

Tashika ni koko ni oita hazu da kedo , nai wa. n. Doko I kashira I. I thought I had definitely put it here, but it's not here. I wonder where it could be?

66

C) *3-t;/i"v.o ~t:lh'L ,,10 ~?

Ookina tsutsumi ne, n. Nani Ikashiral. ~ ~

That's a big package. I wonder what it is? I ~

2. Casually softens a question or a sense of doubt addressed to oneself or

another party. Not translatable.

11J..fJ' ~

A) -:C1);$.f"}\-:otoC1), \\"?t.:-:oto~o

Kono hon 0 katta no, itsu c. datta 'I k-a-sh-i-ra-'I. When was it that I bought this book?

~, ~ t:Jlt

B) tdoL, iCh,,~-:C:1i-:oto~o 1l;;t"{\\t:J_'\\ltc:'o

Watashi, son-na koto v. itta 1 kashira I. Oboete-i-nai kedo. Did I say something like that? I don't remember it.

3. Softens an interrogative sentence. Not translatable .

.:",e ~

A) l'Jl:I'±\\"?\\"-:oL-\"\\.ii"~o

Kondo wa itsu v. irasshai-masu 'I k-a-s-hi-ra-'I· When will (you) be coming by again?

!J;?h1t IJ ~

B) 1'8J6I'±Ml\\"{\\~~0

Kyoo mise wa v. aite-iru 'I k-a-s-hi-ra-'I· I wonder, is the store open today?

4. Makes a casual suggestion to oneself or another party.

':.{,I!J..;t~lfJt J,.l ~

A) 1'1JJt~@Jt:n·-: -j ~o

Konban eega ni v. ikoo 'I k-a-s-hi-ra-'I· Should I go to the movies tonight?

English approximation: "should (I/we) do ... "

67

fJ'fJ'i.~

B) 7-~~A-::>-O~7,'i~o

Keeki 0 katte v. kaeroo I kashira I· Should I buy a cake on the way home?

5. Following a negation:

I) Indicates wishful thinking or softens a statement asking someone for a

favor.

English approximation: "I wish ... " "could (you) do ... "

l;t~ ~")fJ'<'?117 c ~

A) .!f. < ,*ta.i!~oh<*t:J.'\ \~o

Hayaku gookaku-tsuuchi ga v. ko-nai I kashira I, I wish the acceptance letter would arrive soon.

~'i! ~

B) ~-t <-*-c < n~\\~o

Irna sugu v. kite kure-nai '-1 k-a-s-hi-ra-'I·

Could you come right away?

2) Expresses concern over an uncertain or potentially negative situation.

English approximation: "I wonder ... "

uil"l" 1:.11: !t..4' it IJ ~

A) ~tllh'lt-c t, -t-atc?)Ji..I:M 1:'* 'i ~o

Ima dekake te rno, juu-ji no kisha ni v. mani-au I kashira I.

Even if you were to leave now, I wonder if you could make it in

time to catch the ten o'clock train .

.. ~ ~

B) ?cc?)7-.-''/7-7-., :i"-t~t:J.'\\~o

Sono suutsu-keesu, v. omo-sugi-nai j kashira I. I wonder if that suitcase isn't too heavy.

68

KE Ij

Colloquial. Usually placed at the end of the sentence after the copula "da

t~," which is the informal form of "desu -C'T," to form patterns such as

"dakke t~ -::> It" and "dattakke t~ -::> t: -::> It."

1. Used in reminiscing about a past event.

English approximation: "((I) remember)"

i7~' ! IJ)ll r;;l

A) >j':.'\\I:::=-, l<*!t~~lt~t<1)(t,(,)t~-::>~o

Chiisai toki, yoku ki-nobori 0 shita mono (mo-n) c. da-k~. When (I) was little, (I) used to climb trees all the time, (I remember).

to~., i,:;l

B) ~ 1 \ \ ;( I.f, ~,(, t:J.. PJf"n -::> t: -::> ~ h;( 0

Soo ie ba, son-na tokoro e v. itta-k~ nee.

That's right, we did go somewhere like that, (I remember) (didn't we).

2. In an interrogative, actively solicits an answer from the party add res-

sed.

English approximation: "when is/was it ... ?" "what is/was it ... ?" etc.

I,';l !h s.{,fJ1'<tI>~\ ~1

A) \\-::><1)': I:::t~-::>t~-::>~, ~1:::%~%t:n-::>t~<1)lio

Itsu no koto c. datta-k~, kimi to ongak-kai ni itt a no wa. When was it now, that I went with you to the concert?

vt 't'o,{, t» !fA,..:!'1 ~"'II.'" [""';'7l

m ~<1)A<1)I:::':~<1) ••• ~,M.~-::>~o

Ano hito no tokoro no denwa-bangoo, nan-ban c. da-k~. That person's phone number, what is it now?

69

KEREDOMO (KEREDO, KEDO, KEDOMO) litLc'=t, (litLc', lic', lic'=t,)

Colloquial forms: "keredo tt n -C:," "kedo tt -C:," and "kedomo It~' t."

1. A conjunctive particle.

I) After one statement, functions as an adversative conjunction leading into the next clause/phrase.

English approximation: "even though" "but"

9~i~ ~< ~ *

A) .; C1);f.tlJ.I.±}; ~ \ L ~ \1 tt net I, 1'F'; C1) I:·H.9/.i'l.i'I./''; 0

Kono rvoori wa adj.oishii 1 keredomo I, tsukuru no ni tema ga kakaru.

Even though this dish is delicious, it's a hassle to make.

c 11. .:.{, ~ ~ ~l

B) t=, J: ~ ~;hI1.~tc:1 IHIXt I, ~1ZC1)'\-T -( -I:I.±.: n f- ""Of.:

Chotto jimi c. da 1 keredomo I, kon-va no paatii ni wa kore 0 kite ikoo.

Even though it's a bit subdued, I'll wear this to the party tonight.

2) Following an apologetic remark, connects it to the main point that

follows.

English approximation: "though" "but"

A) ':n, IIA,C1)~L "e-tlttn~·t I, ~ L1~-c < tc:~~\o

Kore, hon no sukoshi c. desu 1 keredomo I, meshi-agatte kudasai.

Though there's only a little bit here, please have it (to eat).

C?1!/.., il·~lL.. ~

B) -;.t~-c·-tlttn~·tl, ~;f±f-~t~~-tt-c~\tdC:':'.i-to

Totsuzen c. desu 1 keredomo I, kaisha 0 varnesasete itada-

70

kimasu.

I know it's sudden, but I wish to quit the company.

3) Simply connects two unrelated statements.

English approximation: (like a comma)

~li.l ~.!:::

A) :kh<tl;t "(\\-3ltttLl:::'t I, t~tLh'?H:\\-3A.,t.:"\"~\\?

Inu ga v. hoete-iru I keredomo I, dare ka soto ni iru-n ja nai? The dog's barking, isn't there someone out there?

17 ~f") ~tr ~ ~i~l::" i\ll.:;t;. V c

B) ~"':l;ltl!.-.QI.±'I~.\\I:::M\\t:ltttLl:::·t I, *~t:4il:B;~;t~t;ho

Kono chihoo wa samui to v. kiita I keredomo I, hontoo ni mainichi hie-komu ne.

I had heard that it was cold in this region, and it's truly quite chilly

every day.

2. At the end of a sentence or clause.

I) Expresses wishful thinking; a hope that the situation at hand will be

reversed.

English approximation: "(if ... ), but..."

A) t 1!YL 8*~h<J: < .hh'-3I:::\q\"':lt~ltttLl:::·t 10

Moo sukoshi Nihon-go ga yoku wakaru to ii no c. da I keredomo I·

It would be better if I could understand Japanese a little more,

but ....

T': i)'~ fJ'

B) t1YL~~h<.v,tLl.r, .v,"':l;7..TV:th;JH-3"':lt~llttLl:::·tlo

Moo sukoshi okane ga are ba, ana sutereo ga kaeru no c. da I keredomo I·

If I had a bit more money, I'd be able to buy that stereo, but ....

71

2) Often in the pattern "doose ... keredomo 1::'1 -tt~tt tL 1::' t ," gives the

sentence an overtone of hopelessness, cynicism, or scorn. Not trans lata-

ble.

n~ t ~

A) ;t -cd: -:> -c 1::'1 -tt rB, t: -@-.b ~ \ \ Itt tL 1::' t 10

Hashitta-tte doose v. mani-awa-nai 1 keredomo I·

Even if (I) were to run, there's no way (I) would make it on time.

~Tt(l) 'IJ'

B) ;:,(, ~-'ti.'~b;, lh -c t 1::'1 -tt-t (' ;:.btL ~ t:' 7:,1 1 tt tL 1::' t 10

Kon-na yasumono, katte mo doose sugu kowareru c daroo 1 keredomo I·

This is so cheap, even if I were to buy it, it would surely break right

away.

3) Used in making an indirect suggestion or statement.

English approximation: "(excuse me, but)"

e ... ,,)1: i! t..4' "{I> I!il·!...

A) +~ "':li~Jll. -c t, t: no ·PJ.<C J, ::I:J1i·tn ~rBH'-t 1 tt tL 1::' t 10

Juu-ji no kisha deshita ne. Soro-soro dekakeru jikan c desu 1 keredomo I·

Your train is at ten, right? (Excuse me, but) I think it's about time

to leave.

B) If"? 1.f"?tiAIi<;~.i ~ .i -t 1 t ttL 1::' t 10

Botsu-botsu koogi ga v. hajimari-masu 1 keredomo I. (Excuse me, but) the lecture should be starting pretty soon.

3. A conjunction which is different from the usage of the above particle

"keredomo tt tL 1::' t." Placed after a complete sentence:

I) Introduces another statement that conflicts with it.

English approximation: "however"

72

1t:~';o

Nihon - go wa muzukashii. I Keredomo I, isshoo-kenmee benkyoo-sure ba, kanarazu wakaru yoo ni naru.

Japanese is difficult. However, if you study hard, you will definitely be able to understand it.

n': t.:.L f1> b~\ l:.""~? bt.:.L

B) ~IHi, .oth't:PJ~':'L\\t&~i?-c·-to ItHL1::'tl, 1L.l.i7vlv=¥--c·-t

.'

h'':', §U j: -It A-o

Neko wa, tashika ni kawairashii doobutsu desu. I Keredomo I, watashi wa arerugii desu kara, kae-masen.

Cats are cute animals, to be sure. However, I'm alIergic, so I can't keep one.

2) Expresses agreement with the first sentence, then offers another related alternative.

English approximation: "however" "yet"

f,t?,,"t "'* \. ?h-

A) 13*.z. t: I.i, J., t: 1t ( ~ t \ \ \ \ 0 Itt tL 1::' t I, Slit t j: t~ \ \ \ \ ho

Natsu-yasumi ni wa, yama ni iku no mo ii. I Keredomo I, umi mo mata ii ne.

It's nice to go to the mountains during summer break. However, it

would be nice to go to the beach, too.

KIRI ~O

1. Establishes a limit for a topic. I) In referring to quantity:

73

English approximation: "only" "just"

kt:.lJ~ ~~

A) .::.A. Ll.1J 'C'1::' .; 1)'''--if-:J 'C L .:t \ \ t: \ -,

n. Futari I kiri I de dokoka e itte-shimai-tai.

I want to go away somewhere, just the two of us.

"~~,, ~

B) b t: L l.i3 - tJ ';I r q: I.i, -J'!-if-:J t: Ll.1J 'C'-t,

Watashi wa yooroppa ni wa, ichido v. itta ~ desu. I have been to Europe only once (so far).

2) In referring to a state or condition, shows that it has been unchanged. English approximation: "continuously only doing ... "

tl..i! t;.t;. n ~

A) Jf.;jt \ \ t: Xli, 1l t~ Ll.1J t: ~ -:J t~,

Toshi oita chichi wa, v. neta I kiri I ni natta.

My aged father became bed-ridden. (literally: My aged father has

become confined to continuously lying down.)

Th ~ L:!I; ":)-5 fJ·t:,

B) J.t ~ -:J Ll.1J 'C'1±~ f- Mttt t: '" 'C', iii h''::' -:J t.,

v. Suwari-klkiriI de shigoto 0 tsuzuketa node, kata ga kotta. Since I have been working sitting down continuously, my shoulders have gotten tense.

3) Often followed later in the sentence by a negative, shows that there is a limit that has not yet been surpassed.

English approximation: "after doing ... , (not once done ... )"

tI·.tt. ~)~ e~lvh ~ ~{;{

A) jJtI.i-J'!It~*f-h·tt-c.:. t~Ll.1J, -if7Jh'bh' ~.:t 4th",

Kare wa ichi-do denwa 0 kakete v. kita I kiri I, yukue ga wakari-

masen.

He called just once, and after that, (1) don't know where he went.

74

Kanojo to wa, kyonen v. atta I kiri I, tegami mo dashite i-nai. As for her, after I saw her last year, I haven't even sent her (a single) letter.

2. In the pattern "marukkiri .:t.; -:J _:,. ry ," followed by a negative or

negative situation.

English approximation: "at all"

~t{ ~It ~t!. /I)

A) 1lt I.±, }; 51lj I.U .; -:J c__2_J'~t 13 to'o

Boku wa, osake wa marukl kiri I dame da. I can't drink at all.

B) :ht~ll'±, .:t';-:J[I2J;';tf~\\;("-C·To Watashi wa, marukl kiri I oyoge nai-n desu. I can't swim at all.

KOSO Z:t

1. Emphasizes what is preceded. English approximation: "(indeed)"

~i ~ t ~kL. ~10)t;, 13 "'*

A) J;,~J.,~, t: < :_";(,,~1tJ.,;I;'h{ijt~~1:: lt~J.,to'o

Ano n. yama I koso I, takusan no tozan-sha ga inochi 0 otoshita yama da.

That mountain is (indeed) one on which many mountain climbers have lost their lives.

;~lnA.~ I;: 11A, ~l

B) *Jf.~ B *"11"-:J -c .z..l'i 0

n. Rainen I koso I nihon e itte mi yoo.

Next year, (finally, indeed), let's go to Japan.

75

2. Often in the " ... kara koso ~/r i., .: i:" or " ... ba koso ~Lr.: i:" pat-

tern, emphasizes a reason for an action.

English approximation: "(precisely) because"

-C'1' 0

Koo naru koto ga wakatte ita p. kara [koso [, watashi wa sansee shinakatta no desu.

It's precisely because I knew things were going to work out this

way that I didn't agree (before).

"""'fJ' ~ It?t,!", ~~

B) ~t:J:t~r7)': I:: ~~;U1-I.r~, ~I®T~}Q',\\I:: 1::'.:1 '?t~r7),L

Anata no koto 0 kangaere p. ba [koso [, ketsudan 0 omoitodomatta no yo.

It's precisely because I thought about you that I stopped short of

making a decision.

3. In the pattern "koso sure .; i: -ttL," shows that the statement that

precedes it is true or acceptable, but another opinion or additional comments are to follow.

English approximation: "do (something), but ... "

VI; IJ ~

A) ~r7)A.I;i, 1.J'1::~lln~1'tL, Itt:tLt~':I::I;it:t\\o

Ano hito wa, hito 0 home [koso [ sure, kenashita koto wa nai. That person does make encouraging remarks about others, but has

never made pejorative ones.

4. In the pattern "sore koso i: tL.: i: ." emphatic. English approximation: "that (would ... ) ... "

76

J:o

Tesuto no mae ni infuruenza ni demo kakattara, sore I koso I taihen da yo.

H you were to catch the flu or something before your exam, that would be disastrous.

J:o

Son-na koto 0 kanojo ni ioo mono nara, sore I koso I tada de wa suma-nai yo.

If you were to say something like that to her, that would get you into trouble.

KOTO Z-C

Women's language (except No.6).

1. Serves to soften the impact of an opinion that is expressed. Not translatable.

A) iC A., t:t t: \ \ -:;> j: -c t L J: t 1"t \ \ ~ ~: A., -C i>~: t~ t, L < t:t \ \ I _: ~ I

Son-na ni itsu made mo shogete-iru nante, anata adjrashiku-nai I koto I yo.

It's not like you to be so down for so long.

B) _: kL t~ t t i -::> "t t j: t~ b Ir t, t:t \ \ (7) t:t t" t 1 ~o t, t:t \ \ I _: ~ I J: 0 Kore dake itte mo mada wakara-nai no nara, moo v. shira-nai I koto I yo.

77

If you still don't understand after all I've said, then I just give up.

2. Expresses a mild surprise or a positive impression. Not translatable.

~.,,; t'J ~

A) [.;v, ~L\\.!1jh<\\';~o

OVa, mezurashii tori ga v. iru I koto I. Look, there's a rare bird!

B) j:~, 1""-c:.~~kt~I.::~Ih.x.o

Maa, suteki na e c. da I koto I nee.

My goodness, what a wonderful painting!

3. Placed at the end of a sentence, accompanies a casual question. Not

translatable.

A) '::hh·':'[.;t.:-'(>j:L-ct\\\\I.::~I?

Kore kara ojama-shite mo adj!ll koto I? Would it be all right to come over now?

B) Ji;~ Ii t oj 1"" -:J h· ry 1 ( ~ -:J t: I .:: ~ I ?

Kaze wa moo sukkari v. yokunatta I koto I? Are you completely over your cold?

4. Makes a rhetorical question that is exclamatory.

English approximation: "isn't it ... "

L.k.:kl'J.t.:1 ~

A) ;?Jf~~1tli:3 - 0 »> \ -c. 1"" -:J -C? 1"" -c :. t: ~o

Shinkon-ryokoo wa yooroppa desu-tte? Suteki c. da I kotol. I've heard that (your) honeymoon will be in Europe. Isn't that

wonderful!

Kanojo no kaisha, nenkyuu go-shuukan desu-tte. adJurayamashii I koto I·

78

Her company has five weeks vacation per year, I hear. Isn't it enviable!

5. Expresses a casual suggestion for action, following a negative form of a verb.

English approximation: "how about ... ? " "why don't we ... ? "

i..\'fJ' \. ~

A) .; hi)' G ~@J~: -C. t n·.:. .:t 1:t A,,~ ?

Kore kara eega ni demo v. iki-masen 1 koto I? How about going to a movie now?

n~ ~~ ~

B) ~(t:t."?t~/;'G, 77~--c·t~:ht:t.\\~?

Osoku natta kara, takushii demo v, hirowa-nai 1 koto I? It's gotten late, how about catching a taxi?

6. Transforms a statement into a strict command. Not translatable.

$1:":) 1H "(Ut.IfI":J ~

A) j!ij 8 ~:~hf v.t;- ~ f-:$t tl:l"t ~ ~o

Kijitsu ni okurezu repooto 0 v, teeshutsu-suru 1 koto I. Hand in the report without missing the deadline.

fJ' i1'h fJ>~(' fJ·i.. ~

B) Hi ~ t~:&-I.J:,x.,f~ T~o

Karita kane wa kanarazu v, kaesu 1 koto I.

Make sure (you) pay back the money (you) borrow.

1. Indicates that a given quantity is approximate.

English approximation: "about" "approximately"

\l~t.IfI?iI''''~ li~ ~

A) t -) - ;J! r., ~ -c.1t/;<";'t; ( -C'L .t -) 0

Moo n. is-shuukan 1 kurai 1 de hana ga saku deshoo.

79

The flowers wiJI probably bloom in about a week.

IJ."f' li"'J:"'~

B) 7j<.f'7'7A':.lf.-B'~< t~~\"

Mizu 0 gurasu ni n. hanbun I gurai I kudasai. Please give me about half a glass of water.

2. Belittles something, in showing that it is simple or elementary. English approximation: (something like)

fJ>"''k'''1J.t11J~ "tI'~

A) 1B"i.Jj1.~#11'~ht~ L t~-:> -c tI:l*~ h,

Kantan na n. ryoori I kurai I watashi datte dekiru wa. Even I can cook (something like) a simple meal,

i!"'t:.<~t:J:1v

B) j;tjfi ~ § -B' -C' L ~: ~ \ "

n. Sentaku I kuraij jibun de shinasai.

Do (something like) your laundry yourself.

3. In citing one situation, indicates its extent.

English approximation: "to the extent that ... "

.f;~'~afJA, ;t fJ' I~ 1J. ~I:. ~1 ~

A) ~-oolb,j);,:~~~"" JI..*~Y#W-C'Lt~,

Sora ichimen makka ni v. naru I kurai I no, migotona yuuyake deshita.

The sunset was splendid, to the extent that the whole sky turned

crimson.

L \' i., L \',

Shujin wa kon-na ni osoku made v. hataraite-iru I kurai I dakara, yohodo shigoto ga isogashii rashii.

Since it's to the extent that my husband is working this late, he must be quite busy at work,

80

4. Following a noun, a nominal, or a pronoun, establishes it as a basis for comparison. Not translatable.

t:LIv~':b

A) :ltI!.J[Li_.~~~l~\\ t ~1.J:~\\o

n. Jishin I kurai I kowai mono wa nai.

There's nothing more scary than an earthquake.

t? ~-tt t:.iI'

B) }:;X:< A,,~1fh<~h'-:d~':' \\\ \~I: ~ ~o

n. Otoosan I kurai I se ga taka-kattara ii no ni naa. I wish I were as tall as my father.

5. Indicates that what precedes it is something undesirable or unlikable.

English approximation: "rather than doing ... "

A) i:A"~.i·f\\t~~i--.,:;[IB~.:,, Mti--":~\\I.Hh<.i L

tc:o

Son-na mazui mono 0 v. taberu I kurai I nara, nani mo tabe-nai hoo ga mashi da.

Rather than eating something that gross, I prefer not to eat any-

thing at all.

:!;1.!,,?.u< ~ "C'?~ fJ>"'-tt~)

B) ~ij B I:iifi; ~ ~.:" jf{~ ~ L -c Jt:nX.:< -\t t~ 11 oj h<.i L tc:o

Kijitsu ni v. okureru I kurai I nara, tetsuya 0 shite kansee-saseta hoo ga mashi da.

Rather than being late for the deadline, (I) prefer to finish it by staying up all night.

KUSE-NI < it-I;: Combination particle

A combination of the noun "kuse < -\t (habit)" and the particle "ni I:."

81

1. As a conjunctive particle. indicating that the actual situation is the reverse of the "norm" that is given in the preceding clause. Implies a

criticism of that "norm."

English approximation: "even though" "but"

i!'tt. t!.~lfJt<~~l ~ lili.~~ it"A.-t.:<

A) iJtI'±**j:_I7)~, j: t~~~t:;;tjfl L -c t i., -:> -r \ \ ~ !vt~·-:> -r ,

Kare wa daigakusee p no 1 kuse ni I. mada hahaoya ni sentaku shite-moratte-iru-n datte.

Even though he's a college student. he still has his mother do his laundry.

Glt? ~ :!;.l? Ii'" 13

B) \\-:;>t~~~-t~~, 1-BI.±-r\\.;:!v.!f-<~~t~h,

Itsumo v. neboo-suru 1 kuse ni I, kyoo wa zuibun hayaku okita

ne.

(You) usually get up late. but you got up so early today.

2. At the end of a sentence or phrase. expresses a slight resentment.

English approximation: Not readily translatable. the implication is "(you) did ...• remember?" said in a slightly resentful tone

of voice.

Miruku mata nokoshita no. Kodomo no toki wa an-na ni suki c. datta 1 kuse ni I·

You didn't finish your milk again? You liked it so much when

you were a child.

t: iJ~lt.!

B) f>n~~\\, ;c!v~t:t~< ~!v~~~I7)I'±, '::'l7)rJltt;~I.i·a-'::'.hL

t~1 < -Itt: I,

Yamenasai, son-na ni takusan taberu no wa. Kono aida mo

82