Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2.Social Problems
a.Failure to complete education or
vocational training
b.Dependence on other for support
c.Failure to establish stable family
d.High rate of marital failure
e.High incidence of repeated out-of-
wedlock pregnancies
Renal failure
Bleeding
•Not directly related to pregnancy e.g. tumor,
polyps, erosions,Originating or as a consequence of
pregnancy
Abortion - loss of fetus before age of viability <24
weeks of AOG
Incidence of abortion increases in:
1.Age
2.Parity – gravida 6
3.History of previous pregnancy
10% of pregnancy end up in abortion – nature’s
way of eliminating undesirable mal-formed fetus
Types:
Induced
•Therapeutic – medically indicated
•Criminal – intentionally done
•Septic – infected abortion; secondary
to infection
Spontaneous
•Threatened
th
oPrior to end of 20 weeks of AOG
oOnly abortion can be save
oVaginal bleeding is slight
oAbdominal cramping is slight to
moderate
oCervix is closed
oComplete bed rest without
bathroom privileges
oDiet: normal diet high vitamins
and protein
•Imminent (inevitable)
oCervix is opened
oBleeding is moderate to profuse
oAbdominal pain is moderate to
severe
oNPO
oPossibility of neurogenic and
hypovolemic shock
•Incomplete
• One of the products of conception
has not been expelled
• Cervix is opened
• Severe bleeding and pain
• Prepare for complete abortion – D/C
•Complete
•Missed – cervix is closed; foul-
smelling discharge; fetus dies in utero
before 20 weeks AOG and retained
from 2 months or longer and will
undergo changes:
b.Fluffling
1.Thickening body, skull
and thorax
2.12 – 48 hours after the
death of the fetus –
amniotic fluid
c.Maceration – softening
d.Mummification – leather-like
changes
e.Lithopedion formation – stoney
– material
Habitual Abortion
•Repeated abortion (spontaneous of any type)
•3 or more pregnancies at same age or pre-viable
stage
Induced Abortion
•Deliberately terminating pregnancy
•Criminal, septic
•Therapeutic, medical, and planned
Purposes:
1.When there is threat to mother’s life (heart disease)
2.Fetal malformation (chromosomal defects)
3.Psychological implication (rape)
IV.Prostaglandin Injection
•Hormone which is abortive
•Administration:
1.IV drip
i.½ - 1 hour after administration, labor will
start
ii.No oxytocin needed
iii.S/E: nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
iv.Dx: anticholinergic, and antidiarrheal
v.CI: - HPN – vasoconstriction, Respiratory
disorder – bronchial constriction and
bronchospam
2.Vaginal suppository – given every 3-4 hours
as prn until labor starts
3.Oral – not recommended- causes severe
nausea, vomiting, shaky, chills, and increase
temperature
V.Hysterotomy – done in AOG 16 – 18 weeks like CS
II.Ectopic pregnancy
•Extra-uterine
•Does not occupy uterine proper
Dx:
1.Utrasound – reveals site of Ectopic pregnancy
2.Culdocentesis – yields free blood that will not clot
or is already clotted
3.Laparoscopy – discloses extrauterine pregnancy
Treatment:
1.Culdotomy – release clotted blood and product of
extra-uterine pregnancy/ conception
2.Laparotomy – reveal correct diagnosis
Nursing Management
1.Monitor V/S, watch for signs of shock
2.Nursing care to bleeding clients
3.Observe nature of bleeding
4.Administration of narcotics or analgesic as
ordered
5.Prepare clients for diagnosis and treatment
6.Provide post-op care
THIRD TRIMESTER BLEEDING
1.Placenta Previa
•Implantation of the plancenta at the lower
uterine segment
•30 % > than average placenta implanted at
the fundus – site and size related (surface
area)
•degree placenta covers the internal os is
estimated by 70 – 100%, 75 % etc.
•2nd trimester – 45% of placenta are
implanted at lower uterine segment
•this elongates and move upward but out of
150 pregnancy remains
Cause of bleeding:
•differentiation of the upper and lower uterus
segment late in pregnancy (30 weeks of AOG) – the
inability of the placenta to stretch to accommodate
this differing shape results to bleeding
Classification
•Based on the degree the internal os is covered by
the placenta
Major Problem:
•Preterm delivery
Fetal Outcome:
•Fetal distress or death occurs if placenta previa
becomes detached from deciduas basalis or if
mother suffers shock
1.Keep NPO
O
2.maintain bedrest – head of bed elevated to 20 – 30
(semi-fowlers) – allow fetal body to act as
tamponade
3.IV – large bore needle is started (LR vol. expander,
blood transfusion 2 units of WHB ready)
4.delivery – if fetus reached maturity
a.if > 30% previa – CS delivery
b.if < 30 % previa – vaginal delivery – if delivery
is not attained within 6 hours – C/S is indicated
2. Abruptio Placenta
•Ablatio placenta
•>20 weks of AOG
•is the premature separation of part or all
of the placenta from its site of implantation
•can be an abnormal separation of a
normally implanted placenta.
Types:
1.Partial separation
a.Concealed
b.Apparent – marginal separation
2.Complete separation
a. Concealed
b. Apparent
Problems:
Mother – shock – placenta separation
Infant – Perinatal death – hypoxia
Predisposing factors:
1.HPN
2.multiple gestation
3.multiparity
4.adv. Maternal age
5.DM
6.previous premature separation
7.hypotensive syndrome
8.rare – abdominal trauma 5%; short cord 1%
9.history of abortion; stillbirth; pre-natal
hemorrhage; premature labor
Degrees of Separation:
Grade Description
0 No symptoms were apparent from maternal or
fetal side; diagnosis of placental separation is
made during delivery; placenta shows recent
adherent clots on maternal surface
1 Minimal separation enough to cause vaginal
bleeding and changes in the maternal VS; no
fetal distress or hemorrhagic shock occurs
2 Moderate separation with evidence of fetal
distress; uterus is tense, painful on palpation
3 Extreme separation without immediate
intervention; maternal shock and fetal death
will result
Fetal outcome:
•15% perinatal death; also depends on the degree
of separation and fetal hypoxia
2.Laboratory tests
•Hemoglobin level, typing, cross-matching
fibrinogen level (DIC); tests for DIC – 5 ml blood to
stand for 5 minutes; if clots formed – DIC
negative; no clots – DIC positive
Nursing Care/ Management
1.Admit to hospital
2.Give oxygen by mask (fetal anobia)
3.monitor FHT, VS and record
4.baseline fibrinogen determination
5.keep in lateral position – prevent pressure at vena
cava; further compromise fetal circulation
6.No IE, pelvic exam, enema
7.Depending on degree of separation if labor starts
– rupturing BOW may help speed delivery or
administration of oxytocin
•Purpose of rupturing BOW
a.Prevents development of couvelaire uterus,
prevents pooling of blood in the myometrium of
uterus
b.Prevents DIC
c.Speed up delivery
8. If delivery do not occur, C/S is the method of
choice
Post-Partum Bleeding
Uterine Atony
•Loss of uterine muscle tone; uterus fails to
contract completely to seal off open uterine
vessel after delivery
Causes:
a.Conditions that distended the uterus beyond
average capacity
i.Multiple gestation
ii.Hydramnios (AF > 2000 cc)
iii.Large baby (>9 lbs.)
iv.Presence of uterus myomas (fibroid tumor)
b.Conditions that leave the uterus too exhausted to
contract readily
i.Deep anesthesia/ analgesics
ii.Labor and oxytocin agent
iii.Maternal age over 30 years
iv.High parity
v.Dystocia
O
vi.2 illness as anemia
vii.endometritis
c.conditions with varied placental site or attachment
i.placenta previa
ii.placenta acreta
iii.placenta ablation
Ass:
1.Uterus suddenly relaxes
2.Occurs gradually – as lethal as sudden gush;
following delivery; post-partum period
Management:
1.Adminster oxytocin agent – S/E – Hypertension –
BP 140 / 90 mmHg do not administer
2.Blood replacement - >500 ml needs BT; auto-
transfusion
3.Bimanual massage
4.Prostaglandin Administration (IM/ IV)– strong
uterus contractions
5.Hysterectomy – removal of uterus last resort
Lacerations
•Tearing at birth canal – expected consequence
of childbearing; more common in: primi, large
babies >9 lbs, lithotomy , used of instruments
Structures affected:
1.Cervix
2.Vagina
3.Perinium
Management:
1.Repair
2.pack
3.no enema/ suppositories/ rectal temperature
4.prevent constipation
Ass:
1.Bleeding depends on size of placental fragments
a.Large – immediate uterus does not contract
th
b.Small – 6 – 10th day post-partum – abrupt
discharge of blood clots
2.On examination, uterus not fully contracted
3.Doctor orders for serum HCG determination, U/S
to determine presence of placenta
Management:
1.Severe bleeding – Blood transfusion
2.D/C
3.placenta acreta – methotrexate – to destroy
placental tissues
4.advise patient to observe lochial discharge (alba,
serosa, rubra)
Abnormalities of Placenta:
Normal weight - 500 gms – 1/6 of fetal weight;
diameter: 15 – 20 cm; thickness: 1.5 – 3 cm
TYPES:
A.Placenta Succenturiata
•No fetal abnormality
•Has one or more accessory lobes connected
to placenta by blood vessel
•Small lobes maybe retained – maternal
bleeding
B.Placenta circumvallata
•Fetal side of placenta is covered to some
extent with chorion; no abnormality
C.Placenta marginata
•The fold of chroion reaches just to the edge
of the placenta; no abnrmality
D.Battledore placenta
•Cord is inserted marginally rather than
centrally
•Rare but with no known clinical significance
E.Placenta acreta
•Deep attachment of placenta to uterus
myometrium
•Management:
oManual extraction
oHysterectomy
omethotrexate
F.Velamentous insertion of the cord
•Cord instead of entering the placenta
centrally, separates into small vessels the
reaches the placenta by spreading across a
fold of amnion
•Found in multiple pregnancies
•Predispose to maternal hemorrhage
G.Vasa previa
•Umbilical vessel of a velamentous cord
insertion cross the cervical os and delivers
before fetus
H.Two vessel cord
•Absence of one artery
•Usually 2 arteries 1 vein
•Fetus congenital kidney and heart anomalies
Hematomas
Causes:
1.Injury to blood vessel – labor/ delivery
2.Rapid spontaneous deliveries – precipitate
delivery
3.Perineal varicosities
4.Episiotomy repair site
5.Anesthesia infiltration
Ass:
•Feeling of pressure between legs
•Pain, discomfort, tenderness
•Minor bleeding
•Swelling/ bluish discoloration 1 –4 cm
Management:
1.Small - warm/ cold compress – ice pack absorb in
3 – 4 days
2.Large – incision and evacuation
3.Analgesia
Intervention:
1.Prevent sudden distention of abdominal vein following
delivery of placenta. Applying pressure to woman’s
abdomen and gradually release it so blood theoretically
enters circulation slowly
2.Ambulate early – to prevent emboli formation
3.Wear elastic stocking (support) – increase venous return
to heart
4.Ergot compound given with caution – increase BP
5.Estrogen compound with caution - high risk to DVT or
thromboembolism, and decrease lactation
6.Needs for more reassurance on fetal outcome
•Fear for fetus to have cardiac ailments –
acrocyanosis – expectedly normal
7.BF without difficulty but needs assistance – easily get
tired
8.Post partum exercises
i.abdominal exercise – needs doctor’s order
ii.perineal exercise – Kegel’s exercise to
strengthen pelvic floor
9.Stool softener – avoid straining
10.Delay next pregnancy – to stabilize circulatory status
11.Follow – up care of heart disease
•Use of antibiotics, anticoagulants – prone to bleeding,
high risk of congenital anomalies in infant
•Anticoagulant – Heparin, Warfarin (Prothamine antidote)
a.do not cross placenta barrier if given
pre-pregnancy
b.D/C before 2 weeks EDC to prevent
infant to be born with coagulation
defect
c.Regional anesthesia should not be
used – changes of bleeding into spinal
cord (mother)
Assessment (Maternal)
1.History of heart disease (class)
2.Dyspnea – type
rd
3.Edema – innocent edema – feet/ankles – 3 trimester
expected
th
•PIH – after 24 weeks AOG – serious/face fingers
•Heart disease – failure + other S/S of heart disease
e.g. chest pain irregular pulse, orthopnea
4.Assess nail bed filling (less than 5 seconds)
a.Jugular venous distention
b.Liver size (right heart failure)
5.ECG – Chest X-ray
Tissue Retina
Glomerolar Glomerolar Ischemia Muscle Placenta
degeneration Filtration tissue
Visual
Vascular tissue Changes
Increase Increase
Blurring Ischemia
Glomerolar Tubular
of vision
permeability absorption of Epigastric
Sodium pain
Premature Premature
If with Labor Deterioration
Albumin/
hemorrhage
globulin cross Water Nausea and
Blindness
into urine Retention Vomiting
Fetal Abruptio
Increase nutrients placenta
Proteinuria Edema Oliguria amylase/
crea ratio
Fetal
CHF Irritability Death
Convulsions
Pregnancy Induced Hypertension
•Main cause is unknown
rd
•3 leading cause of maternal death in the US
•“TOXEMIA” - poison
1.Hemorrhage
2.infection
3.researchers
•pictured a toxin of some kind released by the woman
in response to the foreign protein of the growing fetus
which leads to the Triad Symtptoms of PIH:
oHPN
oEdema
oProteinuria
Predisposing Factors:
Description of Edema:
1+ Slightly idented
2+ Moderately idented
3+ Deeply idented
4+ Remain as a pit (pitting edema)
4.Eclampsia
•Mark S/S of severe pre-eclampsia + convulsion
•15% maternal mortality due to:
oCerebral hemorrhage
oCirculatory collapse
oRenal failure
•Fetal prognosis poor – 25% mortality
oHypoxia with acidosis
Management:
1.Bedrest
2.Monitor m aternal well-being
3.Monitor fetal well being
4.Ensure safety measure
5.Proper diet
6.Promote relaxation
7.Administer medications
Management:
1.Promote Bedrest
a.Sodium is excreted rapidly and recumbent than in
activity
•Evacuation of sodium
•Encouraging/ promoting sodium
b.Labor and delivery needs and spends more energy
(save caloric expenditure)
c.Always on left lateral recumbent position
•Prevent uterus pressure on vena cava – promote
fetal circulation and prevent supine hypotension
syndrome
d.Patient confinement
•Home; if non-compliant- hospitalization
2.Promote good nutrition
•Increase protein diet with no salt restriction
•Decrease salt or no salt in diet may activate
angiotensin system and increase B/P compounding
the problem
3.Provide emotional support with bed rest
•Do not take instructions seriously
•Medicines not bed rest
•Stop work
•Assess to bring concerns to open work, family,
finances
Severe Pre-eclampsia
1.Bed Rest
a.Admit to hospital
•Private room – undisturbed
•LLRP
•No loud noises – triggers convulsion
•Darkened room (no bright light)
•No visitors – social visitors not support people
2.Monitor maternal well-being
•B/P every 4 hours
•Blood studies – CBC, platelet, Hct, Hgb, Blood
Typing, fibrinogen
•EENT – optic fundus S/S (1) arterial spasm, (2)
edema, (3) hemorrhage
•Urine - >30 ml/hr, insertion FBC for accurate
recording, test for protein, maternal estriol level
•Weight – same time each day
3.Fetal well-being
•FHT – external monitor (Doppler auscultation
every 4 hours)
•Oxygen administration – face masks
4.Safety
•Side rails
•Padded tongue blade
4 phases
1. Aura
•Epigastric pain, sharp smell sight of bright light
•Management:
1.Tongue blade placed in position promote safety
2.Tonic
•All body muscles contract back arch, arms/leg stiffen; jaw
closes abruptly (tongue maybe bitten); respiration halted
(last 20 seconds); cyanotic, cessation of respiratory
•Management:
a.Oxygen administration by mask
b.LLRP; place on side, allow secretion to drain
c.Fetal monitor
d.Insertion of tongue blade NOT RECOMMENDED
•Broken teeth
•Scraped gums
•Bitten fingers (nurse)
•Broken tongue blades
3. Clonic
•Muscle relax, contract, ext. flail
•Respiratory – inhale/ exhales irregularly; as thoracic muscle
relax and contract may aspirate saliva (place on sides) forming
at the mouth (mouth breathing) incontinence of urine and feces
•Ineffective breathing – remain cyanotic; oxygen therapy for
fetus
•Last up to 1 minute
4. Postictal
•Semi-comatose, cannot be roused except with painful stimuli
•Last 1 –4 hours
•Labor may begin – still unconscious; cannot report labor
contractions painful labor contractions initiate another seizure
•Monitor FHB
•Check for vaginal bleeding every 15 minutes (abruption
placenta)
•Anticipate delivery
•Condition may stabilize in 12 –24 hours; prepare for vaginal
delivery (preferred method); induce labor. Why? Fetus does
not continue to grow after eclampsia (convulsion) occurs. Fetal
lung maturity appears to advance rapidly due to (intrauterine
stress) L/S ratio – mature
•C/S not best
•Disadvantage:
oHazardous to fetus – sufficient strain
oMother not a good candidate for GA and surgery
I.Hypotensive drugs
a.Hydralazine (Apresoline)
•Lowers BP by peripheral dilatation; DO NOT interfere
with placental perfusion
•S/E – Tachycardia
•Nursing Responsibility – (1) Check BP – pulse before
and after administration
b.Diazonide
•Hyperstat
•Cryptenamine
•Unitensin
•Produce rapid decrease in BP
•Do not use for long term; administration
causes hyperglycemia
II. Cathartics
•Magnesium sulfate
•5 actions:
oHypotensive – dilating effect to blood vessels
oDiuretic – reduce edema by causing shift of fluids from
ECS into intestine
oCNS depressant (blocks peripheral neuromuscular
transmission)
Lower possibility of convulsions
DOSE below – 4 grams in 100 ml D5W
Slow IV – 5 – 20 minutes duration effects 30 – 60
minutes
IV infusion – 1 – 2 grams/ hour piggy back
IM – 5 grams of a 50% saline every 4 hours
Deep IM – to reduce pain mix with procaine
oAnticonvulsant
oTocolytic
NB. Blood serum level to be monitored
Blood serum Level of Magnesium Sulfate
8 – 10 mg/100 ml Decrease
patellar reflex/disappeared
10 – 12 mg/ 100 ml Respiratory
depression occurs
Score: Findings:
2+ Average response
III. Diuretics
•Best in pre-eclampsia not in Eclampsia
•Decrease absorption of sodium, thus lowering sodium in
plasma Fluid shift back from ECS into circulation and
excreted thru urine edema reduced, plasma already
lowered will be depleted further which result to:
oPoor placental perfusion
oStimulate release of renin; to increases permeability of
glomerular vessels; to increase protein urea angiotensin =
increase BP thus worsening conditions
IV. Sedatives
•Barbiturates (Phenobarbital) PO, IM
•Care should be taken not to depress baby diazepam (Valium)
S/S:
1.Polydypsia
•Increase fluids to compensate fluids loss
2.polyuria
•Decrease osmotic pressure, increase amount of glucose
in urine; decrease fluid absorption in kidney
3.polyphagia
•Used up nutrients except glucose
4.Glucosuria
•Kidney attempt to lower glucose level excrete large
quantities into urine
Physiologic Changes:
1.Increase insulin requirement in pregnancy
st
2.Hypoglycemia – 1 half of pregnancy; acidosis; coma – last
trimester
3.Decrease carbohydrate metabolism
4. Stress increase glucose tolerance
5.Increase estrogen level during predisposes DM in pregnancy
(gestational DM)
Assessments:
III.Opthalmic exams
i.DM retinopathy
1.Increase exudates
2.Hemorrhage
3.Edema
Class Description
Analysis
2.Educate on Exercise
a.Goals:
i.Reduce serum glucose
ii.Reduce insulin requirement
1.Exercise program should begin before pregnancy and
not during pregnancy
i.To avoid excessive glucose
fluctuations
ii.Exercise effect last – 12 hours after
exercise
2.Eat protein and carbohydrates complex before exercise
3.Exercise program should be maintained consistently
e.g. best exercise – 30 minutes walking once a day same
time
3.Educate on insulin
a.Hospital admission only for insulin adjustments
b.Change of insulin done – change in metabolism
i.Early pregnancy – less insulin – fetal developing
cells take more glucose
ii.Late pregnancy – more insulin
c.Oral hypoglycemics not used during pregnancy because
it crosses placental barrier and is potentially teratogenics
d.Humulin Insulin – provokes lesser antibody response
than beef and pork
e.Insulin peaks – makes monitoring meaningful
f.Regular insulin – pre-breakfast 30 minutes to 1 hour or
after breakfast
g.Intermediate – given in the morning – lunch or late in the
afternoon; given in the afternoon peak reaches at rest day
before breakfast
O
h.Injection site – related – 5/8 inch needle – 90 insulin
syringe; arm absorb – than thigh
Characteristics:
Complications:
1.Macrosomia – C/S
2.Severe hypoglycemia
3.Hyperbilirubinemia
•Due to inability of the liver to clear bilirubin from
system at this immature age
•Normal value:
st
o<6 mg/dL Newborn 1 day
o<12 mg/dL 3-5 days
o0-1mg/dL adult
4.hypocalcemia
•lowered blood calcium level due to change in calcium or
phosphorus metabolism (breastmilk)
•Normal Value:
i.9 – 11 mEq/dL Newborn
ii.7-5 mg/dL Adult
Post-partal Adjustments
I. Amniocentesis
a.L/S ratio – NV 2:1; in DM 3:1 90% reliable lecithin/
spingomyelin – fetal lung maturity synthesis of
phosphatidylglycerol compound that stabilizes surfactant is
delayed in DM
b.Creatinine concentration – excreted in fetal urine; assessfetal
renal function and fetal muscle mass; Normal Value >= 2
mg/dL = 36 weeks of AOG 60% reliable
c.Bilirubin levels – measures liver maturity; Increase level –
abnormal; decrease – normal
d.Cytologic findings – staining of cells with 0.1% nile blue;
nitrate – 20% fetal cells stained
Contraindicated – Amniocentesis
1.Abruptio placenta
2.Placenta previa
3.History of premature of labor
4.Inc cervix
Pseudoanemia
•Blood plasma volume expands during pregnancy
•Limits oxygen exchange at the placental site because of the
reduced amount of oxygen present
•Alteration in tissue perfusion (placenta)
o20% of pregnant women
oIncrease puerperal complications esp. infection
o90% - of all anemia – iron deficiency anemia
o10% - other anemias
1.First trimester
•Decrease 11 gm/ dL – Hgb and 37% Hct
2.Second trimester
•Decrease 10.5 gm/dL – Hgb and 35% Hct
3.Third trimester
•Decrease 10 gm/dL – Hgb and 33% Hct
4.High in altitude
•5,000 ft. above sea level
•14 gms/dL – anemia hemoconcentration
Common type of anemia:
Fetal Outcome:
a.Decrease birth weight
b.Prematurity
Effects:
•Early abortion
•Abuptio placenta
•UTI
Occurrence:
•First trimester: Nausea/ vomiting
•Second trimester: pooling of blood in LE
•Third trimester: infection, fever, dehydration
Assessment:
•Diet: decrease water
•Activity: prolong standing (Elevate legs, side lying position)
•Hgb: 6-8 mg/dL – hemolysis can occur if hemoglobin falls to 5-
6 mg/dL
•Hyperbilirubinemia – no conjugation of bilirubin since RBC are
quickly destroyed-jaundiced sclera
Management:
•Oral contraception – C/I
•No iron supplement
oCells cannot incorporate iron-binding to iron-build-up
(Ethanol) – substance
Nursing responsibilities:
1.Advice mother to quit smoking or < smoking less 10 cigarette/
day and none within 48O of delivery
2.Nutritional counseling – avoid junk foods, nutritious food
intake
3.Join non-smoking or stop smoking group.
4.Please No Smoking signs in areas of pregnant mothers
5.Health care provider to serve as model
6.Quit smoking not only for fetus but for self
II. Mothers
1.Halitosis, stained teeth, lips and finger’s
2.Habit forming
Effects:
I. Maternal
•PIH, phlebitis, sub-acute bacterial endocarditis, Hepa B, HIV
(shared infected needle)
II. Fetus
1.FOD – (fetal opiate dependence) with following
characteristics:
•Small for gestational age, fetal distress, meconium
aspiration, SIDS, withdrawal symptoms
2.Physiologic – advantages
•liver forced to mature; decreased
hyperbilirubinemia
•fetal lung to mature; decrease SIDS
3.S/S of withdrawal symptoms
a.Sleep pattern disturbance
b.Abrasions on knees, elbows and nose
c.Others as: vomiting, high pitched cry, sneezing,
diarrhea, poor feeding, excessive sweating, tachycardia
Management:
I. Mother
1.Enroll in a methadone maintenance program during
pregnancy
•Supplied legally, readily available, aseptically
administered, monitored, fetus assured of better
nutrition
2.Reassurance
•“Everything is doing well”; emotional support
3.Anticipatory guidance throughout pregnancy (no one to
share their problems)
II. Infant
1.preserve heat
2.isolate the infant
3.prepare for NGT insertion if with poor sucking reflex
4.administer IVF for excessive vomiting and diarrhea
5.give sedation – diazepam (valium)
6.high incidence of jaundice if not enrolled in methodone
program – skin care
Management: Effects:
1. Keep dose to the lowest; prevent omission *terratogenic – enlarged
thyroid and
or duplication [goiter]) in the fetus
2. Should not Breastfeed as drug is excreted in * obstruct airway and
make
breast milk resuscitation difficult
in Newborn
Surgical Management: *potential for
bleeding during
- removal but preferably an interpregnancy delivery
procedure
Tuberculosis, Pregnancy and the Newborn
Etiology:
•Mycobacterium Tuberculosis – acid fast bacillus
•Positive PPD-sensitized T lymphocytes
Mode of transmission:
•Droplet
Rh – ABO incompatibility
Incidence:
Rh negative mother
•D- antigen
•dd – genotype
Rh positive fetus
•DD – genotype
•Dd – genotype
Rh positive father
•DD – homozygous
•Dd – heterozygous
100% D D Dd 50% D d Dd
DD Dd DD dd
Pathophysiology:
D antigen (protein factor) an
Rh positive has that Rh-
negative do not have
2. Spectrophotometer
amniotic fluid reveal fluid density - extent of involvement and bile level;
if density remained low (no fetal distress, Rh negative fetus)
Therapeutic management:
I. RhIg (RHO (D) immune globulin) RhoGAM
Pregnancy
(Fetal blood) – Transfer of
Rh antigen into maternal
circulation
M
F
F
Transfer of Rh
Note: Rh dd mother Antibodies into
Rh DD / Dd fetus fetal circulation
• antibody
F
During normal
Pregnancy → no Hemolysis of RBC in Fetal
connection between Blood Erythroblastosis Fetalis
1st pregnancy
M - maternal and fetal (hemolytic disease of the
Initiate maternal
- - blood newborn)
- antibody production
+
to Rh + blood of fetus
+ +
+
F
M - M +
- - - +
- + -
Occ. Villi rupture
+ + (Desensitization)
allowing a drop or + + + + Rh0D or RHIG
two of fetal blood to + +
F F (Rhogam)
maternal circulation
1.At 7 – 9 months
pregnancy
2.72 hours after
delivery → destroys
After delivery of fetus→ the antibodies
more antibodies formed formed in maternal
against fetal blood in blood in 2 weeks to
maternal circulation 2 months time -
M -
- - transient only those
- antibodies during
+ +
pregnancy are left
+
+ +
(1st pregnancy)
+
F
2nd pregnancy just like 1st
M - pregnancy, ↑ fetal
- -
+ survival up to 3rd
- pregnancy
+
+ +
+
F
Multiple Gestation
Incidence:
Frequent in non-whites
in woman’s parity, age, inheritance
dizygote twins has a familial maternal pattern
Types:
I. Twin
Dizygotic Monozygotic
2 ovas 1 ova
2 spermatozoa 1 spermatozoa
2 placentas 1 placenta
2 amnion 2 chorion 2 amnions 1 chorion
2 umbilical cords 2 umbilical cords
Same or different sexes Same sex always
Familial maternal pattern
Hyperemesis gravidarum
pernicious vomiting – is nausea and vomiting of pregnancy
that is prolonged past 12 weeks of AOG
S/S:
dehydration, ketonuria, and significant weight loss
Normal Pregnancy:
1.more severe in the morning; woman shuns breakfast
2.noon – nausea disappear – woman eats more
3.dinnertime – prepare lunch = adequate NUT maintained
Management:
Pseudocyesis
false pregnancy
Assessment:
all S/S of pregnancy (Probable)
abdominal enlargement up to 7 – 8 mos. AOG
uterus empty on Ultrasound
Factors:
1.Wish Fulfillment
Woman’s desire to be pregnant = physiologic changes
2.Conflict Theory
Desire or fear of pregnancy = internal conflict leading
to physiologic changes
3.Depression Theory
Depression attributes the cause to create physiologic
changes
Management:
Psychologic counseling – to learn how to better handle
her needs or conflict
Risks:
Fetus – sub-dural hemorrhages (sudden release of pressure
on the head)
Mother – lacerations of the birth canal, premature separation
of the placenta (strong sudden force)
Goal:
To bring the delivery in a controlled surroundings to prevent
risks to fetus and mother
Assessment:
1.More painless uterine contractions (30seconds duration, or
frequently as every 10 minutes for more than 1 hour)
2.More backaches
3.More vaginal discharges
4.Associated with UTI or chorioamnionitis
Managements:
1.Halt Labor when [Criteria]
Fetal membranes are intact [BOW]
Fetal heart sounds – good
No evidence of bleeding
Cervical dilatation not more than 3-4 cms
Effacement not more than 50%
(Note: all these criteria must be present)
1.Ethanol
(ethyl alcohol) administer IV
blocks the release of oxytocin by the pituitatry glands
thereby blocking or delaying labor pains
stops production of prostaglandin stopping labor pain
(Note: new knowledge on the effects of alcohol on a growing fetus
nor made halting labor with the use of alcohol questionable thus
use of this method is no longer advised)
Etiology:
1.Unknown
2.Maternal factor
Chronic poor nutrition, DM, multiple births, drug abuse,
IUD in utero, chronic diseases – anemia, heart and
kidney diseases, infection, complication of pregnancy
as PIH and bleeding
3.fetal factor
chromosomal abnormality, anatomic abnormality, feto-
placental unit dysfunction
Characteristics:
I. General appearance
head disproportionately large
hair – lanugo, flaky
fingernails – soft
poor ear cartilage
skin – thin, capillaries visible
lack of subcutaneous fats
sole of feet – smooth (36 weeks AOG, 1/3 of foot is
creased; 38 weeks AOG 2/3 of foot is creased)
breast buds – 5mm (36 weeks AOG none 38 – 3 mm)
testis – undescended, scrotal rugae, very fine
labia minora – undeveloped
abdomen – relatively large
thorax – relatively small
muscle tone – poor
reflexes – weak
“OLD MAN FACIES”
A. Respiratory system
respiratory distress – cyanosis
breathing labored irregular, period of apnea
abs. – cough reflex
B. Digestive system
malnutrition
stomach is small – vomiting
fat absorption
C. Poor thermal stability
subcutaneous fats – no heat storage and insulation limited
ability to shiver due to poor vasomotor control of blood flow to
skin
sweat glands – cannot perspire under 32 weeks AOG
large skin area compared to body weight
D. Renal Function
sodium excretion; Potassium excretion (hyponatremia
vs. hyperkalemia)
ability to concentrate urine (prone to dehydrate with
vomiting or diarrhea)
ability to acidify urine (glomerular tubular imbalance
accounts for sugar, protein, amino acids, and sodium presence
in urine)
E. Nervous system
center for function control poorly developed
slow response to stimulation
suck, swallow, gag, poor feeding and aspiration are problems
F. Infection
no active immunity, no passive immunity (IgM)
limited chemotaxis (reaction of cells to chemical stimuli)
decreased opsonization (prep. Of cells to phagocytosis)
limited phagocytosis (digestion of bacteria by cells)
decreased anti-inflammatory response (hypofunction of
adrenal glands)
G. Liver function
no ability to handle and conjugate bilirubin (NV: 1 – 12 mg/dl =
NB)
hypoglycemia – does not store or release sugar well
anemia – study in hemoglobin and production of blood (NV:
hemoglobin NB 12 – 24 gms/dl)
prone to hemorrhagic disease – does not store Vitamin K
H. Eyes
retinal atresia
RFP – retinal detachment
Note: if given oxygen beyond needed
I. Circulatory system
Anemia, polycythemia
Complication:
1. System problem – severity depends on gestational age
2. Major - birth weight
Note: 1st 24 hours of life, most critical, nursing care depends on
the problem (physiologic)
Post-gestational, post-mature
Pregnancy beyond normal AOG – (38 – 42 weeks)
Occurs approximately 10% of all pregnancy
Factors:
1.Faulty due date
E.g. women with long menstrual period or cycle 40 – 45
days – delivery will be late about 12 – 17 days
2.True overdue due to
a.Salicylate ( dose) – for severe sinusitis, headache:
interferes with prostaglandin synthesis which is
responsible for the initiation of labor
b.Myometrial quiescence or uterus do not respond to
normal labor stimulation
Risks:
1.Placenta is unable to adequately function due to placental
perfusion
2.oligohydramnios <AF – lack of oxygen, fluids and nutrients
3.macrosomia – determine bi parietal diameter
4.meconeum aspiration
Nursing Care:
1.Predict true gestational age – fundic height
2.palpate gross fetal size
3.induce labor – prostaglandin gel, oxytocin drip – CS
Post-Mature Infant
Etiology:
1.Unknown in many instances
2.Maternal Factors
a.Primi and high parity at given age
b.Prolonged gestation in preceding pregnancies
I. Physical Appearance
Reduced subcutaneous tissues
Loose skin turgor at buttocks and thighs
Long curved fingernails and toenails
Amounts of vernix caseosa
Hypoglycemia-no adequate stores of glycogen
Abundant scalp hair
Poor temperature regulation-Low levels of subcutaneous fat
Wrinkled macerated skin, pale, cracked – parchment- like skin
Alert appearance – 2-3 weeks old infant after delivery
Greenish-yellow stain on skin – fetal distress (meconeum
aspiration)
Intrauterine malnutrition and hypoxia = placental perfusion
= oxygen and nutrients
Low levels of estrogen
One post-term to another post-term
Maternal weight loss and decrease uterine size
III.Complications:
IV.
Meconeum aspiration, hypo or hypercalcemia,
polycythemia(decreased oxygenation), pulmonary
hemorrhage, pneumonia, asphyxia neonatorum,
pneumothorax
Postpartum Complications
I.Infection
II.Psychosis
I. Endometritis
Inflammation of the lining of the uterus –
endometrium,
often at the site of placental implantation
Incidence is higher after CS
An ascending infection
Assessment:
rd
3 or 4th day puerperium
Chills
Loss of appetite
WBC: 20,000 – 30,000
General body malaise
Abdominal tenderness
“Boggy” uterus
O
Temperature over 38 C
Nursing Management
1.Send specimen for lochial culture
2. oral fluids
3.good hand washing
4.fowler’s position – drain secretions
5.ambulate
II. Thrombophlebitis
inflammation of the blood vessels with
formation of clots
Extension of endometrial infection
Precipitating factors
blood clotting abnormality-increased
fibrinogen
dilated veins
pooling
stasis and clotting of blood in LE-
prolonged in stirrups
Types:
a. Femoral
th
femoral, saphenous and popliteal 10 day
postpartum
“milk leg” or phlegmasia alba dolens”
(white, inflammation)
Homan’s Sign (+)
4-6 weeks
Management:
1.total bed rest with cradle
2.Early ambulation
3.antibiotics
4.analgesics
5.anticoagulants – do not use heparin with
aspirin
6.moist warm compresses
7.never rub or massage leg
8.assess bleeding sites – if Dicumarol is
used –Check prothrombin or clotting time
before giving
9. Breast Feeding is temp. D/C but breast
is continuously emptied
III. Peritonitis
inflammation of the peritoneal cavity
extension of endometritis
1/3 of all post partal deaths
spread thru lymphatic system
abcess formed in the Cul-de-Sac of
Douglas – the lowest point of the
peritoneal cavity
Assessment:
as a surgical patient – S/S ASA rigid
abdomen, abdominal pain, high fever,
rapid pulse, and vomiting
From Ft to uterus to abdomen
Management
1.NGT – if with paralytic ileus(intestinal
paralysis)
2.IVF – TPN and meds
3.analgesics for pain relief
4.antibiotics
Complications: Adhesions and scarring –
infertility
IV. Mastitis
inflammation of the breast
th
7 post partum or when infant is a week
or month old
pathologic organisms coming from
infant’s nasal-oral
cavity(staphylococcal/streptococcal)
enter cracked nipples (tissues) milk good
culture media
S/S: scanty BM, high fever, mastitis
(unilateral)
Management:
A. To prevent fissures
1.Proper Breast feeding techniques
Not leaving baby too long at breast
Be certain baby sucks the areola
not the nipple only
Release infants grasp at nipple 1st
before removing infant from breast
2.wash hands between handling perineal
pads and breast
3.expose nipple to are at least a part of the
day
4.use Vit. E or lanolin – based ointment or A
and D cream to soften the nipple daily
B. Broad spectrum antibiotics
C. Breastfeeding can be continued (other breast
and keep other breast empty to prevent bacterial
growth
D. Manual expression of milk 2 – 3 days
E. Warm wet compresses
F. I and D for localized abscess
G. Assure client that this is not breast cancer a
permanent disease; she can still breastfeed after
V. Salphingitis
fallopian tubes are inflamed
portal of entry – uterine cavity, broad
ligament
3 types:
1.Acute
gonococci; both tubes can lead to local
peritonitis
2.Chronic
Sequel gonococcal infection
Severe scarring of FT
Adhesions
Tubo-ovarian abscess may form
Cause sterility; tubal pregnancy
3.tuberculosis
PTB from TB of lungs
TB endometritis
Attack FT
Assessment:
1.Sudden abdomino-pelvic pain; tenderness,
pressure
2.↑ vaginal discharges
3.fever; malaise
Diagnostic:
I.Gram staining or secretions from
endocervix or cul-de-sac
II.Ultrasound
III.Culdocentesis
Postpartum Psychosis
Etiology: unknown
Assessment
Feeling of sadness; isolation
Short temper and irritability; hurts the baby
Management:
I. Psychiatric counseling
II. Do not leave woman alone; close watch!
Might harm self or her infant
Dystocia
1) FULL DILATATIONAL(preparatory,
dilatational and deceleration sequence)-12 to
14 hrs primi, 8 hrs multi
2) Full dilatational until fetus is expelled
from birth canal(pelvic or second stage)
3) Placenta is delivered
Factors:
a.Forces are inadequate
E.g. inertia – sluggishness of uterine
contractions
b.Abnormal position of the passenger (infant)
c.Abnormal passageway (birth canal)
Inadequate forces:
Uterine Contraction- interplay of contractile
hormones( ATP,estrogen and progesterone,
electrolytes such as Na, K and Ca, contractile
proteins such as actin and myosin, epinephrine
and norepinephrine, oxytocin and
prostaglandins
A. Uterine inertia (Dysfunctional labor)
Sluggishness of uterine contractions during
labor
2 types:
According to time when it occurs
1.Primary uterine inertia
Occurs at onset of labor or prolonged
latent phase of labor
Management: stimulate with not
enemas, administer oxytocin, encourage
to walk
2.Secondary to uterine inertia
Occur later part of labor or prolonged
active phase of labor; fetus does not
descend; cervix not dilated
Management:
• Maintain a serum glucose level e.g
3 types:
According to strength
3/ 10 minutes
Causes:
1.Too early administration of
analgesics before 3 – 4 cm
2.Bladder/ bowel distended
3.Overstretch uterus – multiple
gestation
4.Large fetus
5.Hydramnios
Management:
a. Administer oxytocin - ↑strength
tone and effectiveness
Disadvantage
a.Cause maternal
exhaustion and uterine
exhaustion
↑ post-partal hemorrhage
b.
secondary to ineffective
contractions
c.Prone to infection –
over-dilation of cervix
b.Administer antibiotics
Complication:
Mother: exhaustion and dehydration
Fetus: injury and death
A. Congenital anomalies
1. Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in
brain ventricles
2. anencephalus – absence of the cranium or
top portion of the head,lack of firm cervical
dilation
3. Condition causing abdominal (fetal)
distention; overgrowth of
liver(hepatomegaly), ascetic cysts, cystic
fibrosis(exocrine glands produce excessive
viscous glands secretions causing problems
in respiratory and gastrointestinal functions),
erythroblastosis fetalis (large immature
RBCs compensating for anemia producing
edema in peritoneum,pericardium and
pleural spaces)
Risks:
Rupture of uterus
Difficult delivery
4. Excessive fetal size > 9 lbs or 3, 400 gms.
causes: large parents, DM, prolonged
gestation, overeating, multiparous
5. Mulitple Gestation-cord prolapsed,uterine
dysfunction,premature separation of
placenta,abnormal fetal
presentation,overdistended uterus-prone to
hemorrhage from uterine atony
B.Trendelenburg position
Relieve pressure of presenting part to cord
C.Bed rest after rupture of BOW
C. Cephalopelvic disproportion – CPD-either
Mother (contracted pelvis) fetus abnormally
(large vertex)
2.protracted descent
a.multi – descent rate 2cm/hour
b.nulli – descent rate 1cm/hour
starts with good contractions then
diminish gradually and become
infrequent and poor in quality
Assessment : anxiety, fear and apprehension
or discouragement
Management:
amnionotomy (rupture of BOW)
oxytocin drip
keep client and kin informed of situation
Delivery Phase
Causes: CPD
prolonged deceleration
Characteristics:
oExtend beyond 3 hours (nulli); 1 hour
(multi)
oSecondary arrest of dilatation – no
progress in dilatation of cervix >2 hours
oArrest of descent –no descent occurred in
one hour
oFailure of descent-does not begin
Management:
oNo oxytocin
oPlace in LLRP
oOxygen inhalation
oPrompt assisted delivery large forceps
Management for dystocia:
A. Preventive:
1.Maintain serum glucose level (e.g. juices,
candies, IV – prevent glucose used up)
2.Prevent F/E loss – prevent dehydration;
prevent DVT in Postpartum phase
3.Reduce stress
4.Give supportive measures; reduce pain, give
praises, back rubs, change soiled sheets
5.LLRP – give oxygen
6.Keep bladder empty
Pathophysiology:
Fetus is grasped by the ring and can’t
advance or descent
If fetus is delivered, placenta can be held
after delivery
Management:
1.Observe abdominal report immediately
2.administer IV morphine sulfate and amyl
nitrate
3.C/S – or manual extraction of placenta if not
attended leads to Mother (uterine rupture and
postpartum hemorrhage); fetus (death)
C. Rupture of Uterus
Factors:
Strained uterus
Beyond its capacity
Previous C/S, repair or hysterotomy
Contributory:
Prolonged labor
Faulty presentation
Multiple gestation
Unwise use of oxytocin
Obstruction labor
Traumatic maneuvers using forceps
Assessment
1.Impending rupture suggested by pathologic
retraction ring, strong uterine contractions
with cervical dilatation
Management:
Immediate CS
2.When uterus rupture
S/S: sudden severe pain during strong
labor, hemorrhage – uterus, vagina,
intra-abdominal, Cullen’s sign
D. Uterine Inversion
Turning of the uterus inside out
Fundus is formed thru the cervix, turned
inside out
Assessment: protrude from vagina,sudden gush
of blood,fundus no longer palpable,sgins of
blood loss,uterus is not contracted
Causes:
1.Attachment of placenta at fundus – sudden
delivery of fetus without support – fundus is
pulled down
2.strong fundal push in an non-contracted state
3.attempts to deliver placenta before
separation
Management:
Hysterectomy – due to severe
hemorrhage
Management:
i.Supportive
ii.Oxygen administration
Abnormal Presentation and Delivery
Fetuses
Head is widest in single diameter; buttocks
plus LE = take up more space
Uterus
Fundus – largest part
97% of all pregnancies, fetuses turn so that
2.Frank
Legs are extended and lie against abdomen
and chest; feet at levels of shoulder;
buttocks are the presenting parts
3.Footling
a.Double footling
Legs are unflexed and extended;
presenting part - feet
b.Single footling
One leg is unflexed and extended;
2.Dysfunctional labor
Presenting part does not fit cervix
Assessment:
FHT – heard high in the abdomen
Leopold’s maneuver and vaginal examination
(show breech presentation
Ultrasound – to confirm
What to expect:
Parents
Examine baby more closely; frank breech-
1.Intracranial hemorrhage
2.cord compression
3.abruption placenta
4.Erb-Duchene paralysis (Erb’s palsy) – injury
to the brachial plexus
S/S:
oLoss of sensation at arm and
paralysis
oAtrophy of deltoid and biceps and
brachial muscles
1.Baxton
With hinge in the right blade used to
rotate fetal head to a more favorable
position such as ROP/ROA
2. Kielland’s - With short handles and a
marked cephalic curve use like Baxton
2.Fetal distress
Prolapsed cord
FHT ↓100 BPM or ↑160 bpm
Pre-requisites:
1.Pelvis should be adequate – no CPD
2.Fetal head must be deeply engaged (+3 - +4
station)
3.Cervix must be completely dilated and
effaced
4.Accurate diagnosis position and station must
e.Cord compression
f. Facial marks – temporary 24 – 48 hours
only
Nursing Management:
1.prepare patient and explain
2.explain outcome ASAP especially on
outcome of procedure e.g. marks, bruising
Complications:
1.Scalp echymoses – expected – posterior
fontanelle
Disadvantages:
1.Marked caput - >7 days after birth – assure
mother
Contraindicated if:
1.scalp blood sampling was done – bleeds
2.preterm – soft skull
Cesarean Section
History:
st
1879 – Sanger – 1 live C/S and uterus was
saved
1800 – C/S done as post-mortem procedure
“caesus” latin of to cut
Types:
I. Low segment or low cervical
Method of choice; incision is made at the
lower uterine segment which is the thinnest
and most passive portion
Advantages:
1.Minimal blood loss
2.easy to repair incision
3.lower incident of post-op infection
4.less activity
5.less possibility of uterine rupture
6.↓ post-op adhesions – complication
Incision:”bikini” incision
Advantages:
1.Prevent peritonitis
2.use of antibiotic and blood is reduced
Indications:
1.Woman’s age
2.woman’s desire to have children
3.possible effectiveness of alt. Treatment
4.degree of dysfunction
Elective indications:
1.voluntary sterilization
2.prophylaxis when there is a strong or
significant history of uterine disease as CA
Types:
A.Abdominal hysterectomy – 70%
Vaginal hysterectomy
B.
Abdominal Hysterectomy
Types:
1.Subtotal
Corpus (body) of uterus removed;
cervical stump remains
2.Total
Entire uterus and cervix are removed;
tubes and ovaries remain
3.TAHBSO
Entire uterus, tubes, and ovaries are
removed
Advantages:
1.Less likelihood of paralytic ileus, post-op
pains and intestinal adhesions
2.Less chance of pulmonary complication and
thrombophlebitis
3.Wound dehiscence possibility is less; shorter
hospitalization
4.No abdominal scar
Disadvantages:
1.More limited surgical field and inability to
examine intra-pelvic and intra-abdominal
organs condition
2.Increased risk of bleeding and postoperative
infection
Psychosocial considerations:
1.Fears that cancer or VD be discovered
2.Conflict between medical diagnosis and
religious beliefs
3.concerns about disturbed reproductive
process
4.disappointments of not having any more
children
5.fear of unable to fulfill role and needs of a
woman
6.heightened depression and emotional
sensitivity
I. Vulvitis
mucous membranes of the vulva
results from:
odirect irritation of vulvar tissues
e.g. scratching
oextension of irritation from vagina
Etiology:
1.Skin disorders
2.infection
3.vulvar Krauposis (dryness and atrophy of
vulva)
4.vulvar Leukoplakia (atopic disease of older
woman)
5.vulvovaginitis 6. senile atrophy
7.pediculosis 8.DM
9.Scabies
10.Cancer
11.allergens
12.urinary incontinence
13.poor perineal hygiene
Nursing Care:
1.Apply calamine lotion, hot compresses, sitz
bath
2.Wear light, non-restrictive, well-washed,
cotton underwear
3.avoid feminine hygiene sprays
4.keep vulva dry
5.proper application of perineal pad
For severe type
6.heavy sedation
7.vulvectomy (radical surgical removal of the
vulva)
II. Vaginitis
inflammation of the vagina –
accompanied by vaginal discharge
(leukorrhea) → urethritis – due to
proximity of urethra to vagina
results from:
i.invasion of organsisms e.g. candida
ii.irritation – frequent coitus
iii.poor hygiene
8.apply hydrocortisone ointment or anesthetic
sprays as ordered
S/S:
1.Leukorrheal discharges with itching, redness,
III. Cervicitis
inflammation of the cervix
Predisposing factors:
1.Exposure to pathogens
2.douching
3.childbirth
4.trauma – coitus
5.surgical procedures
S/S:
reddened, irritated areas around the
cervical os – bleeds easily
Etiology:
Neisseria gonorrhea
E. coli
Streptococci and staphylococci
Management:
1.Cervical cautery
2.Cryotherapy – freezing with liquid nitrogen
(7-8 weeks healing time)
a.Inform woman on expected outcome
b.Minor vaginal bleeding with pelvic
discomfort at short period
IV. PID
Pelvic inflammatory disease (all structures in
the pelvic cavity)
Etiology:
Non-gonococcal infection e.g Chlamydia
trachomatis
Gonococcal and mixed infection e.g. GC + E.
coli, IUD TB, streptococcus, and
staphylococcus
S/S:
1.Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting
2.Fever, malaise
3.leukocytosis
4.malodorous, purulent vaginal discharge
Goal of Care:
1.control the spread of infection within the
client
2.control the spread of infection to others
including nurse
Rx and care:
1.Place patient on semi-fowler’s position to
facilitate drainage
2.avoid use of tampoons
3.support with proper nutrition
4.administer drugs – non GC (tetracycline);
GC (penicillin G)
5.Control spread of infection
a.Handle pads with extreme precautions
b.Use of gloves or instrument
c.Proper disposal
d.Hand washing before and after patient’s
contact
e.Proper disinfection of instruments,
utensils, linens, etc.
f.Instruct patient how to prevent re-
infection
6.use warm douches and heat compresses to
abdomen as Rx
7.give moral support and understanding
Complications: (especially if untreated)
1.↑ risk of spread to others
2.sterility
3.ectopic pregnancy
4.inflammatory masses
Menstrual disorders
Dysmenorrhea
painful menses
2 types:
1.Primary – unknown cause; emotional or
psychologic factor
2.secondary – factors extrinsic to uterus as
VII. PMS
Pre-menstrual syndrome
Clusters of symptoms that occur just
before the menses and disappear with
menstrual flow
E.g. feeling of bloating and fullness of
abdomen
4 classes:
1.PMS A
S/S anxiety, irritability, elevated
estrogen, decreased progesterone
RX:
oProgesterone therapy
oLimit intake of dairy products
o↑ outdoor exercise
2.PMS B
S/S: water and salt retention =
bloating, mastalgia, weight gain, ↑
aldosterone, ↓B6, Mg, and ↑
prostaglandin
RX:
i.↓ Na intake
v.prostaglandin inhibitors
3.PMS C
S/S: Premenstrual craving for sweets,
↓ Na 3 grams/ day
4.PMS D
S/S: depression, withdrawn, insomnia,
Causes:
1.Organic
2.Psychological
A. Organic
Anovulation
Assessment – history
Lab exams – coagulation studies, CBC, TSH
Rule out other diseases
Endometrial biopsy
Hysterosalpingography
Hysteroscopy, D and C with biopsy
Rx:
i.Progentin
ii.Clomephine
iii.NSAIDs
iv.D and C
v.Ablation
vi.Hysterectomy if pregnancy is not
anymore desired
Infertility and Sterility
Infertility
When pregnancy has not occurred
after at least one year of unprotected
coitus
Types:
1.Primary – no previous conception has
occurred
2.Secondary – there has been a previous
viable pregnancy
Sterility
Some definite factors have been
identified to prevent conception
Male infertility
I.Causes:
e.Endocrine imbalance
f.↓ Vit. Intake as in Vit. E
to surgery
a.Adhesions, occlusion, congenital
stricture of spermatic ducts
infection-UTI,STD
1.History and PE
2.Semen analysis
After 4 days of sexual abstinences,
seminal fluid is examined for
numbers, appearance and motility
3.Lab Test
Urinalysis, CBC, blood typing
Testicular biopsy
KAHN and WASSERMANN test
Protein-bound iodine
4.Psychological assessment
III. Treatment:
1.Treat underlying causes as chronic
diseases
2.In ↓ sperm count >abstain 7-10 days at a
time
3.In mumps orchitis > artificial
insemination
Female infertility
A. Causes:
I. Anovulation
Most serious and most difficult to
correct
Causes:
oPituitary or thyroid disturbance
oImmaturity or disease of ovaries
e.g. endometriosis
oChronic or excessive exposure to
x-rays or radioactive substances
3.Fern test
↑levels of estrogen just before
B. Tubal Factors
I. Causes:
1.Chronic salphingitis – PID, GC
2. ruptured AP – abdominal surgery
with infection or adhesion
3.congenital webbing or stricture
II. Test for tubal patency:
1.Rubin’s test – procedure
rd
3 day after menses, patient in
lithotomy position is given (100
mmHg) CO2 under pressure
instilled into cervix passes uterus
and fallopian tubes into pelvic
cavity
if tubes are patent if another
C. Uterine factors
I. Causes:
1.Tumors
Blocks tubes or limit space for
implantation e.g. leiomyomas
RX:
oMyomectomy
oCongenital deformity
“infantile uterus”
oInadequate endometrium
formation - ↓ estrogen and
progesterone level
D. Cervical factors:
I. Causes:
1.Infection
2.tight cervical os
II. Tests for cervical environment
1. Sims – Huhner test - procedure
ovulation time determination by
BBT
couple do intercourse with
ovulation without pre-coital
lubricant
after intercourse woman lies on
her back for 30 minutes
no post-coital douches/ washing
within 2-8 hours doctors
examine the cervical mucus for
ferning and spinnbarkheit and for
viable sperms including count
E. Vaginal Factor
I. Cause:
1.Infection
II. Test for vaginal environment
1.History of menstruation and PE
2.Lab tests
3.psycho assessment - R/O
dyspareunia
III. Management:
1.Sodium bicarbonate douche for very
acidic environment
2.treat infection and other underlying
cause
3.surgery for tumors
4.endocrine therapy e.g. clomid –
HCG
Classifications (location):
1.Intramural
Uterine walls; surrounded by
myometrium
Clinical manifestation: ↑ uterus size,
Rx/ Management:
depend on symptoms, age,
location, and size of the tumor; onset
of complication and desire to get
pregnant
fibroid – D and C
small tumor – myomectomy
(removal of tumor without removal of
the uterus)
large tumor – hysterectomy
(removal of entire utero) → tumor/
uterus hysteromyomectomy
radiation and chemotherapy
Nursing Care:
1.Full explanation – removal of uterus –
II. Endometriosis
chocolate cysts
abnormal growth of extra-uterine
endometrial cells; after in the cul-de-
sac of the peritoneal cavity, uterine
ligaments and ovaries
excessive endometrial cells
production plus reflex of blood during
menses
Incidence:
multi-parous
familial tendency
III. Polyps
pedunculated tumors from the
mucosa and extending into the
opening of a body cavity
Types:
1.Uterine
a.Hypermenorrhea
b.Metrorrhagia
c.DUB
2.Cervical
Bleeding following vaginal sexual
activity and may become infected
Rx:
Surgical excision – polypectomy
Nursing Care:
1.Secure Consent
2.Explain every procedure
3.follow up care and check up
4.surgery – pre – op and post – op care
Clinical manifestation:
may or may not be present = but is
symptoms occur
i.pelvic pains – often one sided
ii.pressure in the lower abdomen
iii.backache and menstrual
irregularities
Rx:
surgical excision of the cysts
Nursing care:
1.Explain procedure
2.observe for S/S of tumor growth
3.follow up care
V. Fistulas
Abnormal tube like passages within
body tissues
Abnormal tortuous opening between
two internal hallow organs or between
an internal hallow organ and the
exterior of the body/skin.
Types:
1.Ureterovaginal – between ureter and
vagina
2.vesicovaginal – between urinary bladder
and vagina
3.rectovaginal – between rectum and
vagina
Causes:
1.Obstetrical injury
2.pelvic surgery (hysterectomy and
vaginal reconstructive surgery – common)
3.extension of carcinoma or complication
of treatment for CA
Clinical manifestation:
1.Trickling of urine into vagina
2.Fecal incontinence and flatus passed
thru vagina and malodorous
3.Irritation and excoriation of vulvar
tissues
Diagnostic:
1.Methylene Blue test
Dye test
Dye is instilled into bladder
Dye in vagina – vesicovaginal
fistula
None in ureteovaginal fistula
2.Indigo Carmine test
Injected IV
Appears in vagina is ureterovaginal
fistula
3.IVP – for location of fistula
4.Cystoscopy
Determine numbers and locations
of fistulas
Treament:
A. If to heal without surgery (rare)
1.maintain cleanliness - sitz bath;
deodorant douches/ wash
2.use of perineal pads; plastic or rubber
pants
3.prevent excoriations – use of bland
creams dust of cornstarch – sooths
4.use of feminine morale boosters as:
attractive hairdo, nail polish; perfumes
new beaded jacket; latest fashion, etc
B. Surgery
fistulotomy/ fistulectomy
diagnosed early – time of delivery to
be repaired immediately
post-op heals 2 – 3 months for
inflammation to subside
maintain adequate nutrition, ↑
vitamins, and protein
administer chemotherapeutic
agents
done in healthy tissues
post-menopausal – oral estrogen →
Vesicovaginal:
1.proper bladder drainage – FBC – I and
O
2.Gentleness in administration of bladder
and bowel irrigations
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
I. Trichomoniasis
Etiology:
Trichomona Vaginalis – single cell
protozoa (round mobile structure)
S/S:
1.Frothy white to grayish green vaginal
discharge
2.vaginal irritation, redness, and pinpoint
petichiae
3.extreme vaginal itching
4.dyspareunia
5.↑ vaginal pH
6.males – asymptomatic
Diagnositic Test:
scrapping of vaginal discharge with
drops of Ringer’s Solution
Rx:
1.Metronidazole (Flagyl) single 2 gm dose
p.o (given to both woman and sex partner
Note: Should not be administered during
1st trimester of pregnancy and must be
used with caution for the remaining of
pregnancy (teratogenic); should not be
taken with alcohol = causes acute nausea
and vomiting
2.Topical – povidone-iodine or vinegar
douche only to reduce symptoms until
metronidazole can be used
Nursing Interventions:
1.Advise client to abstain from coitus;
male sex partner may use condom
2.Advise woman to use tampons to absorb
Common in:
Obese people, perspires profusely,
DM, Pregnancy, using oral
contraceptives pills, pseudopregnancy
state, antibiotic and steroids users.
Rx:
1.Rx 4 to 6 months
2.apply Gentium Violet 1% for relief of
pruritus (stains underwear permanently)
3.Nystatin (mycostatin) drug of choice –
DOC –
4.male partner to be treated as well
Nursing Care:
1.Antibiotic by mouth should be stopped
2.rule out DM and treat properly
3.weight reduction for obese people
4.avoid coitus during infection or use
condom during treatment period
III. Herpes Genitalis
spreads by skin to skin contact and
virus enters thru a break in the skin or
mucous membranes
highly contagious
incubation period – 3 – 14 days
Etiology:
Herpes Virus Hominis II
oHVH – 2 – genital virus (not airborn –
not by fomites)
oHVH – 1 – non-genital forms – oral
S/S:
1.Vesicular lesion on cervix, vagina,
vulva, penis
2.systemic symptoms as headache,
malaise, ↓ grade fever
3.dysuria
4.pain in intense upon contact with
clothing
Diagnostic:
Rx:
analgesics for pain – aspirin
acyclovir (Zovirax) do not cure only
alleviate symptoms and reduce spread of
virus
Nursing Care:
1.abstinences – condoms and spermicide
less effective
2.keep lesion – clean and dry
3.culture virus during pregnancy to
safeguard fetus – 50% of newborn will be
infected during delivery
4.when to abstain:
a.presence of fresh lesions
b.last 4 – 6 weeks of pregnancy if
partner has HIV 1
IV. Syphilis
Stages:
I. Incubation Period
Characteristics:
1.10 – 90 days – average 21 – days
2.no S/S or lesion
3.presence of etiology agent – blood is
infective
Characteristics:
10 – 30 days
granulomata – lesions on skin, bones,
Diagnostic:
Serologic test – VDRL
oNon-treponemal or Reagin Test –
detect antibiotic like substance
oTreponemal test – measure specific
antibiotics to TP
Nursing Care:
1.Isolation of infected materials
2.case follow-up
3.advise patient to refrain from sexual
contact with untreated previous partner
V. Gonorrhea
Etiology: Gonococcus Neisseria Gonorrea
Transmission: Sexual contact/ direct
contact with discharge
S/S:
Women
1.Heavy green – purulent discharges,
abnormal uterine bleeding; abnormal
menses
2.urinary frequency, pain and burning
3.ascending infection (PID)
Men
1.purulent discharge following painful
urination, urethritis, prostatitis,
epididymitis (pain-burning)
2.pelvic pain and fever
Pharyngeal gonorrhea
1.Sore throat; maybe asymptomatic
Anorectal gonorrhea
1.anal-rectal burning, itching, and
bleeding mucopurulent discharge, painful
defecation
Diagnostic:
1.gram stains smear, culture
2.direct fluorescent antibody test
Goal of care:
1.eradicate organism
2.educate patient about his condition
Treatment:
Tetracycline, Amoxicillin with
Probenecid and Penicillin with
Probenecid
Fetal Outcome:
Opthalmia Neonatorum → Crede’s
Prophylaxis – used after delivery
( Terramycin Opthalmic Ointment to
both eyes )
Uterine displacements
Normal Uterus:
O
Flexes anteriorly at 45 and movable;
cervix points downward and posterior
More inclined towards the bladder
25% of women – retroversion – still
normal
to such number of women body lies
back in the posterior cul-de-sac and
rectum; non-pathological
Types:
I. Upward displacement
Lifted forward; becomes on
abdominal organ; internal os is at level
of upper border of symphysis pubis
and can’t be reached by examiner’s
finger
S/S:
Asymptomatic but at times: backache
during menses and/ or prolonged standing
Secondary to amenorrhea, infertility,
feeling of pelvic pressure, dyspareunia
(congestion and adhesion → immobile
uterus)
Treatment:
1. treat underlying cause
2.Insertion of vaginal pessary
(infrequently used – irritates and erodes
cervical and vaginal mucosa)
Holds the uterus in normal position
Comes in different sizes and style
Causes:
Vaginal/ paravaginal tumor
low cervical fibroid
tumor at Cul-de-Sac
collection of pus at pelvis
Causes:
unilateral tumor
fluid collection
pull to one side due to adhesions
Treatment:
treat underlying cause
II.Downward
Or prolapse (protrusion of uterus to
vagina) or descent or procidentia
(protrusion of uterus to or beyond
introitus)
Causes:
Obstetrical trauma
Multiple childbirths
Aging leads to overstretching of
musculofascial support
Prolong standing
Straining
Coughing
Lifting heavy objects
Clinical manifestation:
1.Awareness of “something is coming
down there”
2.dyspareunia
3.feeling of pressure, heaviness,
backache
4.bladder/ bowel problems cystocele/
rectocele
5.stress incontinence
Management: Hysterectomy
2nd degree
Body of uterus still in the vagina; cervix
protrudes through the introitus
3rd degree
Entire uterus and cervix protrude through
the introitus; vaginal canal is inverted
(turned inside out)
Cystocele
Protrusion of urinary bladder through
vaginal wall due to weakened pelvic
muscle
S/S:
Stress/ urinary incontinences; UTI
Management:
S/S:
Constipation, heaviness, hemorrhoids
Management:
1.Posterior colporrhapy
Bowel preparation prior to surgery