Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thosesentenceadverbialswhichareusuallyclassifiedasconjuncts,e.g.indden- certaintyaboutwhatheisMyinglandsometimesmoresemantic(e,g.theyco-
tally,theçelore,cannottakeasolenuclmzsinthisway occurwithlexicalmem ingswhicharereinfordngorlimiting-thisisparticularly
someothertypesofexpression,whicharesimilartoadverbialsinthattheyare. tllecasewithadverbials).Ingeneral,themeaningsoftonesarenotdirectlygram-
intlzenamreofafterthoughts,arealsocommoninfinalpositionwithnoaccent; matkal,butgrammarmayindirectlybeinvolvedintwoways:(i)someattimdes
forexaraple,vcrativesanddirectxyœechmnazkezs e.:. aeeinherentlynnorealuyciated n*th questjonw Lapafie r,èdgh Tipe whic
oftenhasameaningofsurprise,Irequentlymarksanechoquestiontseealsopre-
Don'tyoua'gree,Peter? vioussection);and(ii)theRttimdinalanddiscoursalmeaningsconveyedwill
Don'tbea'foolhesaid. varysomewhataccordingtothesyntacticsentence-type(e.g.declarative wh-
. interrogative,yes/no-interrogative)withwhichtheintonationalphraseco-occurs.
W
--h
-e
-n
--o
-l
-d
-di
,nf
or
.g.ma
ti
onoccursattheendofthesent
ence,t
henthi
swi
llbe ---B-e-c
da u
,s-e
,-ofu-t
h--e-iv
pa
--r
-ia
-tio
-nf-i hn
-m-e
-a
--n-i
n
i-gg,a c
-co
fr -di
-n-g1-t
-o
--s -e-n-t
-e
-nce
-u-ty-p
-uej su
-snt-m
-,en--
- I
j
i,
' dividedaccordingtothefollowingcategories:(1)majordeclaratives;(2)minor
(Whydon'tyouinviteJohntotheparty'?) . declaratives;(3)wh-interrogatives;(4)yes/rm-interrogatives;(5)tag-interrogatives;
BecauseIdon't'likeJohn. . (6)imperatives;f7).exclamatives;(8)socialformulae.Ingeneral,fallingnuclear '
l
(Wehadalong'wait.) .' t
aosn
see
rsti(
vwh
e,ett
hh
ee ;.gohreratnhdein
hi fac
ll
lutd
hi
n
egmottl
re
ervf
sie
g-
ofra
oli
u)sar
tehesep
dea
grartei
eve
o,fma
fintate
lir
t-
yofi-
nfa
vc
ot
la
vendd
; r
'
!j
Youmeanwehada'verylongwait. whereast/othsimplerises(.and-)andfall-rises(-)arecontinuative,implicative I
Inthel astexampletherei sobviousl
ysomeel ementofcontrastpresent-
betweenlongandveryftmxç',Sometimesthenucleusmayfallonacontrasteditem '
ae
bnl
dong
on
w-i
a
t
s
hse
t
r
ht
ie
vr
ei
.i
sLn
eg
ve
to
ln
t
oense
i
s(t
n m
heost
oc
rt
os
momfm
on
ean
min
og
ns
gth
th
eysc
eo
bn
ev
ie
ny
g.
themidlevel)
Theexamplesaregiven asisolatedutterancesorprecededbyabracketed'set-
1
even thoughalateritem inthetntonationalphraseisnew,e.g. ting'.Itshouldberememberedthattl'teattimdinalmeaningofanutterancemust
alwaysbeinterpreted within acontext,both ofthesittzation ant:
lalso ofthe r
Johnisaquitea'tallman/whereashisbrotherisvery'short. speaker'spersonality.Itmaywellhappenthatanlntonationwhkhispolitein ;
'
' onesetofdrcumstancesmight,forinstauce,beoffenslveorpatronjzingwhen h
(
Incertain,veryIimited cases,thewholeofanintonationalphrasecomprisesoId usedbyanotherpersorlorinothercirœmstances. i
information.onesuclzcaseconcernsicHoF-s,i.e.whereasecond speakerechoes '
somektehring
willafofli
lrost
wstpheaatkoer
fth
ha
esfij
rustst saidt;
(the and
one wit
lllwcha
ac
ricgeent
toua
lt
ziio
ghnro
isf
e)t
,hee.gs
.econd Ma(1
jo)rMh
decolarrJ
afr
til
vqer/rt
effl'
ez?
l
rstothosecaseswheretheintonationalphrasecorrelates i
spea - with an independentclause with themainclausein complexsentences,with
(Icouldn't'dott.)Youcouldn't'cloit? . thelastclauseincompoundsentencesandwiththatpartofanyofthesewhich ,
isremaindered when aseparateintonationalphraseisgiventoan adverbialora
ll42. 1 'rl- Mewnlor of'ronez AlmostalIprimaryaccentsin wordsand gubjectorsomeotherpartoftheclause,e.g.
loagerutteranc
.
eshaveup tonow been exemplifbedusingthehjgllfallnuclear Sedidn,t.P.
tone(rflarked).ThisisthewayLnw'llirllindividualBr ordyareusuallyciàedin ftookantlverctulJbecauseitwasrainjng.
isolation.Moreover,inallstylesofEnglishspeech,simplefallsinpitch(whether ltookthecarlandflrt?velpLotulon.
fromahighormidstartinpmzint z )accountforthemajorityofnucleartones(gen- ' Theftrs.
erallyestimatedaround5t2069. Simplerises;ndfall-risesaregenerallyestimated Usuallyt/ma
weadoointtthtile
smoon/wJ5NeilArrzlslr/nâr.
wp'
.
to accountfora further40% oftones.The preponderanceoffallsisusually W'edoi tthiswuykusually.
slightlyhigherinconversation thanin othertypesofspeech,e. & scripted read-
ing.Sincerisesandfall-risesareoftenusedasacohesivedevicesignallingmore ' Inmajordedarativesfallingtonesaretheleastattitudinallymarkedofthetones
tofollow,itisnotsurprisingthattheyaremorefrequentlyusedin readingwhere wjtl.jthehighfallexprcxssingmorelivelinessandinvolvementthantheIow fall,d.
theywilloftenindicatethatasentenceisnotyetfinished.
lhemeaningsofnucleartonesaresometimesmoredjscoursalinnamre(e.g.
' lt'saverynice'garden.
tlzey indicate links orthe absence of linksbetween successive intonational ' Of'courseitis.
phrases),sometimesmoreattimdinal(e.g.theyindicatethespeaker'sdoubtor It'saverydullbook.
Theparcelarrivedonx' Fhursday.
17quirke!al.(1964:681)flrystal(1969:222,Mtenberg(1987136).Butr
seealsothehigher 23Forfurtherlnformationonthemeaningsottones,seeHalliday(1967),O'CommrandArnold
figtkrereNrtedinj12.
7(1). (1973)Cruttenden(1997)Wells(Z006).
'C
k''
'
. val/ud,whei rea:themidlevelcarriesnoothermeaningotherthanthatofnon- i
Iljkehis-wife/evenifIdon'tlikehim. finalitp which isIherhapswhyitaloneofthesethreetonesoccursonlyin non- '
(It'sthetwenty-fifthtoday,isn'tit?)Twenty--sixttl. finalposition: :
JIo
fhnoudi
ddonn't
'tsduoccie
te
/dJo/hn
bu't
llvp
bh
ei
vlieprydYid
c.
ross. wh atJ'dvlike/isadrinkoftea. ,
The-bes.tpersontodo it/wouldbeBillBailey. !
Highrisesarecommononechoes(asalreadymentionedattheendoftheprevi- Ihevcrtzcialissue/isthat...
oussection)andondeclazativequestions: we tooktbe-carlanddrovetoBirmingham.
On mywayto>work/itgtartedtorain. 'i
.
'
(1diditinblue.)Yeudiditin'blue? un>fortunately/itdoesn'tworklikethat. !
rsoyoudidn't'go? ' (cf,Un-fortunately/itdoem'tworklikethat.) I
Othertonesarelesscommon.Thelow risewithonlyotherlow syllablesbeforeit Mostadverbialswhichhaveaseparateintonationalphrasewilltakearisingtone !'!
(i.e.WithnoPrecedingPitchaccent)isComplaining: butthereareanumber()fadverbialsofaparticularlyassertivekindwhichmore
' commonlytakeafallingtone(e.g.literall
y,certainly,honestly,bythewcl',(fcourse, :
YOumustn'tgoaWay. besidesj,
Whereas,withahigllpitchbeforeit,itisencouragingorevenpatronizing(this Be'sides/he'shadmoretimethanheslzouldhave.
sequenceisverycommoninspeechtochildrenll Bythe'way/whatdoyouthinkofthenewchap?
Youdll'
onlyover.dothings. Asindicatedbythelastexample,someadveebtalscanoccurbeforeinterrogatives
There's'noPointin-rtzshing. aswellasdeclaratives.Adverbialsalsof' requentlyoccurfollowtngthemain
dause;inthesecaKs,therisewhichoccursisalmostalwayslowrise(butthe
ThissequenceisIrequentonimperatlves(seebelow)withasimilarsortofmean- fallingtypeagaintakesafa11):
ing.Finally,theleastcommonnucleartone29istherise-fall.Itsmeaningusually .
involvesanelementofbeingveryimpresKdorconversely,beingveryunim- IwenttoCanada/lastyear.
Pressedandhenceindigaantorevensarcasticf Itdidnltwork/unfortunately.
Heturnedbrightred/niterally.
He
oh'sitnh-edeheedadlo
Hf
oa
wb-ig
nif
cir
emfoi
rny-
oumd
u. on. ' Intlwcaseoffinalsubordinateclauses,twosequencesoftonesarepossible.ffthe
viousmainclausehasafall,then thesubordinateclausewiiltakea1ow rise.
mse-lallisoften usedforgossip: P
xure
ternativelythemain clausemaytakeafail-riseandthesubordinateclausethe
.
jajj,a,
Haveyouheard?/Jill'sAprepzant. Ibeganto feel'ill/becauseIhadn'thadenough toteat.
(2)àfint,rdeclaratives !hegantofeelvill/becauseIhadn'thadenoughtcpeat.
Underminordedarativesareincludedallthose parf.
sofdeclarativesentences
wh
Posi
icth
iow
ne
s,re
e.e
gx.csl
uubdje
ed
ctu
s,naçt
devre(1
rb)ia
ab
lso
,vte
h.eMo
firs
st
tocf
lathe
usese
oo
fc
ccoump
rinousenndtesn
ec
ne
tennocn
es-fi
annadl In(R3)
PYte
hsetfno-in
mo reteurr
sousaulti
avnes
dmoremlitewayofaskingyes/noquestionsiswiththe
gf
tehnet
'f hoens
t eu
sb
uord
seui
nnattehcelsaeuisneto
o of
nc
ao
tmp l
e
lx
iona se
phrnteesnace
as su.suallyfromtherisinggroup:
re 1
to
kaw
llyri
lae
cc(
anl
e tth
eo
du
gyh
s abh
lla lei
sisharvi
saeiliasbmleobreeff
or
e
eqt
f
' uheenntui
nclGeuenetrhaelnAm
s, the
lr
ic
swa
nll);
i i
f
taaP
keao
ht
e
gn
ih-
fall-rise?low riseand mid luxvel.Fall-riseagaincarriesitscommon meaningof . Pitch:
(ltYgoingtorain1'm afraid.)D0yOu' really.thinkSO?
: h ' 1
286 WqriH Cwnnzctashecn Ceaae- le 2:7
Afalllagtone(ltighfallJrlowfalponayex/no-intezroxatlveZnaZ'Hitasb ' ' Anotheztypeoftaghasconstantm larity.Thistypeonlyhasïowrise(falling
ancldemanding: bt tonesareimm ssible).Themeaningconveyedislnthenamreofathoughtful
echoofastatementfrom theprecedingspeaker:
t
(C
T.
oan
myeoxuplraeime
nemb
ditearlwh
1toitreI
me .)le
Bfuttmy
don
ye
owus
uh
no
de
ep)
rxstA
ar
ne
dth
ite
?yinthe'wardrolye?t
!. (1thinkhe'sgoingtoemigrate.)Sohewon'tmrryherf.wcm'the?
(1can'tfindmypertanywhere.)Areyousureyoubroughtît'wîthyou? ' (Rachel'sgoneoutw'
ithJchrl.)5lze'5stkllseeinghim/isshe?
Arise-fallisoftenusedtomarkayes/no-interrogativeasanexclamation: (6)Imperatives
Abruptimperativeshaveafallingtone.Politeimmratives,wltichareatleastsug-
(Hedidn'tevenleaveamessage)Nowisn'tthatpe-cuiiar! ; ' gestmgthattheIistenerhasarighttorefuswaresaidwitharisingtone(mostfre-
(I'mgoingtoSpalntomonow.)Arenztyoualucky! quentlyiow riseandsometimesfall-rise):
(Herefusedtohelpme.)wouldyoube-lieveit!
(izvedecidedtoIendhimmycar)Don'tbesuchasilly'fool.
(4)Wh-intelmgatives (Whatshould1donow?)Goandwashthe'car.
'l'heusualtoneonwh-interrogativesisfalling(lowfallorhighfall): (Y0uShouldn'thav'esgental2thatmoney.)IMn'tbe.angl' yaboutit.
. (1'm afraidl'vehadenoughofyou.)Givemeanother'chance.
(Shewantsyoutosendanapology. lWhatitgottodowith'her? (1havtaverydelicatejobtodol'iert.)Be-careful.
(
(Y
5boeudmu
idnst
'tn&'tet
tetll
hehe
jr
o)
b.Wh
)Hoyw'ndoot?
youknow? Theuseofarisingtoneratherthanafallingtonesoftenstheimperative.
' ' sometimestherisingtoneiscombinedwithatag:
T
ih
tiesamo
lter
renalitkiveto
dy tn
oebo
enashuicgh
ht
rnlt
se
err
inogGat
ei
nve
es
raisthee
lMn lorw
icarnis
)e.T(li
hkeey
ue
ses/onfot-i
hnete
rr
isreogisativer
mo s,
e' (Canlhavtsomemorewine?)Helpyourself/won'tyou?
tentative: (Hernenresareterrible.)Seeifyoucanhelp/willyou?
(J'm dojngmybe-st.)Well1hurlyup/can'tyou?
(We'reoffonThursday.)WhenareyouJeaving? .
(I'm afraiditdidn'twork.)Whydidyoudoit.thatway? Ex(c7l)ama
gxc
til
vama
es(t
ij.v
ee.sthosesentenceshavingthesyntacticform ofanexclamative,
Wh-interrogativescanbeusedwithhighrise'toaskforrepetition: ' ieaninitialquestionwordandnoverb)takeafaliingtone(indudingrise-falll:
(He'scompletelyirresponslble.)'Whatdidyousay? whatabeautiful'day!How'shzpidheis1Whataverysillythingto'do!
(HernamewasPettigrewbeforeshewasmarried.)'Whatdidyousayshe whatapa-laver!
wascalled?
. : Similarlyindi%dualwords particularlynounsand adjectives,can begiven
(s)Tasuinterrogatives exclamatoryforcebytheuseofafallin:tone,e.g.
'r
aage
-in
nd
teerdroto
gaatip
vere
sce
cc
oli
nnsg
isd
teocflaarat
si
evqe
u.eTnlwy
ceoafreamo
n asutxciolimmo
aryvnel
rybnaengdati
avepi
rf
oa
np
oure
n- '
! 'Nonsense!You 'idiot!hMarvellous!
PP
cedingstatementismsitiveandWcel'erlatcalled'reversedpolarity'tags).Such '
tia
nggsth
oa
nvee(us
two
uac
llo
ymmo
Iowrn
isea)lt
.e
Bronta
hti
tvye
pse;saof
fal
tolinneget
xopneec(
thai
ggrheef
allo
me nr
t,lto
hw
eff
aal
lll)do
eranrl
ma ds-
- Itifs8)
dis
floicci
uallt(
toormu
givl
eae
rulesfortheintonationofsocialformulaebecauseitisanarea
ingorinvitingit,theriseleavingopenthem ssibilityofdisagreement! ;
' wherenativespeakersofEnglishoften haveidiosyncratichabih.Itis,however,
. generallytrtzethatfallingtonesgenerallyshow sinceritywhilerisingonesareused
flt':alongwayfrom theshops.)It%zjghtontheoutskir!sXi:n'tit? ' insituationswbereaformulaicpleas isappropriate.Thustla kyouisappro-
(1hadalovelytime.)Yes/Thedaydidgowell/hdidn'tit? . Priatelysaidwithariseonbeinggivenaticket,whileahighfalllsmorelikelyifa
(LendmeyourcopyofShakespeare.)Youwilllookafterit/'won'tyou? genuinefavourhasbeendoneanda1owfalliftlzematterinhandisboring.IQe
(Wheredidlputmygolfclubs?)Youlefttheminthegarage/.didn'tyou? ' morningMtIIahighfallissincere-soundinglandsometimesinappropriately:0!),
(Heaskedmetodrivehimthere.)Butyouwon'tbeabletogoLwiliyou? ' withalow fallisbrusqueandwithalowriseispolite(andIyossiblyoverlym1).
lW'howasthatwomanilewaswïtlz?)ItwashïssisterSwasn'tft? ' Thîsgreetl ng(arldmanyothers)canalsol>esaidw'itllthe'St/izecl'toneAehjch
= ...-..- '
.. . x
q
PA R T IV t
> = ï
'
LanguageTeachingandLearning 1
Il
!
!
j'
1
I
II
jI
II
' j
k
I.
,
1
I I
ax u n- v nzus,,,
ganuum ing z'
eurwa:anduorningznglu ,,anaaalsona;un z za1
' 135 InternatlonalEnglish:Prloritlesand Tolerances 'Rö/and/Jl5/wereexpenuable;forthepresentmodeleventhesomewhathigher
;
, . sjwuonallyloaded /f,v/anujsz./alsobecomeexpendable.variationsinthe
'rxssortoft argetisiikelytobethemostcontenttousandthemostutfficulttobe Placeofarticulationof/s,z/(e.g.dentalorretroflex)canbetolerated.Atthislevel
preciseaibout.6ItcanbesetupasatargetIorthosewhouse hvlish asalin'vm tbereisnojustificationforinsistingonthepronunciationof/h/atai),i.e.jtcan
rrancae wi
'
t
iwr thintiwirowncountry(andsometimesincludingsurrounding bereplacedbyzero;alternativelyveuranduvuurrealizationsareacceptable.
countries)orasameansofintemationalcommunicationnotnecessariiyinvolv.
ingnauvespeakersatall.ItinvolvessimplifyingtheAmakam Englishsetupin Iz.s.1.z A.<.-, Thesameapplieshereasappliedinthepreviousmouel:
913.4inwaystomakeiteasierforleamersfrom manydifferentlanguageback- lf'z%lshouldbekeptdistinctfrcim/trdr/(where/r/maybeyl-seenextsection)
grounds;anditwillallowsomevariationtotakeaccountolthesedifferentback- butrealizationsas(tjdjjorItç,dj.lar
groundsbutnottoanextenttonaakethepevarietiesnxutuallyunintelBpble. Iqqishouldbenaaintained but asefa oc
rce
tp
hub
eplleo.sT
ivheedco
isndtnra
cs
ttobnestwde
lsecnul
s#
seIdanid
n
ReductionofallcontrastswhichinvolveaIowftmctionalloadisaliowed.Itpro. 912.5.1.labovecanbeallowedtobemoredependentonvoicingthanisusual
duceswhatmightstillbeanintelligibleform ofEnglish given thatcommunica- inL1English.
tion usingitwillbein context:wherethelanguageusedhasa fairdegreeof
predictabihty. - ' jtjos.j.4 Ajjjjrosmuna yojerancesinthissectionarethesameasfortheprevi
-
ousmodel.A1Ivariationson/l/aretolerable(i.e.kl)tll,and(u)inpost-vocalic
l I3.5.I Consonants position)./r/canbepronouncedinallIyositionswhereitisinthespellirtganda
j jupjejthery)org(j)jsactuallypreferable.Thedistinctionbetw'eensomeformof
Almostallofwhatwassaid in 13.4.1concerning consonantsintheprevious /r/andsomeform of/l/should'however'beinsisted upon sinceitisofhigh
pfuri
nocrtit
ioynbae
lcla
ou
as
deio
nfEt
nhgelishhig
.hAfcontrastbetween/v/and/w/shouldreceivehigh
,
modelappliesherebutmoreL1intrusionisallowable.
shouldbeavoidedbecauseofpu on
tc
ent
itoin
aa
lll
isl
o
tea
nderandss
mi inub
tes
rt
pi
mt
reti
ao
tn
ionof!
v)foreither
I3.5.1.I Pleslv'e: /p,t.k/anö /b,dàW mustremain ascontrastive sounds. .
Mp iration(jnitially)andlengthefprecedingvowel/nasal/lateral(finally)arestili
thepreferred featuresforthe contrasts.Butmany speakersusingEnglish for ' l3.5'I'5 * ** Tolerancesinthissectionaretlw rameasforthepreviousmtxlel,
internationalpurposesmay,bymatchingEnglishtotheirL1,makethesecon- l-atittldei9allowableintheplaceofarticulationof/n/(e.g.dentalorretroilex).
trast'sdependonvoicingalone;thiscanbetoleratedwiththistarget.Thesame 'l'heWonunciationofa/g/following/p/isallowable(itisusuallypresentinthe
appliesalsowheretheplosivesarefollowedby/1,z,w,j/ldevoicingoftheapprox- Spelling).
imantlisstilltobepreferredbutlackofthisfeaturecan betolerated.Variations '
intheplaceofarticulationof/t,d/canbetoleratedastheywereintheprevious . I3.5I4.conzorumvcluxer.s FinalclustersinvolvingC+/td/(includingpast
t arget(i .e.theyCanbedent alorretr
oflexl.Us
eOf/a/inPl aceofnasalandl
Plosionandinsequtnce:OfPlosivesisalsoallowable.Therealizationof/d/asa
at
eral ? t
fernths
u ee.
re
+imp
s may
li l
o
as
fic ett
ti heirktjd/asinAmalgamEngl ish(andildeedi nRP).some
m ofclusterscanbetolerated.Initialclustersof/s/+Cand
flapIr1isagainnottfkbeentouragedbecatkleOfPotentialconfusionwith/r/.And C +/1rwj/willoftenbesimplifiedbyleamersatthislevelGenerallyspeakinp
itstillremainsimpcGant(asinthePreviousmodel)tokeeptheplosivesasp10. useofanintrtlsivevowelistobeprefezredtodroppingconsonants;andamedial
sivesandnotallow weakeningtofrkatives. intrusivevowelistobepreferredtoinitialintmsivevowele.g.forsportJ
ratherthankespa:t/ratherthankpmt/(a1lthreeareofcours'elikelytoincls am:t/
udean
Iz.s.l.a Fricative, Asfntlwpreviousmouelplaceofarticulationdistinctions /r/fromthespellingaswell,e,g.ysapa:rtp.
amongfricativesshouiuberetained,/e,ö/canbeallowedtobecome(lentalEl,w;
r
reep
plla
acce
eme
men nt tbisy
'oanl v
ee ro
el
aar
soxt
nwhqca yn ite ven
wa sb ree
ctoo leratneu
mme det l
dwu
thgahttn
hoetwenecae
keunra
inge
gdo.
fspuc
loh.
sivestofricativu shoulunotbeallowed:ifitwere,anachtalreversalofthesim- 13.5.2 Vowels
ahi
t tiosnisiI
niknealy
tivto
e-bsp-eeaakmo
erEre
n-
gclo
isnhfeussiwnogusli
dtuoacti
coun
r,tih
.ea.n/do/n
-l>v
. îöo
Jnane-dwa
föy/r
-eqptl
qa.ce
cme
leanzlt
y. ' ItisinthisareathattherequirementsofInternationalEnglish mostdifferfrom
Forthepreviousmouel,itw&ssugs-
esteuthattheuistin'
ctionsbe%'wee'ntlw pairs ' thoseofAmalgam English,vowelcontrastsingeneralappeartobelesscnwialto
'
.
':
iritelligibilityinEnxlishtl
aanconsonantcontrastssothatamajorsimplification
ofthevowelsystem''ispossibleforInternationalEnglish.Moreoveralargepart
6Thiswholesectionisinthenatureofabypethesisahoutwhatconstittstethecharacteristicsof
suchamodel.Theenlybookwhichtenfrontsthispreblemandpresentssomeevidenceis
Jenkins(21G ).
J 7Lin(7.
,*3).