PHAGWARA (PUNJAB)

SESSION
2010-2011

TERM PAPER

ENGINEERING MATHAMETICS-I
MTH101

Topic: Comment on maxima and minima of functions, how this

concept is helpful in daily life.

DOA: 03/09/10

DOR: 21/09/10

DOS: 15/11/10

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Ms… Mr. …

Deptt. Of Mathametics Roll. No. …

Reg.No…

Class……E6001...
 It is not until you under take a project like this one that
you realize how massive the effort it really is, or how much you
must really upon the self less effort and good will of other .
There are many who helped in this project, and I want to thanks
them all .It is my pleasure to thank all those who helped me
directly or indirectly in presentation of this project .The
development of a project of this nature would not have possible
without the help of different persons .I am intended to all of
them.

I express my deep gratitude to Mrs. Gurpreet

(Lecturer of lovely professional university) for helping me and
for their continuing support at the every stage of the
development of this project by providing sufficient time in the
study centre lab.

At the last but not least I am most thankful to all

friends and family members for all the encouragement and
facilities provided by them which has helped me the most to
complete this project work.

Manoj
 Introduction

 Functions of more than one variable

 Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two Variables

 The Second Derivative Test for Functions of Two

Variables

 Maxima and Minima in a Bounded Region

 Maxima and Minima for Functions of More than 2

Variables

 How is maxima and minima use full in daily life?

 References
Definitions of Maxima and minima:
In mathematics, maxima and minima, known
collectively as extrema (singular: extremum), are the largest
value (maximum) or smallest value (minimum), that a function
takes in a point either within a given neighbourhood (local
extremum) or on the function domain in its entirety (global
extremum). ...

Functions of more than one variable

For functions of more than one variable, similar conditions

apply. For example, in the (enlargeable) figure at the right, the
necessary conditions for a local maximum are similar to those of
a function with only one variable. The first partial derivatives as
to z (the variable to be maximized) are zero at the maximum (the
glowing dot on top in the figure). The second partial derivatives
are negative. These are only necessary, not sufficient, conditions
for a local maximum because of the possibility of a saddle point.
For use of these conditions to solve for a maximum, the function
z must also be differentiable throughout. The second partial
derivative test can help classify the point as a relative maximum
or relative minimum.
In contrast, there are substantial differences between functions
of one variable and functions of more than one variable in the
identification of global extrema. For example, if a differentiable
function f defined on the real line has a single critical point,
which is a local minimum, then it is also a global minimum (use
the intermediate value theorem and Rolle's theorem to prove this
by reductio ad absurdum). In two and more dimensions, this
argument fails, as the function
shows. Its only critical point is at (0,0), which is a local
minimum with ƒ(0,0) = 0. However, it cannot be a global one,
because ƒ(4,1) = −11.

The global maximum is the point

Counterexample
at the top

Maxima and minima are more generally defined for sets. In

general, if an ordered set S has a greatest element m, m is a
maximal element. Furthermore, if S is a subset of an ordered set
T and m is the greatest element of S with respect to order
induced by T, m is a least upper bound of S in T. The similar
result holds for least element, minimal element and greatest
lower bound.
In the case of a general partial order, the least element (smaller
than all other) should not be confused with a minimal element
(nothing is smaller). Likewise, a greatest element of a partially
ordered set (poset) is an upper bound of the set which is
contained within the set, whereas a maximal element m of a
poset A is an element of A such that if m ≤ b (for any b in A)
then m = b. Any least element or greatest element of a poset is
unique, but a poset can have several minimal or maximal
elements. If a poset has more than one maximal element, then
these elements will not be mutually comparable.
In a totally ordered set, or chain, all elements are mutually
comparable, so such a set can have at most one minimal element
and at most one maximal element. Then, due to mutual
comparability, the minimal element will also be the least
element and the maximal element will also be the greatest
element. Thus in a totally ordered set we can simply use the
terms minimum and maximum. If a chain is finite then it will
always have a maximum and a minimum. If a chain is infinite
then it need not have a maximum or a minimum. For example,
the set of natural numbers has no maximum, though it has a
minimum. If an infinite chain S is bounded, then the closure Cl
(S) of the set occasionally has a minimum and a maximum, in
such case they are called the greatest lower bound and the least
upper bound of the set S, respectively.
Local Maximum and Minimum
Functions can have "hills and valleys": places where they reach
a minimum or maximum value.
It may not be the minimum or maximum for the whole function,
but locally it is.

Local Maximum First we need to choose an interval:

Then we can say that a local maximum is the point where:
The height of the function at "a" is greater than (or equal to) the
height anywhere else in that interval.
Then we can say that a local maximum is the point where:
The height of the function at "a" is greater than (or equal to) the
height anywhere else in that interval.
Or, more briefly:
f(a) ≥ f(x) for all x in the interval
In other words, there is no height greater than f(a).
Note: f(a) should be inside the interval, not at one end or the
other.

Local Minimum

Likewise, a local minimum is:

f(a) ≤ f(x) for all x in the interval
The plural of Maximum is Maxima
The plural of Minimum is Minima
Maxima and Minima are collectively called Extrema.

Global (or Absolute) Maximum and Minimum

The maximum or minimum over the entire function is called an
"Absolute" or "Global" maximum or minimum.
There is only one global maximum (and one global minimum)
but there can be more than one local maximum or minimum.
The terms maxima and minima refer to extreme values of a
function, that is, the maximum and minimum values that the
function attains. Maximum means upper bound or largest
possible quantity. The absolute maximum of a function is the
largest number contained in the range of the function. That is, if
f(a) is greater than or equal to f(x), for all x in the domain of the
function, then f(a) is the absolute maximum. For example, the
function f(x) = -16x2 + 32x + 6 has a maximum value of 22
occurring at x = 1. Every value of x produces a value of the
function that is less than or equal to 22, hence, 22 is an absolute
maximum. In terms of its graph, the absolute maximum of a
function is the value of the function that corresponds to the
highest point on the graph. Conversely, minimum means lower
bound or least possible quantity. The absolute minimum of a
function is the smallest number in its range and corresponds to
the value of the function at the lowest point of its graph. If f(a)
is less than or equal to f(x), for all x in the domain of the
function, then f(a) is an absolute minimum. As an example, f(x)
= 32x2 - 32x - 6 has an absolute minimum of -22, because every
value of x produces a value greater than or equal to -22.
In some cases, a function will have no absolute maximum or
minimum. For instance the function f(x) = 1/x has no absolute
maximum value, nor does f(x) = -1/x have an absolute
minimum. In still other cases, functions may have relative (or
local) maxima and minima. Relative means relative to local or
nearby values of the function. The terms relative maxima and
relative minima refer to the largest, or least, value that a
function takes on over some small portion or interval of its
domain. Thus, if f(b) is greater than or equal to f(b ± h) for small
values of h, then f(b) is a local maximum; if f(b) is less than or
equal to f(b ± h), then f(b) is a relative minimum. For example,
the function f(x) = x4 -12x3 - 58x2 + 180x + 225 has two relative
minima (points A and C), one of which is also the absolute
minimum (point C) of the function. It also has a relative
maximum (point B), but no absolute maximum.
Finding the maxima and minima, both absolute and relative, of
various functions represents an important class of problems
solvable by use of differential calculus. The theory behind
finding maximum and minimum values of a function is based on
the fact that the derivative of a function is equal to the slope of
the tangent. When the values of a function increase as the value
of the independent variable increases, the lines that are tangent
to the graph of the function have positive slope, and the function
is said to be increasing. Conversely, when the values of the
function decrease with increasing values of the independent
variable, the tangent lines have negative slope, and the function
is said to be decreasing. Precisely at the point where the function
changes from increasing to decreasing or from decreasing to
increasing, the tangent line is horizontal (has slope 0), and the
derivative is zero. (With reference to figure 1, the function is
decreasing to the left of point A, as well as between points B
and C, and increasing between points A and B and to the right of
point C). In order to find maximum and minimum points, first
find the values of the independent variable for which the
derivative of the function is zero, then substitute them in the
original function to obtain the corresponding maximum or
minimum values of the function. Second, inspect the behavior of
the derivative to the left and right of each point. If the derivative
Figure 1. Illustration by Hans & Cassidy. Courtesy of Gale
Group. is negative on the left and positive on the right, the point
is a minimum. If the derivative is positive on the left and
negative on the right, the point is a maximum. Equivalently, find
the second derivative at each value of the independent variable
that corresponds to a maximum or minimum; if the second
derivative is positive, the point is a minimum, if the second
derivative is negative the point is a maximum.

Maxima and Minima of Functions of Two

Variables
The problem of determining the maximum or minimum of
function is encountered in geometry, mechanics, physics, and
other fields, and was one of the motivating factors in the
development of the calculus in the seventeenth century.
Let us recall the procedure for the case of a function of one
variable y=f(x). First, we determine points x _c where f'(x)=0.
These points are called critical points. At critical points the
tangent line is horizontal. This is shown in the figure below.
The second derivative test is employed to determine if a critical
point is a relative maximum or a relative minimum. If f''(x_
c)>0, then x_ c is a relative minimum. If f''(x_ c)<0, then x_ c is
a maximum. If f''(x_ c)=0, then the test gives no information.
The notions of critical points and the second derivative test carry
over to functions of two variables. Let z=f ( x, y ). Critical
points are points in the xy - plane where the tangent plane is
horizontal.

Since the normal vector of the tangent plane at (x, y) is given by

fx(x, y)i + fy(x, y)j - k
The tangent plane is horizontal if its normal vector points in the
z direction. Hence, critical points are solutions of the equations:
fx(x,y) = 0 & fy (x, y) = 0
because horizontal planes have normal vector parallel to z-axis.
The two equations above must be solved simultaneously.
The Second Derivative Test for Functions of Two Variables

How can we determine if the critical points found above are

relative maxima or minima? We apply a second derivative test
for functions of two variables.
Let (xc, yc) be a critical point and define
D(xc,yc) = fxx(xc, yc) fyy(xc , yc) – [fxy (xc, yc)]2
We have the following cases:
If D>0 and f_x x(x_ c,y_ c)<0, then f(x, y) has a relative
maximum at (x_ c,y _ c).
If D>0 and f_ xx(x_ c,y_ c)>0, then f(x,y) has a relative
minimum at (x_c,y_c).
If D<0, then f(x, y) has a saddle point at (x_ c,y_ c ).
zx D=0, the second derivative test is inconclusive.

Maxima and Minima in a Bounded Region

Suppose that our goal is to find the global maximum and
minimum of our model function above in the square -2<=x<=2
and -2<=y<=2? There are three types of points that can
potentially be global maxima or minima:
Relative extrema in the interior of the square.
Relative extrema on the boundary of the square.
Corner Points.
We have already done step 1. There are extrema at (1,0) and (-
1,0). The boundary of square consists of 4 parts. Side 1 is y=-2
and -2<=x<=2. On this side, we have
z = f(x,-2)= exp{1/3x3 + x –(-2)2 } = g(x)
The original function of 2 variables is now a function of x only.
We set g'(x)=0 to determine relative extrema on Side 1. It can be
shown that x=1 and x=-1 are the relative extrema. Since y=-2,
the relative extrema on Side 1 are at (1,-2) and (-1,-2).
On Side 2 (x=-2 and -2<=y<=2)
z = f(-2,y)=exp{-1/3(-2)3-2 –y2}=h(y)
We set h'(y)=0 to determine the relative extrema. It can be
shown that y=0 is the only critical point, corresponding to (-2,0).
We play the same game to determine the relative extrema on the
other 2 sides. It can be shown that they are (2,0), (1,2), and (-
1,2).
Finally, we must include the 4 corners (-2,-2), (-2,2), (2,-2), and
(2,2). In summary, the candidates for global maximum and
minimum are (-1,0), (1,0), (1,-2), (-1,-2), (-2,0), (2,0), (1,2), (-
1,2), (-2,-2), (-2,2), (2,-2), and (2,2). We evaluate f(x,y) at each
of these points to determine the global max and min in the
square. The global maximum occurs (-2,0) and (1,0). This can
be seen in the figure above. The global minimum occurs at 4
points: (-1,2), (-1,-2), (2,2), and (2,-2).

Example: Maxima and Minima in a Disk

Another example of a bounded region is the disk of radius 2

centered at the origin. We proceed as in the previous example,
determining in the 3 classes above. (1,0) and (-1,0) lie in the
interior of the disk.
The boundary of the disk is the circle x^2+y^2=4. To find
extreme points on the disk we parameterize the circle. A natural
parameterization is x=2cos(t) and y=2sin(t) for 0<=t<=2*pi. We
substitute these expressions into z=f(x,y) and obtain
z = f(x, y) = f( cos(t),sin(t)) = exp (-8/3 cos3t + 2 cos t – 4sin2t) =
g(t)
On the circle, the original functions of 2 variables is reduced to
a function of 1 variable. We can determine the extrema on the
circle using techniques from calculus of on variable.
In this problem there are not any corners. Hence, we determine
the global max and min by considering points in the interior of
the disk and on the circle. An alternative method for finding the
maximum and minimum on the circle is the method of Lagrange
multipliers.
Maxima and Minima for Functions of More
than 2 Variables

The notion of extreme points can be extended to functions of

more than 2 variables. Suppose z=f(x_1,x_2,...,x_ n).
(a_1,a_2,...,a_ n) is extreme point if it satisfies the n equations
∂f
∂xc (x1,x2,……,xn) = 0 i = 1,2,3,……..,n
There is not a general second derivative test to determine if a
point is a relative maximum or minimum for functions of more
than two variables.

How is maxima and minima use full in daily

life?

Maxima and minima pop up all over the place in our daily
lives. They can be found anywhere we are interested in the
highest and/or lowest value of a given system; if you look
hard enough, you can probably find them just about
anywhere! Here are just a few examples of where you
 might encounter maxima and minima:

A meteorologist creates a model that predicts temperature

variance with respect to time. The absolute maximum and
minimum of this function over any 24-hour period are the
forecasted high and low temperatures, as later reported on
The Weather Channel or the evening news.

The director of a theme park works with a model of total

revenue as a function of admission price. The location of
the absolute maximum of this function represents the ideal
admission price.
An actuary works with functions that represent the
probability of various negative events occurring. The local
minima of these functions correspond to lucrative markets
for his/her insurance company – low-risk, high-reward
ventures.

 Higher Engineering Mathematics by B V Ramana

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