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Eucalyptus robusta Sm.

Protologue
Spec. bot. New Holland 4: 39 (1795).

Family
Myrtaceae

Vernacular names
Swamp mahogany, swamp messmate, beakpod eucalyptus, Australian silk oak
(En). Eucalyptus rouge, acajou des marais (Fr). Eucalipto robusto, eucalipto de
folha larga (Po). Mkaratusi (Sw).

Origin and geographic distribution

Eucalyptus robusta is native to a narrow coastal area in south-eastern Australia,
from southern Queensland to southern New South Wales. It is one of the most
widely planted Eucalyptus species and it has been introduced into many tropical,
subtropical, and warm-temperate areas, including many countries in tropical
Africa. It is especially important in Madagascar, where it was introduced in the
1890s.

Uses
The wood is generally used for construction, poles, ordinary furniture, wheels,
ship-building, wharf construction, shingles, pallets and boxes. The durability and
strength of the wood make it highly regarded for stakes and fences; stakes last a
long time in the ground and can be driven repeatedly without splitting. The wood
makes attractive flooring, while its strength makes it suitable for construction.
Quarter-sawn wood can be sliced into an attractive veneer suitable for plywood
and panels. The wood is also suitable for mine props, railway sleepers, vehicle
bodies, agricultural implements, food containers, joinery, turnery and musical
instruments. It is an excellent fuelwood and makes good charcoal. It is also used
for paper making, but for this purpose it is not as good as Eucalyptus globulus
Labill. and Eucalyptus saligna Sm.
Eucalyptus robusta is a bee forage tree. It is used for reforestation and dune
stabilization and it is planted to dry-out swamps, e.g. to combat malaria. It is
sometimes used for windbreaks and wayside planting, and it has ornamental
value.
In Gabon an infusion of the leaves is used for treatment of malarial fever, and in
Chinese traditional medicine the leaves are also used against malaria. In
Mauritius and Réunion the leaves are used for baths, inhalations and infusions to
treat fever, colds, cough and influenza. Inhalation is also recommended for
treatment of asthma and sinusitis, and infusions are taken against diabetes. A
decoction is used in baths to treat stiffness, rheumatism and epilepsy. In
Madagascar a handful of buds is rubbed and squeezed, and the sap is applied to
the nostrils to relieve headache.

Production and international trade

For 1995 it was estimated that worldwide Eucalyptus plantations amounted to
14.6 million ha, of which 1.8 million ha in Africa. Madagascar has an estimated
151,000 ha, mainly Eucalyptus robusta.

Properties
The heartwood is pale red when freshly cut, turning orange-red or red-brown with
age; it is clearly demarcated from the up to 5 cm wide, pale brown sapwood. The
grain is interlocked, texture coarse. Quartersawn surfaces sometimes have a
ribbon figure of light and dark stripes.
The wood is fairly heavy, with a density of 720–920 kg/m³ at 12% moisture
content. The rates of shrinkage from green to oven dry are high: 5.4–9.7% radial
and 8.3–12.0% tangential. The high shrinkage, coupled with the interlocked
grain, makes Eucalyptus robusta a wood requiring careful drying. During drying
distortion and splitting may occur; serious degrade can be avoided by air drying
to a moisture content below 30% before kiln drying. In humid parts of
Madagascar 2.5 cm thick boards need 3 months to dry to 30% moisture content,
in drier parts only 1.5 month. The wood is not stable in service.
At 12% moisture content, the modulus of rupture is 95–201 N/mm², modulus of
elasticity 9800–16,700 N/mm², compression parallel to grain 40–82 N/mm², shear
7–16 N/mm², cleavage 18–32 N/mm and Chalais-Meudon side hardness 3.2–6.7.
The wood works well and takes a good polish. It is somewhat abrasive, and
planing may be affected by interlocked grain. Therefore, slow speeds and a
cutting angle of 20° are recommended. Sawing and working properties are
generally good, although gummy exudates may clog up saws. The wood holds
nails well, but pre-boring is necessary to avoid splitting. It turns well, and paints
and waxes satisfactorily. Gluing is fairly difficult. The wood is not suitable for
steam-bending.
The wood is durable and can be used in moist conditions. The heartwood is
resistant to attacks by fungi and most insects, including marine borers, and
moderately resistant to termite attack. The sapwood is readily attacked by fungi
and insects, including Lyctus borers. Thinner stems often mainly consist of
sapwood and their durability is low. The heartwood is resistant to impregnation
with preservatives, the sapwood is moderately resistant. The wood has an
energy value of 19,600–20,500 kJ/kg.
The leaves yield 0.1–0.2% essential oil. The main components of the essential oil
of leaves from DR Congo were p-cymene (27.3%), myrtenal (12.8%) and β-
pinene (6.3%), α-terpineol (6.3%), 1,8-cineole (4.3%), limonene (3.5%) and
cuminaldehyde (2.5%). The essential oil has shown antibacterial and antifungal
activity. Ethanol extracts of the leaves have shown antioxidant activity. Phenolic
compounds with activity against the malaria-inducing protozoan Plasmodium
berghei have been isolated from the leaf. The bark contains 1.4% tannin,
whereas the leaves may contain 12%.

Description
Evergreen, medium-sized tree up to 30(–55) m tall; bole often relatively short,
straight, up to 120 cm in diameter, on wet sites aerial roots up to 6 m high on the
trunk may be present; bark rough, soft, spongy, fibrous, red-brown; crown
spreading in trees growing in the open, and narrow in closely spaced plantations.
Leaves alternate, simple and entire; stipules absent; petiole channelled, 1.5–3.5
cm long; blade broadly lanceolate, 8–18(–20) cm × 2.5–8 cm, long-acuminate at
apex, glabrous, dark green above, pale green beneath, pinnately veined,
aromatic when crushed. Inflorescence an axillary, simple, condensed and
reduced, umbel-like dichasium, 5–15-flowered; peduncle broadly flattened, 13–35
mm long. Flowers bisexual, regular; pedicel angular and up to 9(–12) mm long;
flower buds spindle-shaped, beaked, 10–30 mm × 6–8 mm, divided into a
hypanthium (lower part) 6–7 mm × 6–8 mm, and a conical, beaked operculum
(upper part) 10–14 mm × 6–8 mm, shed at anthesis; stamens numerous; ovary
inferior, 3–4-celled. Fruit a thin-walled cylindrical to urn-shaped capsule (8–)10–
18 mm × 6–11 (–12) mm, enclosed in a woody hypanthium, opening with 3–4
included to slightly exserted valves, many-seeded. Seeds cube-shaped or flat, 1–
2 mm long, brown. Seedling with epigeal germination.

Other botanical information

Eucalyptus comprises about 800 species, endemic to Australia, except for about
10 species in the eastern part of South-East Asia. Many Eucalyptus species are
cultivated outside their natural distribution area, in tropical, subtropical and
temperate regions, because of their rapid growth and adaptation to a wide range
of ecological conditions. In Africa Eucalyptus globulus has long been the most
important Eucalyptus species, but its importance has declined, although it is still
important in cooler climates. Nowadays the main commercial species in Africa
are Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill ex Maiden in more fertile locations, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis Dehnh. in drier regions, and Eucalyptus robusta in more tropical
regions.
Eucalyptus is divided into several subgenera (7–10, depending on the author),
which are subdivided into many sections and series. The results of phylogenetic
studies within Eucalyptus suggest that the genus is polyphyletic, hence not of a
single evolutionary origin, and consequently it has been proposed to divide the
genus into several distinct genera. This has not yet been done, mainly because
of the nomenclatural whirlpool this would bring about. Eucalyptus species
hybridize easily, which adds to the taxonomic complexity.
Several natural hybrids involving Eucalyptus robusta have been reported.

Anatomy
Wood-anatomical description (IAWA hardwood codes):
Growth rings: 2: growth ring boundaries indistinct or absent. Vessels: 5: wood
diffuse-porous; (7: vessels in diagonal and/or radial pattern); 9: vessels
exclusively solitary (90% or more); 13: simple perforation plates; 22: intervessel
pits alternate; 26: intervessel pits medium (7–10 μm); 27: intervessel pits large (≥
10 μm); 29: vestured pits; 31: vessel-ray pits with much reduced borders to
apparently simple: pits rounded or angular; 32: vessel-ray pits with much reduced
borders to apparently simple: pits horizontal (scalariform, gash-like) to vertical
(palisade); 42: mean tangential diameter of vessel lumina 100–200 μm; (45:
vessels of two distinct diameter classes, wood not ring-porous); 46: ≤ 5 vessels
per square millimetre; 47: 5–20 vessels per square millimetre; 56: tyloses
common. Tracheids and fibres: 60: vascular/vasicentric tracheids present; 62:
fibres with distinctly bordered pits; 63: fibre pits common in both radial and
tangential walls; 66: non-septate fibres present; 70: fibres very thick-walled. Axial
parenchyma: 76: axial parenchyma diffuse; 79: axial parenchyma vasicentric; 80:
axial parenchyma aliform; 81: axial parenchyma lozenge-aliform; 83: axial
parenchyma confluent; 92: four (3–4) cells per parenchyma strand. Rays: 97: ray
width 1–3 cells; 104: all ray cells procumbent; 106: body ray cells procumbent
with one row of upright and/or square marginal cells; 116: ≥ 12 rays per mm.
(P. Baas)

Growth and development

The annual growth in height is usually 1.8–2.4 m during the first few years,
slowing down to 1.5–1.8 m later. In Mauritius an annual height growth of 52 cm
has been recorded. Trees start flowering when they are (3–)5 years old.
Flowering is protandrous and the flowers are pollinated by insects. The fruits
ripen 5–7 months after flowering. Seed dispersal is mainly by wind. Eucalyptus
robusta regenerates freely, and dense thickets of saplings can be found near old
stands.

Ecology
Eucalyptus robusta is grown from sea-level up to 1600 m altitude, in areas with a
mean annual temperature of 16–28°C, a mean maximum temperature of the
warmest month of 25–32°C, a mean minimum temperature of the coldest month
of 3–12°C, and an average annual rainfall of 700–1800 mm, with a dry season of
1–4 months. In its area of natural distribution it grows in swamps, near salt-water
estuaries and lagoons. It grows better on slopes, but cannot compete with other
species. In Ethiopia it is planted in locations with deep soil and high rainfall. It
tolerates prolonged flooding, but does not grow in stagnant water. It tolerates
slightly saline soils and salty winds, and regenerates fast after fire.

Propagation and planting

The 1000-seed weight is 2–9 g. Seed can be stored for several years under dry,
cold and airtight conditions. The seed is difficult to separate from the chaff
(unfertilized or aborted ovules) in the ripe fruits. No pre-sowing treatment is
required. Seed germinates easily with normal methods, with 80–85% germination
in 7–10 days. Seedlings can be planted out in the field after (2–)4–6 months,
when they are 20–30 cm tall. Cuttings taken from young seedlings and young
coppice shoots have been successfully rooted, but cuttings have not been used
on a commercial scale.

Management
Weeding is important during initial growth. The tree coppices well. For fuelwood,
coppice rotations of 4–5 years are used, for pulpwood rotations of 8–10 years,
and for saw logs rotations of 30–60 years. However, in plantations for fuelwood
and charcoal in Madagascar, rotations as short as 2–3 years are common,
whereas rotations of 8 years are considered optimal to maximize production.

Diseases and pests

Eucalyptus robusta is susceptible to the eucalyptus snout beetle (Gonipterus
scutellatus), of which both the larval and adult stages cause damage, especially
by feeding on the leaves. Repeated defoliation leads to stunted growth, and trees
may die. Adults, larvae and eggs are carried on plants for planting and
accompanying soil, whereas adults may also spread by flying. In Mauritius,
France and Italy biological control using the egg parasite Anaphes nitens has
been successful in reducing attacks. Chemical treatment is not recommended
because of its adverse effects on honey bees visiting the trees. Gonipterus
scutellatus is of Australian origin, and is recorded to be present in Kenya,
Uganda, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius, South Africa,
Swaziland and Lesotho. Differences in susceptibility exist between Eucalyptus
spp., with Eucalyptus robusta belonging to the more susceptible species.
Because of its susceptibility to the eucalyptus snout beetle, Eucalyptus robusta
has been banned from Kenya. Young plants are susceptible to termite attack.
Harvesting
Wood in the living tree is subject to internal stresses that have built up during the
life of the tree. These stresses may be released during all stages of harvesting
and processing, resulting in spontaneous splitting and deformations.
Furthermore, brittle heart is usually present, and small pin knots often occur.

Yield
In Madagascar yields of 7–36 m³/ha per year are attained. Coppice stands often
outproduce seedling stands. A 10-year-old coppice stand in Hawaii produced 140
m³/ha, while an adjacent 12-year-old seedling stand yielded only 96 m³/ha.

Handling after harvest

Quartersawing of the logs is recommended to reduce splitting and deformations
due to the release of internal stresses.

Genetic resources
The genetic base of Eucalyptus robusta in Madagascar is rather narrow, resulting
in inbreeding, low-quality seeds and poor performance. Genetic improvement
activities aim to broaden the genetic variation and produce improved material for
village communities.

Breeding
In Madagascar farmers prefer genotypes with good coppicing ability, a thick bark
for fire resistance, good juvenile vigour and high volume production for fuelwood
and charcoal, whereas stem form and other morphological characteristics are
less important. A provenance trial with 30 Australian provenances and 25 local
provenances from Madagascar was planted, from which superior trees were
selected for seed orchards.
Recurrent selection and open-pollinated recombination in different environments
are applied to obtain genotypes with the desired traits. Hybridization of
Eucalyptus robusta with Eucalyptus grandis is being tried out.

Prospects
Although Eucalyptus robusta is often considered too slow growing for productive
purposes, it is popular in Madagascar because of its wood quality, hardiness,
adaptation to various environments, excellent coppicing ability and fire-resistant
bark. The wood of Eucalyptus robusta is well-suited for purposes requiring
strength and durability and for finish work where an attractively figured, orange-
red to reddish brown wood is desired. Eucalyptus robusta seems to have
prospects in humid locations, as it is one of the few plantation species tolerating
prolonged flooding.

Major references
• Bolza, E. & Keating, W.G., 1972. African timbers: the properties, uses and
characteristics of 700 species. Division of Building Research, CSIRO, Melbourne,
Australia. 710 pp.
• Chippendale, G.M., 1988. Myrtaceae - Eucalyptus, Angophora. In: George, A.S.
(Editor). Flora of Australia, Volume 19. Australian Government Publishing
Service, Canberra, Australia. 540 pp.
• Guéneau, P., 1969. Caractéristiques et utilisations de l’Eucalyptus robusta à
Madagascar. Bois et Forêts des Tropiques 124: 53–65.
• Guéneau, P., Bedel, J. & Thiel, J., 1970–1975. Bois et essences malgaches.
Centre Technique Forestier Tropical, Nogent-sur-Marne, France. 150 pp.
• Jacobs, M.R., 1981. Eucalypts for planting. 2nd Edition. FAO Forestry Series
No 11. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 677
pp.
• Keating, W.G. & Bolza, E., 1982. Characteristics, properties and uses of
timbers. Vol.1: South East Asia, northern Australia and the Pacific. Inkata Press,
Melbourne, Australia. 362 pp.
• Lamb, D., Johns, R.J., Keating, W.G., Ilic, J. & Jongkind, C.C.H., 1993.
Eucalyptus L’Hér. In: Soerianegara, I. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (Editors). Plant
Resources of South-East Asia No 5(1). Timber trees: Major commercial timbers.
Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen, Netherlands. pp. 200–211.
• Takahashi, A., 1978. Compilation of data on the mechanical properties of
foreign woods (part 3) Africa. Shimane University, Matsue, Japan, 248 pp.
• Verdcourt, B., 2001. Myrtaceae. In: Beentje, H.J. (Editor). Flora of Tropical East
Africa. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands. 89 pp.
• World Agroforestry Centre, undated. Agroforestree Database. [Internet] World
Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/
Sites/TreeDBS/ aft.asp. Accessed May 2008.

Other references
• Amshoff, G.J.H., 1966. Myrtacées. Flore du Gabon. Volume 11. Muséum
National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France. pp. 3–33.
• Bazille, D. & Ducrocq, L., 2000. Caractérisation et dynamique des peuplements
d’Eucalyptus robusta dans la zone nord-est d’Antananarivo. Rapport de stage.
ESITPA, Val-de-Reuil, France. 45 pp.
• Bertrand, A., 1999. La dynamique séculaire des plantations d’eucalyptus sur les
Hautes Terres malgaches. Le Flamboyant 49: 45–48.
• Chaix, G. & Razafimaharo, V., 1998. Eucalyptus robusta Smith. Le Flamboyant
48: 5–9.
• Cheng, Q. & Snyder, J.K., 1988. Revised structures of robustadials A and B
from Eucalyptus robusta. Journal of Organic Chemistry 53(19): 4562–4567.
• Cimanga, K., Kambu, K., Tona, L., Aspers, S., De Bruyne, T., Hermans, N.,
Totté, J., Pieters, L. & Vlietinck, A.J., 2002. Correlation between chemical
composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils of some aromatic medicinal
plants growing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology 79: 213–220.
• Coppen, J.J.W., 2002. Eucalyptus: the genus Eucalyptus. Medicinal and
aromatic plants - industrial profiles, vol. 22. Taylor & Francis, London, United
Kingdom. 450 pp.
• EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization), 2005.
Gonipterus gibberus and Gonipterus scutellatus. EPPO Bulletin 35: 368–370.
• Friis, I., 1995. Myrtaceae. In: Edwards, S., Mesfin Tadesse & Hedberg, I.
(Editors). Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Volume 2, part 2. Canellaceae to
Euphorbiaceae. The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia and Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala University, Uppsala,
Sweden. pp. 71–106.
• Gurib-Fakim, A., Guého, J. & Bissoondoyal, M.D., 1996. Plantes médicinales de
Maurice, tome 2. Editions de l’Océan Indien, Rose-Hill, Mauritius. 532 pp.
• Lavergne, R. & Véra, R., 1989. Médecine traditionelle et pharmacopée -
Contribution aux études ethnobotaniques et floristiques à la Réunion. Agence de
Coopération Culturelle et Technique, Paris, France. 236 pp.
• Lebot, V. & Ranaivoson, L., 1994. Eucalyptus genetic improvement in
Madagascar. Forest Ecology and Management 63(2–3): 135–152.
• Parry, N.S., 1956. Tree planting practices in tropical Africa. FAO Forestry
Development Paper No 8. FAO, Rome, Italy. 302 pp.
• Raponda-Walker, A. & Sillans, R., 1961. Les plantes utiles du Gabon. Paul
Lechevalier, Paris, France. 614 pp.
• Streets, R.J., 1962. Exotic forest trees in the British Commonwealth. Clarendon
Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. 765 pp.
• Webb, D.B., Wood, P.J., Smith, J.P. & Henman, G.S., 1984. A guide to species
selection for tropical and sub-tropical plantations. 2nd Edition. Tropical Forestry
Papers No 15. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, United
Kingdom. 256 pp.
• White, F., 1978. Myrtaceae. In: Launert, E. (Editor). Flora Zambesiaca. Volume
4. Flora Zambesiaca Managing Committee, London, United Kingdom. pp. 183–
212.

Sources of illustration
• Lamb, D., Johns, R.J., Keating, W.G., Ilic, J. & Jongkind, C.C.H., 1993.
Eucalyptus L’Hér. In: Soerianegara, I. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (Editors). Plant
Resources of South-East Asia No 5(1). Timber trees: Major commercial timbers.
Pudoc Scientific Publishers, Wageningen, Netherlands. pp. 200–211.

Author(s)
• R.B. Jiofack Tafokou
Ecologic Museum of Cameroon, P.O. Box 8038, Yaoundé, Cameroon

Editors
• D. Louppe
CIRAD, Département Environnements et Sociétés, Cirad es-dir, Campus
international de Baillarguet, TA C-DIR / B (Bât. C, Bur. 113), 34398 Montpellier
Cedex 5, France

• A.A. Oteng-Amoako
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), University P.O. Box 63,
KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana

• M. Brink
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands

General editors
• R.H.M.J. Lemmens
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands

• L.P.A. Oyen
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
 AH Wageningen, Netherlands

• J.R. Cobbinah
Forestry Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG), University P.O. Box 63,
KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
Photo editor
• G.H. Schmelzer
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands

planted

1, tree habit; 2, flowering twig; 3, flower buds; 4, fruits.

Source: PROSEA

tree habit after fire

obtained from Plants of Hawaii

base of bole
obtained from University of Hawaii

crown
obtained from University of Hawaii
leaves and bark
obtained from University of Hawaii

flowers

dry fruits
obtained from Plants of Hawaii
seeds
obtained from S. Hurst

cutting logs, Madagascar

poles for charcoal making, Madagascar

planks
obtained from University of Hawaii