Professional Documents
Culture Documents
W-02 2 (a) Explain the link between the basic economic problem of scarcity and
opportunity cost. [8]
S-08 2 (a) Explain the three economic questions that all economies face
because of the basic economic problem. [8]
The basic economic questions are what to produce (the selection), how to
produce (the methods) and how to distribute (the consumers). These are the
result of scarce resources and unlimited wants. Scarcity exists and makes
choices necessary and this is found in all types of economy.
Understanding of the prevalence of scarcity up to 2 marks
Explanation of the basic economic questions up to 6 marks
W-06 2 (a) Explain how production possibility curves might be used in assessing
a country’s economic performance. [8]
A ppc shows the possible combinations of two goods which can be produced
by an economy when it uses all of its resources fully and efficiently. A ppc
slopes down to the right and is usually drawn concave to the origin. Points
within show unemployment and inefficiency, points without are unattainable.
Shifts in the curve show growth or loss of productive potential. The larger the
contained area the greater the level of production potential.
For knowledge of a ppc up to 2 marks
For explanation of static position up to 3 marks
For explanation of move in curve up to 3 marks
(d) Discuss the benefits and drawbacks of rising world food prices.
[6]
Rising food prices will help producers, farmers and rural areas, will stimulate
food production and help those countries which export food. They will hurt
low income earners, food importers and food processors and contribute to
inflationary pressure. The poorest subsistence farmers who buy additional
food will be hurt. The effects differ according to the production pattern and
level of income of countries and individuals.
One side 4 marks max.
Meaningful conclusion (1)
S-04 2 (b) Discuss whether the operation of a market economy always
produces a desirable outcome. [12]
A properly functioning market economy should provide choice, quality and
competition. It should make economic use of resources and avoid waste. It is
an efficient system of resource allocation and has outperformed planned
economies. However, it has drawbacks such as the production of externalities
and demerit goods and the failure to provide public and merit goods.
Knowledge of the nature of the market system up to 4 marks
Justification of desirable outcome up to 6 marks
Discussion of the failings of the market economy up to 6 marks, subject to
maximum of 8 in total for this and the previous line
S-05 2 (a) Explain the differences in the features of a market economy and a
planned economy. [8]
Individual actions and consumer sovereignty dominate in the market
economy. Motivation is self interest. Private ownership, the profit motive and
the operation of market forces are central features. In a planned economy
there are government ownership, planning bodies and the state direction of
resources. Motivation is public interest. Decisions by the government
dominate economic activity.
Explanation of the features of a market economy up to 4 marks
Explanation of features of a planned economy up to 4 marks
(b) Discuss the desirability of the direct provision of goods and services by the
government. [12]
The desirability depends upon the nature of the goods and services. Private
goods and services may be most efficiently supplied by the market. However
in cases of market failure the government may intervene. Public goods and
merit goods may not be provided or be under-provided by the market. This
would include defence and education and would justify the direct provision by
the government. Intervention in the provision of private goods however may
result in inefficiency and reduced welfare. Governments may also use this as
a way to tackle monopoly, fair prices and essential goods.
Discussion of merit and public goods up to 6 marks
Discussion of private goods up to 4 marks}to max
Discussion of other government motives for provision up to 4 marks}of 6
marks
W-06 2 (b) Discuss whether a mixed economy is the best way for a country to deal
with the basic economic problem. [12]
The basic economic problem concerns limited resources, unlimited wants and
scarcity. A mixed economy combines features of market and planned
systems. Private ownership, profit motive and markets operate as well as
government ownership, service provision and market intervention. The
balance between the two varies between time and place. A mixed system
should benefit from the advantages of the two systems. The market system
should provide incentive and efficiency while equity and market failure
should be dealt with by the government. However a mixed economy may
suffer from the disadvantages of both alternatives producing inequality,
inefficiency and low levels of welfare.
For understanding the mixed economy and economic problem up to 5 marks
For discussion of the mixed economy's benefits up to 5 marks
For discussion of the mixed economy's drawbacks up to 5 marks
S-07 2 (b) Discuss the desirability of the worldwide movement towards the
market economy and away from the planned economy. [12]
The market economy has limited government intervention and relies on the
profit motive and consumer sovereignty. It has proved more successful in
raising living standards, economic growth and economic efficiency.
Consumers benefit from more choice and lower prices. Planned economies
were state-run with economic plans and large scale government intervention.
The result was low living standards although employment was usually
available and a basic quality of life resulted. The move to market economies
brought beneficiaries and casualties. Russia illustrates the increase in
millionaires while unemployment and poverty grew. Some East European
economies are making fast progress while some former USSR republics are
struggling.
Candidates may consider the case of China.
Understanding of the features of economic systems (4)
Discussion of the benefits of the transition (4)
Discussion of the harm of the transition (4)
W07 3 (a) Explain how resources are allocated in a market economy. [8]
Market economy means free market forces and limited government.
Resources are the factors of production. The actions of producers, consumers
and factor owners influence operation of market as they follow maximising
behaviour. Demand and supply set price so influencing profits and
affordability, which determines the employment of factors between
alternative activities.
Knowledge of market and factors of production 3 marks
Understanding of motives 2 marks
Explanation of link to factors 3 marks
W01 2 (a) Explain how the market system allocates scarce resources. [8]
(b) Discuss the value of these concepts to a company in planning its business strategy.
[12]
S-03 3 (a) Explain what influences the price elasticity of supply of a product. [8]
PES measures the responsiveness of supply to a change in price.
Factors which influence it include the existence of spare capacity, availability
of stocks, the time period involved and the mobility of factors.
For understanding price elasticity of supply up to 3 marks
For identifying some influences up to 3 marks
For explaining the influences up to 2 marks [8]
S-03 3 (b) Discuss whether farmers will benefit from producing goods which have
low price elasticities of demand and supply. [12]
Supply is likely to be inelastic because of time lags and perishability
while demand reflects necessity/substitutes and physical limits.
Shifts in supply and demand cause major fluctuations in prices and
affect income and planning. Increases in supply which lower price
lead to falls in revenue. Against this inelastic demand maintains
revenue when prices rise as supply falls. The latter only benefits
farmers who manage to continue producing. Increases in efficiency
can cause large falls in price and income. Uncertainty and risk
avoidance often result. The impact of taxes and subsidies varies with
elasticity.
S-04 3 (a) Increasing raw material costs cause the price of a good to rise. Explain the
effect of this price rise for the good on the markets for its substitute and
complementary goods. [8]
Substitutes and complements may be described or analysed via XED. A price
rise reduces the quantity demanded of the good itself. The demand for
complementary goods will also decline, reducing their price. The higher price
will make substitutes more demanded, causing their price and output to rise.
Examples can illustrate this and demand and supply diagrams can show the
process.
Understanding of complementary and substitute goods up to 3 marks
Description of the results of a price rise up to 3 marks
Analysis of the market effects up to 2 marks
W-04 3 (a) Explain the difference between elastic, inelastic and fixed supply. [8]
Elasticity of supply measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to
changes in price and is measured by the elasticity formula. The three cases
relate to values >1, <1 and 0 reflecting the degree of change. The values can
be shown by the nature of the supply curve.
Knowledge of the definition and formula up to 3 marks
Understanding of the values up to 3 marks
Illustration of the different values up to 2 marks
W-04 3 (b) Discuss whether the elasticity of supply of manufactured goods is likely
to be greater than the elasticity of supply of agricultural goods. [12]
Ans------Elasticity of supply is influenced by levels of stocks, excess capacity, ease of
entry to the industry, mobility of factors, the length of the production process and the
time period involved. For farming it may be more difficult to hold stocks, less easy to
enter the industry, take longer to carry out production and bring excess capacity into
play. This suggests that supply may be more inelastic in agriculture. The nature of
the product may make supply equally inelastic for some manufacturing.
W-05 3 (a) Explain the meaning of the ‘equilibrium price’ of a good and how it is set
in a free market. [8]
Equilibrium price means no tendency to change and is when D=S. A free market
implies no government intervention. Demand and supply operate to set price.
Changes in demand and supply cause price changes. Any disequilibrium is corrected
by reactions to the price level. The process can be shown by the use of diagrams.
Knowledge of the terms up to 3 marks
Explanation of the operation of the market up to 3 marks
Explanation of moves from disequilibrium up to 2 marks
W-07 2 (a) Explain how an equilibrium price for a product is established in
the market and how it may change. [8]
Equilibrium is when D=S and there is no tendency to change. Disequilibrium positions
(QD more or less than QS) are corrected by responses of consumer and producer, which
alter price. New equilibriums are created when changes in conditions cause shifts in D
and S. This may be shown with diagrams.
Knowledge of equilibrium 2 marks
Correction of disequilibriums 3 marks
Setting of new equilibriums 3 marks
S-06 2 (a) Explain, with examples, the significance of the value of a good’s cross-
elasticity of demand in relation to its substitutes and complements. [8]
XED is a measure of the responsiveness of demand for one product to the
change in price of another. The formula can be given. For substitutes the
value is positive, a rise in the price of a substitute increases demand for the
alternative. For complements it is negative, as the price of a complement
rises the demand for the associated good will fall. The closer the relationship
the greater the value. Examples such as chicken and turkey and cars and
petrol may be given.
For knowledge of XED [up to 2 marks]
For explanation of the substitute case [up to 3 marks]
For explanation of the complement case [up to 3 marks]
S-06 2 (b) Discuss whether the demand for mobile phones (cell phones) is likely to
be price-elastic or price-inelastic. [12]
PED is a measure of the responsiveness of demand to a change in price.
Elastic involves a more than proportionate change (>1), inelastic a less than
proportionate change(<1). The influences on elasticity include the existence
of substitutes, the proportion of income spent on the good and the time
period involved. Candidates may apply these influences to mobile phones
according to their own experience and circumstances. Sensible reasoning is
what is looked for, whatever the final conclusion.
For knowledge of elastic/inelastic demand [up to 4 marks]
For understanding of the influences on elasticity [up to 4 marks]
For discussion of the case of mobile phones [up to 4 marks]
S-09-22 2 (b) Economists also classify goods in others ways. Discuss the
extent to which an economist would classify a packet of cigarettes and a
vaccination against influenza as similar types of good. [12]
Both products are private goods. They are rivalrous and excludable so can be
supplied by the market. In this way they can be classified together.
Cigarettes produce negative externalities (e.g. passive smoking) and are
over-consumed. They are sometimes referred to as demerit goods on the
basis of inadequate information for the consumer. Influenza vaccinations
possess positive externalities (they help to prevent the transmission of
disease to others) and may be under-consumed. They may be considered
merit goods on the basis of insufficient information. In this case the products
are classified differently.
Understanding of classifications up to 4 marks
Discussion of common classification up to 6 marks
Discussion of different classification up to 6 marks
W-09-21 2 (a) Explain, with the help of a diagram, how the price of a
product moves to a new equilibrium following a decrease in its supply. [8]
A decrease in supply results from rising costs, unfavourable natural
influences, higher taxes etc. and causes supply to shift to the left. This will
result in a rise in the price of the product. Equilibrium, the tendency not to
change when D=S, is restored as the higher price discourages the quantity
demanded as consumers adjust their spending levels. Price will continue to
rise until the balance is restored.
Knowledge of equilibrium and of decrease in supply up to 2 marks
Diagram showing original and new equilibrium up to 3 marks
Explanation of the process of change up to 3 marks
W-09-22 2 (b) Discuss how reduced air fares on low-cost budget airlines
might affect the air travel market and the markets for related goods and
services. [12]
Within the air travel market a sub-market may emerge with increased supply
of services, lower prices and a restricted service. Former rivals may be able
to maintain their position with different customers or may respond by cutting
their own price. The size of the market should expand with more people able
to afford flying. Rivals such as ferry services or railways may face falling
demand, depending upon the elasticity involved. Providers of complementary
services e.g. airport parking, travel insurance may face increased demand
with upward pressure on their prices. Aircraft manufacturers or leasers may
benefit as theirs is a derived demand arising from more flying.
Understanding of the impact on market for air travel 4 marks
Discussion of rival transport market effects. 4 marks
Discussion of complementary market effects. 4 marks
Market System and Government Intervention
W-01 2 (b) Discuss when and how a government should intervene in the operation
of the price system. [12]
S-02 2 (a) Explain, with examples, the meaning of private costs and external
costs. [8]
S-02 2 (b) Discuss the role that cost-benefit analysis can play in government
economic policy making. [12]
W-02 4 (a) Explain, with examples, the meaning of the terms public good and merit
good. [8]
W-02 4 (b) Discuss how a government might increase the provision of public and
merit goods.[12]
The result was that no attempt was made to discuss the policies. This required
consideration of the appropriateness and effectiveness in each case. Great depth was
not needed here. The disincentives of tax and the problems of fixing the level, the
cost of subsidies and the interference with the market operation might be seen as
problems, while the increase in welfare, equity and effectiveness might be offered as
benefits. It was disappointing how little attempt was made at evaluation of the
policies.
W-03 3 (a) Explain the effect of the removal of an indirect tax upon the market for a
product.[8]
W-03 3 (b) Discuss whether an indirect tax is a satisfactory way to tackle a negative
externality, such as air pollution. [12]
W-04 4 (a) Explain the meaning of ‘public good’ and ‘private good’. [8]
A private good once used by one consumer or firm is not available to others.
This covers most consumer and capital goods. Public goods have non-rivalry
and non-excludability so may encounter the ‘free rider’ problem. Private
goods can be supplied for profit by the market system while public goods,
such as defence and street lighting, are provided by the government and
funded through taxation.
General comment 1 mark
Example 1 mark (X2)
Explanation of the nature up to 2 marks
W-04 4 (b) Discuss whether economic actions by individuals always result in a net
benefit to society. [12]
Actions by individuals should be in their own interests and maximise their
own benefit. This may contribute to maximisation of benefit to society
through the incentives of the market system. The government has a role in
promoting social welfare. Actions with positive externalities give a greater
benefit to society than to the individual. Some actions may have harmful
side-effects or negative externalities which make the cost to society greater
than to the individual. Producers may be unwilling to supply some goods and
services e.g. merit and public goods which society values.
Understanding of private motivation and public interest up to 4 marks
Analysis of the benefits of individual actions up to 4 marks
Discussion of the harm of individual actions up to 4 marks
W-05 2 (a) Explain the effects of externalities on the allocation of resources. [8]
Externalities may be positive or negative. They include e.g. the supply of trained
workers to the economy and pollution. Positive externalities result in the
underproduction of the product and its sale at an excessive price. Negative
externalities result in overproduction and sale at too low a price. In both cases the
allocation of resources is not optimal as it is based on private rather than social
considerations. This may be explained with the support of diagrams.
Knowledge of externalities up to 3 marks
Explanation of outcomes up to 3 marks
Explanation linked to allocation of resources up to 2 marks
W-05 2 (b) Discuss the use of indirect taxes and subsidies by governments to deal
with externalities. [12]
Indirect taxes can be used to counter negative externalities, while subsidies can
be used to encourage positive externalities. Each will affect the position of the
supply curve and move it towards the optimal position reflecting social costs and
benefits. This can be shown by diagrams. While theoretically this may be
straightforward, practice may be different. The costs/benefits may be hard to
value so the appropriate level of tax and subsidy may be difficult to calculate and
it might be too complicated to have individual rates for each case. There may be
other side effects of raising tax and paying subsidies.
Understanding of the relevance of taxes and subsidies up to 4 marks
Analysis of the operation of taxes and subsidies up to 6 marks} to max of
Discussion of the use of taxes and subsidies up to 6 marks} 8 marks
S-06 3 (a) Explain, with examples, the difference between a demerit good and a
merit good. [8]
A demerit good, such as cigarettes, has negative externalities e.g. passive
smoking.
Consumption results from lack of information by the consumer of the full
implications of
consumption. There is over-consumption which governments are likely to
discourage. A
merit good, such as education, has positive externalities e.g. improved
productivity. The
good is under-consumed due to lack of full knowledge and governments are
likely to
promote consumption. Full marks require clarification of the information gap.
For explanation of nature of demerit good [up to 4 marks]
For explanation of nature of merit good [up to 4 marks]
S-06 3 (b) Discuss two methods that a government might use to influence the
consumption of demerit goods. [12]
Governments would intend to reduce the consumption of demerit goods. The
usual
methods are taxation to operate through the market system, bans to remove
demand,
education to influence consumers behaviour through information and
subsidies to
substitutes. In each case issues of cost, effectiveness, side effects and
individual choice
may be considered.
For knowledge of the methods and their operation [up to 4 marks]
For discussion of the advantages of the methods [up to 4 marks]
For discussion of the limitations of the methods [up to 4 marks]
While some reference was made to the relevance of price elasticity, little other evaluation was
evident. Other issues that might have been considered were evasion and cost
W-07 3 (a) Explain how resources are allocated in a market economy. [8]
Market economy means free market forces and limited government.
Resources are the
factors of production. The actions of producers, consumers and factor owners
influence
operation of market as they follow maximising behaviour. Demand and
supply set price so influencing profits and affordability, which determines the
employment of factors between alternative activities.
Knowledge of market and factors of production 3 marks
Understanding of motives 2 marks
Explanation of link to factors 3 marks
W-07 3 (b) Discuss, with the aid of a demand and supply diagram, the
effects on consumers and producers when the government introduces an
indirect tax on a good. [12]
An indirect tax e.g. VAT, GST shifts the S curve to the left with the tax
incidence split between the consumer and producer, depending on the PED
and PES. The consumer will pay a higher price and purchase less, the
producer will receive less company income and supply less. Different
elasticities of demand and supply will cause the burden to split differently
between the consumer and producer.
Meaning and diagram effect of indirect tax 4 marks
Analysis of the impact on two groups 4 marks
Discussion of the different share of tax burden 4 marks
W-08 3 (a) Explain the market failure which arises from the characteristics
of public goods. [8]
Public goods are non-excludable and non-rival and include defence and street
lighting. The problem is that they cannot be supplied by the market
mechanism as a price cannot be set because of free riders. They will be
underprovided if a non market organisation does not intervene to reflect the
needs of society.
Knowledge of the nature of public goods up to 4 marks
Explanation of the resulting problem for provision up to 4 marks
S-09-22 3 (a) Explain, with the help of an example, the effects when a
government introduces a maximum price for a good or service. [8]
Maximum prices cannot be exceeded and are set below the market price, e.g.
rents and fuel. They act as a ceiling price. Quantity demanded will exceed
quantity supplied and a shortage will result. A system for allocation will be
needed. This might be rationing or queues. A black market may develop and
the intention of helping the poorest may be thwarted. Home rental market is
a frequently used example. This may be illustrated by a diagram.
Understanding of a maximum price up to 2 marks
Explanation of outcomes up to 6 marks
S-09-22 3 (b) With the help of a diagram, discuss how desirable it is for a
government to pay subsidies to producers. [12]
A subsidy will reduce the cost of production and shift the supply curve to the
right. This will reduce price and increase quantity traded. The degree to
which price falls will depend upon the elasticities involved. The consumer will
benefit from lower prices and producers will gain higher incomes. It is also a
way to increase the production of goods with external benefits which will
improve welfare. This can be shown in a diagram. Problems arise because the
expenditure will have an opportunity cost, might involve increased taxation
and may contradict the efficiency of the market outcome.
Analysis of impact of subsidy with diagram up to 4 marks
Discussion of benefits up to 6 marks
Discussion of drawbacks up to 6 marks
(c) Discuss the desirability of the Government's intervention in the market for
onions.
For: prevent price rise (inflation), help lower incomes, prevent exploitation,
correct collusive behaviour, benefit consumer
Against: interference with market efficiency, may cause evasion, ineffective,
enforcement costs, harm to producer
Up to 4 max for one side. Considered conclusion after both sides (1) [6
W-09-22 2 (a) With the aid of a diagram, explain how a government
subsidy to producers of fuel will affect the producers and government
expenditure. [8]
A subsidy will lower costs and shift the supply curve to the right and the
outcome will be more traded at a lower market price. Producer revenue made
up of price and subsidy will increase. Government expenditure will increase
by the amount of the subsidy times the new quantity traded.
Diagram of impact on market 4 marks
Explanation of effect on producer 2 marks
Explanation of effect on government expenditure 2 marks
W-09-22 3 (b) Discuss whether it is likely that the private costs and the
social costs of production would be identical. [12]
Private costs are borne by the producer who benefits from the action. They
may include raw material costs, wages and energy payments. Social costs
are the total costs to those directly involved in the activity and to the rest of
society (third parties) as well. Social costs include external costs or spillover
effects borne by members of society who do not benefit from the action.
Various forms of pollution come within this category. Private costs and social
costs will only be identical if there are no external costs. Some actions from
transport (e.g. road) and production of manufactures (e.g. chemicals) and
provision of services (tourism) may have negative externalities. Private cost
may be greater than social when there is an external benefit in production
such as research and development effects. However while some output may
generate few externalities it is unlikely that they produce none and it would
not be the case for total production within an economy.
Understanding of the link between private, external and social costs 4 marks
Discussion of the existence of externalities 6 marks
Comment on the existence of zero externalities 2 marks
S-02 3 (b) Discuss whether trade protection can ever be justified. [12]
W-03 2 (b) Discuss whether increased division of labour among workers and
nations brings only benefits. [12]
W-05 3 (b) Discuss whether free international trade in goods should be encouraged.
[12]
Free trade means a lack of obstacles such as tariffs and quotas. Free trade is thought
to bring benefits of higher living standards, more employment and greater choice at
lower cost. The world’s factors of production should be employed more efficiently.
This is based on the principle of comparative advantage. In reality free trade may
have harmful effects in some circumstances
and this may apply particularly to developing economies. Unequal bargaining
strength may prevent a fair sharing of the benefits, unfair trading practices such as
dumping may undermine a country’s industries, dominant market positions may
prevent the growth of infant industries and there may be high short-term costs in
terms of unemployment and disruption. Globalisation has not shared benefits equally
and there may be a case for a slow transition towards freer trade.
Knowledge of the theoretical benefits of free trade up to 4 marks
Analysis of the operation of free trade up to 6 marks}
Discussion of the case for free trade up to 6 marks}
W-06 3 (a) Explain the difference between absolute and comparative advantage.
[10]
Absolute advantage exists when a country can produce a good with fewer
resources than another country. Comparative advantage exists when a
country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost, meaning it has to
give up less of another good compared to the other country. This can be
shown numerically, assuming 2 countries have the same resources and
divide them equally between 2 goods with factor mobility etc:
Output of good X Output of good Y
Country A 100 25
Country B 40 20
Country A has absolute advantage in production of both goods (250% and
125% more output) but country B has comparative advantage in the
production of good Y because of lower opportunity cost (1Y costs 2X against
4X for A). This can also be shown by a diagram.
For definitions of the terms up to 4 marks
For explanation of the terms and assumptions up to 6 marks
W-08 4 (a) How might opportunity cost help to explain the pattern of
international trade? [8]
Opportunity cost is the sacrifice of the next best outcome in taking a
decision. International trade is based on comparative advantage and is
determined by specialisation in the product with the lower opportunity cost.
Trade is then at an exchange rate between the opportunity costs of the
countries involved. This results in greater production, trade and consumption,
which reflects differing opportunity costs.
Knowledge of opportunity cost up to 2 marks
Understanding of the basis of trade up to 2 marks
Explanation of the link to opportunity cost up to 4 marks
W-09-21 3 (b) Discuss, with examples, how far the global distribution
of factors of production determines what a country imports and exports.
[12]
Factors of production are land, labour, capital and enterprise and they occur
irregularly around the world. Examples are oil and mineral reserves,
technology, skilled labour. Factor endowment is the basis of international
trade theory, which suggests specialisation in line with lower opportunity cost
so reflecting factor distribution. In some cases it may be absolute rather than
comparative advantage at work. Other influences such as trade agreements,
unequal bargaining power, political issues and the unrealistic assumptions of
C A theory may mean that trade does not reflect factor distribution.
For understanding of the diverse distribution of factors up to 4 marks
For application of comparative advantage up to 4 marks
For discussion of comparative advantage and alternative explanations up to 4
marks
W-09-22 4 (a) Compare the aims and features of a free trade area with
those of an economic union. [8]
A free trade area aims to achieve free trade between it members by the
abolition of internal barriers but the retention of individually set barriers to
non-members. There is no integration beyond this. An economic union aims
at major integration, includes a common external tariff, free movement of
factors of production, harmonisation of economic policies and taxes and a
common currency. This involves the loss of national sovereignty. The latter is
a more comprehensive and ambitious project.
Explanation of a free trade area 4 marks
Explanation of economic union 4 marks
W-03 4 (a) Explain what may cause a country’s terms of trade to change. [8]
W-03 4 (b) Discuss whether a worsening in a country’s terms of trade will cause a
worsening of its balance of trade. [12]
Balance of Payments
S05 4 (a) Explain how a country’s balance of payments is organised to account for
all its international transactions. [8]
The accounts are arranged to show the total international transactions,
arranged by their differing nature and debit or credit effects. The current
account deals with the exports and imports of goods (visibles) and services
(invisibles). It also includes income from investments (inflow and outflow) and
transfers of income. Its final element is current transfers such as payments to
international institutions. The capital account records the transfer of
ownership of fixed assets. The financial account relates to short-term and
long-term investment, both portfolio and real, and the movement of reserves.
A balancing item is included to account for the errors and omissions in
collecting the data.
Knowledge of the nature of the current account up to 3 marks
Knowledge of the non-current sections up to 3 marks
Explanation of the organisation of the account up to 2 marks
S05 4 (b) A country has a deficit on the current account of its balance of
payments. Discuss whether this is necessarily harmful to the country. [12]
Deficit occurs when outflow of various current items exceed inflows. The
cause of the deficit, its size and its likely duration decide whether it will be
harmful. On the current account a deficit on goods may be bad if long
running and the result of a lack of competitiveness. On the other hand it may
just reflect rising standards of living and be covered by other inflows. If the
goods are capital rather than consumption later benefits may offset a current
outflow. Weakness in services may simply reflect comparative advantage.
Strong foreign reserves may be able to finance a temporary deficit. However
if a deficit is long-term and cannot be financed without excessive
international borrowing, the depletion of international reserves or exceptional
policy measures the position is an undesirable disequilibrium.
Understanding of the nature of deficit up to 2 marks
Discussion of a non-harmful deficit up to 6 marks} to a max
Discussion of the harmful effects of a deficit up to 6 marks} of 10 marks
W-05 4 (b) Discuss the view that ‘labour is the most important factor of
production and therefore the division of labour should be applied to its maximum
extent’. [12]
The traditional fourfold classification should be recognised with clarification of
division of labour at an individual and national level. While labour may be relatively
more important, depending on comparative advantage and production choices, there
needs to be understanding of the need to combine factors. Contrasts between
countries will illustrate this. Division of labour should increase efficiency but has
limits and may result in dependency and vulnerability.
Knowledge of the factors and division of labour up to 4 marks
Analysis of the importance of labour and division of labour up to 6 marks} to max of
Discussion of the limitations of the view up to 6 marks} 8 marks
W-07 4 (a) Explain, with examples, why labour productivity might vary
between countries. [8]
Labour productivity is output per worker (total output/workers) or per hour. It
depends upon the amount and quality of capital, skill, education, supporting
infrastructure, technology and attitudes. More developed economies e.g.
Japan, with skilled labour forces, automated systems and efficient equipment
will be more productive than developing economies e.g. Bangladesh relying
on manpower with limited quantities of other productive factors.
Meaning of productivity 2 marks
Understanding of influences on productivity 3 marks
Explanation of examples 3 marks
W-01 3 (b) Discuss the problems of accurately measuring changes in the value
of money. [12]
S-02 4 (a) Explain why a country may experience a persistent rise in its
general price level. [8]
S-02 4 (b) Discuss why reducing inflation is often the most important task for
a government. [12]
S-03 4 (a) Explain the difficulties of measuring inflation accurately. [8]
Inflation is a sustained rise in the general price level and is measured by an
index of consumer (retail) prices. The accuracy of the index can vary with the
effectiveness of the data collection, the construction and coverage of the
index and the extent to which it is updated. Changes in quality cause
problems as well.
For understanding inflation and its measurement up to 3 marks
For identifying some difficulties up to 3 marks
For explaining the basis of the difficulties up to 2 marks
W-04 2 (a) Explain how inflation affects the functions of money. [8]
Inflation is a sustained rise in the general price level. Money serves as a
medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of wealth and a standard of
deferred payment. Inflation will undermine these functions. Fast changing
prices affect it as a unit of account and a store of wealth, while hyperinflation
may lead to barter. The extent may depend upon the rate of inflation. The
impact may be more immediate upon the wealth and deferred payment
functions as real values fall.
Knowledge of the terms up to 3 marks
Explanation of the functions and effects up to 5 marks
W-04 2 (b) Discuss the view that inflation is always a major problem. [12
Inflation is a problem because of its effects on the efficient operation of the
market system, international competitiveness, economic confidence and the
distribution of income. Hyper-inflation can destroy an economy. Inflation may
produce deflationary action from government and T.U. action to protect real
incomes. It is not always a major problem; this depends upon its absolute and
relative level, whether it is anticipated or unanticipated and whether it is
controllable. Recent experience suggests that inflation is no longer the
problem it was and that deflation may be a concern.
Knowledge of the effects of inflation up to 4 marks
Explanation of the harmful effects of inflation up to 4 marks
Discussion of benign inflationary situation up to 4 marks
S-05 3 (b) Discuss whether stability in the domestic value of money is essential for a
country’s economic well-being. [12]
Stability in value would be upset by inflation. This causes problems with the
efficient working of the price mechanism, international competitiveness and
aspects of redistribution. Price stability can dent expectations and profits and
lead to lack of confidence and stagnation. These effects would harm
economic well-being. This may be shown by inefficiency, unemployment,
lower living standards etc. However the level of harm depends upon the
actual rate of change, whether or not it has been anticipated and the
comparative rate internationally. If these are relatively favourable the effects
may not cause significant instability. A low and stable level of inflation is
thought to encourage production and growth so absolute stability is not
necessary.
Understanding of inflation up to 2 marks
Discussion of harm done by inflation up to 6 marks}to max of
Discussion of circumstances when inflation up to 6 marks}10 marks
may be benign/beneficial
W-06 4 (a) Explain the difference between cost-push inflation and demand-pull
inflation. [8]
Inflation is a sustained rise in the general price level with an accompanying
reduction in the real value of money. Cost-push inflation is caused by
persistent rises in the costs of production independent of demand. Examples
include increases in wage rates, profits, indirect taxes and raw material costs.
These may be linked to monopoly power, government action and changes in
exchange rates. Demand-pull inflation is caused by increases in aggregate
demand (C+l+G+X-M) often when the economy is close to full employment.
Influences may be increases in consumer spending, government expenditure,
money supply, spending attitudes, export demand.
For knowledge of inflation up to 2 marks
For explanation of cost-push inflation up to 3 marks
For explanation of demand-pull inflation up to 3 marks
W-06 4 (b) Discuss whether a country experiencing inflation will always have a
balance of payments problem. [12]
Inflation may make export prices uncompetitive and import prices more
attractive. With reduced demand for exports and increased demand for
imports the trade balance may worsen. The extent will depend on the
elasticities of demand which need to be examined. Confidence in the
economy may be reduced with an impact on FDI and outflows on the financial
account. The rate of inflation compared to rival producers is also important as
is its stability. Changes in the exchange rate may offset price differences.
Trade only makes up part of the balance of payments position, income flows,
capital flows, service income etc. may compensate for weakness in the trade
position.
For explanation of the link between inflation and B of P up to 5 marks] to
For discussion of conditions for B of P problem up to 5 marks ] max 12
For discussion of conditions for no problem up to 5 marks ]
S-07 3 (b) Discuss how a rapid rate of inflation might affect different
groups within an economy. [12]
Rapid inflation will harm all groups through reducing real values, creating
uncertainty, instability and harming the efficient operation of the market
system. The level of inflation will influence the severity of any effects. Those
who benefit include the government, borrowers, importers and some
producers. Those who suffer include fixed income earners, lenders, exporters
and some producers.
Understanding of general effects and importance of relative rate of inflation
(4)
Discussion of those who benefit (4)
Discussion of those who suffer (4)
S-04 4 (a) Explain how the determination of a floating exchange rate differs from
that of a fixed exchange rate. [8]
Floating rates are fixed by the markets for foreign exchange and its value is
the result of demand and supply changes. These are influenced by balance of
payments positions and speculative flows. A fixed rate is determined by
government action. It requires currency reserves which are employed to
counteract market demand and supply forces. Downward pressure requires
the purchase of the currency through the sale of foreign currencies. Diagrams
may clarify the cases.
Knowledge of the basic systems up to 2 marks
Explanation of the floating exchange rate up to 3 marks
Explanation of the fixed exchange rate. up to 3 marks
S-04 4 (b) Discuss the circumstances in which reducing the exchange rate and
introducing quotas are effective policies to tackle a trade deficit. [12]
Devaluation is a deliberate lowering of the international exchange rate of a
currency, while quotas involve the fixing of a maximum quantity of imports.
Devaluation works by altering the prices of imports and exports. Its success
requires the correct elasticities of demand, a responsive supply of domestic
production and an absence of retaliation. Quotas physically limit imports and
push up the market price by limiting supply of imports. They are effective
even when demand is inelastic, when appropriate limits are chosen and when
there is no retaliation.
Understanding of the concepts up to 4 marks
Explanation of the operation of the policies up to 6 marks
Discussion of the necessary conditions up to 6 marks,
S-06 4 (a) Explain, with the aid of diagrams, how a government would maintain a
fixed exchange rate. [8]
A fixed exchange rate has a set rate against other currencies. This is
determined by government action rather than market forces. When there is
downward pressure on the intended rate the government will increase
demand by the use of foreign currency. When there is upward pressure the
supply of the currency would be increased to retain its lower value. This
might be done indirectly through interest rate changes. A diagram would
show the moves in the demand and supply curves relative to a fixed currency
value.
For understanding of a fixed exchange rate [up to 2 marks]
For explanation of reaction to downward pressure [up to 3 marks]
For explanation of reaction to upward pressure [up to 3 marks]
S-06 4 (b) Discuss whether it is better for a country with a floating exchange rate to
face an appreciation or a depreciation of its currency. [12]
A floating exchange rate is set by market forces and may fluctuate freely. An
appreciation is an increase in its international value and depreciation a fall.
An appreciation improves the purchasing power of the currency, may boost
foreign confidence in the currency and inhibits inflation. It makes exports
dearer and imports relatively cheaper which may worsen the balance of trade
and cause unemployment. Depreciation works in the opposite direction.
Which is preferable depends on the country's position and priorities.
For knowledge of the exchange rate terms [up to 2 marks]
For discussion of the effects of appreciation [up to 3 marks]
For discussion of the effects of depreciation [up to 3 marks]
For a conclusion comparing the two cases [up to 4 marks]