Moscow Institute of Electronic Technology Capt.

ZayYarWin

ìLaboratory Exercises with Linuxî

ed'gef;
,ck vufawGUavhusifhcef;rSpNyD; uRefawmfwkdU[m Operating System “Linux” eJU
ygwfoufwJh avhusifhcef;tcsdKUukd pwifxdawGUMu&rSmjzpfygw,f/ Linux &JU file structure
wnfaqmufyHk? command line interface rSm toHk;jyKwJh command rsm;eJU shell script
rsm;a&;om;enf;udk tajccHtm;jzifh avhvmNyD; vufawGUavhusifhcef;rsm; jyKvkyfMu&rSmjzpfyg
w,f/
Linux user awGtaeeJU GUI vdkUac:wJh Graphic User Interface udk Windows
rSmuJhodkU mouse udktoHk;jyKum icon awGudkMunfhNyD; tvG,fwultvkyfvkyfEdkifovdk
command line interface rSm command awGudk&dkufNyD; system udk instruction ay;Edkifyg
w,f? Graphic mode eJUtvkyfvkyfwm[m user twGuf ydkNyD;em;vnf&ef vG,fulayr,fh
tcsdKUaom task awGrSmawmh graphic rSm icon awGudkMunfhNyD;wpfqifhjcif; click
vkyfoGm;&wmxuf shell rSm text command udk &dkufNyD;tvkyfvkyfwm[m ydkívG,fulNyD;
process time [mvnf; graphic rSmxufydkenf;vdkU tvkyfvkyfrIU ydkrdkjrefqefwmudk awGU&rSm
jzpfygw,f? OS “Linux” rSmtoHk;jyKwJh xif&Sm;wJh Shell awGuawmh BASH (Borune-
Again SHell), CSH(C SHell) eJU KSH(Korn SHell) awGyJjzpfygw,f/ MS-DOS rSm
toHk;jyKwJh COMMAND.COM shell [mvnf; tckazmfjyyg Shell awGeJU vkyfaqmifrIU
twlwljzpfygw,f/ 'gayr,fh Linux rSm toHk;jyKwJh Shell awGavmufawmh powerful
rjzpfygbl;/
BASH shell uawmh Red Hat &JU default shell jzpfygw,f/ atmufrSm
azmfjyxm;wJhyHkawGudk Munfhr,fqkd&if shell rSm command awGeJU b,fvdktvkyfvkyfw,fqdk
wmoabmaygufvG,fulrSmjzpfygw,f/

uRefawmfwdkU user awGay;vdkufwJh instruction awGudk pufuwdkuf&dkuf em;rvnfEdkif

ygbl;? tJ'gaMumifh shell uaewqifh pufuem;vnfEdkifwJh machine language udk
ajymif;ay;ygw,f? tJ'DhtcgusrSom OS u uRefawmfwdkU&JU instruction udk em;vnfNyD;
instruction twGuf output udk jyefxkwfay;ygw,f? 'Davmufqdk&ifawmh command line
interface rSm command eJU shell b,fvdktvkyfvkyfw,fqdkwm tajccHtm;jzifh
em;vnfoGm;NyDvdkU,lqygw,f/ Laboratory No(9) eJU (10) rSmawmh shell rSmtoHk;jyKwJh

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basic command awGeJU No.11 rSmawmh shell script tenf;i,fudk pwifxdawGUMu&rSm

jzpfygw,f/

ìLinux file structureî

Linux file structure rSmyg0ifwJh directory rsm;udk uRefawmfwdkUavhvmMu&rSm jzpfyg

w,f/ uRefawmfwdkUtaeeJU directory tvdkuf rnfonfh directory xJrSm rnfodkUaom
zdkiftrsdK;tpm;awGyg0ifw,f? system eJU user twGuf command file awG? configuration
file awG? uRefawmfwdkUtwGuf avhvm&mrSm taxmuftuljzpfapr,fh documentation files
awG[m rnfonfh directory xJrSm&SdMuw,f ponfjzifh tusOf;zsOf; od&Sdxm;zdkU vdktyfyg
w,f/ directory tm;vHk;[m ‘/’ root atmufrSm tree yHkpHrsdK;eJU tqifhqifh zGJUpnf;xm;yg
w,f/ Linux file structure layout udk atmufrSmazmfjyxm;ygw,f-

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/root user ‘root’ twGuf home directory jzpfygw,f/

system xJrSmyg0ifwJh user awG&JU directory awG? data awG[m 'D
/home
directory xJrSm&Sdygw,f/
'D directory (2)ckxJrSm System twGuf vdktyfwJh program file
/bin awG&Sdygw,f? /bin xJrSmawmh system startup vkyfwJhtcsdefrSmvdktyfwJh
/usr/bin command file awG&Sdygw,f? user awGtwGuf vdktyffwJh command file
awG jzpfygw,f/
/bin directory uJhodkU command file awG&Sdygw,f? system eJU
/sbin
administrator toHk;jyKwJh zdkifawGjzpfygw,f/
'D file system uawmh virtual file system jzpfygw,f? disk ay:rSm
/proc
wu,fr&Sdygbl;?
Command file rsm;? documentation zdkifrsm;? man pages rsm;? Kernel
/usr
source code file rsm; wnf&Sdygw,f/
Boot loader toHk;jyKwJh zdkifawGwnf&Sdygw,f? linux kernel vnf; 'D
/boot
directory xJrSm wnf&dSygw,f/
/lib Shared libraries files awGwnf&Sdygw,f/
System rSm toHk;jyKwJh device awGtm;vHk;[m 'D directory xJrSm file
/dev
awGtjzpf wnf&Sdygw,f/
System &JU configuration file awG[m 'D directory xJrSm text file
/etc awGtaeeJU wnf&Sdygw,f/ system boot vkyfwJhtcsdefrSm toHk;jyKwJh
scripts zdkif? password file awG wnf&Sdygw,f/
/var Mail, news eJU log file awGwnf&Sdygw,f/
device awGudk system rSm toHk;jyK&eftwGuf mount vkyfxm;wJhae&m
/mnt
mount point jzpfygw,f/
/tmp Program eJU user awG&JU temporary zdkifawGtwGuf toHk;jyKygw,f/

Note:
To login the system:
login:<username>
Password:

# Linux rSm case sensitive jzpfw,fqdkwm owdxm;&rSmjzpfygw,f/ Oyrm- Panda ≠

panda.

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$ ordinary user login account jzpfygw,f/

# root (odkU) superuser login account jzpfygw,f/

Ctrl+Alt+F1, virtual text console wpfckeJUwpfckMum; ajymif;wJhtcgrSm oHk;yg

Ctrl+Alt+F2,
w,f/
Ctrl+Alt+…,

Ctrl+c current process udk &yfypfcsifwJhtcgrsdK;rSm oHk;ygw,f/

current terminal rS logout vkyfwJhtcgrSmoHk;ygw,f? ‘exit’

Ctrl+d
command eJUwlygw,f/

shutdown –h now Shutdown the system

halt Stop the system

Command Line Interface:

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Laboratory Exercise No(9)

Lab.9 rSm uRefawmfwkdUpwifxdawGUMu&r,fh Command awGuawmh atmufyg
twkdif;jzpfygw,f-

1 man Displays help information on a command

2 help To see help or options on a command
3 mount/umount Mounts a partitions or device
4 who To see who is using system
5 pwd Display the current working directory
6 cd Change the current working directory
Displays the content of a directory or information on a
7 ls
file
8 ln To create multiple file copied with various link
9 cat To see text files
10 less View text files
11 file Display file type
12 cp Copies one or more files/directories.
13 mv Move or rename files/directories.
14 rm Remove files
15 mkdir To create new file
16 rmdir Remove a directory. (The directory must be empty!)
17 chmod To change file access permissions.
18 chown Change ownership of a file

command “man/help”

rdrdtoHk;jyKr,fh command eJUygwfoufwJh tcsuftvufawG? yg0ifwJh option awGeJU

b,fvdk toHk;jyK &r,fqdkwmudk odvdkwJhtcgrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/
Syntax:
$ man [-k] command

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$ command --help

# MS-DOS rSmoHk;wJh C:\>command /? (odkU) C:\>command help eJUtwllwlygyJ?

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ date
[myn@panda myn]$ man cp

copy eJUygwfoufwJh manual page xJa&mufoGm;rSmjzpfygw,f?

<space> aemufpmrsufESmawGudk oGm;vdkwJhtcgrSm ESdyf&rSmjzpfygw,f/
<Enter> pmaMumif;a& wpfaMumif;csif;qif;oGm;zdkUtwGuf toHk;jyKygw,f/
<Ctrl+c> odkU <q> manual page rS exit vkyfcsifwJhtcgrSm oHk;ygw,f/

command “mount/umount”

Unix system rSmtoHk;jyKwJh file system [m ‘/’ root &JUatmufrSm tree yHkpHeJU
tqifhqifhwnf&Sdaewmjzpfygw,f/ 'DzdkifawGxJrS tcsdKU[m device file awGvnf;jzpfEdkifyg
w,f/ (Oyrm- cdrom, floppy device,…) 'D device awGudk uRefawmfwdkUtoHk;jyKvdkwJh
tcg file system (‘/’ tree)rSmoGm;NyD;csdwfquf(wyfqif)&ygw,f/ mount vkyfw,fvdkUac:yg
w,f/ tJ'DhtcgrSom system uaeNyD; uRefawmfwdkUtoHk;jyKvdkwJh device udkod&SdNyD;awmh 'D
device awGudktoHk;jyKEdkifrSmjzpfygw,f/ toHk;jyK&r,fh command uawmh ‘mount’
jzpfygw,f/ command ‘mount’ udk toHk;jyKwJhtcgrSm argument (2)ckeJU toHk;jyK&ygw,f/
tJ'guawmh mount vkyfcsifwJh device (device’s name) eJU file system rSm mount
vkyfr,fhae&m mount point jzpfygw,f/ 'D ‘mount’ command udk superuser(root)
account eJUomjyKvkyfEdkifygw,f/
mount vkyfxm;wJh device ukd file system rSjyefNyD; jzKwf (disable) vdkwJhtcgrSm
command ‘umount’ udktoHk;jyK&ygw,f/ atmufrSmazmfjyxm;wJh OyrmawGudk avhvmMunfh
&if ydkNyD;oabmaygufrSmjzpfygw,f/
Syntax:
# mount device mount_point(directory)
# umount device umount_point(directory)

Options:
# mount –o,f,w,v

wGJzuftoHk;jyKwJh options awGudkawmh ‘man’ command udk toHk;jyKNyD;awmh

avhvmMunfhyg/ man page xJrSm tao;pdwf&Sif;jyxm;ygw,f/
Example:
[root@panda root]# mount /dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom

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Cdrom device udk mount point directory jzpfwJh /mnt ae&mrSm mount
vkyfvdkufwmjzpfygw,f/

[root@panda root]# mount /mnt/floppy

[root@panda root]# umount /mnt/floppy

Floppy udk mount eJU umount vkyfwmjzpfygw,f/

command “who”

vuf&Sd system xJudk login vkyfxm;wJh user awGeJUygwfoufwJh tcsuftvufawGudk

azmfjyay;ygw,f/
Syntex:
$ who [options] [am i]
$ whoami

Example:

‘who’ command udk option a&m arguments (am i) rygyJ oHk;wJhtcgrSm

vuf&SdtoHk;jyKaewJh user awGtm;vHk;&JU login name, terminal line, login time, remote
hostname pwJhtcsuftvufawGudk azmfjyay;wmawGU&rSmjzpfygw,f/

‘who’ command udk argument jzpfwJh ‘am i’ eJUwGJoHk;wJhtcgrSm ,ckvuf&Sdrdrd[m

b,f user name jzpfw,fqkdwmudk tcsuftvuftwdtuseJU azmfjyay;wmudk awGU&rSm

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jzpfygw,f? (-u) option u tvkyfvkyfcJhwJhMumcsdefudkyg azmfjyay;wmjzpfygw,f/ ‘.’

trSwftom;jyxm;wmuawmh rdrdjzpfw,fqkdwmudkqdkvdkygw,f/

command “pwd”
user vuf&Sda&mufaewJh (tvkyfvkyfaewJh) current directory udk azmfjyay;ygw,f/
Syntax:
$ pwd

Example:
[myanmar@panda myanmar]$ pwd
/home/myanmar

command “cd”
vuf&Sda&mufaewJh (tvkyfvkyfaewJh) directory rS tjcm; directory wpfckudk
ajymif;wJhtcgrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/
Syntax:
$ cd pathname

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ cd /etc/sysconfig
[myn@panda sysconfig]$

vuf&Sda&mufaewJh directory uaeNyD; /etc/sysconfig directory xJudk a&mufoGm;rSm

jzpfygw,f? MS-DOS rSmtoHk;jyKwJh ‘cd’ command eJUwlygw,f/

command “ls”
Directory xJrSm yg0ifwJh file awG&JU list ukdazmfjyay;ygw,f/ rdrda&mufaewJh
directory xJrSmyg0ifwJh file awGudkodvdkwJhtcg toHk;jyKEdkifygw,f/ MS-DOS rSm
toHk;jyKwJh ‘dir’ command eJU twllwlyJjzpfygw,f/
Syntax:
$ ls
$ ls [options] directory

Example:

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‘ls’ command udk options awGa&m? arguments awGa&mrygyJ toHk;jyKwJhtcgrSm

yg0ifwJhzkdifawG&JU list udk azmfjyay;wmudk jrif&rSmjzpfygw,f? options awG arguments
awGeJUwGJoHk;wJhtcg b,fvdkuGmjcm;rIU&Sdw,fqdkwm uRefawmfwdkUqufNyD;Munfh&atmif-

(-a) option udk wGJoHk;jcif;tm;jzifh hidden file awGudkygazmfjyay;wmudk awGU&rSm

jzpfygw,f? zdkifawG&JUtprSm ‘.’eJU pxm;wJhzdkifawG[m hidden file awGjzpfygw,f/

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(-l) option uawmh yg0ifwJhzdkifawG&JU list ukd tcsuftvuf twdtus long format
eJU azmfjyay;wm awGU&rSmjzpfygw,f/ azmfjyxm;wJh tcsuftvufawGu bmawGudkqdkvdkw,f
qdkwm atmufrSm&Sif;jyxm;ygw,f-

option (l eJU d) udk wGJoHk;xm;wmjzpfygw,f? rdrdodvkdwJh directory /bin &JUtcsuf

tvufawGudk azmfjyay;rSm jzpfygw,f/ /bin u directory jzpfaewJhtwGuf ‘-d’ option udk
wGJoHk;xm;wmjzpfygw,f? 'Dae&mrSm ‘-d’ option rygyJ oHk;vdkufr,fqdk&ifawmh /bin xJrSm
&SdaewJhzdkifawG&JU list udkyJjrif&rSmjzpfygw,f/

command “ln”

File awG wpfckeJUwpfckMum; link jyKvkyf&mrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/ hard link eJU soft
link (symbolic link) qdkNyD; (2)rsdK;&Sdygw,f/ bmawGuGm;jcm;w,fqdkwm atmufrSmjyxm;wJh
OyrmawGudk wpfqifhcsif;avhvmMunhfvdkuf&if oabmaygufrSmjzpfygw,f/
Syntax:
$ln source destination
$ln [options] source destination

Option:
[-s] symbolic link

Example:

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Hard link jyKvkyfwmudk Oyrmjyxm;wmjzpfygw,f/ yxrqHk; file1 trnfeJU

zdkifwpfck create vkyfNyD; zdkifxJrSm “Union of Myanmar” qdkwJh text ukd &dkufxnfhvkdufyg
w,f/ tJ'Dhaemuf ‘ln’ command ukd toHk;jyKNyD; file2 trnfeJU file1 &JU link file wpfck
create vkyfvdkufygw,f/ ‘ls -l’ command udk toHk;jyKNyD; 'DzdkifESpfck&JU tcsuftvufawGukd
avhvmMunhfwJhtcgrSm uRefawmfwdkU jrif&wJhtwdkif; link jzpfwJhtwGuf tcsuftvufawG
tm;vHk;twlwljzpfaewmudk awGU&rSmyg/ ykdNyD;aocsmatmif ‘cat’ command eJU file2 udk
zwfBunfhvdkufwJhtcg file1rSm uRefawmfwdkU&dkufcJhwJhtwdkif; “Union of Myanmar”
jzpfaewmudkawGU&rSmyg/ ,ck uRefawmfwkdU avhvmcJhwm[m current directory xJrSmyJ
hard link file jyKvkyfwmjzpfygw,f/ rwlnDwJh directory rSm &SdaewJh file awGudkvnf;
hard link jyKvkyfvdkU&ygw,f/ tcsdKUaom directory awGtwGuf &dk;&dk; user awGuawmh
rvkyfEdkifygbl;? superuser (root) account jzifhom jyKvkyfEdkifygw,f/ Oyrmudk avhvm
MunfhygOD;-

Symbolic link jyKvkyfwmeJU ywfoufNyD; uRefawmfwdkUqufNyD;avhvmMunhfygr,f?

symbolic link uawmh Windows rSmtoHk;jyKwJh shortcut oabmrsdK;ygyJ? &Sif;vif;
oGm;atmif OyrmukdavhvmMunfhyg/

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‘file3’ [m ‘file1’ &JU symbolic link jzpfwmudk awGU&rSmyg? wenf;tm;jzifh

shortcut ygyJ? file size uvnf; rl&if; ‘file1’ xufi,faewmudkawGU&rSmyg? file3 ukd
zwfMunfhvdkufwJhtcgrSmvnf; “Union of Myanmar” udkyJ awGU&rSmjzpfygw,f/ ‘ln’
command eJUygwfoufNyD; oabmaygufr,fvkdUarQmfvifhygw,f/

command “cat, less”

Text file awGudkzwf&mrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/ ‘cat’ command ukd wjcm;oHk;vdkU&wJh
function awGvnf;&Sdygao;w,f/
Syntax:
$ cat file

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ cat file1
My name is Mg Mg.
I live in Myanmar.
[myn@panda myn]$

file1xJrSm&SdwJh text awGudk screen rSm awGU&rSmjzpfygw,f?

[myn@panda myn]$ cat file1 file2 > file3

Text file jzpfwJh file2 xJudk file1 xJu text awGaygif;xnfhNyD; file3 tjzpf file
topfxyfNyD; create vkyfvdkufwmjzpfygw,f/
‘cat’ command eJUygwfoufNyD; aemufvmr,fh lab: No.10 rSmxyfNyD; awGU&OD;rSm
jzpfygw,f? tu,fí uRefawmfwdkU zwfvdkwJh text file [m size BuD;rm;NyD;wJh zdkifrsdK;qdk&if
awmh text awGudk screen rSm vQyfwjyufyJjrifvdkuf&NyD; file &JU atmufqHk;udk csufcsif;
a&mufoGm;rSmjzpfwJhtwGuf uRefawmfwdkUtwGuf tqifrajyawmhygbl;? tJ'DhtwGuf aemufxyf
toHk;jyKEdkifwJh command uawmh ‘less’ jzpfygw,f/

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command ‘less’ uawmh text file awGudk zwf&mrSm ydkNyD;tqifajywmudk awGU&rSm

jzpfygw,f/
Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ less file1

zdkifxJrSmygwJh text awGudk pmrsufESmtvdkuf wpfrsufESmcsif;pD screen rSm display

vkyfay;rSm jzpfygw,f/ <Page Up>, <Page Down> key awGudktoHk;jyKNyD;awmh
rdrdtvdk&Sdovdk txufatmuf? twuftqif;vkyfNyD; zwfoGm;vdkU&ygw,f/ jyefxGufvdkwJhtcg
rSmawmh ‘q’ odkUr[kwf keyboard uae ‘exit’ vdkU &dkufvdkuf&HkygyJ/

command “file”
'D command uawmh file type trsdK;tpm;udk azmfjyay;ygw,f/ uRefawmfwdkUrSm
&SdaewJh file awG[m b,fvdk file type trsdK;tpm;vJqdkwmudk 'D ‘file’ command u
tvG,fwul azmfjyay;ygw,f/
Syntax:
$ file somefile

Example:

command “cp”

File eJU directory awG copy vkyf&mrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/

Syntax:
$ cp [options] Source Dest
$ cp [options] Source Directory

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Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ cp file1 file2

rlv&SdwJh file1 udk copy vkyfNyD; file2 trnfeJU create vkyfvkdufwmjzpfygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ cp file1 file2 /home/myanmar

vuf&Sda&mufaewJh directory xJuzdkifawGjzpfwJh file1 eJU file2 udk /home/myanmar

xJodkU copy vkyfvdkufwmjzpfygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ cp –i file1 file2

rl&if;zdkifjzpfwJh file1 uae file2 tjzpf copy vkyf&mrSm rlvuwnf;u file2

emrnfeJU trnfwl&SdaecJh&if overwrite vkyfrvkyfqdkwmudk (-i) option u user udk
confirm vkyfcdkif;rSmjzpfygw,f/

command “mv”

‘mv’ command ukdawmh function (2)rsdK;twGuf toHk;jyKygw,f? zdkifawGudk

directory wpfckuae wpfjcm; directory wpfckudk move vkyfwJhtcgeJU aemufwpfckuawmh
file (odkU) folder awG&JU trnfudk rename vkyfwJhtcg toHk;jyKEdkifygw,f/
Syntax:
$ mv old_filename new_filename
$ mv file1 file2 directory

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ mv file1 file2

file1 ukd file2 tjzpf rename vkyfvdkufwmjzpfygw,f? tu,fí rdrday;vdkufwJh

file2 emrnfeJU rlvuwnf;u trnfwl file &Sdaew,fqdk&if tJ'Dh file2 xJudk file1 &JU
tcsuftvufawGtm;vHk;u replace vkyfvdkufrSm jzpfygw,f?

[myn@panda myn]$ mv –i file1 file2

(-i) option udk toHk;jyKjcif;tm;jzifh txufrSm azmfjycJhwJhtwdkif; rdrdtopfay;csifwJh

new filename [m rlvuwnf;u toHk;jyKNyD;jzpfaer,fqdk&if overwrite vkyfrvkyf user
udk message jyrSmjzpfygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ mv file1 dir1

file1udk dir1xJodkU move vkyfvdkufwm jzpfygw,f/

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[myn@panda myn]$ mv dir1 dir2

dir1 udk dir2tjzpf rename vkyfvkdufwm jzpfygw,f/

command “rm”

'D command udkawmh file awGeJU directory awG delete vkyf&mrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/
Syntax:
$ rm filename
$ rm –r directory

Directory udk delete vkyf&mrSm (-r) option udk toHk;jyKxm;wmjzpfygw,f/

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ rm file1 file2
[myn@panda myn]$ rm –r dir1 dir2

Command “rm” udk toHk;jyK&mrSm owdjyK&rSmuawmh Linux [m Windows

rSmuJhodkU delete vkyfrdwmudk undo jyefvkyfvdkU&wJh command r&SdwJhtwGuf 'D command
udk roHk;cifrSm owdjyKNyD;rStoHk;jyKoifhygw,f/

command “mkdir”
Directory (folder) topf create vkyf&mrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/
Syntax:
$ mkdir dir_name

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ mkdir yangon

vuf&Sda&mufaewJh directory xJrSmyJ ‘yangon’qdkwJh folder wpfck create

vkyfvdkufwm jzpfygw,f/

[root@panda root]# mkdir /home/myanmar/yangon

vuf&Sda&mufaewJh directory(root) uaeNyD; /home/myanmar directory xJrSm

yangon qdkwJh folder udk create vkyfvkdufwmjzpfygw,f/

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command “rmdir”

Directory(folder) udk delete vkyf&mrSmoHk;ygw,f? 'D command udk toHk;jyKwJh

tcgrSm owdjyK&r,fhtcsufuawmh rdrdzsufvdkwJh directory (folder) [m txJrSm rnfonfh
datar rQr&SdwJh empty folder jzpfaerSom 'D command ukd oHk;vdkU&rSmjzpfygw,f/
Syntax:
$ rmdir dir_name

Example:
[root@panda myn]# rmdir /home/myanmar/yangon

zsufcsifwJh folder u vuf&Sd directory xJrSm r&Sdbl;qdk&ifawmh folder &SdaewJh path

name jzpfwJh /home/myanmar udkyg azmfjyNyD; oHk;&rSmjzpfygw,f/

command “chmod”
'D ‘chmod’ command udkawmh file eJU directory awG&JU access permission udk
management vkyf&mrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/ Linux [m uRefawmfwdkU odxm;wJhtwdkif;
multi-task system jzpf&Hkomru system wpfckwnf;udk wpfcsdefwnf; wpfjydKifwnf;rSm
user trsm;tjym;toHk;jyKEdkifwJh multi-user system trsdK;tpm;vnf;jzpfygw,f/ tJ'gaMumifh
uRefawmfwkdU&JU computer xJrSm&SdwJh ta&;BuD; file, data awGudk uRefawmfwdkU cGifhjyKvdkwJh
user awGuvGJNyD; tjcm; rvdkvm;wJh user awG vma&mufNyD; access rvkyfEdkifzdkUtwGuf
security system vdktyfygw,f/ tJ'DhtwGuf uRefawmfwkdU ‘chmod’ command udk
toHk;jyKNyD; file access permission setting eJU user awG&JUtMum;rSm security udk
xdef;odrf;xm;Edkifygw,f/ uRefawmfwkdU qufNyD;avhvmMunhf&atmif? yxrqHk; uRefawmfwdkU
taeeJU permission setting udk em;vnfxm;zdkU vdktyfygw,f? permission setting
twGufodxm;&r,fh user trsdK;tpm;awGuawmh-

u owner
g Group
o others
a all(u, g and o)

Permission trsdK;tpm;awGuawmh-

r read access
w write access
x Execute(run)

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Permission setting rSm user trsdK;tpm;awGjzpfwJh u(owner), g(group), o(others)

twGuf read, write, execute permission access trsdK;tpm;awGukd uRefawmfwdkU b,fvdk
management vkyfEdkifr,fqdkwm atmufrSmazmfjyxm;wJhyHkxJrSm MunfhygOD;-

Permission setting udkawmh ‘ls’ command ukd toHk;jyKNyD; MunfhEdkifygw,f?

atmufygtwkdif; awGU&rSmjzpfygw,f-

[zayar@zayar-pc zayar]$ ls -l a.out

-rwxrwxr-x 1 zyw zyw 497151 Jan 2 02:05 a.out

&vmwJh result t& 'Dzdkif&JU owner uawmh ‘zyw’ jzpfNyD;awmh owner u 'Dzdkifudk
read, write, execute vkyfEdkifygw,f? group ‘zyw’ xJrSmyg0ifwJh member user
awGtm;vHk;u 'Dzdkifudk read, write, execute vkyfEdkifygw,f? owner eJU group xJrSm
ryg0ifwJh tjcm;aom user awGtm;vHk;u 'Dzdkifudk read vkyfEdkifygw,f? 'Dzdkif[m program
wpfyk'fjzpfcJhr,fqdk&if run (execute) vdkU&ygw,f? write vkyfvdkUawmhr&ygbl;/ 'D
permission setting udk ‘chmod’ command udktoHk;jyKNyD; owner u usefwJh user
awGtwGuf access permission udk change vdkU&ygw,f/ command udktoHk;jyKyHkuawmh
atmufygtwdkif;jzpfygw,f-
Syntax:
$ chmod [mode] file

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ chmod g+w file
[myn@panda myn]$ chmod o-rwx file
[myn@panda myn]$ chmod u+x file
[myn@panda myn]$ chmod a+rw file
[myn@panda myn]$ chmod ug+r file
(add write access for the group)
(remove all permission for the other)
(allow the file owner to execute the file)
(allow everyone to read and write to the file)
(allow the owner and group to read the file)

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‘chmod’ command udk numerical value wefzdk;udk toHk;jyKNyD;awmhvnf; toHk;jyK

Edkifygw,f/ character awG&JU value ukd owfrSwfxm;yHkuawmh r=4, w=2, x=1, ‘-’=0
jzpfygw,f/ atmufrSmazmfjyxm;wJh OyrmudkavhvmMunfhygOD;?
Example:

[myn@panda myn]$ chmod 544 file

qdkvdkwmuawmh 'Dzdkifukd owner taeeJU read, execute vkyfEkdifygw,f? group

xJrSmyg0ifwJh user awGtaeeJU read only jzpfygw,f? tjcm;aom user awGtaeeJUvnf;
'Dzdkifudk read only access vkyfvdkU&ygw,f? oabmaygufNyD;jzpfr,fvdkU ,lqygw,f/
tu,fí uRefawmfwkdU[m r, w eJU x wdkU&JU owfrSwfwefzkd;awGudk arhoGm;wJhtcg
odkUr[kwf wefzdk;wpfckeJUwpfck a&maxG;NyD; rrSwfrdwJhtajctaersdK;rSm toHk;jyKEdkifzdkUtwGuf
enf;wpfck&Sdygao;w,f/ binary wefzdk;eJU wGufcsufwmjzpfygw,f/ avhvmMunfhygOD;-

tESpfcsKyftaeeJU uRefawmfwdkUjyefaqG;aEG;&&if ‘chmod’ command toHk;jyKyHkudk

(3)enf;eJU avhvmcJhwmjzpfygw,f? yxrenf;uawmh-
[myn@panda myn]$ chmod ug+rw some_file

'kwd,enf;uawmh numerical value wefzdk;eJUtoHk;jyKwm jzpfygw,f-

[myn@panda myn]$ chmod 777 some_file

wwd,enf;uawmh numerical value wefzdk;udk binary wefzdk;eJU pOf;pm;wGufcsufNyD;

toHk;jyKcJhwmjzpfygw,f/ em;vnfEdkifzdkUtwGuf enf;(3)enf;pvHk;eJU vufawGUrsm;rsm;jyKvkyf
MunfhzdkU tMuHjyKvdkygw,f/

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command “chown”
change owner jzpfygw,f/ file &JU ownership udk ajymif;zdkU vdktyfwJhtcgrSm
toHk;jyKygw,f/
Syntax:
# chown new_owner file

'D command udk toHk;jyKzdkUtwGuf superuser(root) jzpfzdkUvdkygw,f? tJ'gaMumifh

yxrqHk; uRefawmfwdkUtaeeJU normal user account($) uae superuser account(#) udk
ajymif;&rSmjzpfygw,f/ ‘su’ command udktoHk;jyK&rSm jzpfygw,f/ rlv account udk
jyefajymif;vdkwJhtcgrSmawmh ‘exit’ command udk toHk;jyK&rSmjzpfygw,f/

[zyw@zayar-pc zyw]$ su
Password:
[root@zayar-pc zyw]#
[root@zayar-pc zyw]# exit
exit
[zyw@zayar-pc zyw]$

Example:
erlemudk wpfqifhcsif; avhvmMunhfyg? oabmaygufr,fvdkU arQmfvifhygw,f/

Line No.4 rSm jrif&wJh 'Dzkdif&JU owner [m command udkoHk;tNyD; Line No.9 rSm
tjcm; owner name odkU ajymif;oGm;wmudk awGU&rSmjzpfygw,f/

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vufawG>av>usifhcef;rsm;

1/ rdrd\ home directory xJwGif “Dir” trnfjzifh directory(folder) wpfck

wnfaqmufyg/ tqdkyg “Dir” directory xJwGif subdirectory rsm;tm; atmufwGif
azmfjyxm;onfhtwdkif; wnfaqmufyg-
Dir/dir1/dir11
Dir/dir1/dir12
Dir/dir2
Dir/dir2/dir22/dir23
(&&Sdvmaom result tm; enf;jyxHjyoyg/)

2/ rdrd\ home directory xJwGif yg0ifaom zkdifrsm;tm;vHk;udk ¤if;wdkUESifhoufqdkifaom

tcsuftvuf tjynfhtpHkjzifh Munfh&IUyg/ ‘.bash_profile’ wGifyg0ifaom text rsm;udk
display vkyfjyyg/ ‘.bash_profile’tm; copy vkyfí ‘profile_new’ ESifh
‘profile_new1’ trnfrsm;jzifh zdkifrsm; wnfaqmufyg/ “Newfolder” trnfjzifh
directory wpfckwnfaqmufyg/ ‘profile_new1’tm; “Newfolder”xJodkU a&TUyg/
‘profile_new1’tm; ‘newprofile’ odkU trnfajymif;yg/ ‘newprofile’ \
symbolic link tjzpf ‘newprofile1’ESifh ‘newprofile2’ wdkUtm; wnfaqmufyg/
(&&Sdvmaom result udk enf;jyjzpfolxHjyoí enf;jyar;aom ar;cGef;rsm;tm;
ajzqdkyg/)

3/ ‘newprofile1’ \ permission setting tm;Munfh&IUyg/ xkdUaemuf tqdkygzkdiftm;

vmí access vkyfonfh owner ESifh group wGifryg0ifaom tjcm; user rsm;tm;
write vkyfEdkif&ef permission setting tm;jyifqifay;yg/
-‘newprofile2’ udk owner jzpfolwpfOD;wnf;tm; read, write, execute vkyfcGifhjyKí
group ESifh tjcm;aom user tm;vHk;udk rnfodkUrQ access rvkyfEdkif&ef permission
setting tm;jyifqifay;yg/
-‘newprofile2’ udk owner jzpfoltm; read, write, execute vkyfcGifhjyKí group
user rsm;twGuf execute vkyfcGifh? tjcm;aom user rsm;twGuf read ESifh execute
jyKvkyfEkdif&ef jyKvkyfay;yg/ (rSwfcsuf/ /numerical value toHk;jyKaom enf;jzifh
om permission setting tm;jyifqifyg/)

I enf;]y]zpfoludk]yoI ar;cGef;rsm;tm; ajzqdkyg/ J

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Laboratory Exercise No(10)

“I/O Redirection, Pipes, Filters and Regular expressions”

Lab:10 rSm uRefawmfwkdUxdawGUMu&r,fh Command awGuawmh atmufygtwkdif;
jzpfygw,f-

1 cat Allows you to look, modify or combine a file.

2 tee Read from an input and write to a standard output or file.

3 wc Print the number of lines, words and characters in file.

4 spell To check spelling from a file or user input.

5 sort Sorts the lines in a text file.

6 cut Divide a file into several parts.

7 diff Display the differences between two files.

8 grep Search file for pattern and print matching lines

Redirection of Input and Output

uRefawmfwdkU toHk;jyKcJhwJh command trsm;pk[m &&SdvmwJh result ukd standard
output jzpfwJh Screen rSm azmfjywmudkawGUcJhMu&NyD;jzpfygw,f/ tcsdKUaom oauFwrsm;udk
toHk;jyKNyD;awmh command awG&JU output ukd direction ajymif;vJay;Edkifygw,f/ Oyrm-
zdkifxJodkUydkUNyD; save Edkifygw,f/ y&ifwmuJhodkUaom device awGxHodkUydkUay;Edkifygw,f/
xkdUtjyif tjcm;aom command qDodkUydkUay;NyD; command ESpfck wpfNydKifwnf; tvkyfvkyf
Edkifygw,f/ tJ'Dh redirection vkyfay;wJh oauFwawGuawmh ‘>’ eJU ‘<’ yJjzpfygw,f/
OyrmudkavhvmMunhfyg-

[myn@panda myn]$ ls > list.txt

‘>’ oauFwu ‘ls’ command &JU output ukd screen odkUrjyyJ list.txt file xJodkU
direction ajymif;ay;vdkufwmjzpfygw,f/ tu,fí uRefawmfwdkU redirection vkyfay;vdkufwJh
list.txt zdkif[m rlvuwnf;u &SdNyD;om; jzpfaecJh&if overwrite vkyfoGm;rSmjzpfygw,f/ tJ'Dh
jyóemtwGuf ‘>>’ oauFwudk tokH;jyKEdkifygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ ls >> list.txt

‘>>’ oauFwu overwrite rvkyfyJ rlvzdkif&JUatmufrSmqufNyD; write vkyfoGm;atmif

ulnDay;ygw,f/

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Pipes and Filters

NyD;cJhwJh Lab-9 rSmpNyD; Unix command awG[m argument wpfck(odkU) wpfckxufydk
wJh argument awGeJU b,fvdktvkyfvkyfw,fqdkwm uRefawmfwdkU em;vnf oabmaygufcJhNyD;
jzpfygw,f/ uRefawmfwdkU[m command wpfckcsif;qDudkyJ command line rSm toHk;jyKcJhMu
wmjzpfygw,f/ ,ck 'Dtcef;rSmawmh command wpfckwnf;udkyJ r[kwfawmhygbl;? ESpfck
(odkU) ESpfckxufydkwJh command awGudk Pipes eJU Filters awG toHk;jyKcsdwfquf combine
vkyfNyD;awmh command line rSm command wpfckwnf;yHkpHrsdK;eJU toHk;jyKoGm;rSmjzpfygw,f/
tvkyfESpfckudk command wpfaMumif;wnf;eJU wpfNydKifwnf;vkyfvdkufwJh oabmygyJ/ Linux
user awGtaeeJUCommand awGodrS tvkyfvkyfvdkU&wJh Command line interface rSm
bmhaMumifh ydkNyD;tvkyfvkyfaeMuovJ? Graphic mode xuf bmawGydkNyD; tm;omcsufawG&Sdae
w,fqdkwm 'Davhusifhcef;udk NyD;oGm;wJhtcgrSm oabmaygufoGm;rSmjzpfygw,f/

Using a Pipe
Pipe &JU oauFwuawmh ‘|’ jzpfygw,f/ command awGwpfckeJUwpfckudk csdwfqufwJh
tcgrSm pipe u ulnDay;ygw,f/ yxr command &JU Standard output (stout) udk
'kwd, command &JU standard input (stdin) tjzpf ‘|’ u jyKvkyfay;ygw,f/ ‘>’
eJUoabmw&m;csif; qifwlygw,f/ 'gayr,fh ‘|’ eJU ‘>’ &JUuGmjcm;csufuawmh ‘|’ u
command wpfck&JU output udk aemuf command qDudkydkUay;wmjzpfygw,f/ ‘>’ vdk file
udk ydkUay;wm r[kwfygbl;/ Oyrmudk em;vnfatmifavhvmMunfhyg/

[myn@panda myn]$ cd /etc

[myn@panda etc]$ ls | less

'D OyrmxJrSm ‘ls’ eJU ‘less’ command ESpfckudk wGJoHk;xm;wmjzpfygw,f/ 'D /etc
directory xJrSm system &JU configuration file awG trsm;BuD;&Sdygw,f/ yxrqHk; ‘ls’
command wpfckwnf;udk toHk;jyKNyD; 'D directory xJrSmyg0ifwJh file awG&JU list udk
Munfhyg/ 'Ddirectory xJrSm zdkifawGtajrmuftrsm;&SdaewJhtwGuf one screen eJU display
vkyfzdkUrqHhygbl;/ tJ'DhtwGuf tay:ydkif;rSm&SdwJh zdkifawGudkjrif&zdkU tcuftcJawGU&rSm jzpfyg
w,f/ 'Djyomemudk ajz&Sif;EdkifzdkUtwGuf ‘less’ command udk wGJzuftoHk;jyKEdkifygw,f/
‘ls’ rS xGufvmr,fh ouput udk ‘less’ command &JU input (argument) tjzpf ‘|’
tultnDeJUydkUay;vdkuf&if less u wpfBudrfrSm one screen ESHK;eJU display vkyfay;rSmjzpfwJh
twGuf tqifajyoGm;aprSm jzpfygw,f/ Pipe u yxr command &JU output udk 'kwd,
command &JU input tjzpfydkUay;vdkufwmyJ jzpfygw,f/ aemuf Oyrmwpfckudk avhvmMunfh
ygOD;-

[myn@panda myn]$ cat myanmar.txt

Yangon
Mandalay
Bagan

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[myn@panda myn]$ cat myanmar.txt | wc

3 3 22

yxrqHk; cat command eJU zkdifxJrSmyg0ifwJh text awGudk standard output rSm
display vkyfvdkufygw,f/ 'kwd, command line rSmawmh cat &JU output udk stout rSm
rjyawmhyJ ‘|’uaeNyD; ‘wc’ command qDudkydkUay;vdkufygw,f (wc – word count)/ ‘|’
uydkUay;vdkufwJh input udktoHk;jyKNyD; ‘wc’ command u zdkifxJrSmyg0ifwJh line ta&twGuf?
word ta&twGufeJU character ta&twGufudk count vkyfNyD; stout rSm azmfjyay;wm jzpfyg
w,f/ vufawGUjyKvkyfavhvmMunfhyg/

Using a Filter(Фильтр)
Filter qkdwmuawmh Unix command awGygyJ/ Pipe u uRefawmfwdkU avhvmcJhwJh
twdkif; command wpfck&JU standard output udk tjcm; command wpfck&JU toHk;jyK&r,fh
input (argument) tjzpf ydkUay;ygw,f/ Filter awG tvkyfvkyfyHkuawmh stdin rS data udk
&,lNyD;awmh result udk stout odkUxkwfay;ygw,f/ text file awGukd Filter toHk;jyKNyD;
modify vkyfay;Ekdifygw,f/ Linux rSm toHk;rsm;wJh filter awGuawmh cat, cut, grep, sort,
spell, wc, … ponfjzifh jzpfygw,f/

command “cat”
Filter ‘cat’ u standard input rS uRefawmfwdkU &dkufxnfhvdkufwJh data udk copy
vkyfNyD; screen rSmazmfjyay;ygw,f/ ‘>’ oauFweJUwGJzufNyD; input ukd file odkUydkUay;edkifyg
w,f/
Syntax:
$ cat > file

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ cat
Russian Federation
Russian Federation
[myn@panda myn]$

Filter ‘cat’ udk argument rygyJ wpfckwnf;toHk;jyKwJhtcgrSm standard input udk

vufcHNyD;awmh standard output rSm output jyefxkwfay;ygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ cat > some_file

How are you!
[myn@panda myn]$

uRefawmfwdkU&dkufxnfhvdkufwJh input ukd ‘>’ rS file xJodkUydkUay;ygw,f/

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command “tee”

Filter ‘tee’ uawmh standard input udk read vkyfNyD;awmh standard output rSm
xkwfay;ygw,f/ wpfcsdefwnf;rSmyJ output udk file xJrSmvnf; save ay;ygw,f/
Syntax:
$ tee file

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ tee test.txt
Input from keyboard.
Input from keyboard.
[myn@panda myn]$ cat test.txt
Input from keyboard.

yxrOD;pGm command line rSm tee test.txt udk &dkufvdkufwJhtcgrSm user input
awmif;ygw,f/ Keyboard rS “Input from keyboard.” qdkwJh text udk &dkufxnfhvdkufyg
w,f/ tJ'DhtcgrSm standard output jzpfwJh screen rSm uRefawmfwdkU&dkufvdkufwJh text udk
output taeeJU jyef display vkyfay;NyD;awmh wpfcsdefwnf;rSmyJ test.txt zdkifxJrSmvnf;
uRefawmfwdkU &kdufvdkufwJh text udk oGm;NyD; save ay;ygw,f/ aocsmatmif ‘cat’ command
eJU zdkifudk display vkyfjyxm;ygw,f/ atmufrSmjyxm;wJhOyrmudk qufNyD;avhvmMunfhygOD;-

'Dae&mrSmawmh yxr command jzpfwJh ‘ls’ &JU output udk ‘|’ tultnDeJU input
tjzpftoHk;jyKNyD; result udk screen eJU test.txt rSm save vdkufwmjzpfygw,f/ ‘-a’ option
uawmh test.txt zkdifxJrSm rlv&SdaewJh text awGukd replace rvkyfyJ atmufrSxyfxnfhcsifwJh
twGuf toHk;jyKwmjzpfygw,f/

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command “wc”

Filter ‘wc’ uawmh word count command jzpfygw,f/ uRefawmfwdkU odvdkwJh

zdkifxJrSm&SdwJh line ta&twGuf? word ta&twGufeJU character ta&twGufwdkUudk output
rSm jyay;ygw,f/
Syntax:
$ wc [option] file

Option:
-c , Print the byte counts
-m , Print the character counts
-l , Print the newline counts
-L , Print the length of the longest line
-w , Print the word counts

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ cal
February 2006
Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28

[myn@panda myn]$ cal | wc

8 37 134

yxr command line rSm ‘cal’ command u calendar udk print vkyfay;ygw,f/
'kwd, command line rSmawmh ‘wc’ command u calendar rSm&SdwJh line ta&twGuf?
word ta&twGufeJU character ta&twGufawGudk azmfjyay;oGm;wmjzpfygw,f/

command “spell”
Filter ‘spell’ uawmh file xJrSm&SdwJh words awGudk system rSm&SdwJh spelling list eJU
checking vkyfNyD; spelling list rSmrygwJh rSm;aewJh spelling awGudk standard output rSm
xkwfay;ygw,f/
Syntax:
$ spell file

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Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ spell foodlist
soop
vegetebels
[myn@panda myn]$

command “sort”

Filter ‘sort’ ukdawmh text file xJrSm&SdwJh pmaMumif;awGudk sorting vkyf&mrSm toHk;jyK
ygw,f/ rdrd sorting jyKvkyfvdkwJh tay:rSmrlwnfNyD;awmh options awGeJU wGJzuftoHk;jyKEdkif
ygw,f/
Syntax:
$ sort [-bdfimMnru] [-k fields] filename [-o output_file]

Option:
-b Ignores spaces at the beginning ot the line.

-d Uses dictionary sort order and ignores the punctuation.

-f Ignores caps.

-i Ignores nonprinting control characters.

-m Merges two or more input files into one sorted output.

-M Treats the first three letters in the line as a month.

-n Sorts by beginning of the number at the beginning of the line.

-r Sorts in reverse order.

-u If line is duplicated only display once.

-k fields Sorts by fields, usually by tabs.

filename The name of the file that needs to be sorted.

-o output_file Sends the sorted output to a file.

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ cat myanmar.txt
yangon
mandalay
bagan

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[myn@panda myn]$ sort myanmar.txt

bagan
mandalay
yangon
[myn@panda myn]$

command “cut”
File odkU input data wpfckckrS uRefawmfwkdU vdktyfwJh text awGudk column (odkU)
field tvdkuf cut vkyfNyD; screen rSm output xkyfay;vdkwJhae&mrSm cut udk toHk;jyKygw,f/
Syntax:
$ cut -c list file
$ cut -f list [-d delim] [-s] file

list- pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;rSm uRefawmfwdkU select vkyfvdkwJh field numbers odkU column

numbers awGudk azmfjyay;ygw,f/ Oyrm-(1,4,7) qdkwmuawmh field odkU column
1,4 eJU 7 wdkUudk azmfjywmyg/ (1-3,6) uawmh column 1 rS 3 txdeJU 6 wdkUudk
nTefjyygw,f/ (-5,10)uawmh 1 rS 5 txdeJU 10 jzpfygw,f/ (3- ) qdkwmuawmh 3
rSpNyD; pmaMumif;tqHk;txdjzpfw,fqdkwmudk qdkvdkygw,f/ ydkrdk&Sif;vif;oGm;atmif
OyrmawGrSm avhvmMunfhyg/
Option:
-c list Character position. (eg. –c1-3 is to print the first 3 character)

-f list Field position

-d delim Direction symbol – divider of fields

For ‘–f’, do not print lines that do not contain the field separator
-s list
character

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ uname
Linux
[myn@panda myn]$ uname | cut -c1-3
Lin
[myn@panda myn]$ uname | cut –c4-
ux
[myn@panda myn]$

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‘uname’ command u uRefawmfwdkU toHk;jyKaewJh system &JU name udk standard

output rSm jyay;ygw,f/ 'kwd, command line rSmawmh yxrqHk; character (3)vHk;udkyJ
display vkyfcsifwJhtwGuf ‘-c’ option eJU list rSmawmh 1-3 vdkUay;vdkufwmjzpfygw,f/
yxrqHk; character (3)vHk;jzpfwJh ‘Lin’ udk uRefawmfwdkU awGU&rSmjzpfygw,f/ wwd,
command line rSmvnf; 'DvdkygyJ/ list rSm (4-) ay;NyD;awmhusefwJh character
awGtm;vHk;udk azmfjyay;vdkufwmjzpfygw,f/ aemufxyf Oyrmudk avhvmMunfhygOD;-

[myn@panda myn]$ tail -1 /etc/passwd

user1:x:501:501::/home/user1:/bin/bash
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 (pdwfrSef;eJU column number udk a&wGufMunfhwmyg)
[myn@panda myn]$ tail -1 /etc/passwd | cut –f1,6 –d:
user1:/home/user1
[myn@panda myn]$ date
Sat Feb 11 23:05:50 EST 2006
[myn@panda myn]$ date | cut -f-3,6 -d’ ‘
Sat Feb 11 2006
[myn@panda myn]$

‘-d’ option udk ‘-f’ option eJUwGJoHk;ygw,f/ ‘-d’ option eJU uyfvsufwGJoHk;wJh
character uaepNyD; column (field) cGJjcm;ay;ygw,f/

command “diff”

Command ‘diff’ uawmh file ESpfckudk ESdKif;,SOfNyD; rwlnDwJh line awGudk print vkyf
ay;ygw,f/ xdkUtjyif 'kwd,zdkifeJU wlnDoGm;zdkUtwGuf yxrzdkifxJrSm b,fae&mawGudk
xyfNyD; add zkdUvdkr,f? delete vkyfzdkUvdkr,f? change zdkUvdkr,f qdkwmawGudkyg azmfjyay;yg
w,f/ yxrzkdifxJu line awGudk ‘<’ oauFweJUazmfjyNyD; 'kwd,zdkifxJu line awGudkawmh
‘>’ oauFweJUazmfjyygw,f/
Syntax:
$ diff file1 file2
Line_number_from_file1 Action line_number_from_file2
< different line from file1.
> different line from file2.

Option:
-b , Ignore changes in amount of white space.
-c , Use the context output format
-i , Ignores the case of letters.

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Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ cat myanmar.old
Rangoon
Mandalay
Ayeyarwaddy
[myn@panda myn]$ cat myanmar
Yangon
Mandalay
Ayeyarwaddy
[myn@panda myn]$ diff myanmar.old myanmar
1c1
< Rangoon
---
> Yangon
[myn@panda myn]$

Text file ESpfckjzpfwJh myanmar.old eJU myanmar udk uRefawmfwdkU ‘diff’

command eJU ESdKif;,SOfMunfhwJhtcgrSm &vmwJh result udk jrif&rSmjzpfygw,f/ (1c1) vdkU
qdkxm;wmuawmh yxrzdkif&JU line No.1 rSm 'kwd,zkdif&JU line No.1eJU change ay;zdkUvdk
w,fvdkU ajymxm;wmyg/ tJ'Dhtcg zkdifESpfck wlnDoGm;rSmjzpfygw,f/ aemufxyf Oyrmwpfck
avhvmMunfhygOD;-

[myn@panda myn]$ cat division.txt

Mandalay
Ayeyarwaddy
Bago
[myn@panda myn]$ diff myanmar.old division.txt
1d0
< Rangoon
3a3
> Bago
[myn@panda myn]$

ESdKif;,SOfvdkU&vmwJh result t& 'DzdkifESpfck wlnDzdkUtwGuf myanmar.old file &JU line

No.1 rSm&SdwJh Rangoon udk delete vkyfzdkUajymxm;ygw,f(1d0)/ (3a3) uawmh line No.3
rSm division file &JU line No.3 rSm&SdwJh Bago udk add ay;zdkUajymxm;wmjzpfygw,f/

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command “grep”

Filter grep uawmh file xJrSm&SdwJh uRefawmfwdkU &SmvdkwJh text awGudk &SmazGNyD; tJ'Dh
text awGyg0ifwJh pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;vHk;udk screen rSmjyay;ygw,f/ ‘grep’ udk argument
ESpfckeJU wGJzuftokH;jyKygw,f/ tJ'gawGuawmh uRefawmfwdkU &SmvdkwJh text eJU tJ'Dh text udk
&SmvdkwJh file name yJjzpfygw,f/
Syntax:
$ grep [word_to_lookup] [filename]

Option:
-i Ignores upper and lower case.

-c Print out a count of the lines that contain the pattern.

-n Prefix each lines of output with the line number within its input file.

-v Print all lines not matching pattern.

Example:
grep stream preface
consist of a stream of
[myn@panda myn]$ grep data preface intro
preface: data in the file
intro: new data
[myn@panda myn]$ fgrep “editor\
create" preface
characters. An editor can
be used to create such
[myn@panda myn]$

Regular Expression (Регулярные выражения)

uRefawmfwdkU &SmvdkwJh text awG file awGtwGuf ‘grep’ command u tqifajyap
wmudk awGU&rSmjzpfygw,f/ 'D ‘grep’ command udk ydkNyD; powerful jzpfapwJh special
character awGvnf; &Sdygw,f/ tJ'Dh special character av;awGudkawmh regular
expression vdkU ac:ygw,f/ Oyrm- uRefawmfwkdU&SmazGvdkwJh (word) pmvHk;wpfvHk;twGuf
pmvHk;aygif;tjynfhtpHk uRefawmfwdkUrodwJh tajctaersdK;awGrSm 'D special character awGu
uRefawmfwdkUudk trsm;BuD;ulnDay;Edkifygw,f/ tJ'Dh special character awGuawmh ^, $, *,
‘.’, [] awGyJjzpfygw,f/ uRefawmfwkdU b,fvdk toHk;jyKEdkifw,fqkdwm OyrmawGeJUavhvmMunfh
yg/

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^ (Caret) match expression at the start of a line, as in ^A.

$ (Question) match expression at the end of a line, as in A$.
\ (Back Slash) turn off the special meaning of the next character, as in \^.
match any one of the enclosed characters, as in [aeiou]. Use
[ ] (Brackets)
Hyphen "-" for a range, as in [0-9].
match any one character except those enclosed in [ ], as in
[^ ]
[^0-9].
. (Period) match a single character of any value, except end of line.
* (Asterisk) match zero or more of the preceding character or expression.

‘^’ oauFwuawmh pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;&JU tprSm&SdwJh character awGeJU oGm;NyD;

match jzpfapygw,f/
[myn@panda myn]$ grep ^A somefile
A cup of water.
[myn@panda myn]$ grep ^Yangon myanmar.txt
Yangon

‘^’ u pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;&JU a&SUqHk;rSm&SdwJh A eJU Yangon udkoGm;NyD; &Smapyg

w,f/ tjcm;ae&mrSm &SdaewJh 'DpmvHk;awGeJU match jzpfrSm r[kwfygbl;/

pmaMumif;wpfaMumif;&JU aemufqHk;rSm&SdaewJh pmvHk;awGukd &SmzdkUtwGufawmh ‘$’

oauFwudk toHk;jyKygw,f/
[myn@panda myn]$ grep Yangon$ somefile
I live in Yangon
The capital of myanmar is Yangon
[myn@panda myn]$

‘.’ uawmh rnfonfh character wpfvHk;eJUrqdk match jzpfygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ cat somefile
big
bad bug
bag
bigger
boogy
[myn@panda myn]$ grep b.g file
big
bad bug

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bag
bigger

'Dae&mrSm boogy uawmh match rjzpfygbl;/ ‘.’ u b eJU g Mum;rSm&SdwJh character

wpfvHk;pmtwGufyJ jzpfaevdkUyg/

‘*’ uawmh a&SUrSmuyfvsufwGJoHk;wJh character &JU tBudrfBudrfyg0ifwJhpmvHk;awGeJU

match jzpfygw,f/ Oyrm- c* twGuf ‘c’, ‘cc’, ‘ccc’,… pwJhpmvHk;awGeJU match jzpfrSm
jzpfygw,f/

‘[]’ uawmh bracket xJrSmyg0ifwJh character wpfvHk;vHk;eJU match jzpfapygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ grep ca[a-z] somefile
cat
cad
[myn@panda myn]$ grep week[245] somefile
week2 weather
reports on week4
[myn@panda myn]$

atmufrSm jyxm;wJh OyrmeJU &Sif;vif;csufawGudkvnf; avhvmMunfhygOD;-

grep book files {search files for lines with 'book'}
grep '^book' files {'book' at the start of a line}

grep 'book$' files {'book' at the end of a line}

grep '^book$' files {lines containing only 'book'}

grep '\^s' files {lines starting with '^s', "\" escapes the ^}

grep '[Ss]mug' files {search for 'Smug' or 'smug'}

Grep 'B[oO][bB]' files {search for BOB, Bob, BOb or BoB }

grep '^$' files {search for blank lines}

grep '[0-9][0-9]' file {search for pairs of numeric digits}

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vufawG>av>usifhcef;rsm;

1/ Text file ESpfckjzpfonfh N1 ESifh N2 udk wnfaqmufyg/ N1 ESifh N2 wGif yg0ifonfh

text rsm;tm; standard output wpfckwnf;wGif azmfjyyg/ xdk output tm; N3 tjzpf
save yg/ N3 tm; spelling checking vkyfí output wGifjyaom error rsm;tm; zdkif
N4.error wGif save yg/

2/ N3 zdkifxJrS character ‘a’ yg0ifaom pmaMumif;rsm;tm; stout wGifazmfjyí

grepped zdkiftrnfjzifh save yg/ Filter rsm;udk toHk;jyKí grepped zdkifxJwGif
yg0ifaom pmaMumif;ta&twGuf? pmvHk;ta&twGufwdkUudk a&wGufyg/ xkdUaemuf
tqdkygzdkiftm; sorting jyKvkyfí output tm; N4 trnfjzifh odrf;yg/ N3 ESifh N4
zdkifESpfcktm; EIdif;,SOfMunfhyg/

3/ Text file wpfckudk wnfaqmufyg/ tqdkyg zdkifxJ&Sd pmaMumif;\aemufqHk;wGif week

yg0ifaom pmaMumif;rsm;tm; &SmazGyg/ pmaMumif;\ tpwGif ‘c’ jzifhpaom
pmaMumif;rsm;tm; &SmazGyg/

I enf;]y]zpfoludk]yoI ar;cGef;rsm;tm; ajzqdkyg/ J

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Laboratory Exercise No(11)

Unix Bourne Again Shell Programming
Lab.11 rSm uRefawmfwkdUxdawGUMu&r,fh Command awGuawmh atmufygtwkdif;
jzpfygw,f-

1 echo To display text or value of variable

2 read To get input from keyboard and store(data) to variable
3 test Check file type and compare values
4 let Perform arithmetic on shell variable
5 exit Exit the shell
6 return To exit the function with the return value specified by n
Control structure, which puts conditions for
7 if-then
performance of command
8 case Provides a choice of one of multiple possible variants
9 while Cycle, used for recurrence of commands
Structure for the sequence reference to the values listed
10 for-in
in the list

Programming in BASH
BASH [m command line interpreter jzpf&Hkomru high-level programming
languade vnf; jzpfygw,f/ NyD;cJhwJh avhusifhcef;awGrSm command line interpreter tjzpf
uRefawmfwdkU avhvmcJhMuNyD; jzpfygw,f/ 'Dtcef;rSmawmh programming language
wpfcktjzpf shell scripts awGudk avhvmxdawGUMu&rSm jzpfygw,f/ yxrqHk;taeeJU shell
script qdkwm bmvJqdkwmudk &Sif;vif;pGm oabmaygufzdkUvkdygw,f/ Script qdkwmuawmh
uRefawmfwdkU command line rSm toHk;jyKcJhwJh command awGudk pkpnf;NyD; store
vkyfxm;wJh text file jzpfygw,f/ tJ'gaMumifh script qdkwm command awGpkNyD;a&;xm;wJh
file vdkU ajymr,fqdk&ifvnf; &ygw,f/ MS-DOS rSm oHk;wJh ‘.batch file trsdK;tpm;
oabmrsdK;ygyJ/ 'gayr,fh .batch file awGxuf ydkNyD; pGrf;aqmifEdkifygw,f/
Shell script wpfcka&;zdkUtwGuf text editor wpfckckudk toHk;jyKNyD; a&;&ygw,f/
Text editor qdkwmuawmh Word Processor uJUodkU program ygyJ/ Linux System rSm
uRefawmfwdkU toHk;jyKEdkifwJh text editor program awG trsm;tjym;&Sdygw,f/ tJ'gawG
uawmh vi, emacs, pico, gedit, … ponfjzifh&Sdygw,f/ uRefawmfwdkU tck ‘vi’ udk toHk;jyK

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NyD; script a&;om;avhvmMunfhMuygr,f/ Shell Script wpfck a&;zdkUtwGuf atmufygtwdkif;

tqifh(3)qifh ausmfjzwf&ygw,f-
1. Text editor wpfckckudk toHk;jyKNyD; script udk a&;om;&ygr,f/
Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ vi my_script

text editor ‘vi’ rSm toHk;jyKwJh command key tcsdKUudk atmufuZ,m;rSm

azmfjyxm;ygw,f-
Purpose ‘vi’ command syntex
To write text Esc + i
To save file Esc + : + w
To save file with file name Esc + : + w filename
To quit the vi editor Esc + : + q
To quit without saving Esc + : + q + !
To save and quit vi editor Esc + : + w + q

2. a&;NyD;oGm;wJh script ukd execute vkyfzdkUtwGuf ‘chmod’ command udk toHk;jyK

NyD; execute permission ajymif;ay;&ygr,f/
Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ chmod +x my_script
(or)
[myn@panda myn]$ chmod 755 my_script

3. tJ'DhaemufrSmawmh uRefawmfwdkU&JU script udk command line rSm execute vkyfzdkU

yJ jzpfygw,f/

Command line rSm command (odkU) script awGudk execute vkyfwJhtcg

ta&;BuD;wJh tcsufwpfcsufudk odxm;zkdUvdktyfygw,f/ tJ'guawmh PATH ygyJ/ PATH
qdkwm Shell variable wpfckyg/ tJ'Dh variable xJrSm command awG&SdwJh directory awGudk
store vkyfxm;ygw,f/ yg0ifwJh directory list udk atmufygtwdkif; MunfhEdkifygw,f-

[myn@panda myn]$ echo $PATH

/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin:/usr/X11R6/bin:/usr/bin/X11

uRefawmfwdkU command line rSm command wpfckudk &dkufvdkufwJhtcg system

uaeNyD; uRefawmfwdkU &dkufvdkufwJh command udk vdkuf&Smygw,f/ 'Dae&mrSm command udk
hardisk wpfckvHk;&JU ae&mtESHUvdkuf&SmNyD; execute vkyfwmr[kwfygbl;/ tJ'Dhvdk vdkuf&Smr,f
qkd&ifvnf; uRefawmfwdkU[m command wpfcsufESdyfNyD;&if pufu vdkuf&SmaewJhtcsdefrSm
xkdifapmifhaezdkUyJ&Sdygw,f/ trSefwu,fuawmh uRefawmfwdkU command wpfck&dkufvdkufwJh
tcg system uaeNyD; vuf&Sda&mufaewJh directory xJrSm 'D command file &Sdovm;qdkwm

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yxrqHk;Munfhygw,f/ rawGUbl;qdk&if PATH xJrSm azmfjyxm;wJh directory awGxJrSm

xyfNyD;&Smygw,f/ PATH xJrSm&SdwJh directory awGxJrSmvnf; rawGUbl;qdk&ifawmh
uRefawmfwdkU jrifbl;aeusjzpfwJh “command not found” qdkwJh error message udk
xkyfay;ygvdrfhr,f/ 'DhtwGuf uRefawmfwdkU&JU script udk save xm;wJh directory [m
PATH xJrSm yg0ifaezdkUvdktyfygw,f/ (PATH [m uRefawmfwdkU user awG pdwfBudKuf
define(modified) vkyfvdkU&wJh shell variable trsdK;tpm;jzpfygw,f/) 'grSvnf; uRefawmf
wdkU&JU script/command udk tjcm; rnfonfh directory uaerqdk vSrf;NyD; toHk;jyKvdkU&rSm
jzpfygw,f/ r[kwf&ifawmh toHk;jyKcsifwJh tBudrfwdkif;rSm save xm;wJh directory xJudk
0ifae&yghvdrhfr,f/ tqifajyaprSm r[kwfygbll;/ uRefawmfwdkU directory topfwpfck
wnfaqmufNyD; tJ'Dh directory ukd PATH xJrSm add vkyfxm;r,f/ uRefawmfwdkU&JU script
awGudk tJ'Dh directory xJrSmyJ save xm;r,fqdk&if tqifajyapr,fvdkU ,lqygw,f/
Oyrmudk avhvmMunfhyg-
[myn@panda myn]$ mkdir ~/bin
[myn@panda myn]$ export PATH=$PATH:~/bin

yxrqHk; /bin qdkwJh directory wpfckudk user &JU home directory xJrSm create
vkyfvdkufygw,f/ ( ‘~/’ oauFwu user’s home directory udk qdkvdkw,fqdkwm
rSwfrdvdrfhr,fvdkU ,lqygw,f/) tJ'Dhaemuf ‘export’ command eJU vuf&Sd PATH xJudk
uRefawmfwdkUxyfNyD;xnfhvdkwJh /bin ukd xyfxnfhNyD; define vkyfvdkufwmjzpfygw,f/
tay:rSm uRefawmf&Sif;jycJhwmawGudk oabmaygufNyDqdk&if script udk pNyD;a&;MunfhvdkU
&ygNyD/ yxrqHk;taeeJU &dk;&dk;&Sif;&Sif; script wpfckprf;NyD; a&;Munfhygr,f/ avhvmMunfhyg-

#!/bin/bash
#My first script.
echo “We love LINUX.”

yxrpmaMumif;u b,f program eJU uRefawmfwdkU&JU script ukd system em;vnf

atmif interpret vkyfay;&r,fqdkwmudk nTefjyay;ygw,f/ 'kwd,pmaMumif;rSmawmh
comment vkyfxm;ygw,f/ ‘#’ oauFw&JU aemufupmvHk;awGudk bash u ignore
vkyfygw,f/ Programmer uaeNyD; program udk &Sif;jywJhoabm toHk;jyKygw,f/
aemufqHk;pmaMumif;rSmawmh ‘echo’ command ukd toHk;jyKNyD; stout rSm “We love
LINUX.” udk display vkyfjyygvdrfhr,f/
Script a&;NyD;oGm;wJhaemufrSm execute vkyfzdkU permission setting udk change
ay;NyD; execute vkyfMunfhygr,f-

[myn@panda myn]$ chmod +x my_script

[myn@panda myn]$ ./my_script
We love LINUX.

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script execute vkyfwJhae&mrSm ‘./’ oauFwudk oHk;xm;&wJh taMumif;&if;uawmh

current directory xJrSm script &Sdw,fqdkwm system ukd azmfjyay;vdkufwmjzpfygw,f/
tu,fí script udk save xm;wJh directory [m PATH xJrSm &SdNyD;om; qdk&ifawmh ‘./’
oauFw rvdkyJeJUvnf;&ygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ my_script

We love LINUX.

,ckavmufqdk&if script wpfck&JU tMurf;zsOf; structure udk oabmaygufr,fvdkU

,lqygw,f/ uRefawmfwdkU&JU script udk ydkNyD; jynfhpHkaumif;rGefatmif? Intelligence av;awG
xnfhNyD; a&;EdkifzdkUtwGuf toHk;jyKvdkU&wJh command awGudk qufNyD; avhvmMuygr,f/

Variables (Переменные)
rnfonfh programming language rSmrqdk variables qdkwm rygvQifrNyD;wJh
t&mwpfckyg/ Information (odkU) data wpfckckukd udk,fpm;jyKNyD; memory
ay:rSmae&m,lxm;wJh trnfemrav; wpfckygyJ/ shell rSm toHk;jyKwJh variable
trsdK;tpm;(3)ck &Sdygw,f/ tJ'gawGuawmh User Variable, Shell Variable eJU Read-
only Shell Variable awGyJ jzpfygw,f/
Variable wpfck create vkyfwmuawmh tjcm; programming language awGrSmvdk
ygyJ/ name eJU store vkyfr,fh data ukd ‘=’ oauFwcHNyD; ay;vdkuf&HkygyJ/
[myn@panda myn]$ country=Myanmar

owdjyK&r,fhtcsufuawmh ‘=’ sign &JU a&SUeJUaemufrSm ‘space’ ygvdkUr&ygbl;/

variable &JU value ukd jyefNyD;xkyfjyzdkUtwGuf ‘$’ oauFwudk variable name &JUa&SUrSmcHNyD;
toHk;jyK&ygw,f/ substitution vkyfw,fvdkU ac:ygw,f/
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $country
Myanmar

tu,fí variable xJrSm space awGyg yg0ifvmr,fqdk&if(Oyrm-string) quoting

vkyfay;zdkU vdktyfygw,f/ single quote eJU double quote (2) rsdK;&Sdygw,f/
[myn@panda myn]$ town=’Yangon and Mandalay’
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $town
Yangon and Mandalay
[myn@panda myn]$ town=”Yangon and Mandalay”
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $town
Yangon and Mandalay

Single quote eJU double quote &JU uGmjcm;csufuawmh single quote u

substitution vkyfwJh ae&mrSm limit vkyfygw,f/ OyrmudkavhvmMunfhyg-

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[myn@panda myn]$ echo ‘My host name is $HOSTNAME.’

My host name is $HOSTNAME.

Single quote u limit vkyfxm;wJhtwGuf substitution rvkyfEdkifyJ rlvtwdkif;

jyefNyD; azmfjyay;wmjzpfygw,f/ 'Dae&mrSm HOSTNAME qdkwm PATH uJhodkU shell
variable trsdK;tpm;yJjzpfygw,f/ system variable vdkUvnf; oHk;ESKef;ygw,f/ (tjcm;
possible toHk;jyKEdkifwJh shell variable awGudk pdwf0ifpm;r,fqdk&ifawmh command line rSm
‘set’ vdkU&dkufMunhfyg/ shell built-in variable awGeJU olwdkU store vkyfxm;wJh data (info)
awGudk awGU&ygvdrfhr,f/)
[myn@panda myn]$ echo “My host name is $HOSTNAME.”
My host name is panda.

OyrmrSmjrif&wJhtwdkif; double quote uawmh shell udk interpret vkyf&mrSm

taESmifht,Sufray;ygbl;/
wwd,ajrmuf variable trsdK;tpm;jzpfwJh read-only shell variable eJUygwfoufNyD;
tenf;i,fodxm;zdkUvdktyfygw,f/ 'D variable awG&JU value udk shell uae udk,fwdkif
assign vkyfNyD;awmh user taeeJU modify vkyfcGifhray;ygbl;/ 'D variable trsdK;tpm;awGxJrS
uRefawmfwdkUtwGuf script awGa&;&mrSm toHk;0ifr,fh variable tcsdKUudk atmufrSmazmfjyxm;
ygw,f/

Variable name Meaning

Number of command line arguments. (Useful to test

$#
number of command line arguments in shell script.)
$* All arguments to shell

$@ All arguments to shell

$0 Program (or) script name

Name of command line arguments (called positional
$1, $2, .., $9
parameters)
Oyrmjyxm;wJh script(var_test)udk avhvmMunfhyg? &Sif;oGm;ygvdrfhr,f/
#!/bin/bash
echo “Your program name is $0.”
echo “Total of command line arguments= $#.”
echo “They are … $@ or @*”
echo “First argument is $1.”

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echo “Second argument is $2.”

echo “Third argument is $3.”

'Dscript(var_test) udk Redhat, Debian, SUSE qdkwJh argument (3)ckeJU run

MunfhvkdufwJhtcg atmufygtwkdif; awGU&rSmyg-

Arguments awGae&mrSm tjcm; argument awGeJU tpm;xkd;NyD; prf;Munfhyg/

oabmaygufr,fvdkU arQmfvifhygw,f/

command “echo”
uRefawmfwdkU screen rSm data awGudk print vkyfvdkwJhtcgrSm command ‘echo’ ukd
toHk;jyKEdkifygw,f/ 'ghtjyif variable awG&JU value udk print vkyfwJhtcgrSmvnf; toHk;jyK
ygw,f/
Syntax:
$ echo [option] [string, variable,..]

Options:
-n , Do not output the trailing new line.
-e , Enable interpretation of the following backslash escaped characters in the strings.

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ echo “We love LINUX.”
We love LINUX.

uRefawmfwdkU &dkufvdkufwJh text udk screen rSm jyefxkwfay;wmjzpfygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ country=Myanmar

[myn@panda myn]$ echo “I live in $country.”
I live in Myanmar.
[myn@panda myn]$

yxrqHk; country qdkwJh variable xJudk Myanmar qdkwJh value xnfhvdkufygw,f/

tJ'Dhaemuf ‘echo’ command udk toHk;jyKNyD; variable &JUvalue ukd print vkyfjyvkdufwm

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jzpfygw,f/ variable &JUa&SUrSm ‘$’ oauFwudk cHNyD;toHk;jyK&ygw,f/ wpfenf;tm;jzifh

variable value udk reference jyefvkyfwm jzpfygw,f/
‘echo’ command udk atmufygtwdkif; ‘backslash escape character’ awGeJUvnf;
toHk;jyKEkdifygao;w,f/ toHk;rsm;wJh ‘escape character’ awGudk azmfjyxm;ygw,f/
avhvmMunfhyg-

Escape character Name

\a Alert(bell)
\b Backspace
\n New line
\r Carriage return
\t Horizontal tab
\\ backslash

Backslash escape character awGudk programming language awmfawmfrsm;rsm;rSm

toHk;jyKMuNyD;awmh toHk;jyKyHk concept csif;vnf; twlwlygyJ/ ,ck 'Dae&mrSm ‘echo’
command eJU toHk;jyKzdkUtwGuf ‘-e’ option udkwGJNyD; toHk;jyK&ygw,f/ ‘-e’ option rygyJ
oHk;r,fqdk&ifawmh shell uaeNyD; escape character awGtjzpf rodwJhtwGuf interpret
vkyfrSm r[kwfygbl;/ omrmef text awGvdkUyJ ,lqNyD; tJ'Dhtwdkif;yJ jyefNyD; print vkyfay;yg
vdrfhr,f/ Oyrmudk avhvmMunfhyg/

command “read”

Keyboard uaeNyD; input data awGvufcHzdkU ‘read’ command udk toHk;jyKygw,f/

uRefawmfwdkU &dkufoGif;vkdufwJh data udk vufcHNyD;awmh variable tjzpf assign vkyfay;yg
w,f/ Oyrmjyxm;wJh script(read_example) udk avhvmMunfhyg-

#!/bin/bash

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echo –n “Enter some text: ”

read text
echo “You entered: $text”

line-2 rSm ‘-n’ option oHk;xm;&wJh taMumif;uawmh cursor udk atmufwpfaMumif;

qif;roGm;apcsifvdkUyg/ line-3 rSmawmh ‘read’ command udk oHk;xm;wm awGU&rSmygjzpfyg
w,f/ program [m tqifhqifh run vmNyD;wJhaemuf line-3 udka&mufwJhtcg user &JU
input udkapmifhaeygvdrfhr,f/ user input wpfckck &dkufoGif;vdkufNyD;wJhaemuf program [m
tvkyfqufvkyfoGm;ygvdrfhr,f/ 'D script udk run vdkuf&if atmufygtwdkif; awGU&rSm
jzpfygw,f-

[myn@panda myn]$ read_example

Enter some text: Myanmar
You entered: Myanmar
[myn@panda myn]$

Option awGeJUvnf; wGJzuftoHk;jyKEdkifygw,f/ Oyrmjyxm;wJh script udk avhvmMunfh

yg-
#!/bin/bash
echo –n “Hurry up and type something! > ”
if read –t 3 text; then
echo “Great, you made it in time.”
else
echo “Sorry, you are too slow.”
fi
echo FINISHED

‘-t’ option &JUaemufrSm uyfvsufygwJh puúefUta&twGuftxdyJ user input udk

‘read’ uapmifhygvdrfhr,f/ t&ifwkef;uvdk input &dkufNyD; ENTER ESdyfwJhtxd apmifhrSm
r[kwfawmhygbl;/ 'D concept udk toHk;jyKNyD;awmh typing avhusifhcef;jyKvkyfEdkifwJh script
yHkpHrsdK;awG rdrdOmPf&Sdovdk uGefUNyD;a&;MunfhvdkU&ygw,f/
aemufxyf toHk;rsm;wJh option wpfrsdK;uawmh ‘-s’ yg/ ‘-s’ option ukd user
&dkufoGif;vdkufwJh data udk display rvkyfzdkUtwGuf toHk;jyKygw,f/ Oyrm- password vdk
data rsdK;awGjzpfygw,f/

#!/bin/bash
echo -n “Enter your password: ”
read -s pass

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vufawGUa&;NyD; avhvmMunfhyg/

Exit Status
Linux rSm uRefawmfwdkU command (odkU) script wpfckckukd execute vkyfvdkufwJh
tcg shell uaeNyD;awmh default tm;jzifh return value wpfckck tjrJxkwfay;ygw,f/
tqdkyg value udkMunfhNyD;awmh uRefawmfwdkU&JU command (odkU) script [m execute
vkyfcsdefrSm successful jzpfovm;? error jzpfoGm;vm;qkdwm odEdkifygw,f/ type (2)rsdK;tjzpf
rSwfom; Edkifygw,f/ tJ'guawmh zero eJU nonzero yg/ (0)rS (255) txd&Sdygw,f/ tJ'Dh
value udk exit status vdkUac:ygw,f/ successful jzpfw,fqdk&if exit status (0) udk
jyygw,f/ error wpfrsdK;rsdK;eJU exit jzpfoGm;w,fqdk&ifawmh error trsdK;tpm;tay:rlwnfNyD;
(1)rS(255)twGif; value wpfckckudk jyygw,f/
exit status udk stout rSm tvkdvdk razmfjyay;ygbl;/ uRefawmfwdkU MunfhvdkwJhtcgrSm
special variable jzpfwJh ‘?’ udk toHk;jyKNyD; MunfhEdkifygw,f/ OyrmudkMunfhyg-

[myn@panda myn]$ rm something

rm: cannot remove ‘something’: No such file or directory
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $?
1
[myn@panda myn]$

OyrmtaeeJU pufxJrSm r&SdwJh file wpfckudk remove vkyfMunfhygw,f/ File u

r&SdwJhtwGuf error message jyygw,f/ exit status ukd ‘$?’ toHk;jyKNyD; MunfhwJhtcgrSm
successful rjzpfwJhtwGuf ‘1’ udkjrif&rSm jzpfygw,f/ aemufxyf Oyrmudk avhvmMunfhyg-

[myn@panda myn]$ date

Thu Aug 3 19:15:49 RDT 2006
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $?
0
[myn@panda myn]$ true
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $?
0
[myn@panda myn]$ false
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $?
1
[myn@panda myn]$

oabmaygufr,fvkdU ,lqygw,f/

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command “test”
Command ‘test’ udk rsm;aomtm;jzifh ‘if’ command eJU wGJzufNyD;awmh true, false
decision awGtwGuf toHk;jyKygw,f/ yHkpH(2)rsdK;eJU toHk;jyKEdkifygw,f/

Syntax:
#First form
test expression

#Second form
[ expression ]

Text form eJU a&m ‘[’ ‘]’ oauFweJUyg toHk;jyKEdkifygw,f/ owdjyK&r,fh

tcsufuawmh ‘[’ eJU expression Mum;rSm space jcm;zdkUvdktyfygw,f/ command tvkyf
vkyfyHkuawmh uRefawmfwdkUay;vdkufwJh expression ay:rlwnfNyD;awmh data awGudk compare
vkyfygw,f (odkU) wGufcsufNyD;awmh (TRUE) jzpfw,fqdk&if exit status (0) ay;NyD;awmh?
(FALSE) jzpfwJhtcg ‘1’ udk xkwfay;ygw,f/ Oyrmjyxm;wJh script udk avhvmMunfhyg-

#!/bin/bash
if [ -f .bash_profile ]; then
echo “You have a .bash_profile. Things are fine.”
else
echo “You have no .bash_profile.”
fi

'DOyrmrSm expression taeeJU “-f .bash_profile” udk oHk;xm;ygw,f/

“.bash_profile” &Sd^r&Sdudk ‘-f’ option tultnDeJU check vkyfygw,f/ expression
rSefw,fqdk&if exit status ‘0’ eJU script NyD;oGm;ygvdrfhr,f/ r[kwf&if exit status ‘1’ udk
xkwfay;ygvdrfhr,f/ command line rSmvnf; atmufygtwdkif; prf;MunfhEdkifygw,f-

[myn@panda myn]$ [ -f .bash_profile ]

[myn@panda myn]$ echo $?
0
[myn@panda myn]$

wGJzuftoHk;jyKwJh option awGudk avhvmzdkU vG,ful&eftwGuf OyrmyHkpHav;eJU

azmfjyxm;ygw,f/ avhvmMunfhyg-

Expression Description

[ expression ] Expression is true

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[ ! expression ] Expression is false

expression1 –a expression2 Both expression 1 and 2 are true (a=logical AND)
expression1 –o expression2 Either expression 1 or 2 is true (o=logical OR)
[ file1 –nt file2 ] File1 is newer(modification data) than file2
[ file1 –ot file2 ] File1 is older than file2
[ –d file ] File exists and is a directory
[ –e file ] File exists
[ –f file ] File exists and is a regular file
[ –L file ] File exists and is a symbolic link
[ –r file ] File exists and is readable by you
[ –s file ] File exists and has a size greater than zero
[ –w file ] File exists and is writeable by you
[ –x file ] File exists and is executable
[ integer1 –eq integer2 ] Integer1 is equal to integer2
[ integer1 –ge integer2 ] Integer1 is greater than or equal to integer2
[ integer1 –gt integer2 ] Integer1 is greater than integer2
[ integer1 –le integer2 ] Integer1 is less than or equal to integer2
[ integer1 –lt integer2 ] Integer1 is less than integer2
[ integer1 –ne integer2 ] Integer1 is not equal to integer2
[ -n string ] The length of string is nonzero.
[ -z string ] The length of string is zero.
[ string1 = string2 ] The strings are equal.
[ string1 != string2 ] The strings are not equal.
em;vnfoabmaygufzdkUtwGuf vufawGUrsm;rsm;jyKvkyfNyD; avhvmapvdkygw,f/ aemuf
OyrmwpfcktaeeJU pHkudef; rudef;cGJjcm;ay;wJh script(even_odd) udk avhvmMunfhyg-
#!/bin/bash
num=0
echo –n “Enter a number: ”
read num
if [ $((num%2)) –eq 0 ]; then
result=”even”
else
result=”odd”
fi
echo “You typed number: $num is $result number.”

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'D script udk execute vkyfMunfhygr,f-

[myn@panda myn]$ chmod +x even_odd
[myn@panda myn]$ even_odd
Enter a number: 3
You typed number: 3 is odd number.
[myn@panda myn]$

command “exit” and “return”

vG,fvG,fajym&r,fqdk&ifawmh ‘exit’ command udk exit vkyf&mrSm toHk;jyKygw,f/
shell okdU script udk user defined vkyfvdkufwJh exit status eJUtwl terminate (exit)
vkyfay;ygw,f/ tu,fí uRefawmfwdkUu exit code wpfckck ( Oyrm - exit n )udk
define vkyfray;yJ exit qdkNyD; command wpfckwnf;om toHk;jyKcJhr,fqdk&ifawmh
rlvt&ifu &SdaeNyD;cJhwJh exit status udkyJ shell u vuf&Sd exit status tjzpf assign
vkyfay;ygw,f/
‘return’ uvnf; 'Dtwkdif;ygyJ/ shell function ukd return value eJU exit vkyfay;
ygw,f/ return value wpfckckrygyJ oHk;cJhr,fqdk&if rlva&SUu &SdcJhwJh value udkyJ return
status tjzpf assign vkyfay;ygw,f/

Syntax:
$ exit n
$ return n

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ cat exit_test
#!/bin/bash
if [ $(id –u) != 0 ]; then
echo “You must be the superuser to run this script” >&2
exit 100
fi
[myn@panda myn]$ exit_test
You must be the superuser to run this script
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $?
100
[myn@panda myn]$

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oabmaygufvG,fatmif exit code udk (100) Oyrmay;xm;wmyg/ ‘id –u’ uaeNyD;

superuser [kwf^r[kwf check vkyfygw,f/ r[kwfwJhtwGuf ‘exit’ command eJU xGuf
oGm;NyD;awmh exit status ukdvnf; 100 tjzpf owfrSwfvdkufygw,f/

[myn@panda myn]$ cat return_test

function rtn {
echo return from function
return 99
}
[myn@panda myn]$ return_test
return from function
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $?
99
[myn@panda myn]$

command “let”
Command ‘let’ udkawmh shell rSm arithmetic operator awG tvkyfvkyfzdkUtwGuf
toHk;jyKygw,f/ arithmetic operation (odkU) tjcm;wGufcsuf&rSmawGudk wGufcsufay;NyD;awmh
variable value tjzpf assign vkyfay;ygw,f/ yHkpH(2)rsdK;eJU toHk;jyKEdkifygw,f/
Syntax:
$ let expression
(or)
$ ((expression))

Example:
[myn@panda myn]$ x=10
[myn@panda myn]$ y=3
[myn@panda myn]$ let “ans=x+y”
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $ans
13
[myn@panda myn]$

yxrqHk; x eJUy variable ESpfckudk assign vkyfygw,f/ tJ'Dhaemuf ‘let’ command

udk toHk;jyKNyD; x eJUy aygif;vdkU&wJh wefzdk;udk ‘ans’ variable xJudk assign vkyfvdkufygw,f/
'Dae&mrSm ‘let’ command aMumifhom shell u ‘+’ udk operator tjzpfodNyD; tvkyf
vkyfEdkifwm jzpfygw,f/ ‘let’ ryg&if shell u operator vdkU rodEdkifygbl;/ Oyrmudk
avhvmMunfhyg-
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[myn@panda myn]$ x=10

[myn@panda myn]$ y=3
[myn@panda myn]$ ans=x+y
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $ans
x+y
[myn@panda myn]$

oabmaygufr,fvdkU ,lqygw,f/ tjcm;Oyrmav;awG avhvmMunfhygOD;-

[myn@panda myn]$ ((x=x+3))
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $x
13
[myn@panda myn]$ let “x<y”
[myn@panda myn]$ echo $?
1
[myn@panda myn]$

command “if-then”
tjcm; programming language awGrSmoHk;wJh ‘if’ &JUoabmw&m;eJU twlwlygyJ/
command toHk;jyKyHk format tenf;i,fyJ uGm;jcm;ygw,f/

Syntax:

if expression
then
commands
else
commands
fi

‘if’ statement uaeNyD; uRefawmfwkdUay;vdkufwJh expression udk wGufcsufNyD; exit

status udk xkyfay;ygw,f/ tJ'Dhwefzdk;tay:rlwnfNyD; tvkyfqufvkyfoGm;wmjzpfygw,f/
exit status ‘0’ (true) qdk&if then &JUatmufu command awGudk execute vkyfNyD;awmh?
exit status ‘1’ (false) jzpfwJhtcg else &JUatmufu command awGukd execute vkyfoGm;yg
w,f/ ‘if’ command tm;vHk;NyD;oGm;wJhtcgrSmawmh ‘fi’ eJUjyefNyD;ydwfay;&ygw,f/ (if udk
ajymif;jyefjyef,lxm;wmyg) Oyrmjyxm;wJh script(arg_test)udk avhvmMunfhyg-

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#!/bin/bash
if [ $# -eq 0 ]
then
echo “You have no argument.”
else
echo “You have $# argument(s).”
echo “Your arguments are ”
echo $*
fi

'D script udk atmufygtwdkif; execute vkyfMunfhyg-

[myn@panda myn]$ chmod +x arg_test
[myn@panda myn]$ arg_test
You have no argument
[myn@panda myn]$ arg_test a b c
You have 3 argument(s).
Your arguments are
abc
[myn@panda myn]$

oabmaygufr,fvdkU ,lqygw,f/

command “case”
‘case’ uawmh multiple-choice branch trsdK;tpm;jzpfygw,f/ ‘if’ eJUa&;wJhtcg
tqifhawGtrsm;BuD;eJU complex jzpfwJh problem awGtwGuf ‘case’ ukd toHk;jyKwJhtcg
tqifajyapygw,f/ toHk;jyKwJhyHkpHu tenf;i,f simple jzpfygw,f/ command format
uawmh atmufygtwdkif;jzpfygw,f-
Syntax:

case $variable in
pattern1 ) commands ;;
pattern2 ) commands ;;
patternN ) commands ;;
* ) commands ;;
esac

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command tvkyfvkyfyHkuawmh user assign vkyfvkdufwJh variable ukd atmufrSm&SdwJh

pattern awGxJu wlnDwm(match jzpfwm)eJU compare vdkufvkyfNyD;awmh tJ'Dh wlnDwJh
pattern wpfckrSm&SdwJh command awGudk execute vkyfygw,f/ tu,fí variable eJU
match jzpfwJh pattern wpfckrS rawGUbl;qdk&ifawmh atmufqHk;rSm&SdwJh wildcard ‘*’ rSm&SdwJh
command ukd execute vkyfrSmjzpfygw,f/ pattern wpfckeJU wpfckukd semicolons (2)ck
‘;;’ eJU ydkif;jcm;xm;ygw,f/ tm;vHk;NyD;oGm;wJhaemufrSmawmh ‘case’ ukd ajymif;jyefjyef,lxm;
wJh esac eJU jyefNyD;ydwfay;&ygw,f/ Oyrmjyxm;wJh script ukd avhvmMunfhyg-
Example:

#!/bin/bash
echo “----------------------------------------------------”
echo “ Main menu ”
echo “----------------------------------------------------”
echo “[1] Show today date and time”
echo “[2] Show files in current directory”
echo “[3] Show the calendar for 1980”
echo “[4] Show my network information”
echo “[5] Exit/stop”
echo “==========================================”
echo –n “Please enter your choice [1-5]: ”
read choice
case $choice in
1)
echo “Today is $(date)”
;;
2)
echo “Files in $(pwd) is $(ls -al)”
;;
3)
cal 1980
;;
4)
ifconfig
;;
5)
exit 0
;;

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*)
echo “You did not enter a number between 1 and 5. ”
esac

Oyrmudk vufawGUa&;NyD;avhvmMunfhyg/ user input jzpfwJh variable(choice) tay:

rlwnfNyD;awmh oleJU match jzpfwJh pattern(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) wpfck&JU command udk execute
vkyfoGm;rSmjzpfygw,f/ pattern awGuawmh tu©&mudef;pOfawGomru wildcard awGvnf;
jzpfEdkifygw,f/ atmufrSm Oyrmjyxm;wJh script(case_example)udk avhvmMunfhyg-
Example:

#!/bin/bash
echo –n “Type a digit of a letter: ”
read character
case $character in
[a-z] | [A-Z] )
echo “You typed the letter $character.”
;;
[0-9] )
echo “You typed the digit $character.”
;;
*)
echo “You did not type a letter or a digit. ”
esac

vufawGUa&;om;NyD; avhvmMunfhyg/ oabmaygufr,fvdkU arQmfvifhygw,f/

command “while”
‘while’ [mvnf; looping command wpfckygyJ/ expression uaeNyD; exit status
‘0’ (true) &aeoa&GU do eJU done statement Mum;rSm&SdaewJh command awGudk execute
vkyfaerSmyJ jzpfygw,f/
Syntax:

while expression
do
commands
done

Oyrmjyxm;wJh script(while_example1) udk avhvmMunfhyg-

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#!/bin/bash
Number=1
while [ $number –le 5 ]
do
echo $number
number=$((number+1))
done

[myn@panda myn]$ chmod +x while_example1

[myn@panda myn]$ while_example1
1
2
3
4
5
[myn@panda myn]$

aemufxyf Oyrmudk avhvmMunfhygOD;-

#!/bin/bash
ans=y
while [ $ans = y ]
do
echo –n “Please enter a name: ”
read name
echo “The name you entered is $name.”
echo “Do you wish to continue?(y/n): ”
read ans
done
echo FINISHED

'DOyrmrSmqdk&if user uaeNyD; ‘y’ udk&dkufaeoa&GU whie loop tvkyfvkyfaerSmyJ

jzpfygw,f/ vufawGUjyKvkyfNyD; avhvmMunfhyg/

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command “for-in”
‘for’ uawmh tjcm; programming language awGrSmuJhodkU looping vkyf&mrSm
toHk;jyKwJh flow control statement wpfckyg/ toHk;jyKwJh yHkpHuawmh-
Syntax:

for loop-index in argument-list

do
commands
done

argument list rSm&SdwJh yxrqHk; item udk for &JU loop-index rSm pNyD; assign
vkyfygw,f/ tJ'Dhaemuf do eJU done statement Mum;rSm&SdwJh command awGudk execute
vkyfygw,f/ do eJU done statement awGu ‘for’ looping &JU tpeJU tqHk;ukd azmfjyyg
w,f/ program tvkyfvkyfvmNyD; done statement ukd pass jzpfoGm;wJhtcgrSm
aemufwpfBudrf argument list rSm&SdwJh 'kwd, item udk assign vkyfNyD; a&SUrSmvkyfoGm;wJh
twdkif;yJ tvkyfqufvkyfoGm;ygw,f/ argument list rSm&SdwJh item ukefwJhtxd tJ'Dhtwdkif;
looping ywfaerSmyJ jzpfygw,f/ Oyrmjyxm;wJh script(for_example1) udk avhvm
Munfhyg-
#!/bin/bash
for country in Myanmar Thaniland Singapore
do
echo “$country is in South-East Asia.”
done

'D script udk execute vkyfMunfhygr,f-

[myn@panda myn]$ chmod +x for_example1
[myn@panda myn]$ for_example1
Myanmar is in South-East Asia.
Thaniland is in South-East Asia.
Singapore is in South-East Asia.
[myn@panda myn]$

aemufxyfOyrmjyxm;wJh script(for_example2) udk avhvmMunfhyg-

#!/bin/bash
echo “Your arguments are: ”
for i in $@

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do
echo $i
done

'D script(for_example2) udk atmufygtwdkif; execute vkyfNyD;avhvmMunfhyg-

[myn@panda myn]$ chmod +x for_example2
[myn@panda myn]$ for_example2 aa bb cc
Your arguments are:
aa
bb
cc
[myn@panda myn]$

shell variable jzpfwJh ‘$@’ uawmh uRefawmfwdkU command line rSm toHk;jyKwJh
argument awGukd assign vkyfay;ygw,f/ ,ckazmfjyxm;wJh OyrmxJrSm command line
argument (3)ckjzpfwJh aa, bb eJU cc wdkUudk for loop toHk;jyKNyD; wpfckcsif; display vkyfjy
xm;wmjzpfygw,f/ oabmaygufr,fvdkU ,lqygw,f/

vufawG>av>usifhcef;rsm;

1/ File wpfckrS tjcm;wpfckokdU copy vkyfaom shell script wpfyk'fa&;om;NyD;

‘myprog’ trnfjzifh save yg/ copy vkyf&mrSm toHk;jyK&r,fh source file eJU receive
file udk user input tjzpfa&;om;yg/ xdkUtjyif atmufazmfjyyg condition rsm;yg0ifatmif
a&;om;yg/
9 tu,fí user rS source file ESifh receive file name udk wpfckwnf; input
vkyfcJhygu error message jyNyD; exit vkyfyg/
9 source file onf directory xJwGif &Sdr&SdESifh regular file [kwfr[kwf ppfaq;yg/
r&Sdvsif error message jyNyD; exit vkyfyg/
9 user input vkyfvdkufaom receive file ESifhtrnfwl trnfwl file &Sdr&Sdppfaq;yg/
r&Sdvsif copy vkyfNyD;? user odkUNyD;qHk;aMumif; message jyyg/ tu,fí&SdcJhygu
overwrite vkyfrvkyf user okdU confirm vkyfyg/

2/ User input number (10)vHk;\ aygif;v'fukd&Smaom script wpfyk'fa&;om;NyD;

‘summ’ trnfjzifh save yg/ Input number rsm;&dkufoGif;&mwGif number wpfvHk;
&dkufNyD;onfESifhwpfNydKifeuf &&Sdonfhaygif;v'ftm; screen wGifvnf; azmfjyay;yg/

3/ User tm; input number wpfvHk;awmif;í xdk number tm; (2) jzifhajrSmufyg/
&&dSonfh result udk screen wGifjyyg/ program udk ‘double’ trnfjzifh save yg/
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4/ ‘menu’ trnfjzifh script wpfyk'fa&;om;yg/ screen wGifazmfjy&r,fh menu wGif

yg0if&r,fh tcsuf(4)csufrSm atmufygtwdkif;jzpf&ygrnf-
9 myprog program udk execute vkyf&ef
9 summ program udk execute vkyf&ef
9 double program udk execute vkyf&ef
9 menu program rSexit vkyf&ef
User rS exit pattern udk ra&G;rcsif; menu ukd aemufwpfBudrfazmfjyap&ef loop
jzifha&;om;yg/

I enf;]y]zpfoludk]yoI ar;cGef;rsm;tm; ajzqdkyg/ J

LITERATURE

1. Norman Matloff. UNIX Shell Scripts, 2002.

2. Ken Steube. UNIX Borune Shell Scripting
3. Machtelt Garrels. Bash Guide for Beginners, 2005.
4. Mendel Cooper. Advaned Bash-Scripting guide, 18 June 2006.
5. http://www.linuxcommand.org/learning_the_shell.php

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