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Linguistics, the study of language, concerns itself with all aspects of how
people use language and what they must know in order to do so.
Linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields. An important topical division
is between the study of language structure (grammar) and the study of meaning
(semantics and pragmatics).
GRAMMAR encompasses:
*Morphology (the formation and composition of words),
*Syntax (the rules that determine how words combine into phrases and
sentences)
Other sub-disciplines of linguistics include the following:
*semantics - the study of meaning
*pragmatics how meaning is transmitted based on a combination of linguistic
competence, non-linguistic knowledge, and the context of the speech act.
*evolutionary linguistics, which considers the origins of language;
*historical linguistics, which explores language change;
*sociolinguistics, which looks at the relation between linguistic variation
and social structures;
*psycholinguistics, which explores the representation and functioning of
language in the mind;
*neurolinguistics, which looks at the representation of lang. in the brain.
Parts of speech - classes of words, all the members of these classes having
certain characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of
other classes.
The problem of word classification into parts of speech still remains one of
the most controversial problems in modern linguistics. The attitude of
grammarians with regard to parts of speech and the basis of their
classification varied a good deal at different times. Only in English
grammarians have been diffentiating between 3 and 13 parts of speech.
Traditional classification of words (dating back to ancient times) – 8 parts
of speech: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, interjections.
Objections:
1. The definitions are largely notional and often extremely quite vague;
e.g. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun (John came this morning – a
man, someone, you-know-who, the aforementioned).
2. The number of parts of speech in the traditional grammars seems to be
arbitrary. Why 8? Prof. Ilyish – 12 (+ numerals, statives, modal words and
particles), prof. Khaimovich and Rogovskaya – 14 (+ articles and response
words).
H.Sweet: declinables (nouns, adjectives, verbs) and indeclinables (adverbs,
prepositions, conjunctions, interjections).
One more classification (based on syntactic functions of word classes):
noun-words (nouns, noun-numerals, noun-pronouns, Infinitives, Gerunds),
adjective-words (adjectives, adjective-pronouns, adjective-numerals,
Participles), verb-words (verbs, verbals).
O.Jespersen (his theory is between syntax and morphology):
1. substantives (including proper nouns)
2. adjectives ((1) and (2) may be classed together as nouns)
3. pronouns (including numerals and pronominal adverbs)
4. verbs (with doubts as to the inclusion of verbals)
5. particles (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections),
characterized negatively as made up of all those that cannot find any place
in any of the first 4 classes.
Parts of speech - classes of words, all the members of these classes having
certain characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of
other classes.
Parts of speech are traditionally subdivided into:
NOTIONAL parts of speech have both lexical & grammatical meanings (nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, statives, pronouns, modal words).
FUNCTIONAL parts of speech are characterized mainly by the grammatical
meaning while their lexical meaning is either lost completely or has survived
in a very weakened form. (the article, the preposition, the conjunction).
Notional parts of speech are characterized by word-building & word-changing
properties; functional words have no formal features & they should be
memorized as ready-made units (but, since, till, until).
Another most important difference between functional & notional parts of
speech is revealed on the level of sentence. Where every notional word
performs a certain synthetic function while functional words have no
synthetic function at all. They serve as indicators of a certain part of
speech (to + verb; a, the + noun). Prepositions are used to connect 2 words &
conjunctions to connect 2 clauses or sentences.
Ilyish => words should be divided into 2 categories on the principle:
Notional words denote things, actions and other extra-linguistic phenomena
Functional words denote relations and connections between the notional words
This view is shaky, because functional words can also express smth extra-
linguistic:
e.g. The letter is on the table.
The letter is in the table. (diff. prepositions express different
relations between objects)
The match was called off because it was raining. (the conjunction
because denotes the causal connection between two processes).
Some words belonging to a particular part of speech may perform a function
differing from that which characterizes the p/of/sp as a whole.
e.g. I have some money left. (have – a notional word)
I have found a dog. (have – an auxiliary verb used to form a certain
analytical form of the verb to find, i.e. it is a functional verb)
9. THE ARTICLE
There are four non-finite forms of the verb in English: the infinitive (to
take), the gerund (taking), participle I (taking), participle II (taken).
These forms possess some verbal and some non-verbal features. The main
verbal feature of the infinitive and participles I and II is that it can be
used as part of analytical verbal forms (is standing, is built, have come,
will do, etc.)
Non-finites possess the verb categories of voice, perfect, and aspect. They
lack the categories of person, number, mood, and tense.
Syntactical functions: the infinitive and the gerund perform the main
syntactical functions of the noun, which are those of subject, object and
predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative and adverbial
modifier; participle II as attribute and predicative. They cannot form a
predicate by themselves, although unlike non-verbal parts of speech they can
function as part of a compound verbal predicate.
1) The infinitive is a non-finite form of the verb which names a process in
a most general way. /with/without TO/
for-to-infinitive construction - is used where the doer of the action (or the
bearer of the state), expressed by the infinitive, is different from that of
the finite verb (the predicate): He longed for me to see the truth
2) The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. It
is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. It has only two
grammatical categories, those of voice and perfect.
3) Participle I - is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and
adverbial features. It is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the stem of the
verb. Gram cat: correlation, aspect. Being absent-minded, he went into the
wrong room
4) Participle II – has verbal and adjectival features. Participle II stands
apart from the other non-finites in that it does not possess their
morphological categories. Nevertheless, being a verb form, it possesses the
potential verbal meaning of voice, aspect and correlation. a house built two
years before
The noun denotes thingness in a general sense. Thus nouns name things
(book, table), living beings (man, tiger), places (valley, London, England),
materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter), states (sleep,
consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy) and qualities (kindness,
courage)
Semantically all nouns fall into proper nouns (geographical names, names of
individual (unique) persons, names of the months and the days of the week,
names of planets, streets, parks, bridges) and common nouns (countables,
uncountables, collective).
According to their morphological composition nouns can be:
Simple nouns consist of only one root-morpheme: dog, room, roof.
Derived nouns (derivatives) are composed of one root-morpheme and one or
more derivational morphemes (prefixes or suffixes). /brotherhood, freedom,
operation/
Compound nouns consist of at least two stems. The meaning of a compound is
not a mere sum of its elements. / bluebell , seaman /
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
1) Number - count nouns have singular and plural forms. In Modern English
the singular form of a noun is unmarked (zero). The plural form is marked by
the inflexion -(e)s. Irregular plurals: man, tooth, mouse… Invariable nouns:
tea, sugar, gold, news, proper nouns.
2) Case - shows relation of the noun with other words in a sentence. It is
expressed by the form of the noun.
English nouns have two cases: the common case (unmarked, it has no
inflexion (zero inflexion) and its meaning is very general) and the genitive
case (is marked by ‘s).=possessive
Gender does not find regular morphological expression. The distinction of
male, female, and neuter may correspond to the lexical meaning of the noun:
boy, girl, table.
19. THE NOUN. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES.
The noun denotes thingness in a general sense. Thus nouns name things
(book, table), living beings (man, tiger), places (valley, London, England),
materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter), states (sleep,
consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy) and qualities (kindness,
courage)
Semantically all nouns fall into proper nouns (geographical names, names of
individual (unique) persons, names of the months and the days of the week,
names of planets, streets, parks, bridges) and common nouns (countables,
uncountables, collective).
According to their morphological composition nouns can be:
Simple nouns consist of only one root-morpheme: dog, room, roof.
Derived nouns (derivatives) are composed of one root-morpheme and one or
more derivational morphemes (prefixes or suffixes). /brotherhood, freedom,
operation/
Compound nouns consist of at least two stems. The meaning of a compound is
not a mere sum of its elements. / bluebell , seaman /
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
1) Number - count nouns have singular and plural forms. In Modern English
the singular form of a noun is unmarked (zero). The plural form is marked by
the inflexion -(e)s. Irregular plurals: man, tooth, mouse… Invariable nouns:
tea, sugar, gold, news, proper nouns.
2) Case - shows relation of the noun with other words in a sentence. It is
expressed by the form of the noun.
English nouns have two cases: the common case (unmarked, it has no
inflexion (zero inflexion) and its meaning is very general) and the genitive
case (is marked by ‘s).=possessive
Gender does not find regular morphological expression. The distinction of
male, female, and neuter may correspond to the lexical meaning of the noun:
boy, girl, table.
The noun denotes thingness in a general sense. Thus nouns name things
(book, table), living beings (man, tiger), places (valley, London, England),
materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter), states (sleep,
consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy) and qualities (kindness,
courage)
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
1) Case - shows relation of the noun with other words in a sentence. It is
expressed by the form of the noun.
English nouns have two cases: the common case (unmarked, it has no inflexion
(zero inflexion) and its meaning is very general) and the genitive case (is
marked by ‘s).=possessive
2) Number - count nouns have singular and plural forms. In Modern English
the singular form of a noun is unmarked (zero). The plural form is marked by
the inflexion -(e)s, sometimes –ves (words ending in -f). Irregular plurals:
man, tooth, mouse… Invariable nouns: tea, sugar, gold, news, proper nouns.
The noun denotes thingness in a general sense. Thus nouns name things
(book, table), living beings (man, tiger), places (valley, London, England),
materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter), states (sleep,
consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy) and qualities (kindness,
courage)
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
1) Number - count nouns have singular and plural forms. In Modern English
the singular form of a noun is unmarked (zero). The plural form is marked by
the inflexion -(e)s. Irregular plurals: man, tooth, mouse… Invariable nouns:
tea, sugar, gold, news, proper nouns.
2) Case - shows relation of the noun with other words in a sentence. It is
expressed by the form of the noun.
English nouns have two cases: the common case (unmarked, it has no
inflexion (zero inflexion) and its meaning is very general) and the genitive
case (is marked by ‘s).=possessive
Case is the category of a noun expressing relations between the thing
denoted by the noun and other things, or properties, or actions, and
manifested by some formal sign in the noun itself (e.g. inflection, zero-
morpheme).
The problem of case in E nouns is one of the most disputed problems in
English grammar. The views on the subject differ widely.
Views: The number of approaches is due to a difference in the
interpretation of the category of case.
I.I.Meshchaninov:
+ instrumental case (e.g. with the pen);
+ locative case (e.g. in the pen)
John Lyons:
- Nominative, e.g. Bill died.
- Accusative, e.g. John killed Bill.
- Dative, e.g. John gave the book to Tom. John gave Tom the book.
- Genitive, e.g. It’s Harry’s pencil.
- Instrumental, e.g. John killed Bill with a knife.
- Agentive, e.g. Bill was killed by John with a knife.
- Commitative, e.g. John went to town with Mary.
The noun denotes thingness in a general sense. Thus nouns name things
(book, table), living beings (man, tiger), places (valley, London, England),
materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter), states (sleep,
consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy) and qualities (kindness,
courage)
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
1) Number - count nouns have singular and plural forms.
2) Case - shows relation of the noun with other words in a sentence. It is
expressed by the form of the noun. the common case and the genitive case (is
marked by ‘s).
Gender does not find regular morphological expression. The distinction of
male, female, and neuter may correspond to the lexical meaning of the noun:
boy, girl, table.
The category of gender in English is a highly controversial subject in
grammar.
The fact is, the category of gender in English differs from the category of
gender in many other languages, for example, in Russian, in French or in
German. The category of gender linguistically may be either meaningful -
rendering the actual sex-based features of the referents, or formal.
In English gender is a meaningful category for the whole class of the
nouns, because it reflects the real gender attributes (or their absence/
irrelevance) of the referent denoted. It is realized through obligatory
correspondence of every noun with the 3rd person singular pronouns - he, she,
or it: man – he, woman – she, tree, dog – it. For example: A woman was
standing on the platform. She was wearing a hat. It was decorated with
ribbons and flowers…
PERSONAL PRONOUNS are grammatical gender classifiers in English.
The category of gender is formed by two oppositions organized
hierarchically. The first opposition is general and opposes human/ person
nouns, distinguishing masculine and feminine gender (man – he, woman – she)
and all the other, non-human/ non-person nouns, belonging to the neuter
gender (tree, dog – it). The second opposition is formed by the human nouns
only: on the lower level of the opposition the nouns of masculine gender and
of feminine gender are opposed.
Pronouns are words which point to objects, their properties and relations,
their local or temporal reference, or placement without naming them. They
constitute a limited class of words (that is a closed system) with numerous
subclasses. They are generally differentiated into noun-pronouns
(substituting nouns) and adjective-pronouns (substituting adjectives).
Speaking about pronouns, we shall answer 2 questions at least: is the
pronoun a separate PS? Notional or functional? Pronouns are not a separate
PS, they distribute them between nouns and adj: we, he, smb – noun pronouns;
my, some – adj pronouns (Henry Sweet).
Pronouns may be of different structure:
1) Simple pron. comprise only one morpheme - the stem:
I, you, he, we, etc.; this, that, some, who, all, one, etc.
2) Compound pron. comprise more than one stem:
myself, themselves, somebody, everybody, anything, nothing, etc.
3) Composite pron. have the form of a phrase: each other, one another.
SUBCLASSES OF PRONOUNS
1. Personal pron. are noun-pronouns, indicating persons (I, you, he, we,
they) or non-persons (it, they) from the point of view of their relations to
the speaker.
2. Possessive pron. are used to indicate possession or ownership. (my,
your)
3. Demonstrative pron. distinguish the particular objects or people that
are referred to from other possible candidates. (This, that, these, those)
4) Indefinite pron. refer to general categories of people or things. Anyone
5) Relative pron. used to add more inform. to a sentence. (Which, that).
6) Reflexive Pron. refer to another noun or pron. in the sentence. (myself)
7) Reciprocal pron. refer to individual parts of a preceding plural noun.
(each other)
8) Interrogative pron. introduce a question. (who, what)
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
Pronouns agree in gender, number, and person with their antecedent.
Grammatical category of case is different, depending on the position pronouns
have within the sentence structure.
Generally, pronouns follow their antecedent nouns within the sentence
structure. However, there are instances when pronouns are positioned ahead of
their antecedent nouns.
Parts of speech - classes of words, all the members of these classes having
certain characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of
other classes.
Parts of speech are traditionally subdivided into:
NOTIONAL parts of speech have both lexical & grammatical meanings (nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals, statives, pronouns, modal words).
FUNCTIONAL parts of speech are characterized mainly by the grammatical
meaning while their lexical meaning is either lost completely or has survived
in a very weakened form. (the article, the preposition, the conjunction).
Notional parts of speech are characterized by word-building & word-changing
properties; functional words have no formal features & they should be
memorized as ready-made units (but, since, till, until).
Another most important difference between functional & notional parts of
speech is revealed on the level of sentence. Where every notional word
performs a certain synthetic function while functional words have no
synthetic function at all. They serve as indicators of a certain part of
speech (to + verb; a, the + noun). Prepositions are used to connect 2 words &
conjunctions to connect 2 clauses or sentences.
Ilyish => words should be divided into 2 categories on the principle:
Notional words denote things, actions and other extra-linguistic phenomena
Functional words denote relations and connections between the notional
words
Here belong:
• the article-expresses the specific limitation of the substantive
functions
• the preposition - expresses the dependencies and interdependencies of
substantive referents
• the conjunction - expresses connections of phenomena
• the particle - unites the functional words of specifying and limiting
meaning. To this series, alongside other specifying words, should be referred
verbal postpositions as functional modifiers of verbs, etc.
• the modal word - expresses the attitude of the speaker to the reflected
situation and its parts. Here belong the functional words of probability
(probably, perhaps, etc.), of qualitative evaluation (fortunately,
unfortunately, luckily, etc.), and also of affirmation and negation
• the interjection - is a signal of emotions.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF PREDICATES
3. CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES
4. COORDINATE PHRASES
6. NOUN PHRASES
9. SUBORDINATE PHRASES
In the middle of the 20th century, new approaches to the analysis of the
sentence were developed. In particular, the American linguist Noam Chomsky
proposed the distinction between the level of the deep, semantic, or
conceptual structure of the sentence and the level of its surface, or
syntactic structure, different types of construction being connected by
various transformations. Chomsky’s transformational grammar theory in the
sphere of the nominative division of the sentence was further developed by C.
J. Fillmore, who formulated the theory of case grammar: its central idea is
that each notional part of the sentence correlates with one element of the
underlying semantic level and possesses a ‘semantic case’, which represents
its semantic role. In traditional linguistics, only adverbial modifiers enjoy
a detailed semantic sub-classification into adverbial modifiers of time,
place, manner, attendant circumstances, etc. In the classification of
semantic roles, all semantic components of the situation are taken into
consideration.
For example, the “Agent” is the personal doer of the action, the “Power”
the impersonal doer of the action, the “Patient” the direct object of the
action, the “Instrument” the object with the help of which the action is
fulfilled, the “Locative” some point or location in space, etc. The
classification of semantic roles is complementary to the classification of
notional parts of the sentence, and the two classifications can be employed
together to better describe the nominative aspect of the sentence. For
instance, the subject can be described as subject-agent, e.g.: I opened the
door; as subject-patient, e.g.: The door was opened; subject-power, e.g.: The
wind opened the door; subject-instrument, e.g.: The key opened the door;
subject-locative, e.g.: Moscow hosted a summit, etc.