kVAh Metering Basics

Ashok Hattangady
Director Technology Development,
Conzerv Systems Pvt Ltd, Bangalore, India

1 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
kVA
 kVA is already widely in use:
 kVA Demand
 PF Penalties. PF = kW / kVA
 Sizing of Transformers and Distribution
 Any wrong definitions are detrimental and
must be corrected, irrespective of billing kVAh
directly

2 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Principle of kVA
Eg. Motor Load needs 100kVAR of Reactive Energy

141
kVA
0.7 PF
~ Reactive Energy
supplied by Source
M
100 100 141 kVA
kW kVAR 0.7 PF

100
kVA
1 PF

~ Reactive Energy
supplied by Capacitor
M
100 100 141 kVA
kW kVAR 0.7 PF
3 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Spectral Constituents of kVA

V
A

kW, kVAR, S

D Distortion

kVA- U Apparent

4 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Effect of D on kVA, PF
 Consider the Rectifier
Waveform- PCs, UPS,
CFL etc
V  S (Vector) kVA gives a PF
of 1.00
 U (Apparent) kVA gives a
PF of 0.5

5 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Vector Constituents of kVA 1Φ
Q Reactive kVAR S Phasor kVA
= + P2 + Q2

U Apparent kVA
= + P 2 + Q2 + D2
= Vrms × A rms

P Active kW

D Distortion kVA Polarity kept same as Q, not W per IEEE 100 IEEE 100

6 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Six kVAs
One Apparent Power (U)
Uarith = 3ph Arithmetic kVA = V1A1+ V2A2+ V3A3
S Phasor kVA
= + P2 + Q2
F
Fictitious
kVA U Apparent kVA
= Q 2 + D2
= + P 2 + Q2 + D2
= Vrms × A rms

= ± U2 − S 2 N Nonreactive kVA
D Distortion kVA = P 2 + D2

7 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
3Φ Apparent Power U

2 2 2
P3 + Q3 + D3

2 2 2
P2 + Q2 + D2

2 2 2
P1 + Q1 + D1

U3 φ = ( P1 + P2 + P3 ) 2 + ( Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ) 2 + ( D1 + D2 + D3 ) 2
8 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Vector & Scalar Addition

Example: How far has your Taxi gone?

4 km 5 km “as the crow flies”

3 km Vector Add

7 km “the fare you pay”

Scalar Add
9 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
 Apparent kVA (U) vs
Arithmetic kVA 3ph
V1A1 Arithmetic Scalar
UArith = U1 + U2 + U3
V2 A 2
= V1A 1 + V2 A 2 + V3 A 3

Note that V2A2 & V3A3

are positive (no sign)
V3A3
Apparent Vector addition in 3D

U3φ = ( P1 + P2 + P3 ) + ( Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ) + ( D1 + D2 + D3 )
2 2 2

10 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Apparent kVA (U) vs
Arithmetic kVA 3ph
Arithmetic Scalar
UArith = U1 + U2 + U3
= V1A 1 + V2 A 2 + V3 A 3

Apparent Vector addition in 3D

U3φ = ( P1 + P2 + P3 ) + ( Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ) + ( D1 + D2 + D3 )
2 2 2

11 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Apparent kVA (U) vs
Arithmetic kVA 3ph
 3ph Apparent kVA =

U3φ = ( P1 + P2 + P3 ) + ( Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ) + ( D1 + D2 + D3 )
2 2 2

 3ph Arithmetic kVA =

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
UArith = P + Q + D + P2 + Q2 + D2 + P3 + Q3 + D3
1 1 1

= U1 + U2 + U3
= V1A 1 + V2 A 2 + V3 A 3
12 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
kVAh Integration
 kVAh (over intervals of time) =
….
= U1 + U2 + U3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= P + Q + D + P2 + Q2 + D2 + P3 + Q3 + D3
1 1 1
 But Derived kVAh = kWh2 + kVARh2
 is much smaller

= ( P1 + P2 + P3 ) 2 + ( Q1 + Q 2 + Q3 ) 2
2 2 2
= P + P2 + P3 + 2P1P2 + 2P1P3 + 2P2P3 ....
1
13 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Apparent kVA (U) vs
Arithmetic kVA
 Apparent kVA includes Wh, PF, THD revenue
 a “Vector” quantity, but always Positive
 Arithmetic kVA in addition includes “Unbalance”
revenue
 a Scalar quantity
 Uarith ≥ U ≥ S.
Uarith is higher than U especially for Delta loads with
unbalance

14 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Apparent kVA (U) vs
Arithmetic kVA

• Traditional Billing kWh PF

» kWH + PF Penalty

• Apparent kVAh kWh PF THD

» + THD

• Arithmetic kVAh kWh PF THD

» + THD + Unbalance
Unbalance
15 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Apparent kVA (U) vs
Arithmetic kVA
 Unbalance Penalization
with Arithmetic kVA Vb
 Placing a single Line-Line
Load (resistor) creates Vr
maximum Unbalance
 Uarith is 15.5% more than W, PF=0.866 Vy
 Arithmetic kVA penalizes Unbalance

16 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Apparent kVA (U) vs
Arithmetic kVA 3ph
 Arith kVA, kVAh, Demand- insensitive to
 CT Polarity
 PT, CT Phase Shift errors
 Phase Sequence
 Better accuracies can be achieved.
Tariff meter need show only V, A, Freq, Arith kVA,
Arith kVAh, Arith kVA Dmd
 But Apparent kVA is degraded by these

17 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Apparent kVA in Delta HT Systems
 kVA (S), PF in Delta systems do not fully
measure Harmonic energy with
 Non-sinusoidal Waveforms
 Unbalanced Voltage Vectors / Loads
 A limitation today in HT kVA Demand and PF values
 In Meter, compute on equivalent Star vectors

18 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Applications

19 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Expected Growth Of
Electric Energy Demand
GWh/Yr
4000
3500
3000 150%
2500
Growth
2000
Rest of
1500
World
1000
300%
500 Growth
0 Asia
20 09/20/06
1995
© Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential
2020
Smart Energy Management
Electricity Cost Rising Fastest
in India
6
Steam Coal Electricity
5
Cost in India.
4 Normalised to 1988

1
1988 1990 1992 1995 1998 2001
21 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

22
Japan.
India

09/20/06
Germany
Austria.
Italy.
Portugal.
Belgium.
Spain.
UK.
Ireland.
France.

© Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential

US Cents / kWh

Netherlands.
USA.
Greece.
Power Costs Worldwide

Israel.
Australia.
S.Korea.
Denmark.
Smart Energy Management
Finland.
Newzealand.
Norway.
Canada.
2.5 MW supply, 40% Load

Sweden.
S. Africa.
Electricity Usage in India
Motors 75%
Industrial +
Agricultural

Arc
Furnaces Others Lighting
1% Electrolysis 6% 13%
5%
23 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Sector – wise % Consumption
Normalized % : India Others
Source: Annual Report on the Working of SEBs, Industrial
Planning Commission, June 2001
Agricultre
Domestic

21.8 19.3 17

31
41.9
50.8

32
25.9
18.4
20
9 13

24 1984
09/20/06 1989
© Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential 1999
Smart Energy Management
Applications
 Arithmetic kVA
 Domestic (1ph) and Commercial billing
 Simplicity in meeting the cost of service
 Apparent kVA
 Industrial and Grid metering
 Not possible for 1ph services
 Available in the meters?

25 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Applications
 Arithmetic kVA is suitable for Domestic and
Commercial billing with simplicity in meeting
the cost of service
 Apparent kVA is probably better suited to
Industrial and Grid metering. It would simplify
billing if available in the meters. It is also
more suitable for Energy Balancing than
Arithmetic kVA.

26 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
 Arithmetic kVA Insensitive to CT Polarity,
Phase shift error, phase sequence. Not Vector
kVA
 Import / Export? kVA Polarity
 Star only, not Delta
 Energy Balancing when PF Caps added
 KVA Demand
 Includes PF, Harmonics, Unbalance

27 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
“Cost of Service” Indicator
 kWh + PF Penalty
 Historic origin of kWh
 kVAh Metering
 Includes PF penalty.
 Arithmetic kVAh Metering
 Includes unbalance penalty. True cost of service

28 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
KVA Measurement

2D VA Arith VA 3D VA
Pythogoras Europe Ideal
√(W2+VAR2) VA1+VA2+VA3 √(W +VAR2+D2)
2

29 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Correct kVA Steps already known
 For 2E: Convert from Delta to Star
 IEEE 100
 Then, VA is given by:

U3 φ = ( P1 + P2 + P3 ) 2
+ ( Q1 + Q 2 + Q3 ) + ( D1 + D2 + D3 )
2 2

 Polarity of D = Polarity of VAR, not W

 VAR must be directly calculated not from VA

30 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
kVA Test Case 1
 Unbalance Penalization
with Arithmetic kVA Vb
 Placing a single Line-Line
Load (resistor) creates Vr
maximum Unbalance
 Uarith is 15.5% more than W, PF=0.866 Vy
 Arithmetic kVA penalizes Unbalance

31 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
KVA Test Case 2 (UPS)

32 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Unbalanced kVA
2D VA Arith VA 3D VA
Phase CBIP Europe Ideal
√(W2+VAR2) VA1+VA2+VA3 √(W2+VAR2+D2)

R 536.6 1200 1200

Y 452.4 1364 1364

B 268.3 600 600

3 Phase 1257 3164 2191

33 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management
Unbalanced PF
2D Arith 3D
Phase
CBIP Europe Ideal

R - 0.999 - 0.447 - 0.447

Y - 0.853 - 0.283 - 0.283

B 0.999 0.447 0.447

3 Phase - 0.947 - 0.544 + 0.376

34 09/20/06 © Copyright 1986-2005, ConZerv Proprietary & Confidential Smart Energy Management