An Integrated Maximum Power Point Tracker for Photovoltaic Panels

Wernher Swiegers Johan H.R. Enslin

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Stellenbosch University of Stellenbosch
Stellenbosch, 7600 Stellenbosch, 7600
South Africa South Africa
wswiecrs@firga.sun.ac.za jhenslin@firp.a.sun.ac.za

Abstract -
This paper proposes a maximum power point
tracker (MPPT) for a photovoltaic panel, that is to be
integrated with the panel during manufacturing. The MPPT EFFECT OF CELL TEMPERATURE ON POWER
is inexpensive, efficient and has few components that serve to 60 W Panel
increase the MPPT’s mean time between failures (MTBF).
The MPPT uses an inexpensive micro-controller to perform
all of its functions. This includes maximum power point
tracking, series battery voltage regulation, sensorless short 60
circuit protection of the MPPT’s converter and intelligent 50
shutdown and wakeup at dusk and dawn. The MPPT can E
-
source 10 A to a 6 V 36 V lead-acid storage battery and can 40 8
3
be connected in parallel or series with other MPPTs. The 30 8
MPPT may be easily configured to perform output voltage
20
regulation on passive and water pumping loads. It could also
control the actuation of a diesel generator in a hybrid remote 10
area power supply (RAPS). Energy transfer enhancements of
- d - L - d .
up to 26%, compared to solar panels without MPPTs, have O h 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24’
been measured. The complete component and materials cost Panel Voltage [VI
of the MPPT is approximately 2’8% of the cost of
photovoltaic panels with a peak power rating of 154 W. The Fig. 1. Electrical Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Panel, [3]
integrated MPPT also consumes no stored energy at night.
MPPTs remove the mismatch between the load and the
1. INTRODUCTION
maximum power operating point of the photovoltaic array
Photovoltaic panels convert incident solar energy into
[4]. The load clamps the output voltage of the MPPT’s
converter (Buck, Buck-Boost, Boost, Chk etc.). By
electrical energy. The capital cost of solar panels is high.
controlling the converter’s duty cycle, the input voltage to
Solar panels, however, become an economically viable
the MPPT may thus be controlled to the operating point
source of energy for areas remote from existing electricity
where the solar panel or array delivers maximum power.
distribution networks [ 11. It is necessary to utilise the solar
The reliability, efficiency and cost of a single higher power
panels maximally as they typically form the most
MPPT are seen as its main drawbacks. It is thus proposed
expensive component of a photovoltaic remote area power
that small, low power MPPTs be integrated with every
supply [ 2 ] . To this end, maximum power point trackers
solar panel or every second solar panel produced. The
(MPPTs) have been introduced. MPPTs are controlled
solar panel without the MPPT can be connected as a
power electronic converters that ensure that a photovoltaic
“slave” to the “master” unit with a MPPT. The MPPT thus
panel or array always deliver maximum available power. It
provides power point tracking for both panels.
is important that MPPTs be efficient, reliable and
inexpensive or no benefits will result from their use.
The integrated MPPTs are fully modular in nature.
Should the consumer’s energy requirements increase, more
The electrical characteristic of a solar panel is a function
of the solar panel MPPTs may be connected in parallel to
of the intensity of solar irradiation and the operating
the existing units. T i s holds two advantages: the overall
temperature of the solar panel. An increased insolation
efficiency of the conversion stage is not reduced, as the
level and a decreased panel temperature result in higher
converter efficiencies are not cascaded. Secondly, the
solar panel power output. Fig. 1 shows a typical set of a
power ratings of the integrated MPPTs are always ‘‘just
solar panel’s temperature related electrical characteristics.
right”. With a single high power MPPT, the power rating
of the converter is either not fully utilised, or, as soon as
It is clear that a panel with characteristics as in Fig. 1
the photovoltaic array is expanded the rating of the
would not deliver maximum power if it were directly
converter might be just not enough. In the current drive by
connected to a 12 V storage battery. This is typically the
Renewable Energy for South Africa, a division of the
case with standard RAPS, using regulators to connect the
Central Energy Fund, to electrify remote area residences
load through low impedance output cables.
[SI with one or two solar panels, the expensive high power
MPPTs are oversized and not economically viable. The

0-7 803-4756-0/98/$10.00 1998 IEEE 40

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 low power integrated MPPTs thus become viable products.
11. DESIGN OF THE MPPT’S HARDWARE
It was decided to use a Buck converter as the integrated
MPPT’s converter. The Buck converter features low ripple
and switching device currents compared to other converter
topologies. Its circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 2.
From
Control1
4 I --I
A b
Fig. 2. Circuit Diagram of the MPPT’s Converter
As the maximum power point voltage of typical solar
panels is designed to be close to the battery voltage used,
two or three solar panels have to be connected in series to
obtain a high enough input voltage for the Buck converter.
Another option is to reconfigure solar panels during
manufacturing to be higher voltage sources. More solar
cells would be connected in series and less strings in shunt
during manufacturing of the panel. Such a high voltage
solar panel has been constructed by Africa Solar for this
project. It is based on a standard 77 W panel and has an
open circuit voltage of 60,02 V @ 25 “C, 1 kW/m2. The
Buck converter may always maintain chop down
functionality from the higher voltage source provided by
this panel.
A unique and simple power supply is implemented for
the MPPT. The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.
, ;!I
To dc Bus
Dl
Fig. 3. MPPT’s Power Supply
This power supply holds several advantages. As the
input voltage to the linear regulator is the difference
between the source and battery voltage, the power supply
may be maintained even if a fault condition causes the
storage battery to be very deeply discharged. The ground
of the power supply coincides with the switching
transistors’ sources. This means that an isolated gate-drive
is not necessary. This reduces the MPPT’s component
count and cost.
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The inexpensive PIC 16C72OTP micro-controller
performs all the MPPT’s control actions. Simple
differential op-amp circuits measure the feedback
parameters (V,,,, V,>J of the MPPT.
111. CONTROL ACTIONS OF THE MPPT
The outer-loop control action used for the MPPT is
derived from [6]. The outer-loop control action is defined
as the way in which the maximum power point reference
operating point is generated. [6] showed that the maximum
power point voltage of a solar panel is always very close to
a fixed percentage of the panel’s open circuit voltage. This
holds true for wide variations in insolation levels, panel
temperature and production spread. The maximum power
point tracking algorithm used, samples the open circuit
voltage of the panel regularly by switching the converter
off and allowing the MPPT’s input voltage to rise to the
panel’s open circuit voltage. The controller detects when
the rate of change of the input voltage becomes small. No
more time than is necessary to determine the panel’s open
circuit voltage is thus taken up. The energy not transferred
by the sampling of the open circuit voltage is negligible
[7]. When inner-loop operation resumes the MPPT tracks
to the generated reference voltage. Inner-loop operation is
defined as the way in which the reference voltage is
followed. The inner-loop control action is very simple. If
the panel or array’s voltage is higher than the reference
voltage, the duty cycle register in the micro-controller is
increased by one least significant bit (LSB). This serves to
reduce the panel’s operating voltage. If the panel’s voltage
is lower than the reference voltage, the inverse of the above
holds true. This process repeats until the maximum power
point is tracked [8].
If the battery voltage starts to rise too high, the MPPT is
switched off for parts of a predefined thirty-second cycle.
If the battery is in danger of being overcharged, the MPPT
is switched off entirely. The MPPT thus, in this mode,
functions as a series regulator.
Short circuit protection of the MPPT’s output terminals
is provided in the following way: if the reference voltage is
followed with a very small duty cycle a short circuit fault is
detected. The converter is switched off permanently. If
the fault is cleared, the MPPT’s power supply collapses.
Upon proper reconnection of the output terminals, the
power supply is re-established and the micro-controller
enters a natural reset state.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Fig. 4 shows a photo of the constructed MPPT,
integrated with the special higher voltage solar panel. Also
shown are temperature sensors with which the operating
temperatures of the solar panel and MPPT were monitored.
 the closed-loop operating point of the maximum power
point tracking algorithm. It is clear that the intersection
occurs at the maximum power point. The outer-loop
control thus functions correctly.

As the MPPT is integrated with the solar panel, which

may become very hot, it is important to ensure that the
temperature ratings of the MPPT’s components will never
be exceeded. The temperatures measured on the MPPT
and solar panel for a hot summer’s day are shown in
Table I.

TABLE I
INVESTIGATION OF THE THERMAL ASPECTS OF MPPT
OPERATION

Point of Measurement Temperature (“C)

Free air under the solar panel 31.2
DC bus capacitor inside the MPPT’s enclosure 36,4
MPPT’s heatsink at the back of the free-wheeling 37.2
Fig. 4. Photo of the Constructed MPPT, Integrated with the Higher diode
Voltage Solar Panel
Solar panel temperature at the back of the panel 50,O

The MPPT’s enclosure is made from aluminium and also

functions as a heatsink for the converter’s switching
devices. It also confines the EM1 generated by the
switching action of the dc-dc converter.
Fig. 5 presents the maximum power point tracking
achieved with the constructed MPPT.
The minimum temperature rating of any of the MPPT’s
components is 70 “C. It is evident that this rating is not
exceeded, even for high, free-air ambient temperatures.
This is achieved by insulating the MPPT from the hot solar
panel by a 5 mm Tufnel block. The MPPT will also not
receive direct sunlight as it is shaded by the solar panel.

Fig. 6 depicts the output current and the solar panel

voltage when the MPPT is switched on with a short-
circuited load.

-0.05 O.M 0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

This result was generated as follows: a micro-controller Time (s)

was imbedded in the MPPT, which increases the
converter’s duty cycle at a fixed rate. The output voltage
and current of a solar array consisting of two 55 W solar
panels, connected to the MPPT, was measured and
multiplied. This generated a sweep of the array’s power
curve, at a given time, as the array’s voltage changed from
its open circuit value to close to the battery voltage. The
micro-controller was then rapidly replaced with one that
contains the closed-loop maximum power point tracking
algorithm. The output power of the array was then
measured again. The intersection of the two curves shows
Fig. 6. MPPT Short-circuit Current and Solar Panel Voltage
The short-circuit protection was discussed in 111. It can
be seen that the output current still builds up LO relatively
high levels. Fortunately, the MOSFETs and Schottky
diodes used can handle high, non-repetitive pulse currents
without failing. It is not expected that the MPPT will be
short-circuited more than a few times in its lifetime. Note:
the short-circuit current remains within finite bounds. This
is so because the solar panel is a finite energy source. This

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 method of over current protection is not valid for
converters supplied by mains power.
The energy transfer of three, series connected, 55 W
solar panels, with the constructed MPPT, to a 24 V battery
was contrasted to three identical panels charging a 12 V
battery directly. The three panels without the MPPT were
connected in shunt. This measurement, for a solar day (28-
1-98), is shown in Fig. 7.
3.5 , I
2.
g1
C
W 0.5
0
8:OO 1O:OO 12:OO 14:OO 16:OO 18:OO
Time of Day (h)
Fig. 7 . Energy Transfer of Solar Panels, with and without an MPPT
The increased energy transfer from the MPPT can
clearly be seen. The MPPT transferred approximately
3,lO MJ to the battery compared to the 2,45 MJ of the
panels without a MPPT. This amounts to a 26,5% increase
in energy transfer for the day, due to the MPPT.
Apart from tracking the maximum power point, the
MPPT can also function as a series solar regulator. If the
storage battery is in danger of being overcharged, the
transistors T, and T, in Fig. 2 is switched off. If the battery
is undercharged, the MPPT tracks the maximum power
point and maximum available current flows continuously
from the source to the load. This corresponds to the
constant current mode of battery charsing. When the
battery, approaches its float voltage a constant-voltage-
charging mode can be implemented by including a current
loop in the MPPT controller. To save the cost of the current
measurement (LEM module) or to avoid extra losses
(resistive shunt) the current loop was omitted in the MPPT
presented here. The constructed MPPT enforced odoff
charging control when the battery approaches its full state
of charge. The MPPT is switched on for a part of an
arbitrarily defined thirty-second period. This on time is
inversely proportional to the state of charge of the battery.
It should, however, be clear that the solar regulator
traditionally used could be omitted. Its cost is thus saved.
1 he on/off charging mode operation is shown in Fig. 8.
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Fig. 8 shows the solar panel voltage. When the voltage is
“high” the MPPT is off - the panel voltage is thus equal to
its open circuit value. When the voltage is “low” the MPPT
is operating and the panel voltage is equal to its maximum
power point voltage. The “spike” in the middle of Fig. 8
occurred when the MPPT was shut down so that the open
20:OO
circuit voltage could be measured. This measurement is
used to calculate the new maximum power point voltage
reference. The reference calculation process and the
charging control process need not be aware of each other.
Each process may switch the converter off independently
as required by its own algorithm.
V. CONCLUSIONS
It was shown that the MPPT could increase the energy
delivery by up to 26,5% on a solar day. The complete
component and materials cost of the MPPT is
approximately R 100. This is equal to 2,S% of the cost of
two 77 W solar panels (@ R 1779,O per panel). In
addition, the MPPT can perform battery overcharge
protection, saving the cost of a regulator traditionally used.
The MPPT may also be easily adapted to perform control
of a hybrid RAPS and can also perform output voltage
regulation on a passive load or a motor water pump, if
required. The traditional protection diode is incorporated
with the MPPT, ensuring that the storage battery does not
discharge through the solar panels at night. Further
advancements will include the reduction in size of the
MPPT, through using surface mount devices, so that it may
be fit into the junction box of the photovoltaic panels [9].
These advantages make the integrated MPPT a cost saving
necessity in the drive to provide electrification for South
Africa’s disadvantaged communities through photovoltaic
power.
43
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[2] J.H.R. Enslin, “Maximum Power Point Tracking: A
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1992, pp. 543-549.
[3] J.H.R. Enslin, M.S. Wolf, D.B. Snyman, W. Swiegers,
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Dec. 1987, pp 534-541.
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[5] H. Swart, “Most expansive solar electrification
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[6] J.J. Schoeman, J.D. van Wyk, “A simplified maximal
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”
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